Southern Song Dynasty

1127–1279

Increased descriptions of folkloric scenery

至雍丘县,过范郎庙,其地名孟庄,庙塑孟姜女偶坐,配享者蒙恬将军也。 ——《北辕录》15

To reach Yongqiu County and pass by Fanlang Temple, there is a place called Mengzhuang, where there is a temple with a statue of Meng Jiang sitting and sharing offerings with General Meng Tian, who was also a patron of the temple.

——Beiyuan Lu

杞梁之妻，與經傳所言者，數十言耳，彼則演成萬千言。

——鄭樵《通志·樂略》16

The wife of Qi Liang, as mentioned in the classics and historical texts, is only spoken of in several dozen words, but in the hands of skilled storytellers, her story can be elaborated into countless tales.

——The Tongzhi

At this point, the basic plot of The story of MengJiang has been established.

With the invention of movable type printing during the Southern Song Dynasty, the cost of printing was effectively reduced, making writing and publishing no longer the exclusive domain of the aristocracy. As a result, a large number of literary works by commoner writers, which reflected social reality and proposed ideas for social development, emerged. The lives of common people were increasingly reflected in The story of Lady Meng Jiang. Therefore, in the versions that circulated during the Southern Song Dynasty, the scenes of Meng Jiang missing her husband at home were described in detail.

Social background

Before the rise of the Jin Dynasty, the political situation in the Song Dynasty was stable and the country was peaceful. The domestic economy was developed, with a population of over 100 million, as evidenced by the famous painting Along the River During the Qingming Festival. Despite problems such as a large military, a high number of officials, and heavy government spending, the political and economic development during the Song Dynasty was evident. Inventions such as gunpowder, the compass, and movable type printing were introduced during this time, and the popularization of education led to the development of movable type printing. The printing of 300,000 books became widespread in schools, and many private academies emerged. Song engraved books are now highly valued collectibles.

The development of the cultural market during the Song Dynasty greatly stimulated the creativity of literati and artists, leading to a golden age in literature and the arts. For example, the emergence of the professional entertainment market, which included a variety of plays and performances, integrated these activities into the economic life of the period. In the free market competition, they exchanged and blended with each other, constantly innovating, improving performance levels, adjusting performance patterns, introducing new talents and works, and increasing the demand for scripts. This led to collaborations between literati and folk artists in scriptwriting, not only promoting the maturity and comprehensive prosperity of Chinese national drama, but also changing the structure of Chinese literature. The position of poetry and prose as the orthodox literature, with political education as the main purpose, was gradually undermined, and the entertainment-oriented drama and novels gradually became mainstream culture.

Along the River During the Qingming Festival captures the daily life of people and the landscape of the capital, Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng) during the Northern Song. The theme is often said to celebrate the festive spirit and worldly commotion at the Qingming Festival, rather than the holiday’s ceremonial aspects, such as tomb sweeping and prayers. Read right to left, as a viewer unrolled it, successive scenes reveal the lifestyle of all levels of the society from rich to poor as well as economic activities in rural areas and the city, and offer glimpses of period clothing and architecture. The painting is considered to be the most renowned work among all Chinese paintings, and it has been called “China’s Mona Lisa.”

Ming Dynasty

1368–1644

Meng Jiang takes revenge on Qin Shi Huang

“秦始皇，真正傻，一心听从孟姜女，她是为夫来报仇，当是真心把她嫁。天下昏君都好色，打下江山只载花，没料人 间有才女，骗得帝王没办法”

——《孟姜女哭长城宝卷》

“Emperor Qinshihuang was truly foolish, he only listened to Meng Jiang. She came to avenge her husband, and he sincerely married her. All the despotic rulers in the world are fond of beauty, focusing only on conquering territories and indulging in pleasure. Little did they know that talented women also exist in this world, capable of deceiving even emperors.”

The story of Meng Jiang was passed down to the Ming Dynasty with the addition of a plot point where she resists Emperor Qinshihuang’s attempt to marry her. In this version, she demands that a tomb, a temple, and a royal sacrifice be built for her husband before taking her own life, leaving Qinshihuang heartbroken.

In addition, The story of Meng Jiang began to be associated with religion. The Xiaoshi Meng Jiang Zhonglie Zhenjie Xianliang Bao Juan from the Ming Dynasty not only has a close relationship with Buddhism in its content, but its illustrations also include classic Buddhist patterns. The images include figures such as Buddha, Bodhisattvas, deities, immortals, and believers. Although these illustrations are not directly related to the text, they serve to promote religious ideas. Upon closer inspection, the engravings are exquisitely carved, with clear lines, vivid shapes, and varied expressions, which can evoke a sense of reverence among believers and enhance the solemnity of the text.

The printing of the Dragon Seal at the beginning of the scroll was to showcase that the scriptures had received the support of the authorities, making them easier to disseminate. The imperial court strictly punished folk religious sects, so in order to avoid persecution, performers would first recite the “Imperial Edict” before preaching during the compilation of the scriptures and the activities of appropriate recitation. The bookplate at the end of the scroll indicates the information on the engraving, the information of the person requesting the scripture, or the language of prayer for blessings.

Social background

The popularity of Baojuan

Baojuan(宝卷), also known as Xuanjuan(宣卷), is a religious chanting literature in China that first appeared in the Ming Dynasty in the 16th century. It is recited, chanted or performed by performers and is often held in nunneries, temples or believers’ homes.

It developed from the Tang Dynasty’s bianwen(變文), a form of narrative literature that was banned in the Song Dynasty due to Emperor Zhenzong’s devout belief in Taoism. Therefore, temples were no longer allowed to continue storytelling through bianwen(變文). Monks or professional storytellers then looked for venues to perform in. Early baojuan(宝卷) mostly consisted of Buddhist scriptures, exhortation texts, and folk stories. The content often promoted the concept of cause and effect and was primarily in rhymed verse, mostly in seven or ten characters. Some were also written in prose.

The story of Meng Jiang during the Ming Dynasty was one of the most widely spread stories in Baojuan(宝卷) literature, and therefore inevitably incorporated some mythological elements related to religion during this time period.

The trend of popularization

In the early Ming Dynasty, the philosophy of Neo-Confucianism was elevated to a supreme position. However, Wang Gen, a disciple of Wang Yangming, proposed the concept of “the daily life of the common people is the Tao”, affirming the significance of the daily life of ordinary people. The prevailing social ideology believed that a person’s moral values were rooted in their daily needs, reflecting the pursuit of individual values. This directly led to the trend of popularization and secularization of literature and art in ancient China during the Ming Dynasty, and literature and art flourished as never before.

The story of Meng Jiang was retold more often by common people, thus incorporating plot details related to everyday life and scenes of “resisting the tyranny of ruling classes” that represented the thoughts of the common people.

清明上河图 Along the River During the Qingming Festival, is orderly and magnificent, with towering buildings, deep courtyards, and even the storefronts of shops are quite spacious. In painting, there are picture framing shops, silver shops, fragrant buildings, and antique porcelain shops, which are emerging industries in the Ming Dynasty. In addition, scenes of female musicians singing and dancing, as well as martial arts training in the training ground, combine history and reality to cre -

This long scroll painting depicts the prosperous scene of Suzhou in the mid-Ming Dynasty using shades of blue and green, and its structural layout is based on the landscape layout of Qingming Shanghe Tu by Zhang Zeduan of the Northern Song Dynasty.

Qing Dynasty

1636–1912

The addition of mythological elements

黎山老母和观音菩萨掐指一算:“范其郎是二等罗汉星下凡，与孟姜小姐有婚姻之约，便叫当方土地做媒”把范吹到 孟家花园，从而结成姻缘。

——《长城宝卷》

The Old Mother of Mount Li and Bodhisattva Guanyin calculated with a pinch of their fingers and determined, “Fan Qilang is a second-tier arhat who has come down to the mortal world under the influence of the star. He has a marriage agreement with Meng Jiang, so let the local land deity act as the matchmaker.” They blew Qi Liang to the Meng family’s garden, thus creating a marriage union between them.

“鲤鱼就是奴家变，细眼红尾苗条身。孟姜万郎成双对，一对鲤鱼跳龙门。”

——《淮调孟姜女唱词》

“The carp is the transformation of me, with small eyes, a red tail, and a slender body. Mengjiang and Wan Lang become a happy couple, like a pair of carp leaping over the Dragon Gate.”

The addition of mythological elements and the concept of fate is evident in the story. Some versions of the story begin with the premise that the marriage between Meng Jiang and Qi Liang was predestined. In some versions, the Seven Maidens and Gongtong Immortal intervened to save the people from suffering, and Qi Liang sacrificed himself to save the people. Meng Jiang then helped him to achieve liberation from his wrongful death. In another version, the Heavenly Emperor intentionally caused Fan to suffer, and when he learned of Qi Liang’s unauthorized descent to earth, he ordered the White Star to marry Meng Jiang and Qi Liang.

Additionally, the story has a beautiful ending where after Meng Jiang’s suicide by drowning, she transforms into a fish.

However, overall, the plot of The story of Meng Jiang has remained relatively stable since the Qing

Dynasty. The story generally follows the same sequence of events: Cheating - Qi Liang and Meng Jiang Encounter in the garden - Qi Liang Arrested before the wedding - Meng Jiang Leaving home - Meng Jiang Crying on the Great Wall - Qinshihuang wanting to marry her, and her demanding to build a tomb, temple, and hold imperial sacrifices - After the sacrifice ceremony, she commits suicide and Emperor Qin returns home in despair.

Social background

Social unrest and hardship for the people

During the late Qing Dynasty, the vast labouring masses, including peasants, lived in a turbulent social environment and suffered from the torment of poverty. The complete mythical ending in The story of Meng Jiang represents their expectations for a better life. In feudal society, the majority of the labouring masses, who were mainly peasants, lived a life worse than that of livestock and were subjected to cruel economic exploitation and political oppression by the landlord class. At the same time, they also suffered various natural and man-made disasters and urgently demanded a change in their situation. However, they could not find a way to rescue themselves and had to pray for the protection of their gods in their hearts.

After the Ming and Qing Dynasties, The story of Meng Jiang appeared in various forms of popular literature and art, including folk tales, dramas, folk songs, legends, southern operas, drum music, treasure scrolls, and children’s books. These genres expanded the plot of The story of Meng Jiang and deepened its ideological content. Whether it was her journey to find her husband and send him warm clothes, her crying at the Great Wall, her dripping blood to recognize her kin, or her resistance against Emperor Qin Shi Huang, all were depicted with unique characteristics.