Radhika Maheshwari
THE TREE TRAIL
Tracing the Social, Cultural, and Ecological Pathways of Mature Tree Translocation
Falls of Foyer, Scotland, Author’s own
The Tree Trail
Tracing the Social, Cultural, and Ecological Pathways of Mature Tree Translocation
I would like to thank Guy Mannes-Abott and Danielle Hewitt for all the guidance with this thesis. I am deeply grateful for their encouragement, constructive feedback, and the time they dedicated to helping me navigate the complexities of this project.
Radhika Maheshwari / MLA 02
Student no. – 22216269
BARC0119: Landscape Thesis
Thesis Supervisor: Guy Mannes-Abott
Module Coordinator: Danielle Hewitt
The Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL 01 July 2024
(word count: 7750)
1. Introduction / 4-7
2. Ecology displaced /8-23
2.1 Where did it come from?
2.2 Case-studies
3. Choreographies of Coexistence / 24-35
3.1 More than Human heritage.
3.2 Are trees social beings?
3.3 What goes under?
3.4 Fate of trees in global environment
4. The Green Dilemma/ 36-45
4.1 “Anthropocene” vs “Sustainable Anthropocene”
4.2 Finding the Balance
5. Conclusion / 46-49
Bibliography / 50-54
Picture Credits / 54-55
Introduction
“We have told ourselves that we could live in isolation from other species, not perceiving our connections to the larger world, thinking that we do not have responsibilities, and that we are not connected to each other. In the end, time tells us that we cannot escape from our past, that indeed we must use our knowledge to reconcile ourselves with our history and with each other.”
- Winona LaDuke, Recovering the Sacred
The relocation of fully-grown trees from their original habitats to urban areas has become a prevalent practice in landscape architecture. With urban populations projected to surge to 66% by 2050, up from 30% in 1950 (Czaja et al., 2020), translocating mature trees is seen to enhance urban green infrastructure and cultural landscapes, which aligns with the broader efforts to stop deforestation and increase afforestation, highlighting the importance of protecting natural habitats while enhancing urban green spaces. On the surface, it does looks like a sustainable practice for enriching urban green infrastructure, but does it really benefit the long-term sustainability of these standalone trees? The translocation of nature alongside urbanisation can disrupt their heritage, cultural significance and ecological importance they carry with them.
Earlier this year, I had an opportunity to visit Greece for my field trip from Bartlett. We visited Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Centre (SNFCC) in Athens which includes National library of Greece and the Greek National opera. The SNFCC park is home to rich variety of flora with extensive selection of indigenous Greek plants. The landscape has been designed to create a sense of mediterranean park in midst of city Athens and acting as national identity through its endemic planting and applying geometric Greek design principles. The mature olive trees specifically caught my eye raising curious questions about from where these trees were brought to construct this vast landscape? How old are these trees? What is the origin of these trees? Will the trees survive after uprooting?
In her documentary film “Taming the Garden,” filmmaker Salome Jashi portrays a remarkable environmental narrative involving a tree as towering as a 15-storey building, transported across the Black Sea to a privately-owned garden (Jashi, 2021). The film presents the significant cultural identity tied to the tree and village,
with some villagers accepting incentives for its removal while others mourn its loss. Beyond physical displacement, the tree’s extraction symbolizes the erosion of heritage and collective memory. This highlights the multifaceted emotional responses to environmental changes driven by external influences.
The recipient of this colossal tree is a wealthy individual with a penchant for planting gigantic trees in his personal garden (Nikoladze, 2018). These ancient trees, uprooted from a village in Georgia, symbolize the intersection of power,
“When I first saw the image of the tree floating in the sea … where the first tree was taken, for me, it was a beautiful image, mesmerizing; an amazing image, and I felt like, ‘Thank you for showing me this beauty!’” Jashi says. “But on the other hand, it was a very disturbing image and it spoke about power, it spoke about uprooting, migration; it spoke about loneliness, it spoke about masculinity — it had so many dimensions.” (Odhiambo, 2023)
privilege, and environmental exploitation. Jashi’s film sheds light on the complexities and controversies surrounding the transplantation of such significant natural elements for personal whims and desires.
During a 2013 photography project called “Forest” along the Yangtze River, Yan Wang Preston, known for her work in landscape representation, identity, migration, and the environment, encountered a significant find: a majestic three-hundred-yearold tree in the village of Xialiu, China. However, the community faced relocation due to dam construction.
Three months later, both village and tree had disappeared, with the tree sold for $10,000 to a nearby Binchuan hotel (Preston et al., 2018). Yan later discovered the tree, devoid of foliage and encased in plastic, within the hotel’s incomplete structure—an unwitting sculpture in a new environment.
Jens Andermann begins his book “Entranced earth: Art, Extractivism and the End of Landscape” by framing discussion within the broader context of extractivism, referring to the relentless exploitation of natural resources for economic gain. He emphasizes the disproportionate impact of extractive activities on marginalized communities, including indigenous groups, who often bear the brunt of environmental degradation and social dislocation(Andermann, 2023). One of the central themes of the book revolves around landscape intertwined with notions of power, identity and memory, which leads us to deeper discussion about the other end of landscape which is invisible to human relationship with nature.
The research will begin with examining the historical origins of tree translocation, tracing its development from past to present. It will present a critical review of the documentary “Taming the garden” and the photographic series “Forest”, exploring the complexities and politics surrounding nature restoration projects. It will investigate the new environments where mature trees are relocated, delving into questions about the intricate relationship between trees and their natural surroundings. As translocation has been practiced as a sustainable solution to enhance ecology, Chapter 01 of the essay will look at the claimed benefits versus the actual impacts and makes us think about the intricate relationship between trees and their ecosystem.
Central to this inquiry is the question of “How do we reevaluate the practice of translocating mature trees impacting the distinct temporalities and agencies of the more-than-human-world and develop more adaptive and inclusive approaches for sustainable translocation?”
Chapter 02 of the research extends the discussion from smaller to larger scale. It transitions from exploring the theory of understanding trees as navigators of the “languages of landscapes” (Anne Whiston Spirn, 2000) to larger-scale dynamics in global context, exploring the theories of resource extractions and role of political ecology in relocation of mature trees. It will investigate how trees are connected underground to their surrounding ecosystem and play a crucial role in the indigenous communities of non-human agents in natural environments. By drawing upon narratives, case studies, and theoretical frameworks from various disciplines this part explores the relationship between trees and their surroundings at both larger and smaller scales.
The final chapter of the research focuses on interplay of ecological resilience, cultural heritage and adaptive management of practice of translocation. It will examine initiatives aimed at greening cities or creating “forest cities,” discussing the idea of anthropogenic cities and the practice of afforestation as a factor in combating climate change. The narrative highlights the importance of viewing landscapes as active processes for holistic approach to sustainability that respects natural processes.
Fig 01 / Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center, SNFCC
Park
Source : Author’s own
Fig 02 / Process of olive tree planting at Stavros Niarchos
Foundation Cultural Center, SNFCC Park
Source : Yiorgis Yerolymbos
Ecology Displaced
Translocation – It is defined as the wholesale removal of a functioning habitat from one area to another.
Fig 03 / Sketch of the Cubbington Pear Tree depicting tree as dynamic element.
Source : Stella Carr, 2018
2.1 Where did it come from?
While there is a historical record documenting the practice of translocating trees, a notable reference can be found in “The Planters Guide” by the Scottish landowner Sir Henry Steuart. According to Steuart, the ancient Greeks and Romans likely engaged in the relocation of large trees, as evidenced by their writings. When they wished to describe an impossibly difficult task, they would use the metaphor, “It was like transplanting an old tree,” suggesting that the Greeks and Romans recognized the immense challenge involved in moving mature trees (Trust, 2020).
Marco Polo, in his writings from 700 years ago, documented that the Great Kublai Khan had large trees transplanted to his hilltop residence. This involved digging up the trees with their roots and surrounding earth intact and transporting them with the aid of elephants. During the development of the Gardens of Versailles, King Louis XIV sought to emulate the grandeur of ancient Greece and Rome by extensively planting trees in his domain (Trust, 2020). Records indicate that gardeners at Versailles developed a “great transplanting machine” to facilitate the movement of large trees over considerable distances. The forests surrounding Versailles still bear evidence of these tree-moving activities from that era.
Fig 04 / Mr McNab’s Tree Transplanter, used in the Royal Scottish Botanic Garden, Edinburgh circa 1850. Source : The Garden Trust
Images from the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh Hatshepsut, around 1500-1450 BC, depict the collection and transportation of trees from the Land of Punt (likely modern-day Somalia or Eritrea) (Trust, 2020). According to a blog by GardenTrust, trees were carried back to Egypt in baskets, presumably to decorate the courtyard of Hatshepsut’s funerary monument. Archaeological excavations have revealed rows of deep tree pits, measuring 10 meters in depth, in front of Egyptian temples, suggesting the practice of transplanting trees on a significant scale.In the early days, tree transplantation methods were quite rudimentary. They involved digging a trench around the tree and forcibly uprooting it from the ground using a cumbersome system of chains and pulleys (O’Callaghan, 2005). Once dislodged, the tree would be moved to its new location while kept in an upright position.
However, over the course of many years, gardeners, foresters, and designers continuously innovated and developed a wide range of variations and new techniques for moving trees more effectively. Through their experiences and experimentation, they invented specialized tools, equipment, and procedures specifically tailored for the delicate task of translocating mature trees safely and efficiently, minimizing damage and improving the chances of survival in the new environment.
Source : The Garden Trust
Transplanting trees for ornamental purposes has become a clear manifestation of humanity’s quest to control natural world. Moving trees, especially to create garden and avenues, goes beyond just aesthetic considerations. It symbolizes mankind’s power to shape and dominate the land, showing our ownership and control over the environment (Couch, 1992).
In Britain, for instance, the planting of tree-lined avenues could be interpreted not merely as an attractive horticultural feature but as a bold statement of humankind’s mastery over nature (Couch, 1992). To the inhabitants of the land, these imposing avenues stood as monuments to human power, asserting control and authority over the natural surroundings. The very act of uprooting and meticulously arranging trees in predetermined patterns symbolized the ability to bend the natural world to human will, a tangible manifestation of the desire to impose order and structure upon the inherent chaos of the wild.
However, there is a significant difference between translocating young, nurserygrown trees and mature, established trees in terms of their potential as a sustainable practice for addressing climate change. The following research focuses specifically on the experiences and outcomes of relocating mature trees, questioning the true
Fig 05 /
A portion of the ‘Voyage to Punt’ relief from Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el-Bahri.
scale of success for such operations. The knowledge developed in this research is applicable to the translocation of mature trees and not nurserygrown saplings.
From historical accounts to contemporary examples, the practice of translocating trees has consistently been associated with depictions of power. The following two recent case studies, “Taming the Garden” and “Forest series” highlights how tree translocation initiatives have been employed as expressions of political ownership and economic gain. In both cases, the translocation of mature trees reflects the assertion of political power and the prioritization of economic interests over environmental and cultural considerations. These examples showcase how tree relocation initiatives can serve as expressions of ownership, wealth, and control over natural resources, often at the expense of local communities and ecosystems.
Fig 06 / Tree Transplanting Machine
Source : Loudon’s Encyclopedia of Gardening
Fig 07 / View of the tree Transplanting Machine in motion.
Source : The Planters Guide by Steuart Henry Sir
08 / Loaction Map of case studies “Taming the Garden” and “Forest Series”. Illustrating the underground disruptions due to relocation of habitats.
Source : Author’s own
Fig
Taming the garden
Kenya, Africa
Taming the garden
Georgia
Georgia
Taming the garden
Forest series
Chongqing, China
Kenya, Africa
Taming the garden
Chongqing , China
Forest series
2.2 Case Studies
Case 01
In the documentary “Taming the Garden,” filmmaker Salome Jashi captures the dramatic process of uprooting several Baobab trees from Kenya’s Kilifi region and transporting them to a park in Georgia owned by Prime Minister Bidzina Ivanishvili. The relocation of these ancient trees sparked public outrage in Kenya, where Baobabs are endangered and already facing threats from climate change. Local farming communities in Kilifi received monetary compensation for their Baobab trees, aiding in meeting their basic needs. This initiative was not motivated by infrastructural development, but rather by a billionaire’s passion for collecting ancient, gigantic trees.
“The barge has arrived, just like a coffin for a deceased person, which means that it’s time to go”.
(Nikoladze, 2018)
In a 2018 news article, author Sopho Bukia provides a firsthand account of the extensive damage caused by this operation. The report details concrete slabs laid down for heavy machinery, trees being cut down to clear the way, and the excavation of vast amounts of soil.
She explains how the process works for uprooting trees, depicting the analogy of slow death or murder:
“First soil is removed around the tree in a way not to damage the roots. After that, they place a rubber cushion like a tyre under it, which is then inflated by a special pump, forcing the tree upward. Finally, the tree is braced with planks and loaded onto a construction made up of metal pipes, then placed on a huge, wheeled trailer to slide it down to the shore, to be picked up by the barge and carried to Ivanishvili’s residence.” (nikoladze, 2018)
The author highlights the environmental impact of these activities, noting that environmentalists warn about the potential for soil erosion, landslides, and irreversible damage to the landscape.
Case 02
In the photographic series “Forest” by Yan Wang Preston, the story of a tree named “Frank” is shared. In March 2013, Frank, a 300-year-old tree, stood in its home in a traditional Bai village in China. However, with a nearby Yangtze River dam poised to flood the area, red propaganda slogans under Frank’s canopy urged villagers to relocate early, promising money. Three months later, the village was demolished, and Frank was sold to a five-star hotel 100 kilometres away. The tree lost its grand canopy and was transplanted into a barren, desert-like area with only a small pile of bright red soil (Preston, 2020). Villagers mentioned that Frank, along with three other century-old trees, was sold for $12,000, which helped them build new homes.
By 2017, the surrounding city had developed, but Frank had died two years earlier, leaving only a mound of red soil where it once stood. (Yan Wang Preston, Barth and Wheelwright, 2018). In this context, Frank was treated merely as a commodity or a trophy to enhance the appeal of a luxury lifestyle. This raises questions about the value we place on trees, especially old, mature ones, in our landscape.
Fig 09 /
A still from Taming the Garden - Transloacted mature trees carried through sea
Source : Salome Jashi
Fig 10/
A still from Taming the Garden - Preparation of uprooted tree to be carried to Georgia.
Source : Salome Jashi
The excavated part which remains in the ground where the tree was uprooted to be reloacted to Georgia.
Source : Salome Jashi
Fig 11 /
Fig 12 /
Frank - March 01, 2013, Forest series, Standing in the village.
Source : Yan Wang Preston
Fig 13 /
Frank - 02 June, 2013, Forest series, Uprooted to five star hotel.
Source : Yan Wang Preston
Fig 14 /
Frank - 03 November, 2013, Forest series, Frank died after few months
Source : Yan Wang Preston
The “Forest” series also covers the story of “The Park of Geese on the Rock,” highlighting the development of Egongyan Park in Chongqing, China. The author describes the area surrounding the Egongyan Yangtze River Bridge as encompassing everything: the iconic Yangtze River, a striking suspension bridge, a new city with its concrete jungle, a park on the hill below the bridge, and old trees transplanted into the park (Yan Wang Preston, Barth, and Wheelwright, 2018). For the Forest project, Preston photographed the site during four sessions in 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2017. Initially, the landscape was characterized by faceless concrete structures and isolated, foreign trees. However, over time, the area became home to new residents who established their daily routines. The transplanted old trees gradually took root and began to climb the concrete columns. In Egongyan Park’s concrete underpass, the initial harshness of transplantation and displacement slowly transformed into everyday life.
The progress of the Egongyan project has redirected the focus of the Forest project, incorporating human figures into a new landscape. The narrative shifted from illustrating the city’s change from a politically engineered landscape symbolizing modernization to a more familiar, local environment. As the tales of the trees unfolded, they began to reflect human experiences, uncovering aspects of human nature through the pursuit of a connection with the natural world.
“When I visited in April, there were a lot more newly planted trees along the roads than I saw in my previous trip two years before. Most of the new trees were of the same kind, tall and densely planted in neat rows. Supported by wooden rods from three sides, many of them has an IV bottle – that’s what the locals called it, I later learned- hanging on their bare branches.” (Fallows, 2011)
Approximately 69% of China’s total land area comprises hillside cities (Hu, Sibley, and Davidová, 2022). These areas have experienced rapid urbanization over the past three decades, resulting in a significant loss of biodiversity. Mountainous landscapes are intricate and delicate biogeographical environments due to various natural factors such as unique topography, water systems, vegetation, and ecosystems (Abbott & Pollit, 1981; Chance, 2009; Dorward, 1990; Friedman, 2007). The landscape design of
newly built urban developments prioritises visual aesthetics above the longterm viability of existing ecological systems.
The development goals of Chongqing, China are to create a long-term pathway for sustainability. In recent years, Chongqing has embraced a model of “socialism with Chinese characteristics” and implemented a series of policies aimed at achieving and promoting its “Five Chongqing programs” (Huiqin, 2012). These programs focus on creating a livable, traffic-smooth, forested, safe, and healthy Chongqing (Huiqin, 2012).
Source : Yan Wang Preston
Fig 15 / Frank - Uprooted trees Longan Woodland, Chongqing, China
Fig 16 / View from Egongyan Bridge, Chongqing, China, 2011
Source : Yan Wang Preston
Fig 17 / Frank - View from Egongyan Bridge, Chongqing, China, 2017, highlighting the mature urban forest developed area within 6 years.
Source : Yan Wang Preston
In book “Down to Earth”, Bruno Latour presents a critical analysis of the political landscape in the context of climate change, inequality, and the crisis of globalization. He discusses the three phenomena of Deregulation and Globalisation, Explosion of Inequalities, and Climate change and how these are interconnected symptoms of a larger situation of crisis. He uses examples of Brexit and the election of Donald Trump as manifestations of this shift, where countries that once championed globalization and open borders are now retreating into isolationism and protectionism, driven by a fear of the consequences of their own policies and a desire to preserve their way of life at the expense of others. Overall, Latour presents the interplay between political, economic, and environmental factors shaping the distribution of resources and power.
The historical and contemporary examples show that translocation of mature trees often prioritizes power and economic interests, leading to a significant impact on environment. The pursuit of short-term economic gains and protection of ruling class interests have compromised a shared vision for humanity’s future and planetary sustainability. This prompts an inquiry into the balance between economic and ecological benefits in global sustainability. How should we reassess our relationship with nature after millions of years of landscape transformation from farming, deforestation, industrialization, urbanization, and climate change? What are effective ways to restore ecology and balance human needs with nature? Does the translocation of old trees, now often seen as a sustainable practice, contribute to an unsustainable future?
At last, what is a successful translocation?
Deforestation – is the purposeful clearing of forested land. (National Geographic Society, 2024)
Industrialization – The process of change from a basic agrarian economy to an industrialized one.
Urbanization - the process by which large numbers of people become permanently concentrated in relatively small areas, forming cities.
Choreographies of Coexistence
“Humans are not the sole authors of landscape.”
- Anne Whiston Spirn, The Language of Landscapes
Fig 18 / Illustrating relationship between mycorrhizal fungi and the plants.
Source : Enzo Peres-Labourdette
3.1 More than Human heritage.
All living things coexist in the same space, and all landscapes, whether wild or domesticated, are co-created by various forces and beings. These landscapes are phenomena of both nature and culture. Mountains, forests, and cities are shaped by volcanoes and rain, plants and animals, and human hands and minds (Spirn, 2000). The interdependency between human and non-human agents defines the language of landscapes. In these landscapes, diverse forms and interactions create and sustain the environment. The scale of landscapes can range from a small garden to the entire planet. To a beaver, a pond is a landscape; to a bird, it’s a tree; and to a tree, it’s the forest (Spirn, 2000). This network emphasizes how all life forms are interconnected, showing landscapes as dynamic, living systems evolving through interactions among their agents.
The concept of a “wolf tree” from the book “Language of Landscapes” by Anne Whiston Spirn sheds light on how anomalies in landscapes can be understood within a broader context. A “wolf” tree stands out in a forest due to its larger size and horizontal branches, contrasting with surrounding trees that have slim trunks and upright branches. This anomaly is explained by the tree’s history within the landscape. Initially, it likely grew in an open field where it had space to spread its branches horizontally to capture sunlight from all directions. As the area became forested, younger trees grew densely around it, blocking its access to horizontal light (Spirn, 2000). In response, the “wolf” tree adapted by sending new branches upward to seek light, resulting in its unique appearance within the woodland.
This example underscores the ever-changing nature of landscapes and the intricate relationship between past and present circumstances. The existence of the “wolf” tree serves as a tangible symbol of the landscape’s historical journey and transformation over time, showcasing how past events shape the current state of the environment. Essentially, the narrative of the “wolf” tree encapsulates the larger story of human and non-human interactions with, and influence on, the landscape.
In “The Mushroom at the End of the World,” Anna Tsing introduces the concept of “polyphonic assemblage,” (Tsing, 2015, p.23) drawing parallels to musical polyphony. Unlike modern music with its unified rhythm and melody, polyphony involves multiple independent melodies intertwining, creating both harmony and dissonance. Tsing suggests that understanding polyphonic assemblages requires the ability to perceive these overlapping rhythms and interactions within a complex system. This skill of recognizing and appreciating diverse elements is essential for comprehending the intricate relationships within an assemblage.
Anna Tsing offers agriculture as a concrete example to elucidate the concept of polyphonic assemblage. She contrasts modern commercial farming, which prioritizes monoculture growing a single crop that matures simultaneously for a coordinated harvest—with traditional farming practices found in
Indonesian Borneo. In these traditional methods, farmers cultivate multiple crops with distinct growth schedules within the same field. This necessitates careful attention to the diverse rhythms of each crop’s growth, as well as their interactions with pollinators and other plants. The intricate interplay of these varied rhythms and interactions constitutes what Tsing refers to as a “polyphonic assemblage”. (Tsing, 2015)
The practice of mature tree translocation often fails to account for vastly different timescales at play. In the book “Staying with the Trouble,” Donna Haraway introduces the concept of “ongoingness” (Haraway, 2016), urging us to reconsider our perceptions of time, our identities, and our capabilities. She highlights the ever-evolving nature of our relationships with other species and the environment, emphasizing that we are part of a continuous process rather than moving toward a definitive outcome. This perspective encourages us to
focus on the present ecological circumstances to inform our actions (Kohn, 2018).
Viewed through this lens, the act of translocating mature trees from forests disrupts the natural temporalities inherent to the trees and the complex web of life they are integral parts of within the forest ecosystem. Consider, for instance, the case of “Frank”, the 300-year-old tree documented in Preston’s “Forest series”. The rapid pace of its translocation -sold and moved within months, stands in stark contrast to its three centuries of growth. This temporal
“In fact, staying with the trouble requires learning to be truly present, not as a vanishing pivot between awful or edenic pasts and apocalyptic or salvific futures, but as mortal critters entwined in myriad unfinished configurations of places, times, matters, meanings.” (Haraway, 2016)
stark contrast to its three centuries of growth. This temporal mismatch prioritizes human developmental objectives and urban planning schedules over the inherent agencies of the trees and the ecological rhythms of the forest. Both Haraway and Tsing focus on the unpredictable nature of ecological relationships where the outcome is never certain and hence encourage us to see trees as part of a larger, ongoing ecological story.
The research on Arboreal temporalities suggests that trees experience time in cyclical and seasonal patterns, distinct from the linear and clock-based time followed by modern human societies (Nguyen, 2022). Instead of adhering to human industrial schedules, trees’ temporal rhythms are influenced by ecological factors such as light, weather, and environmental cycles. In literary works like “Autumn,” by Ali Smith, the argument strives to reconnect with the natural sense of time, contrasting it with the modern abstraction of time divorced from natural rhythms. The novel emphasizes the importance of recognizing the distinct temporalities of humans and non-humans, a crucial aspect of understanding our relationship with the natural world.
Fig 19 /
A still from documentary “Intelligent Trees”, illustrating the Mother tree
Source : Intelligent trees
Moving a tree from its natural forest environment disrupts its intricate connections with other non-human elements like weather, soil, and other plants and animals. These relationships, which shape and are shaped by the tree’s natural rhythm, are essential parts of its existence (Powers, 2018). When a tree is translocated, it is forced to adapt to human-imposed schedules and timelines, disregarding its own vegetal sense of time. Richard Powers’s novel “Overstory” highlights the importance of recognizing the temporalities of nonhuman entities, which may not align with our conventional understanding of time. This challenges us to reconsider our relationship with the natural world and our place within it (Nguyen, 2022).
It shifts our focus to the relationship between the temporalities of trees and the need to dismantle anthropocentric views of the world. This perspective reminds us that time does not revolve solely around human life and does not conform to immediate developmental expectations.
3.2 Are trees social beings?
“When you know that trees experience pain and have memories and that tree parents live together with their children, then you can no longer just chop them down and disrupt their lives with large machines.” (Wohlleben, 2018)
In natural forests without disruption, trees belonging to the same species often interconnect their root systems, forming a supportive network like that of an ant colony (Wohlleben, 2018). These connections are intentional; trees can differentiate their own roots from those of others and actively decide to help their relatives. This social behaviour plays a vital role in the survival of trees, as an individual tree cannot generate the stable microclimate that a forest community can (Wohlleben, 2018).
Professor Suzanne Simard and German forester Peter Wohlleben have delved into the intricate ways trees communicate with each other. Trees form cryptic underground networks, akin to neural pathways, through which they transmit chemical signals resembling neurotransmitters (Simard, 2021). Wohlleben expands on this idea in his book “The Hidden Life of Trees”, suggesting that trees communicate through a language of scent, not limited to human species. They exchange water and nutrients as a means of communication and can even emit distress signals during periods of drought or disease. For instance, in response to insect attacks, neighbouring trees adjust their behaviour upon receiving these signals (Grant, 2018). In laboratory experiments, researchers observed that even roots of seedlings not directly involved in an experiment reacted to certain stimuli; for instance, when exposed to a frequency of 200 Hz, seedling roots oriented themselves in that direction. This indicates that
grasses were able to perceive this frequency, suggesting they “heard” it and illustrating how trees can respond to sounds as a form of communication (Wohlleben, 2018).
Biologist Jakob von Uexküll introduced a study on animal behaviour, framing it within the concept of sign processes. He distinguished between the researcher’s perception of an animal’s environment and the factors that are relevant to the animal itself, which he termed the “Umwelt.” This term encompasses both “perception signs” and “action signs,” indicating objects and their potential actions within the animal’s environment (Feiten, 2022).
Using Uexküll’s framework to analyse trees as social beings within a forest, one can perceive the forest as a collection of interconnected “Umwelten” (Feiten, 2022), with each tree experiencing and engaging with its surroundings uniquely. Like Uexküll’s animals, trees translate environmental cues like light, water, and nutrients into their own subjective realities, establishing dynamic interaction networks. These interactions, akin to Uexküll’s action-signs, demonstrate how trees may influence and react to one another, contributing to the intricate ecological fabric of the forest. Consequently, the forest emerges not as a static backdrop but as a vibrant tapestry of diverse subjective experiences and behaviors, perpetually shaping and being shaped by its inhabitants.
3.3 What goes under?
Simard’s book “Finding the Mother Tree” delves into the intricate underground networks of trees, akin to a supportive community of friends aiding one another. Her scientific research reveals that mycorrhizal fungal networks act as a common mycelium, connecting the roots of multiple plants across various terrestrial systems. These networks function like tunnels, facilitating the exchange of chemical signals between trees. Understanding the structure of these networks is crucial for gaining insights into ecological stability and evolution, offering novel theoretical approaches to enhance conservation practices and ecosystem management. At the plant community level, mycorrhizal networks play a significant role in shaping interactions between plants and fostering plant community diversity (Simard et al., 2012).
Mycorrhizal networks serve as vital pathways for the transfer of essential nutrients such as carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and others among plant communities (Simard and Austi, 2010). These pathways help compartmentalize crucial resources, mitigating potential disruptions like competition with soil microbes, fauna, or chemical adsorption of nutrients to soil particles, as well as physical disturbance to soil structure (Simard et al., 2012). Additionally, mycorrhizal networks facilitate communication between
plants, as evidenced by a defence signal observed between tomato plants linked through fungus, resulting in enhanced disease resistance (Simard et al., 2012).
Suzanne Simard coined the term “Wood Wide Web”(Simard et al., 1997) to describe the intricate network of connections among trees underground. In this network, the oldest trees, known as “The Mother tree,” play a crucial role, serving as central hubs to which younger trees are connected. The behaviour of young trees is heavily influenced by the surrounding mature trees, as the transfer of resources is determined more by the receiving capacity of the recipient plants rather than the giving capacity of the donor trees (Simard, 2009). According to Simard and colleagues (Simard et al., 1997), seedlings in deeply shaded areas may rely on the photosynthetic capacity of older trees to maintain a positive carbon balance as they establish themselves within the network of larger trees overhead. In this way, the strength of the mature trees as resource providers can compensate for the limited capacity of struggling seedlings to receive resources.
Transplanting success is often measured by the survival and restoration of a tree’s usual growth patterns. However, the process can lead to what’s known as “transplanting shock,” where the tree experiences significant changes in its biology due to the loss of roots and canopy volume (Dalrymple, 2021). This shock can manifest in various morphological and physiological symptoms, such as root elongation, decreased photosynthesis, and tissue stiffness. Transplant shock primarily occurs due to water stress caused by a sudden imbalance within the tree’s water distribution system. This imbalance arises from a change in the ratio between the shoot and root systems. Specifically, there is a significant loss of water-absorbing roots without a corresponding decrease in the tree’s ability to release water through transpiration from its leaves.
Fig 20 / Wood Wide web, mycorrhizal network
Source : Suzzane S. Simard
points to the most highly connected tree.
Source : Newzealand Geographic
Fig 21 / Network map showing the connections between Douglas-fir trees through the mycorrhizal network. The arrow
3.4 Fate of trees in global environment
“In short, it has the will to survive, and, unlike the arboreal primadonnas, it can take abuse.” (Hutton, 2016)
In her book “Reciprocal Landscapes: Stories of Material Movements,” Jane Hutton discusses the social, political, and ecological aspects of material processes. In Chapter 4, she focuses on the transplantation of London plane trees from Rikers Island to Seventh Avenue in 1959. She highlights how trees have become a common sight in modern city streets, but this wasn’t always the case. Initially, city infrastructure plans proposed removing trees for street grid expansion. However, in the early 20th century, advocates urged people to beautify streets by planting trees, resulting in a haphazard mix of species, many of which struggled to survive. Critics disparaged these efforts, labelling the trees as “ghastly parodies,” failing to consider the challenges of urban environments such as heat and pollution (Hutton, 2016). While people believed that street trees could enhance harsh conditions, they often viewed them as separate from nature.
According to art theorist Alain Roger, landscapes undergo a process called “double artialization,” as explained by Andermann in 2023. This involves two main aspects: first, portraying land as a visual spectacle that can be moved from rural to urban areas for display, and second, shaping parcels of land to fit a predetermined image of orderly nature, often dictated by gardeners or landscape architects. These practices reflect and perpetuate the dominant ideologies of control and exploitation found within capitalist and colonial systems.
Hutton’s framework of reciprocity in construction materials extends to the concept of trees in urban development. Trees are not static objects but are instead part of a continuum of matter, intimately connected to both the land and the people. They possess intrinsic value beyond their mere commodity status, being living entities with complexities that surpass their market price. Shifting the perspective on trees in urban development involves recognizing them not just as a green backdrop but as active participants that co-create with other species, materials, and landscapes. By letting go of the notion that trees are merely large structures serving human needs, we can appreciate their interconnectedness with the broader natural world.
IIn “The Entranced Earth,” Professor Jens Andermann delves into the role of landscapes in perpetuating the ideologies of capitalism and colonialism. These landscapes, according to Andermann, naturalize violent and unequal social, political, and ecological relationships. This discussion aligns with the framework of the theory of “Urban Nature” presented by Matthew Gandy in his book “Natura Urbana.” Gandy’s concept introduces the notion of “first and second nature,” referring to landscapes untouched by human impact and those extensively shaped by human needs, respectively. Between these
two concepts lies a realm shaped by cultural and historical interactions between human and non-human agents of nature. In addition to Andermann’s ideologies, Bruno Latour in his book “Down to Earth” mentions that in the era of the Anthropocene, it is important to recognize Earth and its non-human inhabitants as active participants in shaping politics and environmental resources.
In the book,” The Fabric of Space: Water, Modernity and the Urban Imagination, Matthew Gandy delves into the intersection of natural elements, such as water, with urban development over an extensive period, framed within the context of “deep time”. His analytical framework can be theorized to understand the broader implications of translocation of mature trees. This involves understanding how these trees, which have evolved within forest ecosystems, adapt to and affect urban setting.
In Yan Wang Preston’s manuscript, “Forest Reseen,” the concept of “first nature” is discussed in the context of how it has been entirely substituted by landscapes that are artificially constructed to appear natural. Preston suggests replacing the term “nature” with “social nature” to establish a theoretical framework that positions nature within our cultural domain. She identifies sites as peripheral areas that provide materials for urban development, contrasting with non-sites, which are central hubs of cultural significance and capital.
The narratives and scientific perspectives explored in this chapter reveal that trees, along with other non-human entities, engage in dynamic relationship with environment. In essence, the chapter makes a case for recognizing trees as key non-human agents that relationally shape the cultural landscapes of places through their routine biological behaviours and their abilities to persist, spread, disrupt and emotionally influence human activities over extended temporal scales.
The Green Dilemma
“Future sustainability is best modelled with the help of nostalgia.”
- Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing, The Mushroom at the End of the World
Fig 22 / Chongqing Forest park
Source : Landezine
The relentless winds of the Gobi Desert, moving southward, pose a significant threat to fertile land, towns, and communities, impacting approximately 400 million individuals (Cole, 2022). To counteract this advancing desertification, China has initiated an ambitious project known as “China’s Great Green Wall,” aiming to plant thousands of trees to serve as a barrier. The goal is to establish this green wall by 2050, creating the largest man-made carbon sponge. However, despite the collective efforts of millions of Chinese citizens participating in National Tree Planting Day to reinforce the barrier, a more pressing issue arises from within – an unsustainable demand for wood. This demand conceals a deeper problem: the continued degradation of China’s forests, resulting in reduced biodiversity and heightened pressure on woodland ecosystems abroad to meet China’s timber needs.
John McKinnon, the head of the EU-China biodiversity programme, highlighted that while China plants more trees than the rest of the world combined, the issue lies in the predominance of monoculture plantations. These plantations fail to provide suitable habitats for birds and other wildlife. Concurrently, as urban development escalates in Chinese cities, the expansive Taiga boreal forests of Siberia are being rapidly cleared (the Guardian, 2009). Despite the initial intent for the green wall initiative to act as a barrier against desertification, it is increasingly utilized as a shield against accusations of climate responsibility.
In her book “Plant Life: The Entangled Politics of Afforestation,” Rosetta S. Elkins delves into the politics and ecological consequences of extensive tree planting initiatives. She posits that these large-scale afforestation projects are often propelled by political motives and frequently overlook the preexisting plant life, cultural significance, and ecological intricacies of the areas they target.
In the case of Georgia’s former president and his collection of ancient trees, the approach to translocating mature trees and restoration reflects a top-down approach that prioritizes corporate environmentalism and resource extraction over local needs and the existing ecosystem (Miller, 2023). Afforestation is often seen as a quick solution that becomes entangled with politics, leading to projects that prioritize progress on unsustainable scales without proper debate or consideration of ecological consequences (Elkin, 2022).
From large scale afforestation to small scale translocating mature trees, faces the same challenges which is the need of ecological sensitivity, addressing unsustainable resource demands and political motives. Translocation, like afforestation, requires a well-planned approach that prioritizes long term ecological viability.
4.1 “Anthropocene” vs “Sustainable Anthropocene”
Most research on Anthropocene has been developed in biophysical sciences such as geology, climatology and ecology, but there is a growing interdisciplinary interest that includes social sciences and humanities to understand the full nature of human influence (Gandy, 2022). The idea of “sustainable Anthropocene” as noted by Gandy in his book “Urban Natura” involves integration of advances technological innovations and with lifestyle and behavioural changes.
In the beginning of the essay, we explored the mechanical advancements in moving mature trees. The concept of a sustainable Anthropocene challenges us to reconsider practice of tree translocation. In the context of my central
question, the anthropocene perspectives urge to view trees not as passive element of the landscape, but as active participants evolving simultaneously with human societies. Instead of asking, ‘How can we move this tree most efficiently? we might need to ask, ‘Should we move this tree at all, and if so, how can we do it more respectfully in broader ecosystem?
“Living-with and dying-with each other potently in the Chthulucene can be a fierce reply to the dictates of both Anthropos (Anthropocene) and Capital (Capitalism).” (Haraway, 2016)
In the end of Part 02, Latour’s idea of recognizing the non-human world as active participants in shaping politics is highlighted. He proposes a shift towards understanding “Terrestrials” as new political actors, actively participating in human affairs (Deller, 2019). This perspective represents that humans can no longer view themselves as separate from the Earth and its non-human entities. Instead, they must acknowledge their interdependency towards Earth’s systems (Latour, 2018).
“Resurgence”, as Tsing describes it, is the ability of forests and other natural systems to recover and thrive despite significant disturbances, both natural and human made (Tsing, 2015). In premodern Japan, peasants managed forests by using plants and forest debris as green manure, creating clearings that promoted the growth of species like red pine (Pinus densiflora) and Quercus serrata oak. These methods fostered a dynamic balance and biodiversity. She mentions how historical deforestation during industrialization and World War II caused significant ecological shifts but also facilitated the resurgence of species like pines and matsutake mushrooms. These perspective provide a framework for understanding and mitigating impacts of disturbances caused by translocation to both source and destination ecosystems. Aligning it with “resurgence” can help manage these disruptions for effective translocation practices.
Anthropocene - is a proposed period that marks the time during which human activities have a significant impact on Earth’s geology and ecosystems (Lewis and Maslin, 2015).
Chthulucene - a kind of timeplace for learning to stay with the trouble of living and dying in responseability on a damaged earth.
23 / A section of Shekvetili Dendrological park, geogia, where mature trees uprooted from different parts of world.
Source : Salome Jashi
Fig
The Grey-faced Buzzard’s reliance on Satoyama, managed peasant landscapes, showcases the interconnectedness of species within these ecosystems (Tsing, 2015). Practices like irrigation and coppicing maintain these landscapes, supporting biodiversity crucial for buzzards and other species. Satoyama revitalization projects in Japan teach modern citizens to harmonize with active nature, demonstrating how human-managed landscapes can sustain both livelihoods and ecological health. Tsing’s concept of resurgence is seen in forests’ ability to regenerate after destruction. Peasant forests, with their oaks and pines, exemplify resilience and biodiversity through continuous human disturbance and management.
Translocating old trees is seen as a sustainable practice aimed at preserving mature specimens and maintaining biodiversity. However, it can sometimes mask underlying issues related to ecosystem health and sustainability. Tsing’s framework of resurgence prompts to question whether translocation supports genuine ecological recovery or simply serves as immediate fix for short term. The practice should be evaluated in the context of how well it integrates with and supports natural processes like the success of peasant forest in Japan demonstrates that ecosystems can thrive with human management, if practices are aligned with natural processes.
4.2 Finding the Balance
In her book “Landscapes of Retreat”, Rosetta Elkins states the difference between relocation and “retreat” which is important for creating more inclusive futures. Relocation treats communities like movable objects, disrupting culture and memories, while retreat is an adaptive response guided by environmental cues. Unlike relocation, retreat respects the dynamic nature of non-human communities and avoids rebuilding in risky areas, acknowledging the land’s needs (Elkin, 2022a).
“We cannot escape from our past, but we can value change as a means to amend our future relations.” (Elkin, 2022a)
Understanding our interaction with climate change is necessary for adapting to its risk factors. We frequently feel trapped between the growing problem and the unexpected process of identifying it. Crises generally result in impulsive solutions, temporary funding, media attention, and policy changes that are promoted as “community-driven” but are market-driven and profit-oriented (Elkin, 2022a). The actual environment does not correspond to the ideals of regulatory systems, and many regulations are ineffective because they lack knowledge of the living world.
Rosetta Elkins presents the case study of The Nijinomatsubara forest in Kyushu, Japan, which demonstrates the power of human care and the importance for conserving nature. Japan has a long history of dealing with the dangers of coastal living. Many communities have decided to plant trees in hurricane-
Fig 24 / Map of Nijinomatsubara Forest.
Source : Rosetta S. Elkins
Fig 25 / The view of Nijinomatsubara Forest from Mount Kagamiyama.
Source : Rosetta S. Elkins
damaged areas since the 1600s. These “mitigation” forests do much more than protect against sand, tidal surges, and salty winds. They also serve as a development buffer zone and a special spot that brings the community together across generations. Unlike other plantations grown for timber harvesting, Nijinomatsubara was planted for long-term growth rather than short-term profit. The forest views the temporal aspect of plant life as a legacy for future generations. Each tree was planted not for a quick restoration, but as a living legacy. This produces a landscape of continuity, in which the shoreline is valued beyond its present usage, and the age of the trees demonstrates the importance of time in design.
The threats to the forest, such as the interaction between nematodes and beetles that causes Pine Wilt Disease, serve as a reminder of the rather unexpected forces that exist in nature (Elkin, 2022a). As broad-leaf species such as black locust colonise the gaps left by dying pines, a new multispecies assemblage arises, exhibiting the ecosystem’s flexibility. This highlights how both human and non-human agents influence natural surroundings, challenging the traditional division between nature and culture.
The forest’s history demonstrates the significance of understanding the landscape as an ever-changing and active process rather than a static one. This viewpoint promotes a deeper knowledge of all species’ inclusion and the importance of accepting change as a basic part of ecological and cultural sustainability. Nijinomatsubara demonstrates how, by combining cultural traditions, ecological understanding, and adaptive management, it is possible to foster a peaceful relationship with nature.
Translocating mature trees as practice necessitates a deep understanding of the temporalities and agencies of the more than human world. While translocation can be a valuable tool for preserving biodiversity, it must be a part of a broader strategy that respects and integrates natural processes. Learning from traditional practices, such as those discussed in this chapter, and adopting inclusive approaches might ensure that interventions with translocation support long-term resilience and resurgence of ecosystems and might provide an answer to translocation as sustainable practices for future generations.
26 /
Source : Rosetta S.
Fig 27 / Forest park, Chongqing,
Illustrating the making of forest
Source : Landezine
Fig
An old growth area of the black pine forest.
Elkins
China.
city.
“As future ancestors, whether we have children or not, we must pass on what we can to enrich the common inheritance of the next generations.”
Rosetta Elkins, Landscapes of Retreat
In the beginning of exploring the thesis, I portrayed translocating mature trees as a practice superficially sustainable but potentially disruptive to ecology. However, through this research journey, insights have emerged suggesting that translocation could indeed evolve into a sustainable practice, particularly when viewed through the lenses of temporalities and natural processes of non-human entities as discussed throughout the research.
The practice of translocating mature trees lies in the intersection of human desires and ecological considerations that must be reevaluated within the broader perspectives of promoting long term sustainability. While supposedly aimed at preserving ecology, relocating mature trees has the potential to disrupt these intricate systems, severing vital connections that have evolved over centuries and imposing frameworks that prioritise human needs over the inherent agents of the trees. Through the lens of Donna Haraway’s concept of “ongoingness”, we understand that it is a practice that must be examined not only through the lens of immediate survival, but also through the broader lens of promoting resilient, linked ecosystems that respect the fundamental value and intricacies of all life in the present moment.
Throughout this exploration, narratives and case studies offered in this research directed me to reconsider anthropocentric ideas and embrace a more holistic understanding of the complex web of interdependence that exists between all living species. From Anna Tsing’s idea of polyphonic assemblages of traditional farming practices to the intricate mycorrhizal networks that facilitate the underground exchange of resources and information, we are reminded that trees are social beings intricately woven into the fabric of their ecosystems. Interfering with these sensitive processes by tree translocation risks limiting essential connections and compromising the ecological integrity of both the source and destination habitats.
Latour in his book “Down to earth”, advocates for changing our notion from “nature as universe” to “nature as process”, which views nature as dynamic and interconnected rather than static and passive (Deller, 2019).The concept of “resurgence” reminds us that true ecological restoration is not a linear process, but rather a cyclical dance between human intervention and the inherent resilience of the natural world. As witnessed in the regenerative cases of Japan’s Satoyama landscapes and the enduring legacy of the Nijinomatsubara forest, it is through harmonious coexistence and a deep recognition for the temporal rhythms of the more-than-human world that we can cultivate landscapes that are both ecologically vibrant and culturally sustaining.
Ultimately In my view, creating anthropogenic cities involves more than just addressing climate change and extensive tree planting. It requires a thorough examination of the economic and political decisions that shape these cities. Furthermore, we need to consider incorporating the voice of trees into these decisions. This involves a hierarchy of designers and officials who deeply understand the impacts on the tree ecosystem.
Furthermore, the success of translocation necessitates a fundamental shift in our relationship with nature—prioritizing the preservation of complex ecosystem temporalities over short-term economic gains or assertions of dominance. We must abandon the mistaken belief that humans have complete control over the environment. This approach will encourage the integration of ecological sensitivities into our economic and political decisions, fostering a harmonious existence where human ingenuity is balanced with humility and respect for all living things.
“And if the human subject is lost as a conscious agent of historical change, then what kind of autonomous or algorithmic fields of agency are left in its wake?”
- Mathew Gandy, Temporalities, Narura Urbana
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Image credits
Fig 01 – Maheshwari, R. (2024b). Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center, SNFCC Park.
Fig 02 – Yerolymbos, Y. (2014). Process of olive tree planting at Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center, SNFCC Park. Available at: https:// www.snf.org/en/news-stories/news/announcements/the-planting-of-the-stavros-niarchos-park-has-begun/#:~:text=An%20olive%20tree%20of%20 3,capita%20green%20space%20in%20Europe.
Fig 03 - Carr, S. (2018). Sketch of Cubbington Pear Tree. Available at: https://thegardenstrust.blog/2020/11/07/transplanting-trees/.
Fig 04 - Mr McNab’s Tree Transplanter, used in the Royal Scottish Botanic Garden, Edinburgh circa 1850. (1850). Available at: https://thegardenstrust. blog/2020/11/14/movers-and-shakers/.
Fig 05 - The Garden Trust (2020). A portion of the ‘Voyage to Punt’ relief from Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el-Bahri. Available at: https:// thegardenstrust.blog/2020/02/01/hatshepsut-and-thutmosis/.
Fig 06 - C, Loudon.J. (1826). Tree Transplanting Machines. [An encyclopædia of gardening] Available at: https://archive.org/details/ encyclopdiaofgar00loud/page/290/mode/2up.
Fig 07 - Henry, S. (1848). View of the tree Transplanting Machine in motion. [The planter’s guide] Available at: https://archive.org/details/ plantersguidepra00steu/page/n279/mode/2up?q=steersman.
Fig 08 - Maheshwari, R. (2024). Location Map of case studies ‘Taming the Garden’ and ‘Forest Series’.
Fig 09 - Jashi, S. (2021). A still from Taming the Garden - Transloacted mature trees carried through sea. Available at: https://www.imdb.com/title/ tt13621424/mediaviewer/rm78130177?ref_=tt_ov_mi_sm.
Fig 10 - Jashi, S. (2021a). A still from Taming the Garden - Preparation of uprooted tree to be carried to Georgia. Available at: https://www.imdb.com/ title/tt13621424/mediaviewer/rm950545409/.
Fig 11 - Jashi, S. (2021c). The excavated part which remains in the ground where the tree was uprooted to be reloacted to Georgia. Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2023/06/kenyan-baobab-trees-uprooted-for-export-to-georgia-critics-call-it-biopiracy/.
Fig 12 - Preston, Y.W. (2013). Frank - March 01, 2013, Forest series, Standing in the village. Available at: https://www.yanwangpreston.com/projects/ forest-images.
Fig 13 – Preston, Y.W. (2013a). Frank - 02 June, 2013, Forest series, Uprooted to five star hotel. Available at: https://www.yanwangpreston.com/ projects/forest-images.
Fig 14 - Preston, Y.W. (2013b). Frank - 03 November, 2013, Forest series, Frank died after few months. Available at: https://www.yanwangpreston. com/projects/forest-images.
Fig 15 - Preston, Y.W. (2011). Uprooted trees Longan Woodland, Chongqing, China. Available at: https://www.yanwangpreston.com/projects/forestimages.
Fig 16 - Preston, Y.W. (2011b). View from Egongyan Bridge, Chongqing, China, 2011. Available at: https://www.yanwangpreston.com/projects/forestimages.
Fig 17- Preston, Y.W. (2017). View from Egongyan Bridge, Chongqing, China, 2017, highlighting the mature urban forest developed area within 6 years. Available at: https://www.yanwangpreston.com/projects/forest-images.
Fig 18 - Labourdette, E.P. (2016). The relationship between mycorrhizal fungi and the plants they connect is now known to be ancient—around four hundred and fifty million years old. Available at: https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/the-secrets-of-the-wood-wide-web.
Fig 19 - Dark Star Pictures (2016). A still from documentary ‘Intelligent Trees’, illustrating the Mother tree. Fig 20 - Simard, S.S. (n.d.). Wood Wide web, mycorrhizal network.
Fig 21 - Newzealand Geographic (2017). Network map showing the connections between Douglas-fir trees through the mycorrhizal network. The arrow points to the most highly connected tree. Available at: https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/the-wood-wide-web/.
Fig 22 - Landezine (2018). Chongqing Forest Park . Available at: https://landezine-award.com/chongqing-forest-park/.
Fig 23 - Jashi, S. (2021a). A section of Shekvetili Dendrological park, geogia, where mature trees uprooted from different parts of world. Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2023/06/kenyan-baobab-trees-uprooted-for-export-to-georgia-critics-call-it-biopiracy/.
Fig 24 - Elkins, R. (2022). Map of Nijinomatsubara Forest. Available at: https://landscapesofretreat.com/Image-Credits.
Fig 25 - Elkins, R. (2022b). The view of Nijinomatsubara Forest from Mount Kagamiyama. Available at: https://landscapesofretreat.com/ImageCredits.
Fig 26 - Elkins, R. (2022a). An old growth area of the black pine forest. Available at: https://landscapesofretreat.com/Image-Credits.
Fig 27 - Landezine (2018b). Forest park, Chongqing, China. Illustrating the making of forest city. Available at: https://landezine-award.com/chongqingforest-park/.