Madagascar before the conquest. 1896 by Président AALEME

MADAGASCAR .;^,

BEFORE THE

u UiN Liu lik)

THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST THE ISLAND, THE COUNTRT, ^ND THE PEOPLE WITH CHAPTERS OX TRAVEL AND TOPOGRAPHY, FOLK-LORE, STRANGE CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS, THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE ISLAND, AND MISSION WORK AND PROGRESS AMONG THE INHABITANTS

REV.

JAMES

SIBREE, F.R.G.S.

Missionary of the L.M.S.

AUTHOR OF "THE CHEAT AFRICAN' ISLAXD," "A MADAGASCAR lilBLIOGRAPHV, â&#x20AC;¢THE I'.IRDS OF MADAGASCAR," ETC.

WITH MAPS AND NUMEROUS ILLUS7RA7I0NS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

LONDON T.

FISHER UN WIN

PATERNOSTER SQUARE 1896

[All rigilts rcsnvcd.l

PREFACE. This

book on Madagascar, and probably some of

third

may

readers

be disposed to ask what more

The

say about the country or the people. a reply to such a question, and tion that first

it is

book

now twenty-six

may be

can have to

following pages form

further said in explana-

years since the publication of

and sixteen since the second

since the latter of those dates

was issued

much new

;

and that

information has been

accumulating with regard to the physical geography, geology, fauna and

and ethnology of Madagascar.

flora,

During the thirty-two years that this great island,

and writing about lication issued

have been connected with

have been continually collecting information

it,

chiefly in the

every year

Antananarivo Annual, a pub-

the

are only

known

that at this time,

when

public attention in

sort of people

here express

Grandidier, that

the

have thought

being again called to

They

will,

trust,

give

a clearer notion of what kind of place this country

and what I

the following pages would

be interesting to the public generally.

many

;

well

but as these papers

to a limited class of readers,

Madagascar, the information given

capital,

Proceedings of various English societies

valuable in

they are

from

who

obligations

permission

for

Madagascar

his

inhabit to

to translate

it.

friend,

numerous publications

People (R.T.S., 1870).

Matiufiasair

The Gnat African Island (Triibner, 1880).

its

I 087586

M. Alfred

and reproduce much

the French language.

ami

is,

referring to

PREFACE.

have also to thank

Fenn,

friends,

Mr.

Parrett

and Dr.

S. B.

being able to reproduce several photographs which

for

adorn these pages.

And,

lastly,

thanks are due to the Rev.

grateful

E. Cousins for his great kindness in correcting the proofs, so far at least as

Malagasy words are employed.

been a disadvantage that

when

proofs

could

It has,

the work was passing through the

must plead that covered by the

excuse for any reader.

critical

of course,

not personally revise the

faults

The

that

publisher

and

press,

may be has

dis-

done

his

best to minimise the difficulties necessarily involved in writing

a book

Madagascar and publishing

England. S.

London Missionary

Society's College,

Antax.\narivo, Madagascar.

November

Note.

20, 1895.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; All through

this

book Malagasy words are accented

And

on the syllables which should be emphasised.

borne in mind that the vowels have as nearly as possible the same sound as in Italian, and that the consonants do not differ

much

sound from those

English, except that

hard, s always a sibilant and not like

need be no

difficulty in

amount of accuracy.

and

g is

always

like dj\ there

pronouncing Malagasy words with a

fair

CONTENTS. CHAPTER

PAGE

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL NOTES OF A JOURNEY FROM MAHANORO TO ANTANANARIVO :

— — —

—

Various routes Mahanoro Madagascar travelling to interior Filanjana or palanquin Native bearers Native villages Betsimisaraka Cemetery Canoe travelling Canoe songs Tropical vegetation The Travellers'-tree Scenery Native houses and arrangements tiring Sunday's journey Butterflies and birds A village congregation Forest scenery and luxuriance Romantic glens and glades Uplands and extensive prospects In Imerina at last Over old haunts in forest Mantasoa and its workshops Native bridges

— —

—

— War preparations —A hearty welcome to the CHAPTER :

—

— —

IMERINA THE CENTRAL PROVINCE VILLAGE LIFE

—

capital.

n. PHYSICAL FEATURES AND

ITS

— Recent journeys —Tamatave— Mode of travelling — Coast lagoons — Scenery Forest and climbing plants — Ankay Plain — Upper forest belt — Imerina or Ankova Home of the Hova — Mountains and prominent peaks — Bare uplands — Geology and colour of — Extinct volcanoes —Watershed of island—Lakes — Population — Sacred towns —Village fortifications — Maps of Imerina — An Imerina village — Ancient villages on high — Hova houses and arrangements —Ox-fattening Native tombs —Trees — Hova children and games — Village chapels Recent

advances

knowledge

Madagascar -geography

soil

pits

hills

and schools.

CHAPTER

HI.

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL ITS PUBLIC BUILDINGS, MEMORIAL AND OTHER CHURCHES, AND RELIGIOUS AND CHARITABLE :

INSTITUTIONS

Scenery around the capital

and paths

— Houses

—

Its

and other

picturesque situation buildings

— Recent

— Rugged

streets

introduction

CONTENTS.

Vin

— Faravohitra—Ancient gateway— Sacred stones —Weekly market of Zoma—Amusements—L.M.S. churches and religious institutions — Ambatonakanga Church — Other memorial churches — Mother churches and — Chapel Royal— Sunday observance— Colleges and school-buildings — Dispensaries and hos— Other missions— Extent of Christian work carried on — Civilising work of L.M.S. mission — Population — Plans of the capital bricks

— Roj-al

PAGE

palaces

districts

pitals

Antananarivo the heart of Madagascar.

CHAPTER

IV.

THE CHAXGIXG YEAR

IN CENTRAL MAD.^GASCAR NOTES ON THE CLIMATES, AGRICULTURE, SOCIAL CUSTOMS OF THE PEOPLE, AND VARIED ASPECTS OF THE MONTUS :

•

—Their significant names—Prospect from —The great rice-plain — Springtime September to October— Rice-planting and — First crop—Trees and — Burning the Downs —Birds — Summer foliage November to February —Thunderstorms and tropical rains — Effects on roads — Rain— Hail — Magnificent lightning — Malagasy New Year Native calendar— Royal bathing— Conspicuous flowers —Aloes and agaves— Christmas Day observances — Uniformity in length of days Native words and phrases for divisions of time —and for natural phenomena— Effects of heavy rains—Wild flowers of Imerina Autumn March and April — Rice harvest — Harvest thanksgiving services — Mist effects on winter mornings — Spiders' webs — Winter May to August — Winter the dry season — Ancient villages and fosses Hova tombs — Great markets —Aspects of nightly sky — Epidemics in cold season — Vegetation. The seasons

summit

Madagascar

of Antananarivo

rice-fields

effects

fall

CHAPTER

THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA ITS PHYSICAL FEATURES AND LEGENDARY HISTORY AND THE VOLCANIC REGIONS OF THE :

;

INTERIOR

—

— — —

Ancient volcanoes of Central Madagascar Hot springs Fossil remains in limestone deposits Crater lake of Andraikiba Tritriva Lake Colour of water Remarkable appearance of lake \'^iew from crater walls Mr. Baron on volcanic phenomena Ankaratra Mountain Ancient crater Lava streams Volcanic rocks Recent character

— —

—

— —

—

of volcanic action.

CHAPTER

VI.

AMBATOVORY ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS IN MADAGASCAR WITH NATURAL HISTORY AND OTHER NOTES :

The rock

rest-house — Amboniloha Hill— A deserted — Woodland paths—Birds — Lizards and

village

;

'97

—Ambatovory — Grass-

chameleons

CONTENTS.

—Protective colouring—Warring colours —Beetles —Ants and ant-nests — Ball insects — Spiders — Butterflies — King — Solitary wasps — Wasp nests —Angavokely Mountain — Extensive prospect.

PAGE

hoppers

butterflj-

CHAPTER

VII.

MALAGASY PLACE- XAMES

IO9

—

Mixed nomenclature of coast and interior places Early European Arab and Portuguese names Influence of fady or taboo Name of Madagascar Mountain names The name-prefixes Anand Am Height and prominence Mystery and dread Size Words meaning rock and stone Animals and birds Personal names for hills Grandeur of mountain scenery River names Descriptive epithets Lake names Town and village names Dual names Names of capital and its divisions Town names from natural features forests river banks from animals Personal Tribal Province names Appendix on Betsileo place-names. influence

—

— — —

—

— —

—

— —

—

— —

—

CHAPTER

—

— — — — —

VIII.

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS COXXECTED WITH CHIEFTAIXSHIP AXD ROYALTY AMOXG THE MALAGASY AXD NOTES OF THE SIGN AXD GESTURE LAXGUAGE I49 ;

or " chief's language " — in Malayo—for Malagas^' sovereigns — Illness and death —Burial — Mourning — Diseases — Royal sei-vants — Royal houses Chief's words among Betsileo — for family of chiefs — for elderly chiefs — for chiefs old and young — Extreme honour paid to chiefs —Fady or taboo in words—Tabooed animals— Roj-al names— Sacred character of —Veneration for royalty — Sakalava chiefs — Posthumous names — Relics of the sign and gesture language — Salutations — Symbolic acts — Royalty — " Licking the sole Knbhiys—The taboo.

The Betsileo^Special words, Polynesian

languages

CHAPTER

IX.

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AXD POPULAR SUPERSTITION'S

— — — —

—

— —

—

Animals The ox Birds Fabulous animals Fatiauy, or Insects seven-headed serpent Footprints of giants Trees and plants Ordeals Folk-lore of life Lucky and unlucky actions Sickness and death Witchcraft and charms Food and ftidy of the Sihanaka Snakes and lemurs Tabooed days in clans and villages Good omens for food and wealth Evil omens as to famine Trade Poverty, and death Weather prognostics Various portents

—

dreams.

—

— — —

— —

—

— —

I74

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

X. PAGE

MALAGASY ORATORY, ORNAMENTS OF SPEECH, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS,

AND CONUNDRUMS

19!

sketch — Folk-lore — Folk-tales — Proverbs historical —Oratory and figures of speech —The desolate one— Mutual —Bereavelove —The bird — A divorced wife — Transitoriness of ment — Death — Imagination — Boasting —The crocodile —A place for speech everything — love — Friendship —Thanksgiving — Evil Symbolic acts —The two kings —The heir to the throne — Riddles

Introductory

Kahavy

life

Filial

and conundrums.

CHAPTER

XI.

MALAGASY SONGS, POETRY, CHILDREN'S GAMES, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES 213

— —

—

— —

Dirges Songs to the sovereign Sihanaka laments Ballad of Friendship Children's games Rasariiidra Soanuditra Benandro Sakada "Leper" game "Star killing" New Year's games Counting games Marvellous creatures Songoniby Fanany, or sevenheaded serpent Tokandia, or " Singlefoot " Kindly Doiia, or Pily (serpent) Laloiucna (Hippopotamus ?) Angaliipona Siona.

—

— —

—

— —

CHAPTER Xn. MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES

237

and Itrimobe —The members — Crocodile and dog—Three bird— Rapeto—The Son of God—The of the body— The fingers — The earth and the skies — The birds choosing a king The lizards — Hawk and hen —Vazimba— Chameleon and lizard Serpent and frog —The rice and sugar-cane —Two rogues—Wild Bonia

sisters

lost

little

five

hog and

rat.

CHAPTER

XHI.

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY, TOGETHER WITH NATIVE 262 IDEAS AS TO FATE AND DESTINY

— Subject investigated by Mr. Dahle —Little organised the Malagasy — Diviners — Divination and fate — Invocation of the Sik'idy — Sixteen figures of the Sikidy — Sixteen columns of the Sikidy — Erecting the Sik)dy—Working of the Sik'idy— Identical — figures — Unique figures — Combined figures— Miscellaneous Gun charms — Trade charms — Medicinal charms— Fortunate places and daj's Ati-pdko — Fate as told by zodiac and moon — Lucky and unlucky days — House divinations — Fate as told by the planets — Days of the week — Decreasing influence of the The

Sik'idy

idolatry

among

Sik'idy

Sik'idy.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

XIV.

....

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY

Two

—

PAGE

286

great divisions of the people Idea of impurity in connection with death A revolting custom Funeral feasts Tankarana Their

—

carved coffins Analogies to those of Philippine Islanders Betsimisaraka Ranomena Tambahoaka, Taimoro and Tanosy The Fanano Tandroy and Mahafaly Sakalava The Zomba, or sacred house The Vazimba Behisotra and Tandrona Sihanaka Bezanozano Tanala Vorimo Ikongo Hova Betsileo Bara Funeral of Radama I. Enormous wealth put in tomb Silver coffin.

—

— —

CHAPTER

—

— —

XV.

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD, ESPECIALLY ON THE BURIAL MEMORIALS OF THE BETSILEO MALAGASY TOGETHER WITH NOTES ON THE HANDICRAFTS OF THE MALAGASY AND NATIVE PRODUCTS 313 ;

—

Absence of artistic feeling among the Hova The Betsileo Carved memorial posts Various forms of tombs Character of the carving Vafo laky, or memorial stones Graves of great depths Carving in

—

— — — General style of ornamentation Symbolic meaning — Malagasy handicrafts — Spinning and weaving — Different kinds of cloth —Straw-work—Bark-cloth—Metal-work Pottery —Building — Canoes and boats — Cultivated products of country — Exports. houses

— Collection

rubbings

CHAPTER ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF The comic element everywhere

XVI.

LIFE IN MADAGASCAR

present

— First

experiences

335

— Native

—Borrowed garments— Christmas Day exhibition — Interruptions —A nation of bald-heads—Native houses and their — Queer inmates — Receptions by Hova governors — Native attempts speaking Malagasy — Try a of food — —Transformations of English names—Biblical names—Odd names — English mistakes— The "southern" side of his moustache Funeral presents — Church decoration — Offertory bo.xes — Deacon's dress

to Divine service

feasts

articles tive "

F^irst

rela-

duties.

CHAPTER

XVII.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR IN CONNECTION WITH THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE ISLAND WITH NOTICES OF THE EXTINCT FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE OF THE COUNTRY 353 ;

— Remarkable difference ancient island — Wallace's " Island Life — Ori—Vegetable productions— Botanising in

General characteristics of to that of

ental

Africa

—An

and Australian

mammalian fauna

affinities

CONTENTS.

Xll

—Three-fourths of the flora endemic in the island—Three by Mr. Baron — Floral beauty — Orchids The eastern region —The central region — The western region Extinct forms of animal — Grandidier's discoveries—Geology Huge lemuroid — Link between apes and lemurs — Small hippopotamus — The .(Epyornis — Crocodiles — Enormous lizard Madagascar

different regions described

life

terrestrial

Primaeval Madagascar.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

CENTRAL PORTION OF AXTAXAXARIVO

HOW WE TRAVEL

CAXOES OX RIVER NEAR COAST

VILLAGE OX COAST

STOXE GATEWAY OF AXCIEXT TOWXS

XORTHERX PART OF AXTAXAXARIVO

VIEW FROM AXDOHALO

AXTAXAXARIVO FROM THE WEST.

MADAGASCAR .

LMERIXA

.... SOUTH EXD OF CITY To face

10.

A SAKALAVA WARRIOR

BETSIMISARAKA

WOMEN

CHAPTER

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL; NOTES OF A JOURNEY FROM MAHANORO TO ANTANANARIVO. to interior— Mahanoro— Madagascar travelling — Filanjana or — Native bearers — Native villages — Betsimisaraka cemetery Canoe travelling — Canoe songs —Tropical vegetation —The Traveller's-tree Scenery — Native houses and arrangements —A tiring Sunday's journey Butterflies and birds — A village congregation — Forest scenery and luxuriance Romantic glens and glades — Upland and extensive prospects — In Imerina at —Over old haunts in forest—Mantasoa and workshops — Native bridges—^War preparations —A hearty welcome to the capital.

Various routes Palanquin

last

its

the time of the Franco-Malagasy war of route to the capital from

Tamatave, was closed

for

the

883-1 885, the

East Coast, by way

many months, and

the roads from

Mahanoro and Mananjara became the usual route of foreigners coming into the interior. It was my good fortune to be able to come up to Imerina by the Mahanoro route in the month of November, 1883 and it may perhaps not be uninteresting ;

to give here the substance of

daily notes describing our

journey.

found ourselves, early

November

8th, fairly

the afternoon of Thursday,

on our way towards the

were the ordinary native filanjana, or

palanquin

;

light,

open

our motive power, strong Malagasy bearers, eight

to each person, in

the paths

Our

interior.

carriages

two

sets of four

made simply by

after generation,

mounting

wading through streams,

each

;

the roads

traversed,

the bare feet of the natives, generation hills,

floundering through bogs, and

just as they

happened

come

;

our «

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

2 inns,

of rush

the huts

wood, innocent alike of doors or

windows, table or chairs or beds, and boasting only a clean mat

many

spread for us over

dirty ones

;

our cuisine, the

taken

boxes

tin

;

and our accommodation

night, light, portable " stretchers " carried

bedding secured consisted of

little girl,

the

for

by our men, with the

Our party

in similar watertight contrivances.

wife and

and

by a few

fowls always to be got on the way, supplemented stores

rice

two years

old,

and myself,

together with our friend Mr. Houlder. I

should perhaps add a few words here

possible question

This

Madagascar.

generally called

contrivance,

by Europeans, but filanjana by carry on

inildnja,

stout iron rods,

palanquin

the Malagasy (from the verb

the shoulder), consists of a couple

and with a seat framed of

with leather, hung from the poles. of oblong together,

basket,

made

and covered

of fine strips of

sheepskin plaited

and carried on two poles made of the strong but

distances, a

hood of

rofia cloth

as a protection from the sun rule, strong,

kind and helpful,

whom

iron

Ladies' filanjana are a kind

When

midrib of the leaves of the rofia palm.

travel in in "

strong poles, about lo feet long, kept together by two

light,

answer to a

what kind of vehicle we

active,

and

fixed over ladies' filanjana

The

rain.

and cheerful most

light

travelling long

careful

bearers

are,

fellows, generally

very

of the

safety

of those

they carry, hour after hour and day after day, on their

shoulders.

The

first

stage of our journey was northwards, along a sandy

breadth of land,

between the belt of

trees

which

line the coast

and the lagoons. Beyond these trees, to the left, extends some wooded country, with a range of low hills west of it, gradually approaching the lagoons, and then showing line after line of higher

hills

plentiful,

towards the

well

interior.

several

Arums

in the

steady

march we came

shallow waters. to

The

species

Traveller's-tree

very

of Pandanus, and large

After four hours and a quarter's a village called

Beparasy,

with

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL.

This afternoon we passed a small

nearly one hundred houses.

we saw

Betsimisaraka cemetery, where

little

distance

the curious fashion they have of wrapping up the corpses in

mats and enclosing them stage, 4 or tombs of a

and then fixing them on a above the ground.^ Near the village were

feet

different description, resembling a house-roof, en-

by a double

closed village

line of pointed stakes.

fixed a post,

" horns,"

and on

and were

In the centre of the

sharpened into two long

mouldering remains of an ox-skull.

was a circumcision memorial.

Friday, Nov. gth. things

whose top

this are the

This, they told us,

our

in planks,

—We

were up soon

after four o'clock, got

packed, had a good breakfast, took our quinine,

away

clear

all

before

Going down

six o'clock.

the foot of the rising ground on which the village

came

us.

to a

narrow creek, where a canoe was awaiting

built,

Going a broader reach of the lagoon, and

along this creek we came to

were soon admiring the great Vtha arums, 9 or 10 feet high, and one of the various species of Pandanus, which

just flowering,

has an almost grotesque but withal a very graceful and slender outline.

After passing through another short, narrow channel,

we came out on a

Few

broad, widespreading lake.

experiences are more pleasant in Madagascar travelling

than to glide rapidly the early morning the smoothest

down

or across one of the large rivers in

—the time when the eastern

— and

a large canoe, with plenty of paddlers,

to listen to the rowers' songs,

musical.

They

keeping up a

rivers, at least, are

which are often both amusing and

frequently improvise a song, one of

will

recitative,

them

which circumstances which have

occurred on the journey are introduced, while the others chime

with a chorus at regular intervals, a favourite one

in "

misy vd ?

to various

—

there

good things they hope

some

? "

being

This question refers

to get at the

end of the day's

journey, such as plenty of rice, beef, sweet-potatoes, &c., these See subsequent chapter on tombs and burial customs. •

" P'uneral

Ceremonies," for

fuller

information on

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

articles of food

being mentioned one after another by the leader

of the song.

little

delicate

Englishman they are rowing,

flattery of their

employer, the

often introduced,

and praises of

them

his hoped-for generosity in providing these luxuries for

something

in this style

E, misy va ? E, misy re

Oh,

E, misy re

and so

on,

yes, there's

some

yes, there's

yes, here

some

the very rich foreigner, lads,

some

the egg-laying fowls, lads,

E, ny Vazaha be vola, zalahy e E, misy re

yes, there's

the plump-looking geese, lads,

some

the turkeys, lads,

there any

yes, there's

E, ny gisy matavy, zalahy e ? E, misy re E, ny akoho manatody, zalahy e E, misy re

E, ny vorontsiloza, zalahy e

;

libitum.

In another song heard by the writer on the Matitanana river (south-east coast), the chorus

malaza

Tamatave villages

ix.,

Consumes

was Mandany provisions

for

vatsy, Toaniasina

while the recitative brought in

way, famous

the all

on the journey from Tamatave to the

the different

capital,

ending

with Andohalo (the central space), and Avara-drova (the northern

and chief entrance

The lagoons in the physical

to the palace).

of the eastern coast form a very

geography of the

than three hundred miles, that

They extend

island. is,

marked

the cutting of about thirty miles of canal would

an uninterrupted waterway between (i 8

all

;

at least

make them

into

the chief ports of the

During the reign of the enlightened Radama

19-1828) the work of uniting these lagoons was commenced,

but was soon stopped by his death. will not It

for

from north of Tamatave to

south of Mananjara, forming an almost continuous line

eastern coast.

feature

be long before

this

work

will

may

be hoped that

be again taken

hand.

would, doubtless, be of great value to the commerce and

inter-communication of the eastern coast.

These coast lagoons sometimes take the form of a

river,

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. running

many

for

miles in almost a straight line, while in

several

places they broaden out into extensive lakes.

After leaving the canoes

we began

to turn

then north-westward, over a wooded country. able feature in the vegetation

westward and

The most

notice-

the Traveller's-tree, which

very abundant, almost covering the

hills

wherever the virgin

The Pandanus and

been cut down.

the 7'ofia palm and the dense secondary woods, through which the narrow path winds, were most beautiful, many trees and plants being just at the time of flowering. forest has

are also very plentiful

parts of the East Coast, from the sea level

above the

feet is

all

this

;

sea, the

to i,ooo

most prominent and interesting

well-known Traveller's-tree.

This

tree,

tree

which seems

form a link between the bananas and the palms, gives a

peculiar

the vegetation, and at once marks the

character to

From

landscape as a Madagascar one.

a palm-like trunk,

usually from lo to 30 feet high, but in certain situations reaching

from two to three times the

latter

height, springs a gigantic

of long and broad leaves like those of a banana, often

fan

forming an almost complete

These have a peculiar

circle of

effect,

20 to 30

especially

feet in diameter.

when a

line

of them

crown the sides and summit of a

hill.

them

the head-dress of an Indian

to the

feathered

sachem, and there

Although

crest

much

Mr. Ellis has compared

truth in the comparison.

has been sometimes denied,

perfectly true

good supply of pure and cool water can always be obtained by piercing the base of the leaf stalks and I have that a

;

myself been thankful, when travelling along the coast, and could get no water except from the stagnant and brackish contents of the lagoons, to tap these living fountains and take

a hearty

draught from the Traveller's-tree.

The Longbzy (cardamom) small curving hill,

us.

Bamboo.

also

and presently caught sight of the

The

hills

and

forest

very abundant, and the

soon began to ascend sea,

many

hill

after

miles behind

appear to come here nearer to the

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

Tamatave

coast than on the ridge,

we caught

route.

reaching the end of a

sight of a river roaring over rapids below us,

a mile or two away, and flowing to the sea (at Marosiky).

had a long ride of (including stoppages for canoes) five hours and twenty minutes. Many of the ascents and descents were There appears to be a con-

very steep, and the paths narrow. siderable

number of small

noon's ride was

much

villages

on the road.

Our

after-

shorter than that of the morning,

two

hours and a half only, but generally following the valley of the pretty river

Manampotsy, which flows westwards and southward,

frequently

foaming over rocky bars and

and

large masses of pinkish quartz, in

the bed

of the river were

perpendicular.

some

passed

places the rocks

with their strata almost

tilted,

All over this country the air was thick with the

smoke from the burning of the in

rapids.

trees

order to plant rice in the ashes

and grass on the

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;a

hillsides,

most wasteful and bar-

barous custom, which causes a great destruction not only of the

secondary woods and jungle, but also Before four o'clock built

we stopped

of the virgin

at a village called

on rising ground some 200

river,

which

both sides of the

river-

feet or so

here flows nearly north and south.

forest.

Ambodimanga,

above the

valley rise high hills to a height of several hundred

feet,

and

covered with patches of old forest on their summits. Saturday, Nov.

between

1,000

and

rug became a very

\oth.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;W^e

2,000

feet

must now have ascended to above the sea, and a thick

comfortable covering towards the small

hours of the morning.

were

off before

and hundred

six o'clock,

commenced a steep ascent of several Our road lay along a ridge, and then west and northwest, up and down, over some very rough paths. The river Manampotsy is still our companion to the right, flowing along due east. Here there is no continuous forest, but only patches of it left on the summits and sides of the hills. We made a immediately feet.

short morning's ride of two and a half hours, and stopped at

a village called Antanambe.

In the house where

rested were

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. a

number

pretty

mats

little

us,

were

brown

new enough

tried to

arrangement of the single room side

another facing

;

you

nearest corner, as

thus

door at the left-hand

enter,

;

on the right-hand

the hearth, with four massive

Near the

supporting two stages, and called salazana.

posts

door

fixed a large cylindrical box, hollowed out of a tree

trunk, 3

feet

rice.

and

buy some, but they had none

on the opposite side

These,

these Betsimisaraka houses the

us.

sell

about

straw.

ornamenting the house, and were here

for

fixed on the walls.

lakatra,

called

inches square, with a variety of patterns in

they told

hang

high and i8 inches wide, and used for storing

Hova

Our second

houses, the soot

allowed to accumulate,

long strings from the roof.

between six and seven hours, was very We crossed a lovely glen, with rocks and

stage, of

hot and wearisome.

stream overhung by

forest,

and here the men enjoyed a bathe.

During the afternoon we crossed the higher waters of the

Manampotsy, here flowing from the south. We stayed for some trees, to rest a little from the great heat. The hills around are very high, and are

nearly an hour, about half way, under

covered with virgin

forest.

The house in which we stayed for we have yet put up it was feet, and had about as much room as

the night was the smallest in which

only about 12 feet by 10

;

we should have had in the cabin of a ship. This was the coldest night we have yet had. We fairly entered the great forest before getting to our halting-place.

Sunday, Nov. hours,

th.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; This

day's march,

was through a part of the old

forest

more than six some of the trees

of ;

were of great height, but none were of considerable bulk.

was struck by the variety of lichens and mosses on the tree trunks on some single trees there must have been dozens of ;

different species, but not being

making a snatch

within reach of one's hand.

means so

silent

on foot one could

some of the

aerial

collect only

lichens,

by no Former

noticed that the forest was

had remarked

which were

at other times.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

journeys were made, however, the year, but bird

now

or other

that the

warm

Mahanoro

;

Tolbho,

approaching, some

Every quarter of a

the noisy call of the Kankcifotra Cuckoo,

kow-kow, kow-kow, repeated cuckoo, the

weather

was almost always heard.

we heard

mile or so

winter months of

in the colder

;

then the

whose notes were heard

also the chirp

the

all

way from

and whistle of the Railovy or King-

crow, as well as the incessant twitter of

Then came, now and high up among the

of another

flute-call

many

smaller birds.

then, the melancholy cries of the trees.

Numerous

butterflies

Lemurs

crossed our

path, seven or eight different species at least: the rather

common

green one with yellow spots, the blackish brown with two large blue spots, the widely distributed brown one with black-edged wings, the pure white one, the white with orange edges, white

with black edges, white with crimped edges, the small yellow species, the small buff, the

others.

however,

down

the

have

now

minute brown and blue, and

lost the Traveller's-tree

many

the rofia palm,

damp hollows, but not so large as lower The Bamboo, a slender graceful species,

seen in the country.

growing singly and bending over

some high up on the

;

an arched form,

of the valleys and on the hillsides. hills,

plentiful there,

caught the blaze of colours of one of

those called Flamboyant. bright-coloured flowers

Here and

But the most

plentiful

tree

with

one bearing pinkish-red flowers, on

some of which there is a mass of yellow stamens. At last we came up to a village, called Antenimbe, where we got a much larger house than on the previous evening. We were glad to throw ourselves on the mats and lie down until dinner was ready. The heat was very great and stifling But by five o'clock I was in the houses with their single door. ready to take part in our little service, which we held out of doors. Most of our bearers came, and some of the people of the village. We sang three or four hymns one of our bearers ;

prayed, and H. and

a short exposition.

both read a portion of Scripture and gave

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. Monday, Nov.

I2th.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;We

Our road

than nine hours.

have to-day been travelling more

lay

first

to the south, so as to get

round a towering height, and then turned westward through valleys, with a sparkling river,

deep

which we repeatedly crossed.

Again we noticed the destruction of the waste of the

trees.

stopped at a

forest

and the wanton

some

small village of

sixteen houses, after nearly three and a half hours' ride.

We now ascended

to the pass

between the ridge of mountains

which bounds the eastern side of the Mangoro have risen 500 or 700

feet before

and must

valley,

gaining the summit.

our

by many rocks and falls, poured eastward. In the small space allowed by the river-bed the trees rose to an unusual height, and on either side of the gorge forest-clothed

right a river, broken

mountains towered to elevations of at us.

The path was

difficult,

above

least 2,000 feet

but the deep cuttings

continually

passed through were fringed by ferns and other plants. noticed, however, that

along the route

all

we had come

there

none conspicuous by flowering, and point I noticed a nest suspended

were no orchids, at

least

hardly any palms.

At one

from a twig over the water,

shape exactly resembling that

retort, and made by the Fbdifetsy, Weaver " {Ploceus pens His). At last we reached the highest point of the pass, and began to descend by a path more steep and rugged than the one we had mounted by. Gradually we got clear of the forest,

of an inverted chemical or " Crafty

and the view would have been magnificent had it not been dimmed by the clouds of smoke rising in every direction from the burning forest.

At one

place

by the blazing wood and jungle

we were almost

close to our path,

escaped being stopped by the flames. a glimpse of the

descended

less

the river level. tains

rose in

Mangoro

far below, and

suffocated

and narrowly

we caught

Presently

could hardly have

than 1,000 feet from the summit of the pass to

Beyond

the river the western range of

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

great grandeur, line after line

all

these form the eastern edge of the upper plateau

moun-

forest-clad ;

and

;

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

not remember to have seen anywhere else in Madagascar such

At a

a magnificent mountain scene.

down

got

200 to 300

Mangoro, here a smooth rapid stream from

to the

and

feet wide,

new lakana

in a large

before two o'clock

little

few minutes were ferried across

in a

(canoe).

was easy to

point the physical geography of the country

from that of the same

There

river

valley on

—between Moramanga and the

very different

Tamatave

the

Ifody

that at this

.see is

hills

—

into an extensive plain, but here the river valley

route.

widens out

very narrow,

the mountains descending by steep slopes, and rising on the

western

side, as

Our road

already remarked, into ridges of great height.

lay along the valley, generally following the course

of the stream. distance, since

can be traversed by canoes for no great

broken up repeatedly by rocky bars and by

over ledges of rock

falls

;

one point

contracted to a

narrow gorge, through which the water rushes with a tremendous

and

swirl

roar.

were glad,

our long ride of nine hours, to see

after

a small village, Andranotsara, before

us,

on a rising ground

80 or 90 feet above the river. We found two sufficiently decent houses in the fifteen or sixteen composing the village. Hereabouts the wet culture of rice begins

^ ;

and here the people

brought us small presents. Tuesday^ Nov.

2th.

and

for

the

Mangoro, which

and

falls in

kona,

two hours

falls

name.

several

— We

ascent up the

hills

Andranotsara

at five o'clock,

went northward, following the course of is

beset with

places.

into the larger

After this

left

rocks,

and forms rapids

bright, clear

river,

Mana-

the

one close to a village of the same the

river,

and began a

on the west side of the

long,

river valley.

stiff

Our

road then turned west and north-west over rugged ground hill

and

paths. '

For

valley,

Then fuller

chapter on "

through patches of old

the road

forest,

with

difficult

cut diagonally across the spurs of a

information as to rice culture in Madagascar, see subsequent

The Changing Year."

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. and

rock-capped

forest-covered

Rounding one shoulder of

Moramanga

plain, the

this,

hills

hill,

Marivolanitra.

called

we now saw

on the

part of the

east, the great

Ankay

mass of Ifody

standing out like an outwork of the walls of the central plateau,

and then Angavo and the

line

hills

which form the edge

The Ankay plain appears to end here, The Angavo chain of heights

of the interior highland.

southwards, rather abruptly.

seems to curve round

crescent-shaped masses, and then joins

the mountains which bound the

Mangoro

valley.

Near Fari-

himazava we found a flourishing rice valley cultivated after the Hova fashion, and the appearance of the country and the

we were getting near Imerina. we came to the village Hova-looking place, with the houses made

methods of cultivation

told us that

After four and a half hours' ride of Beparasy, quite a of thick planking,

horns

to the gables,

and a native chapel.

Here the people brought us rice and eggs for our entertainment. Leaving again after noon, we had a weary journey over another great mass of hill, and then over the plain, still going north-west, and approaching the blue, forest-covered slopes of

the wall of the plateau.

o'clock to stop at a poor

little

where, however,

we both got

were glad

little

;

heavy thunderstorm.

but happily

little

before five

good houses

;

managed to get in Our house began

but the in

time

leak

rained heavily only for a short time.

the beginning of the rainy season in the interior, but

This

thus

far

we have had no

things have kept dry. rats,

hamlet, called Ambodimivongo, tolerably

bearers of our luggage only just to escape a

rain ha\-e

on our journey, and so our also had no annoyance from

and hardly any from mosquitoes.

The people

of the

more intelligent and conversable than They brought at most of the places where we have stayed. us wild raspberries and blackberries as soon as they found we appreciated these fruits. The former we have had as dessert

houses, here have been

almost

all

the

way up from

the coast, and a very acceptable

addition to our fare they have proved.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

Wednesday, Nov.

we commenced our In a

interior.

great

many

iJith.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; There

ascent up the

time

little

was a thick

into the regions of the

hills

we got up

and plants were

trees

drizzly rain as

Andrangoloaka.

and the deep

flower,

path winds were lined with ferns

cuttings through which the

For nearly two and a half hours we made an uninterrupted ascent, very difficult in many places, and the

and other rain

was

plants.

still falling.

Then we came nised some of our Andrangoloaka,

were grieved

old

Then we descended

was

the

first

and

hill,

after

through

ruin

immediately

wife

his

house

the

into

falling

and

house-keeper

and were the

us,

recog-

haunts during our holidays at

when we came up

how

of the forest where

part

favourite

but

to see

The

neglect.

recognised

to a

welcome us to Imerina, an hour or more we came

to the single-plank bridges over deep water, which had always

been a terror

the journey to or from Andrangoloaka, and

now seemed more

for

sat to

on chairs

first

visited

it,

state of preservation tnan

1883.

Mantasoa,

was a large

for the

felt

we were

ate our meal off a table

Mantasoa was a remarkable

made

lunch at the large house, and here

getting back to civilisation again, as

when

we came

crossed

ruined workshops and houses constructed by M. Laborde.

its

We stayed and

than ever, but which

After nearly five hours' ride

in safety.

and

difficult

1872, it

was

place,

was

for

Madagascar, and

much more

at the time

of this

perfect

journey

collection of massively built workshops,

manufacture of cannon, pottery,

glass,

gunpowder,

steel, paints, soap, refined sugar, bricks and tiles, &c. These were erected during the reign of the Queen Ranavalona I.

brass,

(1828-1861), under the direction of M. Laborde, a Frenchman of great

skill

and inventive genius.

supply power

for the

various workshops, a stream was diverted from the river close

by and brought by iron aqueducts into the buildings so as to turn a number of large water-wheels. At the time of my first

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. visit to

Mantasoa the

largest

workshop was

high-pitched roof covered with

The

tiles.

crowned by

still

are of dressed stonework, massive as that of a castle

casting apparatus were

and

existing,

still

the four smaller

workshops much of the water-wheel machinery

still

The

its

had then

forge, of beautifully dressed stone,

two

surrounding the openings to the furnaces

remained.

roof nearly

and there were

;

of well-finished masonry, for firing the pottery

kilns, also

Many

manufactured there.

made

however, were

and about

In this building the furnaces and cannon-

feet in thickness.

perfect,

its

walls of this building

of the buildings and workshops,

of clay, and had become shapeless heaps

All around the hillsides were covered with the ruins

of earth.

of villages which had been built for the accommodation of the various workpeople, about two thousand in number.

One

other point

may

be mentioned

remarkable creation of M. Laborde's pleasing character, the years

many

work

as a

years

some of them had

punishment

but one of a less

skill,

of the Malagasy Christians had to

For several

at these great buildings.

and others had no

days, and that their

dying under

its

rest either

charge,

many of them Radama II.

severe,

that the accession of

was welcomed by them especially as a time of captives and

on Sundays or on other

bondage was very

pressure.

have been told by the

pastor of one of the country churches formerly under that he

and

to labour in quarrying the stone

massive workshops.

building these

connection with this

that during the long persecution between

viz.,

836-1861,

the opening of the

prison

" liberty to

the

those that were

bound."

leisurely ride of

afternoon to

about two hours brought us early

Ambatomanga

;

and here we stayed

in the

at the

big

house of the Andnana, the feudal lord of the place, where we enjoyed the comfort of a good house, and had a good deal of talk

with the native evangelist stationed here.

time we came upon signs of war preparation

armed with

shield

and

spear,

all

For the

first

the lads were

and are being constantly exercised

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

Going

in their use.

to the

tomb on

just before sunset, the great, bare

showing through the skin of newly planted green

hills, all

It is

rice-fields

told us

;

the rock above the town,

hills,

with their bones of rock

turf; the bright, fresh green of the

the red clay roads on the brownish-

we were again

in the heart

of Madagascar.

needless to describe our five hours' ride into Antananarivo

on the following day, or the hearty welcome from our friends, both English and Malagasy, on our arrival. This was all the more hearty, as we had come up when war was going on, and when some had feared to come at all at such a time. But we never doubted then or afterwards that for our

work

suffered

little

did the right thing,

interruption during the war, and our

help was needed after six years' absence from the country and the people

whom we

wished to serve.

CHAPTER

II.

IMERIXA, THE CEXTRAL PROVINCE ; ITS PHYSICAL FEATURES AXD VILLAGE LIFE, in knowledge of Madagascar geography — Recent journeys — Mode of travelling— Coast lagoons —Scenery— Forest and climbing plants —Ankay Plain — Upper forest belt — Imerina or Ankova, Home of theHova" — Mountains and prominent peaks — Bare uplands — Geology and colour of — Extinct volcanoes—Watershed of island— Lakes— Population —Sacred towns —Village fortifications— Maps of Imerina—An Imerina village —Ancient villages on high — Hova houses and arrangements — Oxfattening — Native tombs—Trees— Hova children and games —Village

Recent advances

Tamatave

soil

hills

pits

chapels and schools.

SINCE

86 1, when the reign of terror under the Queen

Ranavalona been made

;

much

came

end,

island,

and of

its

year sees additions

made

to a fuller

Madagascar and of the Malagasy. the island, and

and

much

advances

and

its

people, their

folk-lore

;

and every

understanding both of

Papers on the geography of

describing various exploratory journeys, have

the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society

and we owe W. Deans Cowan,

those of the Scottish Geographical Society to the late Rev, Dr. Mullens, the Rev.

Mr. William Johnson, Captain giving the

have

geology, botany, and natural

has also been ascertained as to

divisions, language, customs, traditions,

appeared

great

our knowledge of the topography and physical

geography of the history

S. P. Oliver,

results either of their 15

own

and

;

others, for thus

researches, or for

sum-

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

marising the journeys of other however, has been

Comparatively

travellers.^

made known

little,

as to the central province of

Imerina, the heart of Madagascar, the

home

of the dominant

or about the tribe, the Hova, and the centre of government capital city, Antananarivo, where civilisation, education, and ;

made

Christianity have

the greatest progress.

Before, however, describing Imerina,

summary

will give

a very brief

of what has been done during the last few years to

up the blanks on the map of the great

island.

In 1879

tributed a paper to the Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc, entitled,

fill

con-

"The

History and Present Condition of our Geographical Knowledge of Madagascar," in which

to that date

;

pointed out what had been done

and since then

several journeys have been

made

in various directions into regions either previously alto-

gether

unknown

or only very superficially explored.

1877 and 1878 journeys were made

In the years

the

northern and north-western parts of the island, as well as from

thence to the capital, by a

German

naturalist. Dr. Chr.

Ruten-

His researches added a good deal to botany and natural

berg.

history, but not

much

geography, although probably

should have learnt more on this point but for his murder by his treacherous

native followers.

was not

until

1880 that

detailed accounts were published of his collections and

dis-

coveries.

valuable addition was

made

1882 to our knowledge of

the southern central provinces of Betsileo, Bara, and Tanala,

by a paper contributed Rev.

to the Proc. Roy.

D. Cowan, giving a very

full

of Madagascar from personal survey. sionary of the several years,

utilised his

by the

of those portions

Mr. Cowan was a mis-

London Missionary Society and

Geogr. Soc.

map in

the Betsileo for

numerous journeys

for teaching

would remark here that I must not be understood as ignoring the valuable French cartographers, as MM. Laillet and Suberbie, Pere Roblet, and especially M. Alfred Grandidier. In the above paragraph I am specially noticing the work of English labourers in the field of Madagascar geography. = This paper fonns the first chapter of The Great African Island. '

work

of several

IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE.

and evangelising by doing useful geographical work, as well by contributing to fuller knowledge of the natural history

of the island.

During the progress of the Franco-Malagasy war an American naval

Lieut.

officer,

Mason

Shufeldt,

1884,

made

journey from Morondava, on the west coast, to Antananarivo. I

any account of

have, however, been unable to obtain

Shufeldt's travels, although,

no doubt,

full

Lieut.

reports have been

presented to the United States Government. In 1886

friend, the

Rev. R. Baron, F.L.S.,

made

a long

journey through the Antsihanaka province northwards, and

by the

districts called x'\ndr6na

garrison

town of Anorontsanga.

crossing to the north-west coast,

and Befandriana,

The most

Hova

to the

interesting discovery

was the former existence of a for more than two hundred

large lake, running north

and south

miles, with a breadth of

from

fifteen to

lake, the present lake of Alaotra, in five miles long, is

the small and

still

twenty miles.

Of this

Antsihanaka, about twentyslowly diminishing remnant.

Mr. Baron traced indubitable proofs of the former height of the waters of this ancient lake at no less than 1,140 feet above

the present level of the Alaotra, and he was enabled to

important

additions

our

knowledge of the

Madagascar, which he communicated logical Society in

make

geology of

a paper to the Geo-

1889.

During 1887 Mr, Neilsen-Lund visited a part of the Bara province, and also the district inhabited by the "emigrant Tanosy," being for some time in no little peril from the un-

friendly Bara people.

then turned to the south-east, over

mountainous and desert country, eventually reaching the Hova military post of Fort Dauphin, at the south-eastern corner of the island. ing,

added

Unfortunately his journey, although very interestlittle

to the

map

The same must be

of Madagascar.

also said about

1888 by the Rev. E. O.

MacMahon,

to the west of the island

two journeys made

of the Anglican mission,

into the Sakalava 3

country, to the

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

occupied by the Betsiriry

district

Antanambalana

flowing

river,

Antongil Bay, was

map

veyed by Mr. L. H, Ransome, and a detailed with descriptive paper, appeared for

May

in the Proc.

sur-

course,

its

Roy. Geogr. Soc.

of the following year.

fully

arrived

1888 also the

tribe.

into

MM.

equipped expedition, under

Madagascar

1889,

and

Catat and Maistre,

explored

portions

the eastern side of the island, and crossed the previously un-

mapped

Excursions were made

region of the extreme south.

from the

in various directions

and then the old route

capital,

from Imerina to Tamatave was explored

the usual route.

The

province into the "

principal journey

The

valley of

fertile

was through the Betsileo

sources of the river Onilahy were

discovered, and important corrections course.

many days

Bara country, and then into that of the

emigrant Tanosy."

its

proved to be

this

;

taking about three times as

difficult to traverse,

made

mapping of

in the

region to Fort Dauphin was crossed, and the

Ambolo

visited

;

and the expedition returned

The botanical and made by MM. Catat and Maistre are

Antaisaka country.

to Betsileo through the

natural history collections

extensive and valuable, as well as those relative to anthropology

and ethnology English, and In

;

and these have now been described

German

French,

geographical and other scientific journals.

89 1 another long journey, covering more than a thousand

miles of country, was

made by Mr. Baron along

and north-west coasts of Madagascar, as northerly point of the island.

have been published

far

the north-east

as the

extreme

Detailed accounts of this journey

two, giving information as to topography,

Annual for 1892 "Twelve Hundred Miles in a

ethnology, and philology, in the Antananarivo

and

under the

1893,

Palanquin

;

title

and another, with maps,

Soc. 1895, giving the geological is

reproduced In

in the last

number of the

concluding this brief sketch

journeys

made

Quai't. Joiirn.

results of the journey.

Geol.

(This

Aftnual, xix., 1895.)

the

Madagascar during the

most last

important

few years,

IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE.

may and

also

mention the issue by the eminent French traveller

scientist,

M. Alfred Grandidier (Member of the

Institute),

of the geographical section of his great work on Madagascar, in

from twenty to thirty quarto volumes,

In 1879 he published the early

maps of

grapher

mediaeval

{circa

(1153), 1300),

the

wall-map

curious

and

other

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; often

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

volume of

interesting

very erroneous ones,

maps of Madagascar," up years ago. In 1885 M. Grandidier

put forth as

to as recent a date as thirty

Hereford

and

quaint

maps, down to those

mere fancy sketches issued a

progress.

the island, including that of the Arabic geo-

Edrisi

Cathedral

still

part of an atlas of ancient and

first

text, giving a detailed

account

historical

of Madagascar map-making, as well as a minute

list of the geographical features, place-names, &c., of the entire coast-line

of the island. In 1894 a much enlarged edition of this work was published, together with the second part of the atlas of maps, giving fac-similes of other ancient and curious maps of the island, as well as of various portions

of the coast,

In 1880 he published a map of the Imerina province to a scale of ^W. ooiT ^"^ i" 1886 a map of the remarkable chain of lagoons on the east coast, extending

harbours, islands, &c.

for

about three hundred miles.

M. Grandidier

now

putting

the finishing touches to his atlas of Madagascar maps, in which

will give, to a large scale, the results

all his

own explora-

tions, and include all geographical data of any value supplied by other travellers up to the present time.

The

eastern port of Tamatave, not far from the centre of

that side of the island,

is still, as it has been for more than three hundred years, the usual place of landing for all those who

are going to the central province of Imerina and to the capital

of the country. in

Madagascar.

vehicles,

Travelling

still

a rather primitive stage

There are no roads practicable

and except a few bullock

plains of the east coast, there

carts

nothing

on the the

for

level

way

wheeled grassy

of carriage

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

20 or

waggon

well as

Europeans, therefore, as

for the use of travellers,

make

well-to-do Malagasy,

all

use of the light palanquin

or Jilanjdna, carried on the shoulders of four stout bearers,

who

mostly belong to the tribes formerly conquered by the Hova.

men

long journeys a double set of

usually taken with

each palanquin, while bed and bedding, stores and clothing,

and

other necessaries, must also be carried by other bearers.

all

Travelling

tedious as well as expensive.

The road from Tamatave

Antananarivo passes

first

about sixty miles, or two days' journey, southward, along

for

the coast, generally between the line of lagoons and the sea.

The path

perfectly

level,

along

clumps of trees and patches of

surf,

we have

driven

the Indian Ocean, with the never-ceasing

by the south-east trade winds.

At Andovoranto, canoes up the

with

with the lagoons on one

expanding into broad lakes of calm water, while on

side, often

the other

greensward, dotted

forest,

river

are hired for a half-day's voyage

Iharoka and one of

hilly country.

The palanquin

its tributaries.

has, however, soon to be resumed,

and we begin

Here, for about a day's journey,

to traverse

are in the

region of the Traveller's-tree, the Bamboo, and the rofia palm,

which

every hollow, and give a special character to the

fill

We gradually get

scenery.

skirts of the forest-belt,

higher

The comparatively easy three days' very hard forest

work

we approach

the out-

travelling for

now succeeded by we cross the

our bearers, as

which extends round so large a portion of the coast

The path goes up and down

regions of Madagascar. at very steep gradients

;

the hills

and these ascents and descents

clay,

two up and down which our men

The

path,

after

until, as

are about 1,300 feet above sea-level.

are,

or three days' rain, just slopes of adhesive slippery

ascends,

get clear of

although

apparently

toil

heavily with their loads.

descending

really rising to a higher level, forest,

we have ascended

to the interior highland.

the

often

and by the time we

first

great step upwards

IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE. Half a day's journey over the Ankay

Mangoro river, brings us to the our road. Then comes the narrow the

beautiful, but with as difficult a

of the route region,

and are

in the

and then across

plain,

foot of the second step of

upper

belt of

path through

very

forest,

any part

as on

and then we emerge on the bare

;

of the upper

hills

province of Imerina.

This central region of Madagascar the people themselves Ankova, that

is,

sometimes termed by

The

place of the Hova,"

the dominant tribe of the island, who, advancing from the East Coast, drove out the aboriginal inhabitants, the Vazimba,

made is,

their

however, usually called Imerina, a

many

there have been

appears to be that "

elevated,"

and

home, probably many hundred years ago.

conjectures is

prominent,"

;

name

origin

the most likely one of these

from a Malagasy "

whose

as to

conspicuous."

root, erina,

meaning

difficult to

give

the exact boundaries or extent of Imerina, as Malagasy provinces are not defined as minutely as English counties.

the east

north and west

marked by the it

there divides the it

line

of upper forest

on the

;

shades off into the uninhabited region which

Hova from

other tribes

;

while on the south

ends at the southern slopes of the Ankaratra mountains, and

the thinly peopled region which separates the

from that of the northern Betsileo.

Hova

territory

Roughly speaking, Imerina

forms an irregular parallelogram, extending about one hundred miles north and south, and about seventy miles from east to west, with an area of about 7,000 square miles it is

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

in other

words,

considerably larger than the county of York.

Imerina

a mountainous

country,

with but

little

level

ground except on the western side of Antananarivo, where the dried-up bed of an extensive ancient lake forms the great rice-plain capital,

known

as Betsimitatatra.

and doubtless accounts

This

for its

comparatively dense population around

and

south.

the granary of the

position, it

and

for

the

to the north, west,

But there are innumerable valleys where the slopes

are terraced with rice-plots, like great green staircases, where

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

sown broadcast, and from which the young plants are taken up and transplanted in the larger fields along the banks of the rivers, and in the beds of small dried-up There are numerous lofty hills, of which lakes of ancient date. Angavokely to the east, Ambohimiangara in the extreme west, Iharanandriana to the south, Milangana, Ambohimanoa, and Andringitra more central, and Ambohipaniry and Vohilena to the north, are the most prominent, all forming capital landmarks and points from which angles can be taken in filling up details of the map. Then on the south-west the whole province is dominated by the central mass of Ankaratra, the the grain

first

peaks of which form the highest points they are a calls

little

under 9,000

feet

the island, although

above the

Mr. Baron

sea.

the wreck of a huge but ancient sub-aerial volcano."

It covers

an area of from

fifty

to sixty square miles,

highest peaks, called Tsiafakafo, Tsiafajavona, and randrina, are visible for an west.

Imerina

immense

made

from 4,000 to 4,500

cool

and bracing

south-east trade winds which

come

wonderfully

clear,

from our more misty aspect of this region in the hollows,

air is

hills

bare, as

fresh

hills,

level,

enjoys a temperate season by the

and moist over the

plains.

many

miles

destitute of wood, except

although there are patches of forest

the northern parts of the province.

moor-like

The atmosphere away stand out is very deceptive to those newly come and our grey English skies. The

so that

with a distinct outline that

Ambohimi-

above the sea

feet

in the cooler

and the wooded eastern

forest belt

its

distance, especially to the

so that, although well within the tropics, climate,

and

There

still

left in

a great extent of

so that but for the brilliant sunshine and the

generally clear skies, Imerina would, like central portions of Madagascar, be

much

somewhat

of the other

dreary, especially

as the grass gets brown and parched towards the middle of the

dry season.

The

geological nature of the central region

shown by the

numerous masses of granite or gneiss rock which form the

IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE.

summits of

enormous

all

the

hills.

bosses," or

many

rounded

hills

the appearance of Titanic castles

;

cases these take the form of

of rock

;

in others

they have

while others, again, might be

taken, in certain aspects, to be stupendous cathedrals.

lying the primary rocks there

Over-

an immense extent of what

must call clay, although it is not true clay, but appears to be decomposed granite. This is usually deep red in colour, from the large amount of iron oxide, although it is occasionally brown, and sometimes white, like China clay. Iron is abundant,

and gold has recently been discovered in

many

tourmaline, and

Two

some other

minerals, are also found in Imerina.

groups of ancient and extinct volcanoes which were

described by the late Rev. Dr. Mullens hardly description of Imerina proper, as one of

western boundary and the other group

some detached

district ;

and

hills

come

any

into

them is just outside its beyond the Ankaratra

are,

which appear

however, within the to

be old volcanic

these, with occasional lava flows, as well as basaltic

dykes

forces,

now shown only by

several places, give evidence of ancient subterranean

springs in certain

The

There

mountains, to the south-west.

vents

Quartz

places.

varieties, quartzite, graphite, galena, copper, saltpetre,

slight

earthquake shocks, and by hot

localities.

water-parting of the whole island

eastern than

its

western

across Madagascar and

lies

much

nearer

its

side, so that all the largest rivers flow

fall

into the

The

Mozambique Channel.

head-waters of the two chief rivers of Imerina, the Ikopa, and the Betsiboka, and of their numerous affluents, are therefore on the eastern side of the province.

The

Ikopa, fed by the Sisaony,

the

Andromba, the Mamba, and other streams,

the

fertile

plain

of Betsimitatatra, going

joined by the Betsib6ka further north

known by

The

province

although the annual

inches at Antananarivo.

and

now Bay of

the united streams,

the latter name, falling into the head of the

Bembatoka. rivers,

;

flow through

north-west,

thus well watered by numerous rainfall

only averages about

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

The only

lake of any size in Imerina

extreme western extinct craters

;

limits

close to

;

that of Itasy, on

its

on the west, are numerous

it,

indeed, the lake itself has probably been formed

by the sinking of the ground, consequent on the discharge of so

much matter from these old volcanoes. The name Imerina is used by the Malagasy

two senses

one, with a wider meaning, including the districts of

Imamo

the west, and Valalafotsy to the north-west, and including

Hova

people

part which

and then

;

also used

all

the

restrictedly for the

exclusive of these two divisions of the country.

This narrower Imerina "

divided into six

sections,

known

Imerina-enin-tbkol' and comprising Avaradrano, which includes

the

capital

the

(to

Vakintsisaony (south-east),

north-east),

Marovatana (north-west), Ambodirano (south-west), Vonizongo and Vakinankaratra

(further north-west),

which

last division

includes,

named from

and which cuts

off

These divisions are largely

government

the mountain mass which

all

from the others.

and are used by the native

tribal,

arranging the different shares of military

taxation, and

(further south-west),

levies,

the various unpaid and forced service due

the people to their sovereign.

There are no means of ascertaining with certainty the population of Imerina, as

no census has ever been taken.

made

calculations which have been

as to the

number of villages

and houses, and the average occupants of a house, that the population of the province

town

There

hardly any other town of great

far the largest

a considerable closely

number

Imerina or size,

believed

Antana-

Madagascar.

although there

of large villages, and these are rather

crowded together

and north-west of the

it is

about 1,100,000.^

narivo

But from

some

capital.

parts, especially to the north

Several of these places were

formerly of greater relative importance, as they were the capitals of the '

The

many

small states, or "kingdoms," into which Imerina

recent census

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;March,

of the province Imerina.

Ed.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;gives

1896

only 600,000 souls as the population

IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE.

was anciently

supreme authority became

the

divided, before

centred in the chief of Antananarivo.

these former chief

towns the following are the most noteworthy: Ambohimanga, a place which still retains a nominal equality in royal speeches with Antananarivo a picturesque old town built on a lofty

hill

surrounded with woods, about eleven miles north of the modern capital

;

also

and some

Ambohidratrimo, Ambohidrabiby,

"),

hills ("

much

England.

;

the places just mentioned were in-

now mere hamlets, if not Sarum was in pre-Reform days

but others are

in these twelve,

deserted villages as Old

Mada-

All the ancient towns and villages in the interior of

gascar were built on the top of

hills,

sometimes of considerable

This was of course for security against enemies

height.

men-

Tendrombbhitra rba dinbin'

each of which had a semi-sacred character as being

the seat of ancient chiefs

cluded

Alasora,

In former times, every royal speech

others.

tioned tivelve old towns or

ny folo

Ilafy,

in the

former warlike times, when every petty state was frequently fighting with in the

fosses

its

neighbours, like the barons of European castles

mediaeval period.

Protection was further given by deep

dug out of the hard red

and surrounding the towns.

clay,

These are frequently double, or even other,

and must have formed a very

when

firearms were

one outside the

treble,

effectual defence in the

days

unknown, and especially when helped by the

earthen ramparts often added inside the ditches from the material

dug

out.

Some

of these fosses look like a railway

through red sandstone, and although they are probably two or three hundred years as

perpendicular and

cutting

many

cases

old, the sides are generally

unbroken as when

first

excavated.

narrow bridge of the red earth leads to the gateway, which

Two

formed of massive blocks of rock.

way

are found in these old towns

A is

different forms of gate-

one kind

defended by a

great circular slab of stone lo or 12 feet in diameter, which, in

time of war, was rolled between upright stones, so as to effectually block

up the entrance.

Another kind of gateway was

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

formed by massive upright monoliths, between which heavy wooden gates were fixed. In many cases there is a treble gateway of this kind, with a narrow passage between each gate, so that the enemy could be speared from above, if the first or even

Many

the second line of defence had been broken through. these old towns are

now

deserted, but their ancient defences form

the chief antiquities of Madagascar, and are interesting memorials

of a state of society

The

now passed away

the central provinces.

ancient graves of the Vazimba, the aboriginal inhabi-

tants of the interior, are found scattered over the central province.

These are shapeless heaps of

by a fano character,

tree,

its

stone, generally

overshadowed

of acacia, which has a semi-sacred

a species

seeds being used in divination. Could these graves,

much

our ancient English barrows, be opened, doubtless

light

would be thrown on the rather

nities of these

Vazimba; but

one of these ancient ones,

among

the

stones,

termed

to is

Malagasy.^ vdtoldhy

(lit.

difficult

question of the

affi-

meddle with any tomb, much more one of the most heinous offences considerable "

number of upright

male stones

blocks of granite, are also found on the

hills

huge undressed

"),

and downs.

These

are memorials of former chieftains, or of battles of the old times.

regards

1867) to

make

maps of Imerina,

This was, however, the

believe that

made

was the

London Missionary

show the mission

chiefly to

Society.

first (in

Sewell and Mr.

stations of

Parts of the province to the

south-west were subsequently given J. S.

a sketch-map of the country round Antananarivo.

W. Johnson

;

much more but the

first

fully

by Mr.

detailed

map

of Imerina and the surrounding regions was published by the

Rev. Dr. Mullens

1875, ^s the result of a large

number of

observations taken by himself, and founded on positions fixed

by Mr. James Cameron. A map to a much larger scale 2CK),ooo) was published by M. Grandidier in 1880; and he issued more recently (1883) a beautiful hypsometrical map of the province, showing by graduated tints the heights of every

For

fuller

information as to the Vazimba, see subsequent chapter.

%<â&#x20AC;¢

IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE. part

of the

Ankaratra.

from the river-beds to the summits of

country "

M. Grandidier,

This," says

" is, I

beheve, the

first

and only contour map which has been made of an unciviHsed country on such a large

This

scale.

map

enables one to see at

a glance the zones of altitude characteristic of this province,

which

and desolate beyond the great plain it shows clearly the manner in which

so mountainous

west of Antananarivo

and

;

the waters part themselves."

may

few words

be here added as to the external aspects

of an Imerina village.

and towns were

villages

consequently rather

many

already mentioned,

built

all

on the tops of high

difficult to

now

of them are

approach

deserted,

the ancient

hills,

and are

and although a great

;

and the more modern

villages

are built either on the plains or on the lower rising grounds,

numbers of the old places still remain inhabited and the people live in them must have a weary climb every evening as they go home from their work in the rice-fields, or return from a neighbouring village or market. Even the capital city, ;

who

Antananarivo,

built

on the top and the sides of a long, narrow

ridge rising about 600 feet above the plain below.

Ambohimanga,

capital,

on an equally high

most of the ancient and famous towns and these I

to climb

a tremendous

Never

foot.

The

old

and so are

Some

villages.

700 or 800 feet in height and a few years ago up to a village called Vohilena, which is built on

hills rise to

had

hill,

;

hill

shall

less

than 1,500 feet above the valley at

forget

ascent up

its

steep side in the

darkness, without a guide, and unable to find any path in the

woods that cover

slopes

its

The deep fosses which surround these been alluded as

many

to.

old villages have already

Most of them are from 20

feet deep,

to 30 feet

although sometimes they are

But although so deep, these trenches are not this

hillside.

full

wide and

much

deeper.

of water, for

always drawn off by another trench leading down the

They

are,

however, of course damp, and good

soil

gradually increases there, so that ferns and wild plants grow

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

luxuriantly

;

and the bottom of the

fosse

plantation, in which peach, banana, guava,

forms a

therefore

and other

fruit-trees

and a variety of vegegrow there, so that these

are cultivated, as well as coffee, arums,

Tall trees of other kinds also

tables. hcidy, as

they are called, are often by

On many hill-tops the hady may be seen

far the prettiest feature

Imerina, where no villages

the village.

now

from a great distance, scoring

exist,

the hillsides, and showing that in former times a village crowned the summit. In is

some

no deep

parts of the central provinces of

Madagascar there

such as those just described, but the village

fosse,

protected by a dense and wide plantation of prickly-pear.^

shrub

armed

over with spines and

all

fleshy, twisted

pear-shaped

and

it is

are

all

no easy matter

they once get into one's skin.

it is

minute

hairs

needles

little

;

easy to see that a hedge

and 8 or 10

high,

feet

a very effectual defence against enemies or robbers, especially

when

it is

remembered

many

no shoes

that the majority of people wear

and so have no protection is

thick,

even the

armed with spines and stinging

to get rid of the

of^this prickly-pear, several feet wide is

inches

the gaily-tinted flowers, and

stems,

fruits,

The

prickles

and somewhat poisonous.

long, sharp as a needle

This

for their

bare legs and

feet.

places, instead of prickly-pear, the fence round the village

made

of tsidfakbviby

bright yellow flowers and

Now

let

impassable by cattle full

"),

a shrub with

of hook-like prickles.^

us get up into the village and see what

looks

Crossing the deep hddy by a kind of bridge of earth, to the entrance or

vdvahady

mouth of the

fosse

").

like.

we come This

generally a narrow gateway formed of roughly-built stonework

and on

its

inner side, in a groove,

granite, for rolling across the opening, so as to quite close

But

for

many

;

a great circular slab of it

up.

years past, in most villages, these great slabs of

stone have been unused, and the grooves are '

Opnutia

The Mysore

Dillaiii,

filled

Haw.

thorn, Ccvsalpinia scpiaria, Roxb.

up with dust

THE CENTRAL PROVINCE.

IMERINA,

and

dirt,

so that

not very easy to

it is

many

place.

move

the stone out of

villages the great stone lies

its

on the ground, and

games upon it, showing that for a long time there has been no war in the interior of the island, but people have been able to live in security and peace, " none daring to make them afraid." In some cases, instead of a door at the gateway, a number of short poles are hung from a cross-piece at the top, which passes through a hole in each of them and one has to hold up two or three of them in order to pass through. the children play

;

This kind of gate

chiefly for the purpose of preventing the

and sheep from getting

pigs

parts of Imerina, to the west

and out of the

village.

and north, where there

danger from roving parties of robbers, the villages are

some

frequent

still

care-

and many of them have a treble gateway, with of thick wooden doors, and connected by a kind of

fully guarded,

three pairs tunnel.

Here, however,

are at last inside the village,

once that there are no streets intersecting built

The houses

it.

without any order or regularity, except

namely, that

their single

are

one point,

door and window always

be protected from the cold and keen

side, so as to

south-east trade-winds, which blow over

The houses

greater part of the year.

hard red earth, laid chiefly of

the old-fashioned houses are built north and

all

south, and that they have

on the west

and we see

Imerina during the

are mostly

made of They

of a foot or so high.

in courses

the are

one storey and of one room, but they generally have a

floor in the roof,

which

used

for cooking,

and are sometimes

divided into two or three rooms by rush and mat partitions.

the east of Imerina, near the forest, the houses are

rough wooden framing,

filled

plastered with

cow-dung

capital a great

many

two

;

up with bamboo or and

houses are

storeys, with several

the

now

rush,

made

and often

neighbourhood of the

built of sun-dried bricks

rooms and often with

tiled

roofs.

These, however, belong to the richer people.

Ambohitritankady, one of the villages

mission

district,

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

30 is

on a high

hill,

and

in the centre

of the village are ten large

houses of massive timber framing and with very high-pitched roofs,

with long

horns

at the gables, arranged five

side of a long oblong space

Here, in

ground. various

sunk a couple of

former times, bull-fights took place, and

games and amusements were

carried on.

houses, where the chief himself resided, rest,

and the corner

posts,

posts supporting the timber.

was

all

on each

below the

feet

much

One

of the

larger than the

well as the three great central

very large, massive

ridge, are

pieces of

one great room without any partitions,

the whole being well floored with wood, and the walls covered

Such fine old houses are now, however, beand are being fast superseded by much less picturesque, but perhaps more comfortable, as well as cheaper, with neat mats.

coming very

rare,

houses of sun-dried or burnt brick.

The houses

of most villages are scattered about the place in

There

a very irregular fashion.

no privacy or retirement

about them, no backyard or outbuildings, although occasionally

low walls do make a kind of enclosure round some of them.

Here and there among the houses are square pits, deep and 8 or 10 feet square, called fahitra.

feet

These

enormous them to be fattened, mostly of the Fandroana (" the bathing ") at the of rubbish and filth accumulate there are

are pens for the oxen, often very fine animals, with

horns and humps, which are kept for the national feast

New

Year.

All sorts

no sanitary arrangements

;

frequently the cattle are penned for

the night in a part of the enclosure, and the cow-dung makes' it

very dry.

muddy

wet weather, and

Frequently the cow-dung

raises clouds of dust is

carefully collected

when

it is

and made

into circular cakes of 6 or 8 inches diameter, which are then

stuck on the walls of the houses to dry.

It is

afterwards used

as fuel for burning off large slabs of the hard gneiss rock,

which

employed by the people in making their tombs. pits in which the people store their rice are bottleshaped holes, from 8 to 10 feet deep, dug out of the hard red are

The

IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE. earth,

and

closed

up by a

easy

contain a large quantity of grain.

will

flat

They

are

not

stone and covered with earth, so

know where the rice-store is. In former were now and then used as places of refuge, and

for a stranger to

times these pits

even of worship, by Christian people

in the

time of persecution;

and occasionally those who had offended the sovereign were placed in the

pits,

which were partly

filled

up with

earth, boiling

water being then poured over them until they were

may

In the centre of the village

family

tomb of the

chief

man

of the place, the owner of the

land and the rice-fields in the neighbourhood. ture of dressed or of rough

killed.

often be seen the large

This

stonework, from

a struc-

feet

and about 6 more stages diminishing in area, and frequently at the east end is a kind of headstone, in modern tombs sometimes with a name and date cut upon it. These tombs are vaults made of Generally

to 8 feet high.

square,

has two or

great undressed slabs of blue rock, partly sunk under ground,

and with stone shelves on which the

The

cloths, are laid.

west

side,

at the top

steps

and the door

and bottom.

down

corpses,

wrapped

silk

to the vault are always

on the

a massive stone slab turning on pivots

In the case of people

or of noble birth, the stonework

who

are Andriana,

surmounted by a small wooden

house, with thatched or shingled roof and a door, but no window.

This

called trdno

("cold house

"),

mdsina

because

sacred house

has no hearth or

where the people are almost

all

fire.

or trdno

mandra

some

villages,

of high rank, a line of these

wooden houses, may be observed. Seen from a distance, these Malagasy villages often look very pretty and picturesque, for " distance lends enchantment to Round some of them tall trees, called Avt'dvy,^ a the view."

tombs, with their

little

species of fig-tree, grow, which are something like an English

elm

may

appearance.

be seen

and glossy

;

leaves.

Ficiis mcgafodcx,

In others one or

two gvedit

A vidntana^

trees

these are also a species of fig-tree, and have large

Baker.

A *

beautiful

called

tree

F. Baroiii, Baker.

Zdhana

Pliyllarthroii Bojcridiituii,

also D.C.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

common, with hundreds the Ainiana,^ a

of large pink flowers

and

;

make

shrubs often

wild,

the place gay with flowers

and the people have not yet learned

beds and gardens

The Hova in

and no

the girls are often

but these

;

all

to plant flowers

some very

light olive

they have

rule,

On Sundays and

for.

kinds of

pleasure.

caps, shoes, or stockings,

and uncared

dirty

own

children are brown-skinned,

and some very dark.

colour,

clothing,

for their

and velvety

Many

leaves, with stinging hairs, frequently grows.

grow

the fosses

tree nettle with large, deeply-cut,

tall

little

and are usually very on special occasions

dressed in print frocks, and

the

boys

jackets of similar material, and with clean white calico lainba

over

all

hemp

;

but on week-days a small laniba, of soiled and coarse

cloth, often

forms almost their only clothing.

they too often

dressed, although fashion.

course

people are sometimes very nicely

the children of well-to-do

go about

a rather dirty

here, however, speaking of the majority of the

children one sees, those of the poorer people of the village.

One day some

of us went for a ride to a village about two miles

away from Ambohimanga. about as we collected ferns

number of

in the hddy,

children followed us

and as a group of seven

them sat near us, we calculated that the value of they had on would not amount to one shilling or eight of

all

Poor children times play at a

they have few amusements.

game which

the boys spin peg-tops

and

;

the

birds, &c., out of clay

violent

ward

game

;

very like our

little

children

They some-

fox and geese

make

figures of

" ;

oxen

and the big boys have a rough and

called maviely dlanianga, in

which they kick back-

at each other, with their feet lifted almost as high as their

heads.

Perhaps the most favourite amusement of Malagasy

children

to sit in parties out of doors on fine

and sing away

for

moonlight nights,

hours some of the monotonous native chants,

accompanying them with regular clapping of hands. One thing more may be noticed about our Malagasy '

Urcra

sp.

and Obetia

sp.

village,

IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE. and that

that in almost

is,

now

the larger villages of Imerina

all

to be seen a building for Christian worship.

there

many

places this

a rough and plain structure,

made

of clay or

of sun-dried brick, often with no glass in the windows, and no

pews or benches on the churches, God's

Word

floor.

Still,

rude country

these

read and preached, the love of Christ

made known, and some light is being shed upon the minds of the people, who are most of them still very ignorant and superis

In the neighbourhood of the capital, however, as well

stitious.

as in

some other

churches are

now

and often have

districts,

to be seen.

tiled

roofs

many

benches and clean mats on the carved stone and

wood

for the

;

floor,

and some few have

well-

showing that the people have

pulpits,

worked hard and done be suitable

very neat and pretty village

These are plastered and coloured, and glass windows there are low

their best to

make

a building that shall

worship of God.

Besides being used for Divine service on Sundays, the village

church

doing sums, learning a

writing,

and being taught facts

Bible.

a, b,

little

their catechism

and truths of the

Here may be reading and grammar and geography,

on week-days.

also the school-house

seen bright children repeating their

d (not

c),

and something about the chief perhaps there is no more

And

pleasant sight to be seen in Madagascar than one of the larger

chapels

filled to

the doors on the annual examination day with

children from the neighbouring villages,

all

dressed in their best

eager to show their knowledge, and pleased to get the Testa-

ment

answered

hymn-book

or other prize given to those

who have

well.

Thank God and schools

there are

now hundreds

Central Madagascar.

over the provinces of the great island

of such village churches

May !

they soon be seen

all

CHAPTER

III.

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL ITS PUBLIC BUILDINGS, MEMORIAL AND OTHER CHURCHES, AND RELIGIOUS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. :

— picturesque situation — Rugged streets and paths — Houses and other buildings — Recent introduction of bricks—Royal palaces —Faravohitra — Ancient gateway — Sacred stones — Absence of wheeled vehicles and of gas and water supply — Street scenes —Weekly market of Zoma— Amusements — L.M.S. churches and religious institutions —Ambatonakanga Church — Other memorial churches — Mother churches and — Chapel Royal — Sunday observance— Colleges and school buildings — Dispensaries and hospitals — Other missions — Extent of Christian work carried on— Civilising work of L.M.S. Mission — Population — Plans of the capital

Scenerv' around the capital

Its

districts

Antananarivo, the heart of Madagascar.

THE

chief city of

Madagascar

centre of the island, as regards

situated

nearly in the

length from north to

its

much

nearer the eastern than the western side of

the country.

It is

about one hundred miles from the Indian

south, but

Ocean

Mozambique Channel

to the east, while the

twice that distance from

nearly

to the west.^

Let us suppose that we have just come up from Tamatave, and,

by the route described

through the two belts of

forest,

moorland of eastern Imerina.

the

first

chapter, have passed

and are now on the open, breezy Antananarivo

is still

about thirty

miles distant, a good day's journey from the upper line of forest.

We '

see

By the

signs latest

of a denser population and most

we advance

reliable obser\-ations, the following has

the position of Antananarivo

Lat., i8° 55' 2*io"-2'i8" S. 34

;

been

long., 47° 31'

well-

settled as

22" E.

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL.

cultivated rice-fields in every valley, plantations on the hillsides,

numerous

and scattered homesteads, the houses being

villages,

hard red clay or decomposed granite, while the walls

built of the

enclosing the

compounds

We pass

are also of this material.

long mountain of Angavokely, with

its

having a remarkable resemblance to a mediaeval castle the rounded, dome-like mass of Ambatovory, with

remnant of the primeval

forest

the

double summit, one peak

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; nestling

its

and then

;

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

woods

the valley at

its

and then a long, gradual ascent brings us to a high moor, from which a very extensive prospect is unfolded the greater

base

;

part of Imerina

and

its

lies

before us, and most of

chief towns can be clearly seen.

its

prominent

Before

us, at

hills

nine or

is a long and lofty ridge, stretching north and south, on which buildings can be plainly discerned, cutting

ten

miles' distance,

the sky-line

;

the centre are the lofty white roofs of the group

of royal palaces Minister's house,

north are the towers of the Prime

to the

;

its

dome

glass

shining in the sunlight

;

while

the spires and towers of churches can also be distinguished, especially at each extremity of the long line of lofty point

we descend

into

completed

;

river valleys,

two hours'

several times before the is

deep

still

of the

sight

lose

ride

to be

we descend

into

and

the

last

the valley which

capital

the

this

accomplished

city again

another long ascent brings us up to the

until

From

hill.

and ascend again and

again,

last hill before

surrounds Antananarivo

island

stands

;

before us, at

a distance of three-quarters of a mile or so across the ricefields.

It is certainly

ridge,

a very picturesquely situated town

;

the rocky

on the summit and slopes of which the houses are

rises at its highest point,

near the centre, to from 500 to 600 feet

above the surrounding valleys and the western length, north

and south,

southern extremity

its

plain,

not far short of two miles.

slopes

down abruptly

the northern end the descent thirds of

built,

and

its

the

to the valley, but at

more gradual.

At about two-

length from the south, a large branch or spur of the

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

separates from the main ridge and

hill

curves round to the

north-west with a tolerably easy gradient

extent of the city

must

ride

The

is.

;

so that the actual

not realised from the eastern side, and one

round to the west to see how large a place ridge,

though long,

level

ground on the summit

built

;

narrow, so that there

really little

and the majority of the houses are

away on one side and built up with retainother. At the junction of the two northern

terraces, cut

ing walls on the

branches of the

hill

there

a large triangular open space called

Andohalo, where a market

held,

and where great public

assemblies are convened, as at the promulgation of any new of

law, or the reception

the

sovereign on her return to the

capital, &c.

East and west, the sides of the

hill

are very steep

the western side they are precipitous.

Ampamarhiana

cipice of

;

indeed, on

this side is the pre-

the place of hurling"), the Tarpeian

of Antananarivo, where those accused of sorcery were formerly killed

by being hurled from the summit

;

and where

also,

1849, rnany Malagasy Christians suffered death, being supposed to have been enabled, by some powerful charm, to be dis-

obedient to their heathen sovereign's

will.

Antananarivo, or " City of a thousand," that

thousand

on a

settlers

or military colonists,

which cannot be

hill

far the largest

town

reaching a tenth of

its

was lalamanga,

from the still

i.e.,

hid."

only within the

its

last

a city set

already remarked,

Madagascar, only two or three places

At the blue

Ambohimanga,

rivo has attained

probably, a

certainly "

extent or population.

forest formerly covering

the case with

is,

(or its

Its

ancient

name

famous) wood," probably

summit and

slopes, as

the ancient capital. Antanana-

present important position in the island

hundred years, greatly increasing

size

and population since it became no longer merely the chief town of one Malagasy tribe the Hova but also the capital of the country through the Hova making themselves the dominant

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

tribe of

Madagascar.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. It

need hardly be said that road-making

The naked

place like Antananarivo.

almost everywhere

roads

very

difficult in

There

for a carriage, are,

rock comes to the surface

and the gradients, east and west

;

would be almost impossible be paved smooth.

at least,

even could the path

only about two main

fact,

the city, one going north and south, and the other east

These are roughly paved

and west. requires

care even to

streets.

The houses

European towns though certainly

some

parts

ride on horseback along

but

;

Antananarivo

are not built adjoining each other, as in

each one stands

;

in its

own compound

;

al-

the centre of the city they are packed pretty

and often the only path to large and respectable by climbing low walls and struggling up and down narrow and steep rocky stairs.

closely together,

houses

Notwithstanding these drawbacks, Antananarivo now possesses a large

as well as

number of substantial and

many

knew

the

great change has

Then 1863. proper, of wood

place in

old law, or

houses,

come about

was a town

or rush

since

custom

many

these

fitted

;

By an

was

and there was a

of the other ancient towns.

of the nobles and the wealthier

timber framing,

limits

first

built entirely,

and bamboo.

rather custom, no building of stone or clay

allowed to be erected within similar

handsome

public buildings which would not disgrace a

European town. within the city

often

people were

all

The houses of massive

with thick upright planking, and the

roof of extremely high pitch, with long crossed gable-timbers or "

horns."

shingles, It will

These houses were sometimes roofed with wooden but more frequently with thatch of a species of sedge.

be easily seen that with such combustible materials

fires

were of frequent occurrence, especially at the end of the dry season

;

and twenty,

thirty, or

even a hundred houses were not

down at one time. The acceptance of Christianity by the Queen and Government in 1868 put an end to this foolish custom, as well as to many other still more harmand the old timber houses have now almost disful things unfrequently burnt

;

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

appeared from the

city.

interesting relic of the past

preserved with religious care

modern

the ancient royal

This

buildings.

is still

among more

the palace yard

house

Besakana, where the corpse of a deceased sovereign

called

lies in state,

the building being draped entirely in scarlet cloth.

The introduction of sun-dried brick and tiles by Mr. James Cameron and Mr. W. Pool, of the London Missionary Society, as well as the erection of the stone

of which

was the

architect, has

Martyr Memorial Churches,

completely revolutionised the

building art in Imerina and in Betsileo. instead of being a town of it

thirty-two years ago, has

And

Antananarivo,

wooden and rush houses, as I knew become a city containing hundreds

many

of good two- and three-storied brick houses, with

Within the

buildings of stone. brick has

come

into

much more

last ten or

public

twelve years burnt

general use

and many sub-

;

and some churches are now to be seen erected of more durable material. Scores of houses have their verandah pillars of moulded brick, or of stone with carved capitals. There are, it must be confessed, some drawbacks to the otherwise There are too many houses unfinished, and a pleasant picture. disrepair visible, and a want of neatness and general aspect of

stantial houses this

tidiness.

Among

the most prominent buildings of the capital are the

group of royal palaces, the largest of which, an immense threestoried timber structure, has been surrounded with triple stone

verandah and arches, and strengthened with This largest of the royal buildings

Manjdkaniiddana,

i.e.,

known by "

the

name

high-pitched roof, which

;

about

Reigning peacefully

feet in height to the ridge of the

corner towers.

at each end by tall lightning-conductors, and in the by an enormous gilt copper figure of an eagle a bird which is used as a kind of national emblem, much as is the case with the eagles of America and several European states. Close

surmounted

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

centre

to this largest palace stands the Trdnovo/a or " Silver house,"

about two-thirds the

size of its larger neighbour,

but entirely of

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL.

There are several other palaces, each having

timber.

name, as Manauipisba ("Adding venerated of

good"),

This last-named building

breadth"), &c.

all

proper

the most ancient and

oblong structure of framed

a simple

;

its

Besdkana ("Great

timber, with upright planking, and a roof of enormously high pitch,

covered with wooden shingles, and crossed "horns," 10

or 12 feet long, at each gable.^

In the palace courtyard the spire and tower of the Chapel

Royal

The

a conspicuous feature.

stone and roofed with slates

building

constructed of

from the Betsileo province.

boasts of a pipe organ, tinted glass windows, and a good deal

wood and

of elaborate carving both in

Further south

stone.

the great square stone and brick house of the Prime Minister,

and other handsome residences of nobles and high

High Court of

the

prominent

Justice,

London Missionary

the

;

Memorial

four

and Very

officers,

columns.

Ionic

its

Antananarivo also are buildings purposes

educational

with

for religious

Churches of the

Society, each with spire or tower, together

with about a score more (belonging to the same mission), ornate

the

style,

city

and

wanting

its

suburbs the

;

still

Cathedral, with

elegant lantern-crowned towers

wegian Lutheran Church

;

its

spires

;

the College of the

;

less

Anglican

the

Roman

Cathedral, although its

and

Catholic the Nor-

London Missionary

Society and the High Schools of the same society, as well as those of the Friends, the Anglican, and the Jesuit missions

Mission

the

presses

;

the

London Missionary

Society's

;

and

Norwegian Hospitals and Dispensaries while about two miles to the east is a French Observatory, superintended by a Jesuit ;

priest.

one's eye passes along the long

from south to north,

it is

the northern extremity. Faravohitra, '

It is

soon

i.e.,

Last

wavy

This portion of the capital

village," its

hill,

called

former extremity northward,

the custom for Malagasy sovereigns to build a

after their accession.

ridge of the city

seen to slope gradually to the plain at

new house for themselves

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

now extended

although the city has

beyond

far

this

spot.

Thirty years ago this part of the ridge was a desolate-looking place, with hardly a

house upon

stretched along the rough footpath

;

number

execution, and no one would walk along

however, and for

many

years past,

of ancient tombs

was one of the places of

Now,

after nightfall.

a favourite part of the

the majority of the English mission families residing there

city,

;

while amongst

them is seen the square tower of the Faravohitra Memorial Church, and many of the educational establishments of the L.M.S. and Friends' Missions. The most ancient structure in Antananarivo is the old gate-

way

to the east of the city, the only

several gates

formerly guarding the chief approaches to the

This interesting

capital.

one now remaining of

rude masonry of thin,

flat

of the olden time

relic

upright slabs of blue gneiss at the angles.

square doorway several feet deep, and

by a huge bevava,

but

i.e.,

The name

The opening

also as often

called

sacred stones

onnected with royalty

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

many other things as One of these is situated

of this ancient gate

Ankadi-

it is

Ambavahadimitafo,

i.e.,

covered with a rush

roof.

of Antananarivo are objects which are

among

Hova and mark

the

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;amongst

a different place from European

cities.

in Andohalo, a spacious triangular open

where public assemblies take

sovereigns have been crowned.

place,

The

;

but upon

occasions, as

and where some of the

sacred stone here

but the underlying gneiss rock, which surface

;

the

space in the centre of the capital, where a large daily market held,

time of war was closed

the Fosse with the great Mouth," or opening

Roofed Gateway," because

The

a mass of

stone which was rolled out of a groove

flat circular

inside the gateway.

stones laid without mortar, with large

nothing

one spot comes to the

the sovereign must always stand on special

when returning from

visit

Ambohimanga

by the army and by is a much more stone generally. The other sacred the people prominent object, and appears to be a boulder-like mass of

more distant

places,

and

there saluted

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. gneiss which has at

some remote time tumbled down from the hill, and stands nearly in the

precipitous western side of the city

centre of a large square plain on that side of Antananarivo.

This open space sacred

" (or

Imahamasina,

called

homage of

their subjects),

One

the sacred stone.

Place of making

Some Hova

establishing or confirming).

have been crowned here (or rather,

i.e.,

appeared

first

and the throne

sovereigns

in state for the

always placed on

here reminded of the sacred stones on

which the kings of other nations have been enthroned

ancient

and especially of our own Stone of Destiny from Scone now and for so many centuries past placed under the chair of Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey. From whatever side one goes up into Antananarivo, the times,

ascent

steep, in

and uneven.

most places exceedingly

traverse these roughly-paved

unknown

this

quiet, with

majority of

so,

and most rugged

immediately evident that no carriage could

roads

;

such things are

and so the

large city,

fact

streets are singularly

no rush of wheels or tramp of horses, while the great

human

feet are shoeless

and so almost noiseless

There are only two or three

their tread.

streets, in

the term, in this capital of Madagascar, that

good pavement has been

laid

down with

our sense of

where a tolerably

side gutters, &c.

The

by narrow paths winding in and out among the compounds, and sometimes there is no access to a house but by crossing the yards of others, and often only by climbing over the low clay walls which surround them. As we pass along we see how difficult and costly it would be to greater part of the houses are reached

make roads and

Antananarivo, for each compound

streets in

a terrace cut out of the steep hillside, built up on one side by the soil and rock removed from the other. is

all

surface,

and

each street and path

forming a

series

the is

heavy rains

swept

rapids

and

cutting deep trenches in the red

protected by

by a

Of of

furious

waterfalls, soil,

course drainage

wet

the

torrent,

and

season often

constantly-

so that every path not

some kind of rough paving

being constantly

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

some

lowered,

streets

being

many

feet

below the compounds

on either hand. It

need hardly be said that there are no water-pipes or gas

mains is

in the streets

of Antananarivo.

supplied by the primitive plan of

springs at the foot of the city

all

hill

The want

of the former

water being fetched from

by the women and

girls

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;of every household.

Long lines of these may be seen in the evenings going up and down the rough paths with their water-pots on their heads. At nights the streets are dark

slave or free

and almost deserted, but for the lantern carried by an occasional passenger. Few Europeans or respectable natives care to risk their

limbs by going without a light over

breakneck

these

paths.

prominent feature

the

life

of Antananarivo

weekly market held every Friday on a place This

side of the city.

called

Zoma

in the

the great

north-west

day on

(Friday), from the

which

it is

there,

on Fridays an immense concourse of people from the

and although a large daily market

held,

surrounding country, as well as from the city

goods

probably

also held

gathered

All the chief roads are thronged with people bringing

together. in their

itself,

for sale,

and by an early hour

in the

io,ocK) or 12,000 persons are assembled,

forenoon

and the

everything that

grown or

manufactured

the

hum Here

of voices can be heard from a considerable distance.

interior

province can be procured, and in no place can a better idea of the productions of the country or of the handicraft

Malagasy be obtained than is,

in this great

Zoma

skill

market.

of the

There

of course, a rough division of the various objects for sale in

different sections of the market-ground.

timber, rafters, joists, and boards

and chairs

;

for fuel

;

here

the grain,

division of the market, with heaps of salt ;

here

forest of

here are enormous piles of lih-ana rush for roofing

and long dry grass ments

Here

here are doors, bedsteads,

fruit,

and

and vegetable

chillies for

condi-

the cattle market, and not far off the beef and

mutton, and the poultry section, with hundreds of fowls, ducks,

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. and geese

turkeys,

here

;

the " dry goods

with

division,

English caHcoes, American sheeting, gay prints, and native

hemp, cotton, and

cloths of

cocoons of raw

work of is

;

here are piles of snowy

fine Idniba ; here

and hinges, bolts and screws

kinds, nails

all

rofia fibre

weaving into

for

silk

;

and here

native pottery, water-jars, and cooking-pots, and so on.

Zoma market

Antananarivo, and life

The

one of the most interesting sights of

certainly

iron-

without doubt one of the chief delights of

to the native residents in the capital.

To Europeans anything

there

a great absence in Antananarivo of

entertainments or amusements.

man, newly arrived distractions ici ! "

theatre and

observed

in the city, truly

And

doubtless he

felt

French gentle//

ny a pas

des

the want of the cafe and

Probably the

boulevarde of his beloved Paris.

Malagasy themselves do not feel this need, and are sufficiently amused and entertained by the mild excitement of their New Year's festival, by an occasional kabary or public assembly, by

some other part of the country, with the state and ceremony attending it, by a review of troops, and perhaps still more by the frequent markets and the return of the queen from a visit to

their gossip, together with the delights of bargaining

others

buy and

sell.

and seeing

late years these purely native

amuse-

ments have been added to by the introduction of occasional lectures, concerts,

educational

and other entertainments,

buildings

the

different

gayest dresses and are feasted in

missions

the suburbs of the city

;

when they some garden

" treats,"

children also often have their

orchard

chiefly held in the

and

may

the

school

sport their or

mango

be added that

the Lb/iavblana, or service held at one of the larger Antananarivo churches in rotation

month,

on the

also a time of great

first

Monday morning

enjoyment

to the

from the new sacred music introduced on

of every

younger people

many

of these occa-

sions.

referring to the

Antananarivo and

its

map

will

be seen that there are

suburbs, no fewer than thirty-five churches.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

twenty-seven of which are connected with the London Mis-

And when

sionary Society.

remembered

—

the population

probably from

80,000

of the capital

100,000

too large an accommodation for those

who

—

will

by no means

churches provide

evident that these thirty-five

worship, indeed

should attend public

greatly inadequate to the needs of the

it is still

city.

be noticed that

It will

map

attempt has been made

little

show the remarkably

of Antananarivo, as this would have interfered with

purpose.

and very picturesque

irregular

its

This has been already sufficiently described

the site

main

the

earlier portion of the chapter.

The rivo

was

first

building erected for Christian worship in AntananaAmbodin' Andohalo, on the spot where the London

Missionary Society (see

Girls'

Central School stood until very lately

For some time the

map).

Griffiths' residence

this site

school-house adjoining Mr.

appears to have been used for

worship, and this continued for several years to be the sole place

and, as the

number of worshippers Ambatonakanga (i) ^

In 1831, however, as the

of meeting.

increased, a second building first site

was erected

Andohalo was

;

not, in this later period of

the Mission, used again for worship, the congregation meeting

Church there may be justly regarded as the

in the ^lemorial "

mother church

Ambatonakanga

of Madagascar.

the most interesting spot in the island as regards history.

It is

commanding

chief roads in the city

and the

site

—

might almost be said

this spot the first printing-press

subsequently the second place

this building

was

certainly religious

position at the junction of the

was originally granted

Christian worship

its

built here

for a

;

in the island

workshop

to the L.M.S.

was erected and

in the

two

set to

work

;

country ever erected for

on the outbreak of persecution

was turned into a stable and afterwards

—

into a

Antananarivo has recently been ascertained March, 1896 not to exceed 43,000 souls. Ed. = The numbers following the names of churches are those by which they are marked on the map and in the list at the end of this chapter. '

—

The population

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. prison for the punishment of the

the

first

praying people

here in 1864 and opened in 1867.

This

first

When

a substantial stone

Mr.

Ellis arrived in

Antananarivo

country was re-opened to Christian

Xorman

style,

June, 1862, soon

effort,

same quarter of the

tonakanga

city,

the north-west

another at Analakely

;

ribe (3).

These congregations met

buildings

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;one being an old stable

patched together

;

(2) in

meeting

all

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;one

and the

;

he found three

and

large congregations already gathered together,

the

finally,

commenced

stone building ever erected in the country.

after the

and

;

of the four Martyr Memorial Churches was

structure with tower and spire, built in a simple

the

third at

AmbaAmpa-

very rough and unattractive

another several native houses

;

For many

and the other an old workshop.

years past, however, these congregations have been housed in large buildings

;

and these three

continue in the front

still

rank as regards numbers and influence, Amparibe probably containing the largest congregation to be seen in any part of

During the twelve years or so following the year 1862 numerous offshoots sprang from the three just named,

the island.

until the city churches

Ten

reached the number shown on the map.

of these are reni-fia7igbnana

mother churches

large districts connected with each, which stretch for in all directions,

The

congregations.

churches and in

has

and contain

largest

worked most

having

many

miles

no fewer than six hundred

in all

"),

these

efficiently

includes

districts

120

by the Friends' Mission,

complete harmony with the London Missionary Society, and its

mother church

Of these kanga

(i),

hitra (9).

Amb6hitantely

ten, four are the

Ambohipotsy

The

first

(2),

(8).

Memorial Churches

Ampamarinana

(6),

Ambatona-

and Faravo-

of these has already been described.

The

second occupies a most commanding position at the southern extremity of the city ridge, and every direction.

It is

visible for

built in a simple

Gothic, and has a tower and spire.

Albans of Madagascar,

for

many

Early English style of

Ambohipotsy

the

miles in

spot

the St.

where the heroic

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

Rasalama, the 1837.

The

hurHng," as confessors

first

Christian martyr, was speared in the year

third church

name

its

who

built

on the edge of the

precipice of

and commemorates thirteen brave 1849, dashed down the steep cHffs for

signifies,

were, in

deny their Saviour. The building is designed in a simple Romanesque style, and has a lofty campanile the refusing to

;

interior,

with

its

galleries all round, looking very

The

English Nonconformist chapel.

fourth

much

Faravohitra Church

plain stone structure, with low square

of these Martyr

Memorial buildings occupies a very prominent position northern end of the city ridge.

at the

a very

and marks the four Christian Malagasy were burnt exact spot where, in 1849, to death, together with the mangled remains of those thirteen

who had been the

tower,

hurled over the precipices at

Ampamarinana on

same day.

The Queen's Church in the palace courtyard is attended by Her Majesty and her Court, as well as by many of the chief people of the city. The congregation here gives liberally towards the support of native evangelists and teachers in the different districts,

and

it is

distinctly a Congregational church.

The

other

churches in the city and suburbs are mostly of sun-dried brick

some of the more recently-erected ones are of burnt brick, and are handsome buildings. On Sunday mornings they are all well filled, especially on the first Sunday in the month, the congregations numbering in several instances over

and

stone, but

a thousand people. so large.

Some

The

afternoon congregations are not quite

of the surburban churches are just as largely

attended as those in the city proper.

The observance of Antananarivo. is

Sunday

marked feature in the life all Government business

markets are held,

stopped, and large numbers of people in clean white dresses

and lamba crowd the roads going to and from the various places of worship. The sound of bells is heard from many towers, and one passes by the churches, the familiar strains of many wellknown English tunes may be heard sung accompanied by the

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL.

notes of American organs or harmoniums.

Sabbath quiet

and calm

divine worship

over the whole city

;

not only

attended by thousands, but hundreds of children are learning in

Sunday

schools

many

as well as in

Day

of Rest

and

;

may

be said that

Antananarivo,

other Madagascar towns and villages, the

as well observed as in

most parts of England,

or even of Scotland.

In addition to the churches of Antananarivo, other institutions connected with the

London Missionary Society and the shown on the map. Of

Friends' and other Missions are also these, the largest building,

and one seen most prominently on

approaching the capital from Tamatave,

the L.M.S. College,

a massive and substantial structure of brick and stone.

The commenced in 1869, and the present was opened in 1881. The accommodation includes,

College teaching was building

besides spacious class-rooms and tutors' residences, a lecture hall,

arranged in theatre fashion, where lectures are delivered and

meetings of for

about

all

five

kinds are constantly held, there being room

hundred auditors.

students of different

grades

are

About seventy

majority of these being educated for the Christian while

some little

eighty

usually under training,

the

ministry,

are secular students.

below the College, to the north,

the L.M.S.

Normal

School, also housed in a substantial stone and brick building

and here teachers

for the

town and country schools receive a

thorough course of instruction School

for their

work.

The

Girls' Central

Ambodin' Andohalo, nearer the centre of the

city.

Not far from this is the L.M.S. Press, from which a large number of books and other publications are constantly being issued.^

Lower down, to the north-west, at Analakely is the Dispenunder the management of a joint committee of the London

sary,

Missionary Society and Friends' Missions. or five years a new, larger, '

Within the

last four

and very complete Hospital has been

About 150,000 books

of various kinds yearly.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

48 erected

Isoavinandriana,

control of the

two

societies,

share of the expenses of

nursed and attended to

This

medical work.

Here the

sick are

and young men are trained as doctors for the

work of nursing and mid-

Medical Mission Board gives diplomas of efficiency

surgery and medicine, and a considerable number of young

Malagasy are now

The

qualified medical practitioners.

Friends' Mission Central Girls' School and their press

are on

the

Faravohitra

hill

excellent upper Boys' School

centre of the city. Missions, that for as

under the joint

also

although the Friends take the larger

all

and surgeons, and women wifery.

about a mile from the

place

northern extremity of the capital.

one

;

all

to the College

their

the connection between the two

practical purposes they

may be

regarded

plans of work, church government, and worship

being the same

almost every respect

London Missionary Society and those

and

;

Ambohijatovo, nearer the

word or two must

the churches of the

charge of the Friends.

also be said about the other churches

of Antananarivo. "

Those of the

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel"

Episcopal Mission are four

number, the chief being the stately

stone Cathedral, which occupies a most

on the north side of Andohalo is

commanding

position

in the centre of the city.

This

a cruciform structure with three towers, which will eventually

be crowned with

spires.

Schools for boys and

some

This Mission has also good High

girls in

elegant stone buildings,

the is

city,

while their college, with

situated about twelve miles to

the north.

The Norwegian Lutheran Mission has in

and

schools, in

a representative church

Antananarivo, as well as a training institution, orphanage,

the

hospital.

Betsileo

Its chief

work

south of Imerina and

province, where there are a large

number of

stations.

The Roman Catholic Jesuit Mission has four churches in the Of these, the largest one, or cathedral, close to Ando-

capital.

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. halo,

handsome stone

structure with towers crowned byThere are also large buildings as residences lay brothers, and sisters of mercy, and for schools

octagonal lanterns. for priests,

and

press.i

be seen from the above sketch that Antananarivo

It will

amount of Christian work and activity. Its twenty-seven L.M.S. town and suburban churches and schools, although they all have their own native pastors and

the centre of a large

preachers,

still,

however, need the help and guidance and teaching

of English missionaries

and

;

for a

long time to come

schools, presses, hospitals, &c., will require the

And when

remembered

churches and their large

that,

its

same

college,

oversight.

addition to the above

districts, there are also five out-stations

of the L.M.S. at a few miles' distance from the capital, with about three hundred

more congregations,

evident that English

missionaries in the central province of Madagascar have unusual

opportunities of service for Christ. these

nine

hundred

congregations

heathenism within the the people are superstitious. districts of

more ought a single

still

to be

we wonder

claims

Madagascar

man from

greater

only come out of

last twenty-five years,

(can

The

The have

done

are,

of it

the is

for these,

at it?) still

true,

part of

all

and numbers of

very ignorant and

completely

very urgent

we cannot

heathen but while

;

afford at present

the wide field close to our hands and open

to our teaching with hardly

safely be said that in

any external hindrance.

may

no other part of the world are there such

favourable opportunities of service for our Master.

In almost

every other mission-field the people have with difficulty to be

drawn out of heathenism

to hear the sound of the Gospel

;

here

they are already gathered into hundreds of congregations, their idols destroyed,

and are willing

to listen to the

A new

Word

of Life.

French Protestant Church has been established (1896), under the auspices of the French Resident-General, M. Hippolyte Laroche, at Ambatonakanga, where services are conducted by the Pasteurs, MM. Logat and Kruger. '

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Ed. 5

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

In concluding this description of Antananarivo

Hova

evident from what has been said that this capital of the

Malagasy kraal, but

only

no mere collection of huts, nor

like a Kaffir

gradually becoming a respectable city

and

;

add that the advances in civilisation, enlightenment, which are so manifest in the capital, and

fair to

and

will

intelligence,

towns throughout the central

also, in fair proportion, in other

are

provinces,

the

direct

This society, more

London Missionary

and

directly educational

Malagasy

the

already

Society.

Madagascar work was more

than sixty years ago, sent to

religious

owe

chiefly

those whose

missionaries, as well

artisan

labour of Christian

of the

results

missionaries, chiefly those of the

and

;

material

the

united efforts

their

they have

progress

made, as well as the Christian teaching which has

broken down the old idolatry of the people, which has covered the central provinces with hundreds of churches, which

a hundred thousand children

its

and

schools,

up a formerly ignorant and semi-barbarous position of an enlightened and Christian people.

exactly.

Antananarivo

difficult

teaching

gradually

tribe to the

raising

The population

estimate

census appears to have been taken by the native

Government, but the houses have been counted by some of

and

friends,

careful inquiries

occupants, and from these lation of the city

put

from

all

tribute,

much

it is

as to the average

believed

over 100,000.

by some I

There

from 6o,ooo to 70,000.^

number

made

frequently a large

Government

come constantly business, bringing

and receiving orders from the Sovereign

occasions, as

when

levies

;

and on

special

of troops are being made, &c., the

of the

ordinary population

that the popu-

should be inclined to

of strangers in the capital, as people parts of the island on

number of

city

must be swelled by many

thousands.

Many

years ago, during the time of the early mission of the

London Missionary '

Society, a plan of Antananarivo

Vide auk,

p. 44.

Population

only 43,000.

Ed.

was made

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL.

by Mr. Cameron (whose name has already been mentioned in this chapter), and was pubHshed in Ellis's History of Madagascar (1838). then

;

The

city has of course greatly increased since

new detailed has been made from surveys by French

and within the

last

plan to a large scale

six or seven years a

officers.

Antananarivo gascar.

There

advanced officers

may the

justly be considered the heart of seat

civilisation of the

and

soldiers

who

Mada-

of government and of the most

country

;

from

go out the Hova

garrison every port on the coast and

every important town in the interior

;

from

go out weekly

thousands of books and copies of the Sacred Scriptures there are trained the native doctors and surgeons

the schoolmasters and evangelists and teachers,

and

who

;

and

nurses,

are sent to

European teachers in various ways to benefit their fellow-countrymen, and to hasten that day when, as we hope, the whole of Madagascar shall share in the advance and enlightenment which is already so marked distant places to labour together with their

the

central

province of Imerina and

Antananarivo. ItiDEX TO

X UMBERS OX MAP.

Commenced.

Palace Church 1.

Ambatonakanga

Analakely

3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

...

Amparibe ... Ambohipotsy Ankadibevava Ampamarlnana Andohalo ...

Ambohitantely

Faravohitra

10.

Imahamasina

11.

Isotry

12.

Ambanidia

the

capital city,

CHAPTER

IV.

THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR NOTES ON THE CLIMATE, AGRICULTURE, SOCIAL CUSTOMS OF THE PEOPLE, AND VARIED ASPECTS OF THE MONTHS. :

The

—

seasons in Madagascar Their significant names The great rice-plain Springtime

Antananarivo

—

Rice-planting and rice-fields

—Prospect

from summit of September and October First crop Trees and foliage " Burning the November to February Thunderstorms and

—

—Birds — Summer — rains — Effects on roads — Rainfall — Hail — Magnificent lightning —Malagasy New Year—Native calendar— Royal bathing— Conspicuous flowers — Aloes and agaves — Christmas Day observances — Uniformity in length of days— Native words and phrases for divisions of time— And for natural phenomena — Effects of heavy rains — Wild flowers of Imerina Autumn March and April — Rice harvest— Harvest Thanksgiving Services Mist on winter mornings — Spiders' webs —Winter May August Winter the dry season — Great markets —Aspects of nightly sky — Epidemics cold season — Vegetation. Downs "

tropical

effects

object in this chapter

of the different months

province of Imerina, as

central

any one who

to describe the varied aspects

throughout the year

this

they present themselves to

lives in the capital city

of Antananarivo, and

frequently travelling in the country around

it.

want

show

the variety of Nature during the changing seasons, as the result

of the heat or cold, and of the moisture or drought of the climate,

and to point out the changes

different processes of agriculture carried

And

must be remembered that although

from

the

on by the Malagasy. this central

province

by several degrees well within the tropics, our some months of the year is by no means the

of Madagascar

climate for

resulting

THE CHANGING YEAR " tropical "

one supposed

word.

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

our ordinary English use of that

from 3,000 to 5,000

these interior highlands,

feet

above the sea level, the south-easterly winds blow from June to

August with a keenness and force which it needs thick clothing and makes a wood fire during the long evenings

to withstand,

a very pleasant addition to the comforts of

The

home

life.

seasons in the central regions of the island are practi-

cally only

November

two

the hot and rainy period, from the beginning of

end of April

to the

during the other months, from

;

and the cool and dry period,

May

to October.

The Malagasy

are,

however, accustomed to speak of four seasons of their year,

viz.,

the Lokataona,

i.e.,

head of the year," during September

and October, when the planting of

rice

going on everywhere,

and a few showers give promise of the coming Fahavaratra,

i.e.,

thunder-time,"

November

;

the

when severe storms of thunder

and lightning are frequent, with heavy downpours of the early part of

rains

rain,

from

end of February or into

to the

March the Fdrarano, i.e., " last rains," from the beginning of March and through April and lastly, the Ririnina, i.e., " time of bareness," when the grass becomes dry and withered, from ;

;

June

to August.

Taking, therefore, the seasons in order, from the beginning, not of January, which gives no natural division of the year, but

from the early part of September, when the blossoms on the trees

speak of the

shall note

down,

good time coming

of renewed verdure,

country, in climate, vegetation, and culture of the

out

the varying aspects of the

in their succession,

soil,

through-

the changing year."

Before, however, proceeding to distinctness to the mental picture hav^e never

been

Madagascar,

words the appearance of especially of that portion of

the capital.

this,

want

this central it

which

may

draw

give greater

for those

who

try to describe in a few

province of the island, in the

neighbourhood of

Let us go up to the highest point of the long

rocky ridge on and around which Antananarivo

built,

from

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

which we can

view the landscape

clear notion of this "heart of Imerina," as

The

the Malagasy.

JQO

From view

feet

often called

Hill of regarding,"

level of the rice-plains "

vantage

i.e.,

there

which

around

it.

of course a very extensive

every direction, and we see at once that the surrounding

country hills

above the general

this " coign of

city hill reaches its greatest elevation at a

point called Ambohimitsi'mbina, is

and try and gain a

o'er,"

all

East and south there

very mountainous.

is little

but

shapes and sizes to be seen, except along the valleys

of the river Ikopa and

its tributaries,

which come from the edge

away to the east. To the more undulating, but at ten or twelve miles away high hills and moors close in the view. Some of the hills rise into mountains, as in the case of Angavokely to the east, Milangana, Andn'ngitra, and Lohavohitra to the north and north-west, and Iharanandriana to the south. The country is of the upper forest, thirty miles or so

north the country

everywhere

these

covered with red

directions,

soil,

except

the

river

valleys,

through which the granite and gneiss

foundations protrude at almost every elevated point

huge

boulder-like rocks.

There

is little

foliage to be seen, except

where the ancient towns and

of the

hills,

and

such places a

sional

Ainontana

circle of old

extensive

forest,

in this

were

built,

with an occa-

The largest mass of green is Ambohimanga, eleven miles away to the north,

where the steep sides of the of the original

villages trees,

pleasant relief to the prevailing

tree, gives a

red and ochre tints of the bare at the old capital,

Aviavy

on the top of some

hills.

hill

are

still

covered with a remnant

which formerly was doubtless much more

part of Imerina.

the west, from north to south, the prospect differs con-

siderably from that to the east.

by very gradual

slopes, at

some

the south-west there rises

thirty-five miles' distance, the

mass of Ankaratra, the highest point

in the island, its three or

four crowning peaks reaching an elevation of nearly 9,000 feet '

Ficus Baroiii, Baker, and Ficiis trichosphcvra, Baker.

THE CHANGING YEAR above the

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

and something more than half that height above Due west and north-west is a

sea,

the general level of the country.

considerable extent of level country, beyond which the mountain

of Ambohimiangara, sixty miles away, as well as

many

miles,

other

seen on the horizon,

In the foreground, stretching

hills.

numbers of low red

hills,

islands out of a green sea

most of them with villages, rise like when the rice is growing along the ;

plain the river Ikopa can be seen, winding

wards to join the Betsiboka

;

great plain,

its

way

north-west-

the united streams, with

Bay

tributaries, flowing into the sea at the "

away

the great rice-plain of Betsimitatatra, from which

of Bembatoka.

many This

the granary of Antananarivo," was formerly an

immense marsh, and earlier still a lake but since the embankby some of the early kings of Imerina, it has become the finest rice-plain in the island, and, with its con;

ing of the river

nected valleys, furnishes the bulk of the food of the people of the central province.

From

this elevated point at least a

be recognised,

villages can

many

hundred small towns and

them marked by the

tiled

roof of the village church, which shines out distinctly in the

sunshine amid the brown thatched roofs of most of the houses, easily distinguished at distances of ten or twelve

and can be

This view from the summit of the capital

away.

miles

certainly in for the

its

way

human

unrivalled for variety

interest of

its

and extent,

different parts, as

large population, the great area of cultivated land, rivers,

and the streams and water-channels

as well as

shown by the the embanked

for irrigation seen in

every direction.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

days of

September and October. With the early September we may usually say that springtime in

Imerina

fairly sets in,

Springtime

properly commences.

and that the year

in its natural aspects

a true instinct, arising doubtless from

long observation of the change of the seasons, the Malagasy this

time Lbhataona,

when nature seems

i.e.,

the head, or beginning, of the

call

>'ear,"

awake from the comparative deadness of

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

the cold and dry winter months, during which the country has

looked bare and uninviting, but

promise of

fertility

and verdure.

drizzly showers of the past few

and clearer

skies,

now begins again to give The keen cold winds and

weeks give place

and although usually there

warmer

but

little

air

rain

during September, the deciduous trees begin to put forth their

and flower-buds appear as heralds of the life which will be seen after the

leaves,

play of vegetable

fuller

dis-

have

rains

fallen.

The

great rice-plain to the west looks, during the early days

of the Lohataona, bare and places,

brown but we ;

where the plain borders the low

shall see that in various

grounds on which

rising

the villages are built, there are bright patches of vivid green.

These are the ketsa grounds, or smaller rice-fields, where the rice is first sown thick and broadcast, and where it grows for a

month

two before being planted out in the larger fields. These ketsa patches begin to be very numerous also in the or

smaller valleys which are found in every part of the province

and

soon as the young plants are 4 or

;

high

inches

they are frequently strewn over with long dry grass to protect

them from the hot sun by day

In other rice-patches large fronds of bracken fern are

night.

used

as well as from the cold winds

for the

same purpose, and small branches of

trees are also

stuck along the edges of the enclosures, which are divided from

each other by a low bank of earth, a few inches broad and only a foot or two in height.

As up

the season advances the people begin to be busy digging

their rice-fields, the clods being piled

in order to give the soil the benefit of

heaps and rows

exposure to the sun and

done by the native long-handled and longand narrow-bladed spade, driven into the ground by the weight of the handle, as the Malagasy wear no shoes, and so could not air.

All this work

drive

down

the spade by the foot in European fashion, while the

an unknown implement to them.

plough

courses,

by which water

still

brought to every

The

water-

rice-plot, are

now

THE CHANGING YEAR being repaired

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

The

directions.

all

chief supply of water

from the springs found at the head of almost every valley, which is

by channels cut and embanked round the curves

carefully led

of the hillsides, being often taken thus for a considerable distance

from

its

source.

Eventually

this little canal resolves itself into

a small stream traversing the valley, from which smaller channels

convey the water to every

so as to moisten the clods after

iield,

they have been dug over.

The water-supply from the Ikopa

for the great Betsimitatatra plain

and

river

Mamba, and

Sisaony, the

tributaries

its

other streams.

derived

Andromba, the

the

Canals tap these rivers

at various points, in order to irrigate the fields at lower levels

down

further

their course.

large quantity of water

thus

diverted from the rivers during September and October, so that the smaller streams are almost dry, and even* the Ikopa and

its

good-sized rivers at other times of the year, then

affluents,

become shallow and

easily fordable.

Before the end of October a large extent of the great plain, especially to the north

with rice stretches

;

and north-west,

and a green

away

level,

many

for

miles in this direction, without any

This green

break or visible divisions. "

former

rice,"

the

crop,

first

which

will

green appear in other directions rivers,

the vary aloha, or

also, especially

russet

still

not be planted until a month or two the later rice crop, is

month

ripe in the

along the courses

but a considerable extent of the plain directly to

the west of the capital

which

become

Smaller expanses of bright

of January, or early in February.

of the

completely planted

looking like one vast lawn,

or,

November

planted in

cutting about April.

This

brown

colour,

From

later.

called, the {vary')

or December, and

latter

crop

and

this will

will

come

vdky avibidty^

becomes

fit

for

so called because the

flowering of the Anibidty shrub,^ about November, gives notice to the people that planting-time has come.

This shrub

conspicuous about this time of the year from

its

flowers. '

Vcnionin appcndiculata, Less.

very

masses of white

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

The ketsa grounds are covered before sowing with a layer of wood and straw ashes, so that they have quite a black Before

appearance.

this,

however, the clods have been broken

up and worked by the spade two of water over

and on

all,

into a soft

mud, with an inch or sown broadcast,

this the grain is

springing up in two or three weeks' time and looking like a

emerald carpet.

brilliant

There are usually a few heavy showers about the end of

September or the early part of October, which are nbrana indnipisdra-taona, occasionally no rain

mences, so

and everything seems as the sun gets

i.e.^

rain

dividing

the year

thirsting for moisture.

more nearly

the dry

soil,

spicuous

among them

the trees

The

vertical with the

;

but

com-

cool.

heat increases

advancing season,

Yet notwithstanding Most con-

are beginning to blossom.

the Cape-lilac,^ a tree introduced from

about seventy years ago by the

South Africa

until the rainy season regularly

although the nights are pleasantly

missionaries,

and now thoroughly naturalised.

a good-sized

tree,

in all the

called rdno-

dry and dusty everywhere, the ground cracks,

falls

first

L.M.S.

grows

and many hundreds of them are

to be seen

suburbs of Antananarivo, making them gay with the

profusion of

lilac

flowers which cover the trees,

and fragrant

with their strong perfume.

There are many large orchards

Imerina, thickly planted

with mango-trees, and about this time the green of the leaves is

largely mingled with a tinting of reddish brown, which

caused by the masses of flowers

The low banks

of earth

in the

upper part of the

trees.

which form the boundary walls of

plantations are largely planted with a species of Euphorbia,^ of

which there are two

\'arieties

and the other of pale yellow

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; one with tint,

brilliant scarlet bracts,

the leaves appearing on the

prickly stems later on.

the season advances, the people burn the grass over the

hillsides '

and the open moor country, so as Miiia Azcdcrach, L.

to get rid of the

Euphorbia splcndcns, Bojer.

THE CHANGING YEAR

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

long dry grass and to obtain a crop of green herbage as soon as

This has an unpleasant

the rains have fallen plentifully.

appearance by day, from the immense black patches of charred vegetation to be seen in every direction

no doubt that

down

"),

There can be

well.

to this practice of inandoro tanety (" burning the is

called,

which would spring up, especially

The young

little

fires

which sweep over

vegetation which has held

constantly liable to be lessened as time goes on.

dozen

fires,

long curving lines of flame,

in different directions

;

and a ruddy glow

the places where the actual

vening

Mandbro

hills.

may

its

own

Sometimes a

be seen at night

in the

sky often shows

hidden from view by

fire is

trees

the hollows and sheltered

have no chance against the yearly

the country, and the

and

largely attributable the bare

appearance of the central provinces.

treeless

places,

and frequently the

;

hedges and smaller trees are destroyed as

inter-

tanety thus gives a strangely picturesque

appearance to the nights of springtime

Imerina.

The weather often gets very hot and sultry before the rains come on, indeed the heat is greater and more trying at this time than in the summer itself, when the frequent storms freshen the air, and the rain cools the earth. The clear skies and pure atmosphere of other months are exchanged days,

when

for thick, oppressive

the distant hills disappear altogether, and the nearer

ones seem quite distant

in the

dense haze.

These atmospheric

conditions are probably due to the grass-burning just described,

and also

away to the east. come up from the

to the frequent burning of the forest

the weather gets warmer, a few birds

wooded regions of patch of wood,

the island, and wherever there

a small

cry of the Kankajotra, the

the oft-repeated

Madagascar Cuckoo, may be heard,

the

syllables " koiv-kow, kow-koiv-koo."

the

noisy

and

little

his

Hltsikitsika, or Kestrel,

mate are now bringing up

seeking food

for

them.

much resembling The querulous cry of

heard continually, for he

their

As we walk

Sorbkitra, the native Lark, darts

young brood and busily over

the

downs, the

up from her nest on the bare

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

ground, with a note somewhat like that of her European cousin's,

but not so

and sweet.

full

the end of October draws near, the people are busily at

work, not only

mending

in the rice-fields,

but also repairing their houses,

their grass or rush roofs,

and hurrying on

dried brick or clay building before the heavy rains

their sun-

fall.

Although

a large number of burnt-brick houses, with tiled roofs, have

been erected, the majority of native dwellings are cheaper materials

still

and everything of the kind must be

;

now

of the

finished,

or at least well protected from the weather, before the rainy

The

season comes on.

watercourses, too, need attention, and

the river banks must be repaired, lest a succession of heavy

embankments,

rains should swell the streams, break through the

and flood the

Summer ruary.

rice-plains.

November, December, January, and Feb-

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Summer

not only the hot season, but

also the

any other time of the year. It is accordingly called by the Malagasy Fahavaratr-a^ i.e., " thunder-time," since almost all heavy rain is accompanied by a thunderstorm and taking the average of a good many rainy season, very

little

rain falling at

;

years, this season

may

be said to commence at the beginning of

November.

As his

the sun gets every day

more nearly

vertical at noon,

passage towards the southern tropic, the heat increases, and

the electric tension of the air becomes

week

more previous

to the actual

oppressive.

commencement

For a

of the rains,

the clouds gather towards evening, and the heavens are lighted

by constant

at night

after a

few days of

flashes of lightning.

But

sultry weather, towards

this

at length,

mid-day the

huge cumuli gather thickly over the sky and gradually unite into a dense mass, purple black in colour, and soon the thunder is

heard.

rapidly approaches nearer and nearer, the clouds

touching the lower

hills,

then

down

darts the forked lightning,

followed by the roar of the thunder, and presently a wild rush of wind, as

if it

came from

all

quarters at once,

tells

us that the

THE CHANGING YEAR storm

upon

us,

an hour or so there

rain in big,

heavy drops

torrents, as if the sluice-gates of

The

the clouds were opened. for half

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

and then comes the

few seconds and soon

for a

lightning

almost incessant, and

any

often hardly

between

interval

the crashing and reverberations of the thunder peals, the

hills

around the capital echoing back the roar from the clouds. Certainly a heavy thunderstorm in Madagascar

not without

a considerable element of danger, especially for any one caught storm

in a

in the

open, or in a house unprotected

Every house of any pretensions

conductor.

provinces has this safeguard, for every year killed

by lightning

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; some while

walking

in houses unprotected by a conductor

students,

college Betsileo,

when

was

travelling

with

by a

many

;

central

people are

and others

in the road,

one of our

for instance,

wife

lightning-

the

and children

the

killed instantaneously, as well as a slave near him,

sitting in a native house, while a child

he was nursing at

the time escaped with a few burns only.

large quantity of rain sometimes

in a

very short time.

fell

in less

nature of the whole it

hill

all

such a storm.

;

and as the

3|-

inches

and paths

streets

very steep, and from the rocky

there can be no underground drainage,

may be imagined what

city after

during such storms

the 19th of January, 1892,

than half an hour

through the capital are

falls

a roar of water there

The

all

over the

three or four chief thoroughfares

are transformed into the beds of rushing torrents and series of cascades,

and

it is

capital get deeper

no wonder that most of the highways of the and deeper every year. Even where there

an attempt at a rough paving, a single storm

up and

pile the stones together in a big hole,

order than obtains in the bed of a cataract. over,

the

red

soil

dug away from the

will often tear

with no more

After the rains are sides to

fill

up the

channel cut by the torrent, and so the road gradually sinks

below the walls of the compounds on either side of

it.

Taking the average of eleven years (i 881 -1890), the annual rainfall of Antananarivo was 52 inches and of this, omitting ;

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

decimals, 5^ inches

October, 5f inches

fell in

inches in December, 8 inches in March,

1 1

November, 10^

inches in January, 9 inches in February,

and

2 inches in April

so that

;

December

and January are the wettest months, during which usually on two days out of every three. It is

very unusual for thunderstorms to occur

they mostly come on

in the

downpour, a steady rain

and occasionally

hours,

and

on the sloping

tions

planting manioc,

;

and

;

all

after the first

heavy

generally bright

It is

vegetation

refreshed

and the people are busy

hillsides,

morning,

continue for three or four

far into the night.

morning

fine in the early

the plentiful moisture

afternoon

will often

in the

rain falls

in their planta-

digging up the softened earth for

sweet potatoes, the edible arum, and

many

other vegetables.

Hail also very frequently

and should

damage

often

rice-field will

done

to the

during these thunderstorms,

when the

rice

growing crop.

sometimes be stripped of every

standing up like bare in

falls

late in the season,

Charms against

sticks.

beliefs and, there

many

can be

are

animals,

they are

doubt, are

of very large size

hailstones

this

little

left

and

unsheltered.

kill I

had therefore the

still

of the more ignorant people.

in ear, great

grain, the stalks

hail

the old heathen times a prominent place

used by

large extent of

popular

trusted in

and

Occasionally the

sheep and small

remember a storm of

kind (Oct. 22, 1887), when the hailstones were as large as

good-sized nuts, while some were cushion-shaped and hexagonal

with a hollow

in the centre,

and nearly ij inches

in diameter.

In other cases they have been seen as jagged lumps of ice it

may

be easily imagined that

what dangerous

;

and

very unpleasant and some-

be exposed to such a

fusilade.

Besides the thunderstorms like those just described, which

come

so close and are often so awful in their results, there

another kind of storm

which

frequently see in the rainy season

an unmixed source of delight.

This

when,

for

two

or three hours together in the evening, a large portion of the

THE CHANGING YEAR

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

up by an almost incessant shimmer of lightning. All the time no thunder is heard from this celestial display, but

sky

lighted

most fascinating

watch the

infinitely varied effects of

and darkness.

light

the Malagasy

of November,

may

New be

Day now comes

first

day of

consequently at different times, from the

month,

Madagascar the

first

the cycle

until

(in

1863), the

of Alahamady, was

year, 1894, the

first

are lunar ones

reckoning by the months,

their year,

days shorter than our own, the

of that

month

the

say something here about the

The Malagasy months

native division of time.

and therefore

Year's

fitting to

first

eleven

coming

their year

to the twelfth

When I first came Malagasy New Year's Day, that complete.

to is,

month of March, and in this Malagasy month fell on the 6th of

in the

April, the cycle of thirty-three years being thus nearly finished.

But since the accession of the present Sovereign, Queen Ranavalona III., in 1883, the 22nd of November, which is her Majesty's birthday, has been fixed as the invariable

Day

;

to the year 1883

are

New

Year's

and most of the old ceremonies always observed previous on the

now kept up on

first

day of the

the eve of

first

November

month (Alahamady) The old New

22nd.

Year's Day, the birthday of the father of

Radama

I.,

still,

remembrance by the firing of cannon on the first of Alahamady. The Malagasy appear never to have made any attempt, by the insertion of intercalary days or any other contrivance, to fill up their shorter year to the true time however, held

occupied

in the earth's

annual revolution round the sun

;

for of

course they must have noticed that their months different periods after a

Malagasy months

very few years.

came at quite The names of the

use in the central province and in most

other parts of the island are

all

Arabic

in origin,

as indeed are

names of the days of the week. In some districts, however, other names are employed, which mostly appear to be purely Malagasy words. It may be noticed here that the Malagasy month-names are not the Arabic names for the months, but are the

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

the Arabic words for the twelve constellations of the Zodiac.

Thus, x'\lahamady

Adizaoza

the

Ram, Adaoro

the Twins, and so on.

the Bull {daoro =taurus),

This appears to have arisen

from the connection between astrology and the divination {sikidy) introduced by the Arabs several centuries ago.

full

account of the Fandrbana or

Year's festival

Bathing," as the

some

description would form a separate chapter of

must

suffice to

have

fallen

The

(i)

length.

falling into disuse,

still

The most prominent

lighting of

little

most of them are

of these are the following

eve of the 22nd, being considered as the Year's

reckon

Day

itself, for

These

fires,

are called liarhidrina^

the

latter,

commencement

of the

the Malagasy, like other Orientals,

the evening and the morning

the day.

bundles of dried grass at dusk on the

evenings of the 20th and the 21st of November, the

New

say that although some of the ancient customs

and are

kept up.

still

New

cannot be given here, as a complete

called,

as the proper order of

possibly a relic of the old fire-worship,

and form one of the most pleasing features

of the festival in the gathering darkness of the evening.

The ceremonial Royal Bathing the principal people

of the

representative foreigners,

the ceremonies, giving, as

This

at the great

kingdom

are present, as well as

perhaps the most prominent of does, the

all

households.

(3)

the killing of oxen, doubtless the

droana observances

name

to the

in the

all

festival.

the following

who

then get, for once a year at

least,

meat

are sent about in all directions to relatives

feasting

and merrymaking prevail

classes.

(4)

customary rank,

Presents of the newly-killed

for several

For some time previous

for the

day comes all Fan-

estimation of the people generally, at

rate of the jDOorer classes,

certain

whole

most important of

a plentiful supply of beef

all

followed by a ceremonial bathing, or at least sprinkling

of water, by

any

(2)

when

Palace,

Malagasy to

and days

among

to the actual festival,

visit their elders

bringing presents of money, fowls,

and

friends,

all is

and superiors

fruit,

&c., using

complimentary formula and expressions of good wishes.

THE CHANGING YEAR

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

The abundant rains which usually fall make the hills and downs, which have got

November soon

so brown and dry

during the cold season, to become green again, and although wild flowers are certainly not plentiful, there are several kinds

which

now make

Vonenina,^ with large pink flowers the Nifijtakangafi deep blue

with yellow flowers

many

;

Among

appearance.

their

these

are the

the Avbko,^ bright crimson

;

several small vetch-like plants

;

others with minute yellow

compound

and some few other kinds.

flowers,

Besides flowers growing on the ground, there are

and small

now

trees

many shrubs

blossom, although some are by no means

confined in floral display to the

warm and

the hedges in one or two localities

of purple flowers, called Fainamo

; 4

Along

rainy season.

a small bush, with clusters

branches of these shrubs

are sometimes placed in a pool or stream, so as to stupefy,

thus easily obtain, any fish present in the water.

and Very con-

spicuous are the bright yellow flowers of the Tainakbho

and the

Tsiofakbinby^ and the orange yellow spikes of the SevaJ

showy and handsome

perhaps are the abundant large yellow

still

flowers of the prickly-pear, which

and

for the

defences of the old towns and villages.

o{ Hibiscus^

deep red

so largely used for hedges

not

uncommon, with yellow

in the centre

;

flowers,

species

which have

yellow seems indeed the most

common

these, called Vdho7ia9

At this time of the year also of aloe come into flower. The larger of by the Malagasy, is much used for plant-

ing as a hedge, from

its

colour in the flora of Imerina. three or four species

prickles

;

of 4 or 6 its

feet.

armed with sharp up very rapidly to a height

fleshy leaves being

flower-spike shoots

its tall

Another and smaller one, called Sah6itdra,^Â° has

flowers branching at the top of the stalk something like a

candelabrum.

The numerous

Vinca rosea, L.

Commclyua madasiascarica,

Cassia lai'igata, Willd.

Bitddlcia madai^ascaricnsis,

Aloe macivclada, Baker.

flowers attract, as they expand, ^

C. B. Clarke. *

Lam.

Vi^na aiis^ivcnsis, Baker. * Muiuiulca subcrosa, Benth. Ca'salfuiia scpiaria, Koxb. Hibiscus divcrsifolius, Jacq. capitata, Baker.

" Aloe

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

66 swarms of called

Another

bees.

Taretra

by the

spine at the ends only

plant, like

an aloe

;

and

small mast to a height of 20

flower-stalk shoots

its

feet,

used as thread

fibre

thread."

The

Strong

flowers.

name

obtained from the leaves, the

plant being indeed that used for

with widely-spreading branch-

and an immense number of light-coloured

lets

appearance,

natives, has long leaves, with a sharp

tall

of the

flower-stalks

of these aloes and agaves form quite a noticeable feature in the Imerina landscape in the early summer.

mango

soon after the

In the orchards,

has finished flowering,

we may

see the

curious whitish flowers of the Rose-apple,^ a sort of ball of long

stamens, showing conspicuously

among

the foliage.

Towards the beginning of December the earlier crop of rice comes into ear and should the rains fall as usual during November, the remaining portions of the great rice-plain will be all planted out with the later crop, the whole of the level and ;

its

branching valleys presenting an unbroken expanse of green.

this,

the early rice shows distinctly as a darker shade of

colour, although

will

soon begin to turn yellow, as the grain

ripens under the steady heat and the plentiful rainfall. this

the time

and beautiful

some

when

Betsimitatatra

seen in

aspect, for every part of

its

most

Perhaps attractive

covered with

rice in

stage or other of growth and cultivation.

Since the reception of Christianity by the people of the central provinces of Madagascar, Christmas

very generally observed the

first

festival.

far as

Day

has become a

can be ascertained,

Protestant missionaries (1820-1836) do not appear to

have enjoined its observance upon their converts it seems to have become customary to keep it as a festival at some time ;

during the suppression of open Christian worship, probably during the

latter years of

against the this

may

be,

Ranavalona

praying people

became

when severe measures common. However

on the re-establishment of the L.M.S. Mission

1862, the observance of Christmas '

I.,

less

Agave

Ixtli,

Karw.

became very general with the *

Eugenia malaccensis, L.

THE CHANGING YEAR

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

Christians, and it has kept its hold upon them ever since. Every congregation meets in the morning of the day, either in its own church, or, more frequently, in the case of the country

people, in large united gatherings of half a dozen to a dozen

neighbouring congregations

in the

open

Looking round on

air.

the country from any good position in the capital during the

Day and following days, one may see at on various elevated points, a great mass of white, showing where one of these large assemblies is forenoon of Christmas

many

miles' distance,

gathered together for worship.

such services people

are seldom seen at church on other occasions

coming

make

although one can hardly believe that their motives for

;

attendance even then are of a very high order.

day

for

who

a point of

showing

borrow or hire

It is

a great

off the best dresses the people possess, or can

for the occasion

;

the

men

often look very un-

comfortable and awkward in suits of European cloth clothing, instead of their far

more becoming and graceful native Idniba, And the women, although they

over white shirt and trousers.

wisely retain the Idinba, often have these of brightly coloured

and they also consider

silk,

a point of good breeding to sport

the smartest of shoes and boots they can procure, although they

seldom cramp

their feet in such

other occasions. are

uncomfortable contrivances on

Jewellery, coral beads,

brought out, their hair

and other ornaments

handsome

elaborately plaited,

embroidered dresses are worn, smart parasols and sun-shades are carried, himself,

and every one

and especially

tries to

get something extra to

herself, to the best

show

advantage.

Great pains and trouble are often taken to get up special

hymns, or

at least musical compositions with

some Scripture

religious allusions in them, for the Christmas services

;

these are

often elaborate and wonderful performances, and sometimes the

sum

teacher

choir.

Several sermons or addresses are delivered at these out-

paid a considerable

for his trouble in training his

door gatherings, and the services of popular andeloquent preachers are often secured, so as to give greater interest to the occasion.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

About Christmas-time also many congregations have a feast some mango orchard, for the sake of the Here the people are arranged in rows on either side of shade. together, generally in

Great

primitive tablecloths consisting of fresh banana-leaves.

piles

boiled

rice

are

brought

huge wooden

generally the sahafa or rice-winnowing dish

platters,

while the laoka or

;

accompaniments, consisting of stewed beef or geese or fowls, with gravy and green vegetables,

brought

kind of crockery that can be borrowed for the is

any and

The

feast.

ever>'

repast

concluded by a dessert of sliced pineapple, peaches, and

bananas, pleasant

all

of which fruits are cheap and plentiful

sight

and

people enjoy themselves

the

see

;

this

innocent fashion. In Imerina there

only about two hours' difference

the

length of the longest day, about Christmas, and the shortest day, early in July.

of January, and

It is

dark at about seven o'clock on the

at about six o'clock

we have no long evenings

;

but,

on the

ist

Thus

of July.

on the other hand, we escape

the long nights and the short days of the English winter.

lose also the long twilights of the temperate zone, although

have never seen the almost instantaneous darkness one sometimes reads about in books as following the sunset.

There

a twilight of from fifteen to twenty minutes' duration in this

Very seldom have we a wet morning in is not more oppressive than any it often is in hot summers in England. It may be interesting to notice at this point the numerous words used by the Malagasy to indicate the different times of Clocks and watches are the day, from morning to evening. comparatively a recent introduction into Madagascar, nor do the people ever seem to have contrived any kind of sun-dial, part of Madagascar.

part of the year, and the heat

although, as will be seen, they did use something else as a kind

of substitute for such a timekeeper. that the hours given (counting in lents

for these

should be remembered

European fashion) as equiva-

native divisions of the night and the

day are

THE CHANGING YEAR

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

only approximations, and must be taken as the mean of the year, or, in other words, at about the time of equal night, towards the

follows

hliiia,

Centre of night,

are as

Misdsaka aliua, Maiicno sahona,

Halving of night,

Mancno akoho, Maraina aliiiu

day and

They

[Mamato)i

end of March or of September.

kou,

Frog-croaking,

„

3-0

Morning

4.0

also night,

Crow

Manga

Bright horizon,

croaking.

5-0 \

Mangbiin' atsiiuiiiana,

Reddish east

Mang}raii-(iriitsy,

Glimmer

Ahitan-tsbratr' oinby,

Colours of cattle can be seen, Dusk, Diligent people awake. Early morning.

Miizava riitsy Mifoha olo-inazoto,

Maraina koa, (Vdky Diasoinniiv, Vdky dud IV,

-j

\Piakdndiv, Aiitodudro be ndiialidry, Efa bdna iiy dndro,

2.0

Cock-ci"o\ving,

Maiiciio goaika, vbdiliinitra,

about 12.0 midnight

[ J

Sunrise,

5-15

of day,

Daybreak,

[

Broad dkylight,

Miliintsatia diido,

Dew-falls,

Mii'oaka onihy,

Cattle

Maini-bolioii-drdvi'na,

Leaves are dry (from dew),

Afa-drdnom-pandla, Maiidra vara ny dndro, Mi'sd udratra a udro, Mitatao lu'iratra,

Hoar-frost disappears.

go out

The day

5-30

„ (to

pasture),

chills the

„

6.1-

„

6.30

]

mouth.

Advance of the day. Over (at a right angle with) the purlin.

Mitatao vovouaiia, and ray tokonana ny dndro,

Over the ridge

Day

of the roof.

taking hold of the thres-

hold,

/Mitsidika dndro,

Peeping-in of the day, ^

Ldtsaka iray dia ny dndro,

Day

less

one step (=hour

[Soldfak' dndro,

Slipping of the day,

Tdfaldtsaka ny dndro, (Mihilana uy dndro, J

Decline of the day

(

A ni-pitotbani-bdry, A ni-paniatbran-jdnak' oniby, Mby ani-pisbko ny dndro, Mody buiby tcra-bao,

afternoon.

At the rice-pounding place.

(Mby anun' ny dndry ny dndro, At (

?),

the house-post.

At the place of tying the calf. At the sheep or poultry pen. The cow newly calved comes

home,

„

4.30

70 Tafapaka ny

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. atidiv,

Sun touching

(/.c,

the eastern

THE CHANGING YEAR bmby),

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

reached one of

the rays

the three central

7 posts

supporting the ridge, and where the calf was fastened for the night

;

and then,

touching

when the

{tdfapdka),

declining

sunshine reached the eastern wall, at about half-past four in the

Other words and notes of time,

afternoon.

derived from various natural phenomena.

will

There

be seen, are a phrase,

meaning house-post notching," to denote notches marks cut in the southern ridge-post to mark the gradual advance of the sun's rays, and from them the hours of the "

jlnja dndry,

Some other words for the divisions of time used by Malagasy may be here noted. Thus " a rice-cooking

afternoon.

the

{indray indhamdsa-bdry)

an hour is

while

;

frequently used to denote about half

" the frying

of a locust

{indray viitbno valdld)

a phrase employed to describe a moment.

Many words

exist

Malagasy language to denote

the

Nature which are somewhat poetical and seem to show some imaginative power. Thus the light different appearances of

fleecy clouds in the "

sky gossamer

{indsodndrd)

;

upper regions of the atmosphere are called

{farora-ddnitrd)

the galaxy

taond); the rainbow

mdnitrd)

;

the

the sun

the

day's-eye

dividing of the year

"God's large knife"

and a waterspout

the

" tail

{dntsiben'

of the sky

{efi-

Andria{rdmbon-

ddnitrd).

January is usually the wettest month in the year in Imerina and in some years there occurs what the Hova call the Jiafitoana ;

seven days," that

although time

seven days of almost continuous rain,

often lasts only three or four days.

not only a most uncomfortable one for

go about, especially clothing

;

but

for the

also

most disastrous

for the houses,

The continuous

them down

built

cut

com-

rain soaks into

From the house compound

every direction.

steep situation of the capital, almost every is

Such a

who have

Malagasy, with their thin cotton

pounds, and boundary walls. these and brings

all

up on one side with a retaining-wall, and on the other

away so

form a

level

space.

These walls or

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

72 " batteries,"

as they are termed, are often badly constructed

and thickness the constant and down come hundreds of stones and tons blocking up the narrow paths and making locomotion

and of very

insufficient strength

moisture soaks of earth,

;

in,

more difficult than ever. The enclosing walls of compounds and gardens, made of several layers of the hard red soil, are also apt

although

to is

down

be brought

wonderful to see

structures will endure the storms

ruin

for

such times,

how many

and heavy

such

years

rains of successive

seasons.

The prolonged moisture combined with

the heat of this time

Our

of the year naturally makes everything grow luxuriantly.

gardens are gay with flowers

;

and

many

downs display a considerable amount of

places the open

beauty.

floral

have

never seen elsewhere so beautiful a display of wild flowers as that which

met our view when

travelling

Vakinankaratra to Antananarivo

from Antsirabe

Leaving Antsirabe and proceeding

1887.

towards the north-east, the

the middle of December, for

miles

several

country up to the foot of the

level

long ridge running north and south, which four hours after leaving Antsirabe,

ascended about

was gay with

flowers,

which

covered the downs, and in places gave a bright colour to the surface of the ground.

Among

these the most prominent was

a pale pink flower on stems from a foot to eighteen inches high (called by

the

people Kbtosay),^ and

deep-blue flower called Nifinakanga

(lit.

also

the

lovely

guinea-fowl's tooth,"

see p. 65 ante), which latter occurred abundantly

among

the

grass.

In many places, especially near villages, a plant with small pale-blue flowers,^ almost exactly like our English " forget-menot,"

grew

dense masses, but on stems a foot or two

showing a blue-tinted surface even

The Vonenina

feet high,

at a considerable distance.

(see p. 65), with a pale-pink

flower,

was very

frequent, as well as several species of bright yellow flowers. '

Sofubia triphylla, Baker.

Various species of

Cynoglossiiiii.

THE CHANGING YEAR

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

Three or four species of white-flowered plants, one of which was a clematis/ were very frequent and here a few late examples ;

of terrestrial orchids were seen.

reckoned that there were from twenty to thirty different

bloom on these downs of Vakinankaratra, gladdening our eyes by their varied beauty and abundance as we travelled northwards on that glorious of wild

species

flowers

As we

morning.

then

got to the higher ground, however,

became very scarce. much less abundant on the

The

that the blue Ntfinakanga

Kbtosay was also white orchids were

many

in flower in

still

previously these upper

downs had been

masses of a

crimson

brilliant

probably an Indigo/era, which grew

Seven weeks

gay with great

leguminous

flower,

noticed

heights, but the

places.

also

pale-pink

in clusters of

plant,

many

scores

December only here

of spikes growing close together.

But

and there was there a flower

and hardly a seed-pod, the

left,

great majority having been scattered by the winds.

Not only do

flowers

time of the year, but of

comes

fruit

fruits

may

also

and verdure delight our eyes

when

this is the season

at this

the greatest variety

Bananas, pine-apples, and two or three other

in.

be had

all

get grapes,

the year round, but in the rainy season peaches,

mangoes, plums, quinces,

and

oranges, and latterly apples are also becoming plentiful.

Autumn rice

—the

although

March and

earlier in the

five or six

and the

April.

later

— are

—Generally,

all

both crops of

cut by the end of April,

northern parts of the province harvest

weeks

after that date.

But

usually

the rains are late and

should happen to be scanty in February and March, as was the case this year (1894), harvest

of May.

fact,

owing

work

still

going on at the end

to there being these

two crops of

rice,

with no very exactly marked division between the two, autumn, in

the sense of rice-harvest,

going on

for

about four months,

and sometimes longer, as just mentioned, and extends over the later

months of summer

as well as the

two months of autumn

Clematis Bojcri, Hook.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

(March and

or Fararano

golden yellow covered

lie

and

in hue,

may

field

In January those portions of

April).

the great rice-plain which

north-west of the capital become

after a

be noticed

few days, patches of water-

in different places,

showing where

the crop has been cut, and the few inches of water in which

was growing show conspicuously

in the prospect.

the weeks

advance, this water-covered area extends over larger portions of the rice plain, until the whole of the early crop has been

gathered

so that

in,

extensive sheets

many

of water.

Ambohimanarina, a large

how

narivo,

strange

remember, when once at

village to the north-west of

Antana-

appeared to see people setting out to

what seemed a considerable

cross

there appear to be

directions

well

But of course there

lake.

was no danger, as the water was only a few inches deep.

there are channels to conduct water to every rice-field,

small canoes are largely used to bring the after

and nearer to the roads. is

rice,

both before and

has been threshed, to the margin of the higher grounds the village just mentioned, which

surrounded by a sea of

like a large island

rice-plain, there is

one point where a number of these channels meet and form quite a port

;

and a very animated scene

presents at harvest-

time, as canoe after canoe, piled

up with heaps of

husk, or with sheaves of

unthreshed, comes up to the

landing-place to discharge

still

its

rice in the

cargo.

In a few weeks' time the watery covering of the plain

hidden by another green crop, but not of so bright and vivid a

tint

the

fresh-planted

and growing

rice.

This

the

kblikoly or after-crop,

which sprouts from the roots of the old

much

shorter in stalk and smaller in ear than

plants.

This

the

crop,

and

first

late,

fair

so that there quantity, but

often worth very

is it is

little

plenty of moisture,

;

but

the rains are

sometimes yields a

said to be rather bitter in taste.

In cutting the rice the Malagasy use a straight-bladed knife and as the work proceeds, the stalks are laid in long curving narrow lines along the field, the heads of one sheaf being ;

TPIE

CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

covered over by the cut ends of the stalks of the next sheaf.

This

done to prevent the ears drying too quickly and the

grain

falling

out before

This

reaches the threshing-floor.

last-named accessory to rice-culture

simply a square or circle

of the hard red earth, kept clear from grass and weeds, and plastered with

mud, and generally on the sloping side of a

Here the sheaves are

or rising ground close to the rice-field.

piled round the threshing-floor like a low breastwork. is

hill

flail

used, but handfuls of rice are beaten on an upright stone

fixed in the ground, until

The unhusked

straw.

all

rice

owner's compound, and

the grain

separated from the

then carried in baskets to the

usually stored in large round holes

with a small circular opening dug in the hard red are lined with straw, and the

which it is

mouth

again covered over with earth

;

and

flat

stone,

in these receptacles

generally kept dry and uninjured for a considerable time.

May

In most years the end of April and the beginning of

very busy times with the Malagasy give

These

soil.

covered with a

way

almost

;

to the getting in of the harvest

where dotted over with people reaping well as the poorer people

;

are

other work must

the fields are every-

almost

;

we meet along

all

slaves, as

the roads, carrying

considerable load of freshly-cut grain on their heads, or a basket filled

with akbtry or unhusked

spilt all

rice,

and large quantities are

Hence some of the most embankment leading

along the roads and paths.

frequented thoroughfares, like the chief out from the city westwards,

swarm with

must pick up a very good

living

Other animals also take

toll

rats

this

and mice, which

time of the year.

from the harvest, especially the

Fody, or Madagascar cardinal-bird, which

may be

seen some-

times in large flocks, the bright scarlet plumage of the cock-

making him a very conspicuous feature of the avifauna the warmer months. These birds sometimes do considerable damage to the rice-crop. Large quantities of bird

during

rice-stalks

out to

dry

are in

now the

sun,

seen

all

directions,

and they are also placed

spread for

the

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

same purpose on the top of the

clay boundary

walls

of the

compounds.

late years

has become rather

common

for the Christian

congregations to have a Harvest Thanksgiving service churches.

The church

and

fruits

all

in their

often elaborately decorated with rice

sometimes

descriptions,

in fact to

an absurd

extent, so that the building looks like a greengrocer's store, as

may be occasionally seen even in churches in England. much more commendable feature of these thanksgiving

indeed

services

the bringing of offerings of rice and various kinds

produce

for

the support

the

and

evangelists

school

teachers.

mornings are often

the colder weather advances, the

foggy, at least a thick white mist covers the plains and valleys

soon after the sun increasing

his

and remains

rises,

power

disperses

an hour or two until

for

Seen from

it.

the

higher

grounds, and from the most elevated parts of the capital, this mist often

presents

white sea of vapour

a very beautiful appearance brilliantly

out of this sea the hill-tops

rise

lit

up by the

like islands.

a billowy

sunlight,

and

But these misty

mornings also reveal many things which can only be seen by very close observation,

clear sunshine, especially the

of various species of spider.

Many

webs

kinds of bush are seen to

be almost covered by geometrical webs

one species seems to

choose the extremities of the branches of the Sbngosbngo,^ but the most

common

diameter, vhich

may

web averaging

five

be seen by thousands, half a dozen or so

The

aspect of

or six inches in

spread horizontally on tufts of grass, and

vegetation,

except

much during

in a

square yard.

the rice-fields,

can

autumn months. A plant with pale yellow flowers ^ may be noticed by thousands in marshy grounds, giving quite a mass of colour in many places. A significant name given to autumn is Mencihitra, i.e., hardly be said to change

" the grass is red," that '

is,

the

turning brown.

Euphorbia splcndcns, Bojer.

Graiigca madcrasfalaua, Poir.

THE CHANGING YEAR

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;We

have

Winter: May, June, July, and August.

any native word for it, for even the highest peaks of Ankaratra are too low for snow to fall on them we never see ice (although adventurous foreigners have no snow, nor

there

;

once or twice seen a thin film of hillsides)

;

hoar-frost, however,

some

ally the leaves of

on pools on the highest

not uncommon, and occasion-

species of vegetables, as well as those

of the banana, turn black with the keen night there

and

there

making long journeys,

be feared from

pleasant time

Winter

fever.

especially as

therefore

the skies are generally clear, the air

;

fresh

and

and to the cool and bracing temperature of the

invigorating,

winter months

doubtless largely due the health and strength

many Europeans

which

since

rain during our Imerina winter, the paths are dry,

the best time for little

And

air.

enjoy for years together in the central

provinces of Madagascar.

The long

period without rain at this season naturally dries

and the

up the

grass,

brown.

Maintmty,

names

i.e.,

for this season,

hills

and downs become parched and

the earth

and

The

dition of things in general.^

dry,"

track

made

across

them

rice-fields lie fallow, affording ;

and many short cuts

in various directions, for

over embankments, great and small,

for the

dry and

The

one of the native

very appropriate to the con-

a scanty supply of grass for the cattle

can be

may

the beaten

be safely

left

level plain.

winter months are a favourite time for the native

custom q{ famadihana, that deceased relatives of them to a

is,

of wrapping the corpses of their

in fresh silk cloths, as well as

new tomb

as soon as this

finished.

removing some

These are quite

holiday occasions and times of feasting, and, not unfrequently,

much

that

evil in

the

way

of drinking and licentiousness.

Another very prominent feature of the

Hova Malagasy

social

life

of the

the system of holding large open-air markets

Another curious native name for the end of the dry season vary aniitrn, i.e., " making the old women spit " '

Mhharbra

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

78 all

over the central province on the various days of the week.

The

largest of these

that held in the capital every Friday

(Zoma), at which probably io,000 people are densely crowded together,

and where almost everything that

factured in the province can be purchased.

of the other markets held within four or nanarivo do not

miles of Anta-

five

Zoma market

short of the

far

fall

grown or manuBut two or three in

size,

especially those at Asabotsy (Saturday) to the north, and at

Alatsinainy (Monday) to the north-east.

a stranger these

great markets present a very novel and interesting scene, and

a good idea may be obtained

by taking a

what

offered for sale.

sections, according

are oxen and

sheep,

while the meat

as to

what can be purchased here

through their crowded alleys and noticing

stroll

many

cut

The market

the

roughly divided into

kind of goods sold.

In one part

of which are killed in the morning,

up and sold during the day. Here are by the hundred here are great

turkeys, geese, ducks, and fowls

;

the husk and

heaps of rice, both in " red rice," or perfectly so, as

either partially cleaned, as

white rice

;

here are piles of

grey locusts, heaps of minute red shrimps, and baskets of all

used

root,

arum

as " relishes " for the rice

;

here

snails,

indngahazo or manioc

both cooked and raw, as well as sweet-potatoes, earth-nuts,

and other vegetables.

roots (saonjo),

In another quarter

American sheetings and

are the stalls for cottons and prints.

Lancashire calicoes, as well as native-made cloths of

and

and not

hemp

away

are palm basketfuls and piles of snowy cocoons of native silk for weaving. Here is the ironmongery section, where good native-made nails, rough hinges, and locks and bolts can be bought and near fibre,

rqfia

cotton,

silk

;

far

;

them

are the sellers of the neat

little

scales of brass or iron,

money" which forms There we come to the

with their weights for weighing the "cut the small change of the

Malagasy.

vendors of the strong and cheap native mats and baskets,

made from

the tough peel of the ZozSro papyrus,^ and from Âť

Cyperus imcrinensis, Boeckl.

THE CHANGING YEAR

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

various kinds of grass, often with graceful interwoven patterns.

Yonder a small

upright

forest of

pieces of

beams and

the timber market, where

wood

points out

and flooring

rafters, joists

boards can be purchased, as well as strong bedsteads and doors.

Not far distant from this Hcrana sedge,^ arranged in call

the place where large bundles of

" leaves,"

sheets or

them, for roofing, can be bought

;

Malagasy

as the

and near these again are

the globular water-pots, or siny, for fetching and for storing

But

water.

enumerate is

would occupy too much time and space to

the articles for sale in an Imerina market.

all

greatly to be lamented that native

many

and

at the

are also exposed for sale.

of the market, as

Perhaps the

some the same time

This

star-lit

done

the

;

" ;

pointers

it.

summer

this

season

northern constellations are seen at

higher up

;

The Great the Northern

many

his

the Southern Cross, with

;

the Centaur,

high

brilliant its

con-

the southern

and the Magellan Clouds are clearly seen nearer the all across the firmament is the Galaxy, or, as the

and

;

Malagasy

call

it,

And

serpentine

curve

Canopus, and

the efi-taona,

the year."

the division," or

separation of

then, as the circling year revolves, the great

many

midnight sky.

the

the year.

and Orion 2 with

neighbours, are overhead

spicuous

ashamed of

as several of the southerly ones.

Pleiades,^

;

in rather a quiet corner

little

all

Bear stretches over the northern sky

heavens

largely sold

of the evenings of the

skies

beautiful of

of the finest of the

horizon

now

Antananarivo market slaves

the people were a

months are the most

Crown

markets, in bottles, gourds, and in big earthen pots

must be added that

rum

Scorpio

appears,

and

Sirius,

Capella,

another glorious lamp of heaven light up

Imerina

certainly

very favourable

Cypcnis latifolius, Poir. * Curiously enough, the Malagasy appear to have given names only to these two prominent dusters of stars. The Pleiades they call Kbtokcli-uiiadi-Iaoua, while the three stars of Orion's i.e., " Little boys fighting over the rice mortar " '

;

belt

they

name

call

Tiio-iio-ho-n-fy,

i.e.,

Three make a fathom."

for the first-magnitude stars, or for the planets,

morning

star, viz., Fiturikaiuiro,

i.e.,

They have no

except for Venus, as a "Leader of the day."

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

may be

country for astronomical observation, and good work

from the Observatory established five years ago by

expected

the Jesuit Mission.

The month year,

of August, the closing one in this review of the

month of all, cold, that is, August the keen

often the coldest

All through

within the tropics.

country

for a

south-eastern

trades generally blow strong, and although in sheltered places

afternoon

the

sun

may

warm, the mornings and

quite

evenings are very cold, and during the night the mercury will

The mornings

often descend to very near the freezing point.

are frequently misty

;

on some days there are constant showers

of erika or drizzly rain, alternating with bright sunny days and clear skies

;

these latter seem the very perfection of weather,

But

bracing and health-giving.

weather often brings

this cold

malarial fever, which attacks great

numbers of Malagasy, and

also brings affections of the throat

and

victims.

fall

adapted

At such times

habits of a people

;

have made any change adapted ally

showing how

The

ill

it is

change the

lately,

lived in

few of them

in their dress,

which was well enough

for the purely tropical region

from which they origin-

air

of the winter

a country nearly 5,000 feet above the level of the sea.

great rice-plain to the west of the capital and

broader valleys

still

sive sheets of water

of the fields are

lie

fallow,

show

at the

although

that irrigation

now being Qug

over them to prepare the

livened

seems

Hova have

came, but quite unfitted for the keen cool

months

and

difficult

for centuries past the

highland region, yet, until very

cool

which many

This circumstance

for protection against the climate.

has often struck

this

chest, to

their thin cotton clothing

up,

in various places is

commencing.

and water

soil for planting.

all

the

exten-

Many

allowed to flow

In the lesser valleys

edges of the larger rice-plains the landscape

en-

the bright green of the ketsa grounds, the smaller

rice-fields or nurseries,

where, as already described, the rice

sown broadcast before transplanting There are not many deciduous

into the larger fields. trees

Imerina, so

the

THE CHANGING YEAR numerous orchards, leaves, notably the

prominent

A vz'dvy,^

put out

its

green buds

But the Cape-lilac

are

the peach-trees

;

blossom, and the Sbngosbngo

show

the hedges

are is

beginning

mass of

beginning to

Wild flowers bloom all The golden-orange panicles of the S^vaS yellow bracts.

brilliant scarlet or pale

its

however, do cast their

trees,

the Cape-lilac,^ and the Vbanonoka,'^

a large tree very like an oak. to

mangoes, look green throughout

chiefly of

Several

the year.

CENTRAL MADAGASCAR.

scarce, but the lilac flowers of the Sevabe'^

still

through the year.

now come

Nature

into bloom.

the cold season, and the few trees

arousing from the inaction of

now

flowering give promise of

the coming spring and summer.

Towards the end of

this

month

dry and withered grass on the This time of the year

the people begin to burn the

hillsides, as

that

previously described.

during which, as well

the earlier months of the cold season, the Malagasy are busy

with house building and house repairing. are

built of the hard red clay

still

country, although

and now

sun-dried brick

the time

when both

Many

of their houses

which covers most of the

rapidly superseding this

clay and bricks can be

made

;

There being no heavy rain, there is work being injured if finished before the rainy

well as built into houses.

risk of the

season comes on.

But

it is

time that

conclude these sketches of Imerina, and

of the varied aspects of Nature, as well as of aspects of the people, which

Much more might

year.

noted down must

may be

live,

suffice.

now

principal object in writing this if

possible, to people in

clear notion of that part of the country

some aspects of the

whom we work day '

observed throughout the

where and of the climate and conditions surrounding us here

as well as

social

be recorded, but what has been

chapter has been to endeavour to give,

England some

some of the

b}"

social life of the people

amongst

day.

" Ficus Mcllcri, Baker. 3 Sec p. 76. See pp. 54, 58, ante. 5 Biiddlcia inacinPascaricusis, Lam. Solaintin auricidattiiii. Ait.

CHAPTER THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA

PHYSICAL FEAAND THE VOL-

ITS

TURES AND LEGENDARY HISTORY; CANIC REGIONS OF THE INTERIOR.

—

Ancient volcanoes of Central Madagascar Hot springs Fossil remains in limestone deposits Crater-lake of Andraikiba Tritriva Lake Colour of water Remarkable appearance of lake Legends Mythical monsters Depth of Mr. Baron on volcanic phenomena Ankaralake View from crater walls Ancient craters Lava streams Volcanic rocks Recent tra Mountain

—

— — —

—

— — —

—

character of volcanic action.

MADAGASCAR

not at present one of those regions

of the earth where volcanic

disturbances occur

ample evidence, from the numerous extinct

there

found

in various parts of the island, that at a

geologically considered

—

of the country by

present inhabitants

its

the

examined with

occupation

was the theatre

of very extensive outbursts of subterranean energy. island has not yet been

but

very recent period,

possibly even within

—

;

craters

sufficient

The whole

minuteness to

determine the exact extent of these old volcanoes, but they

have been observed from near the south-east coast

and

in various parts of the centre of the island

west and extreme north, a distance of 680 miles

;

in S. Lat. 23°,

to the north-

and probably

a more careful survey would reveal other links connecting more closely

what

at present

groups of extinct

craters.

known

as only a series of isolated

In the central provinces of

Mada-

gascar there are two large clusters of old volcanic cones and

vents

;

one of them

and about the same

latitude

as the

THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA. away

capital (19Â° S.), but from fifty to seventy miles

it,

the neighbourhood of

district called

Lake

Itasy

83 to the west

the other in the

;

Vakinankaratra, situated about eighty miles to

the S.S.W. of Antananarivo, and south-west of the great central

mountain mass of Ankaratra. This second volcanic region stretches from twenty to thirty miles from Antsirabe

away west

and beyond

to Betafo

it,

and

contains numerous and prominent extinct craters, such as Ivoko, Vohitra, Tritriva, and

latsifitra,

many

have been described by the graphic pen of the in

Twelve Months

his

Madagascar

some of which

others,

late Dr. Mullens,

The

214-219).

(pp.

doctor says that he counted in this southern group about sixty

cones and craters.

There are also many hot springs

this

Vakinankaratra

region, the most noted of which are those at Antsirabe. this place

one of the chief springs

which has formed an extensive deposit valley sunk

some 20

around the

village.

furnished almost

and the

all

feet

largely charged with lime,

over a small level

all

below the general

For a long time

level of the plain

past

this

place

has

the lime used for building in the capital,

Besides the deposit over

central province of Imerina.

the floor of the valley, there

also a

compact ridge-shaped mass

of lime accretion, 70 feet long by 18 to 20 feet wide, and about 15 to 16 feet high.

This has

all

been deposited by the spring

which kept open a passage through the lime to the

top.

Within

the last ten or twelve years, however, the spring has been tapped

by a

shaft,

of no great depth, a few yards to the north, over

which a large and commodious bath-house has been erected

by the Norwegian Lutheran Mission and here many visitors come to bathe in the hot mineral water, which has been found A little very beneficial in rheumatic and other complaints. ;

distance to the south-west

another spring, not, however, hot,

but only milk-warm, the water of which

bathe in

the other spring.

drunk by those who

This water has been shown to be,

chemical constituents, almost identical with the famous Vichy

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

water of France. various places

;

All

over the valley the water oozes up in

and about half a mile

farther north are several

other springs, somewhat hotter than

which the natives largely resort

During the excavations

for

that just

described,

for curative bathing.

foundations of the bath-

the

house, the skeletons of several examples of an extinct species

of hippopotamus were discovered, the crania and tusks being in

Some

very perfect preservation.

Museum

at Berlin

;

now

of these are

the finest specimen was sent to the

This Madagascar

of the University of Christiania in Norway.

hippopotamus was a smaller species than that now Africa,

and

probably nearly

another hippopotamus

found

living in

not identical with,

Lemerlei), of which

was informed by the people

mud

valleys the black

bones are sure to

feet,

to,

remains were

1868 by M. Grandidier, in the plains of the south-west

coast.

(//".

allied

the

Museum

wherever

that,

these

dug into for a depth of three or four be met with. Probably a series of

excavations would reveal the remains of animals, birds, and reptiles

From

formerly inhabiting Madagascar.

the

internal

structure of the teeth and bones of the hippopotami discovered at

Antsirabe, traces

being

of the gelatine

still

visible,

evident that the animals had been living at a comparatively recent period.

There have been occasional vague reports of

the existence of

some

island

there

;

large animal in the southern parts of the

possibly the hippopotamus

not yet absolutely extinct

and perhaps the half-mythical

stories of the

Songbmby,

Tbkandla, Lalomena, and other strange creatures current the

Malagasy are

pachyderms were

traditions

still

of the period

to be seen in the lakes

when

among

these

huge

and streams and

marshes of Madagascar.

Within a few miles of Antsirabe are two crater nearer and

larger

of these

distant about four miles

called

due west.

lakes.

Andraikiba, which

This

The lies

a beautiful sheet

of water, blue as the heavens in colour, in shape an irregular square, but curving round to the north-west, where

shallows

THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA. into a marsh, is

which

finally

absorbed

in rice-fields.

The

said to be of profound depth, but the hills surrounding

not very

lake it

are

only about 200 feet above the surface of

lofty, rising

Fish and water- fowl

the water, from which they rise steeply.

and crocodiles also are said to be very abundant

and on

its

waters.

But the most interesting natural curiosity neighbourhood of Antsirabe is

situated about ten miles to the south-west,

ride of

two hours by palanquin.

direction, the road then turns

to be seen in the

the crater-lake of Tritriva.

Travelling at

and

first in

to the south-west,

This

a pleasant a westerly

and

skirts

the southern foot of the old volcano of Vohitra (already men-

Passing some mile or two south of the high ground

tioned).

round the southern shores of the Andraikiba

lake, the

road

gradually ascends to a higher level of country, so that in about

an hour and a Vohitra

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

time

half's

probably about 500

two prominent

are about as high as the top of

we catch our

hills,

about two or three miles distant it

Reaching a ridge between

feet.

first

sight of Tritriva,

in front of us.

shows very distinctly as an oval-shaped

From

hill, its

now

this point

longest axis

lying north and south, and with a great depression in

its

centre

;

the north-eastern edge of the crater wall being the lowest part

it,

from which point

rises

gradually southwards and west-

wards, the western edge being, at the centre, from two to three

times the height of the eastern side.

much

smaller cup-like

after the

main

crater

hills,

looking as

the north are two

the volcanic forces,

had been formed, had become weaker and

so been unable to discharge any longer by the old vent, and

had therefore formed two newer outlets Descending a

little

a valley with a good

at a lower level.

from the ridge just mentioned, we cross

many

scattered hamlets, and in less than

half an hour reach the foot of the

hill.

few minutes' pull up

a tolerably easy slope, perhaps 200 feet in height, brings us to the top, at the lowest part of the crater edge the ridge the crater of the old volcano and

;

its

and on reaching lake

before us,

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

86 or, rather,

below

unique of

its

steeply on

all

point,

The

deep

and

gulf,

round

all

cliffs

down very

inner sides of the crater dip

sides to a

by perpendicular

an extraordinary scene, and

It is certainly

us.

kind.

it,

here, sharply defined

except just at the southern

a rather weird-looking dark green lake far below us,

the water surface being probably from 200 to 300 feet lower

than the point we are standing upon, and consequently below the level of the surrounding country. in

by the

cliffs

of the crater surrounding

The

lake, exactly shut

it, is

not blue

a deep and somewhat blackish green.

old volcano

rest

now

are

looking

only a few feet

narrow knife-edge of

in colour,

Andraikiba, although under a bright and cloudless sky, but

the slope

down

in breadth,

same

the

into

to the

the spot on which

;

round the

all

undoubtedly an

and we can see that

pretty easy, but inside

and there precipitously,

edge of the

this

Outside

crater.

descends steeply, here cliffs

which so sharply

define the actual vent and, as distinctly, the lake which they

Looking

enclose.

southwards,

the

ascends, winding round the southern as the eye follows

crater side,

edge

and

gradually

ascending

still

to the western, the opposite side,

where

the crater wall towers steeply up from 200 to 300 feet higher

than

does on the

judge to be about 800 to 900

feet

appear to be from 40 to 50 feet

colour, but with black streaks

The

These

cliffs

and from

are vertical and in

In coming up the

which

charged with

rain,

plentifully

some

cliffs

down

their faces.

places overhang the water,

their apparently horizontal stratification are

of gneiss rock.

in height, whitish in

where the

carbonic acid, has poured more

lake

long and 200 to 250 feet wide,

forming a long oval, with pointed ends. enclose

The

where we are standing.

east,

hill

no doubt

noticed a few small

The

lumps of gneiss among the

basaltic lava pebbles.

feature of this Tritriva

the sharply defined vertical opening

of the vent, looking as

the rocks had been cut clean through

with an enormous doubtless the case

chisel,

and as

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;to unknown

they must dip

strongest

down

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;as

depths below the dusky -green

THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITR^VA. At

waters. cleft,

partly

this,

the northern end of the lake

filled

a deep gorge or

with bushes and other vegetation.

on the eastern

the

side,

cliffs

are

still

Southward

and overhang

lofty

the water, but at about a third of the lake's length they gradually

decrease in height, and at the southern point they dip

down

the level of the lake, so that at that part only can the water

be approached. uniform height

So steep

all

the western side the

along the whole length.

the inward slope of the crater walls, that

experienced a somewhat footpath at

its

keep a pretty

cliffs

edge

;

" eerie "

for at

all

feeling in walking along the

a very few feet from this a false

step would set one rolling downwards, with nothing to break

the descent to the edge of the

waters below.

cliffs,

and then

to the dark

proceeded southwards along the crater edge

where the view is equally and the depth of the great chasm seems still more profound. Here we waited some time, while most of our men

to the higher part at the south-east, striking,

went down to one of the hamlets get their success.

in the plain to the east to

meal, in which quest, however, they had only poor On expressing a wish to taste the Tritriva water, one

of our bearers took a glass, and descending by a breakneck path,

went

away

that

to fetch

some water from the

we were beginning

He was

lake.

so long

to feel uneasy, but after a quarter

of an hour he reappeared with the water, which tasted perfectly

sweet and good.

also entertained

us with

some of the

legends which were certain to have grown up about so weirdlooking a place as Tritriva. trees or bushes

Pointing to two or three small

growing on the face of the

cliffs

near the northern

young

point of the lake, he told us these were really a lass

who had become

hearted parents of the

attached to each other girl

;

lad

and

but the hard-

disapproving of the match, the youth

took his loin-cloth, and binding

round

his sweetheart

and

his

own body, precipitated her with himself into the dark waters. They became, so it is said, two trees growing side by side, and they now have offspring, for a young tree is growing near them

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

and

proof of the truth of this story, he said that

or break the branches of these trees,

but blood.

you pinch

not sap which exudes,

it is

appeared to believe firmly

in the truth of this

story.

He who

also told us that the people of a clan called Zanatsara,

live in the

Tritriva lake

;

send to see

neighbourhood, claim some special rights

and when any one of

their

the usually clear dark

becoming brown and

turbid.

If this

number

in the

ill,

they

green of the water

the case they believe

to be a presage of death to the sick person.

Another legend makes the lake the former home of one of the mythical monsters of Malagasy folk-lore, the Fandnim-pltoIbhUy or "

seven-headed serpent."

But

for

some reason

or other

he grew tired of his residence, and shifted his quarters to the

more spacious and brighter lodgings for seven-headed creatures afforded by the other volcanic lake of Andraikiba. This same bearer assured us that in the rainy season contrary to what one would have supposed the water of the

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

lake diminishes, but increases again in the dry season. told us that there

to the north of the mountain.

noticed a white line a foot

or two above the surface of the water cliffs,

an outlet to the water, which forms a spring

showing a probably higher

round the foot of the

all

than at the time of our

level

visit.

Walking round proceeded up the

end of the crater edge,

higher saddle-back ridge on the western

Here the lake seems much diminished in size, and lying But a magnificent and extensive at an awful depth.

side.

far

to the southern

far

down

view

gained of the surrounding country

lines of hill to the east

and

surrounded

running

directly

east

many ;

abrupt

hills

;

perfect

cones

(old

the peaked and jagged

range of V6amb6rona to the south-east

and then west, a

the long flat-topped

miles north and south,

by two

volcanoes, Votovorona and Ihankiana)

of Ibity to the south

;

the enormous mass

flat

region broken

to the north-west are the thickly populated valleys

THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA. many

towards Betafo, with

marking old volcanic vents country, with

;

and mountain

a cup-shaped

hill

and beyond

this a

high mass of

against the sky, showing the

outline

serrated

district of

Vavavato and the peaks of lavohaika

coming

due north

and

;

the varied grouping of the

finally,

which

hills

form the northern termination of the central mountain mass

Between us and these again is the extensive the white walls and gables of the

of Ankaratra.

plain of Antsirabe, with

church and the mission buildings plainly visible sunshine, although

ten

miles

eleven

distant

the bright

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;altogether

From this point also the panorama long to be remembered. significance and appropriateness of the name given to the old volcano

clearly seen

Tritriva

a combination of the words

a word used to describe the ridge on the back of a chameleon or a fish, and tva, low, deep so that the name very trltry,

;

happily describes the long steep western ridge or crater wall,

and the deep chasm sweeping down from It

may

be added

in conclusion, that the slopes of the crater

both inside and out are covered over with a dark

brown

it.

volcanic

soil,

which grows on

turf,

mingled with rounded pebbles of

greenish or purple lava, very compact and close in structure,

and containing minute

crystals scattered sparingly through

it.

Occasional blocks of this are found round the edge of the crater wall,

and the same rock crops out

inner slopes. at

many

was surprised

far

from the north-eastern

through the central regions of the soil,

red

dug

2 or all

The dark brown

island.

here seen in section, appeared to be only 18 inches

deep, with layers of small pebbles.

that the discharge of

the volcanic dust and ash appears to have extended short distance from the mountain, at least

only a

does not appear

to have been very deep, unless, indeed, there has been

denudation.

and

;

foot of

clay found

to find the hdcfy or fosse

14 feet deep almost entirely through the

volcanic

places on the steep

did not notice any vesicular lava or scoria

homestead not

little

Tritriva,

must be remembered, however, that

much

this point

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

90 is is

windward

to the

side of the hill

deeper to the west of

western wall of the crater

probably the volcanic

;

The much

it.

no doubt due

soil

greater height of the to the prevailing

easterly winds carrying the bulk of the ejected matter to the

and

west,

piling

two or three times the height of the

amount of

After seeing the

eastern side.

must have been blown out of the

much

greater quantities of

it,

vent,

and

gneiss rock which

expected to have found than the very

in larger blocks,

The

few and small fragments actually seen on the outer slopes. greater portion, however,

probably covered up under the

quantities of volcanic dust

and

lapilli

which were subsequently

ejected.

The Rev. Johannes Johnson, Society, says

" It will

interest

Lake of

the Volcanic

of the Norwegian Missionary

you

depth of

to hear that the

Here

Tritriva has been measured.

rough diagram showing the places where soundings were made, S

"T~ > N.

was 443

feet,

expected

and

at 3

would prove

was found

was 474

to be

to be 328 feet deep, at 2

The

feet in depth.

much deeper than

this."

natives

Thus

appears that although not, as popularly supposed, unfathomable, the depth of this remarkable sheet of water able for

given

its

small area, and

rise to

the

many

is still

very consider-

quite sufficiently profound to have

weird legends connected with

the

popular imagination.

The two

best

known

volcanic regions of Central Madagascar

have already been referred to readers of these pages

may

in this chapter,

like to

have

to these interesting parts of the country,

describe

them

and

some of the

fuller

information as

will

not attempt to

myself, but will quote half a dozen paragraphs

from a paper by

friend

and brother missionary, the Rev. R.

Baron, F.L.S., F.G.S., contributed to the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, for

May, 1889, and entitled "Notes on the Mr. Baron is the chief authority on

Geology of Madagascar."

the geology of the island and has

petrology

;

and

all

made

that he describes

a special study of the

from personal observa-

THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA. tion

and microscopic examination of

all

known

the

rocks of the

country.

"Volcanic Phenomena.

—The

play of former volcanic activity

scene of the greatest dis-

Madagascar has

Central

This mountain, situated some

undoubtedly been Ankaratra.

twenty to thirty miles to the south-west of Antananarivo,

the

highest in the island, attaining an altitude of nearly 9,000 feet

above the

sea.

It is

a broad and elevated

mass of

land, with

very sharp peaks or ridges, and having, for the most part, a gentle slope of 4°-8° on

exact

all sides,

so that

it is

not easy to define

Roughly speaking, however,

limits.

cover an area of perhaps

fifty

may

its

be said to

It is

the wreck of a

There are

at present, so

square miles.

huge, but ancient, subaerial volcano. far at least as

observations go, no traces of cones or craters,

but there are volcanic ejectamenta scattered about which bear witness to their former existence.

of liquid

lava

From

this

volcano vast floods

have issued and overflowed

the

surrounding

country to the extent, probably, of from 1,500 to 2,000 square In fact, almost the whole of Vakinankaratra

miles.

has been covered

b}'

a sheet of lava.

province

This lava has been poured

out at various times, several beds being superimposed on one

Some

another.

of the lava-streams are probably no less than

twenty or twenty-five miles from 300 to 500

in length, and, before

feet in thickness.

They

they thin out,

are mostly of a basaltic

character. "

The

lava which has issued from the north, north-east,

and

north-west of the mountain seems to be almost entirely olivinebasalt

;

whilst that which has issued from the south, south-east,

and south-west seems

to be

mainly nepheline-basalt.

also exists in sheets, apparently

east

and south-west

below the

side of the mountain.

Trachyte

basalt,

on the south-

The

three highest

points of Ankaratra are Tsiafajavona, 8,494 feet above the sea

Ambohitrakoholahy, 7,730 feet. Tsiafajavona, the highest peak, and Tsiafakafo consist of oli vineTsiafakafo,

basalt,

8,330

feet

;

and

Ambohitrakoholahy of trachyte.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

92 " It

was

would be interesting to know a state of eruption

;

what period Ankaratra

but our knowledge of the mountain

and the surrounding district is, as yet, too scanty to help us to any conclusion on the matter. There is evidence sufficient, however, to show that the volcano is of comparatively ancient date for, in the first place, all signs of craters or cones seem to have been effaced through denudation, though the presence of fragmentary

materials (which, however, have largely disappeared) manifest

Then, again, numerous deep valleys

former existence.

their

have been excavated out of the hard basaltic covering by the

many

streams that come

down from

the mountain, leaving long

Many

tongues of lava diverging from the central mass.

of these

streams have cut clean through the beds of lava, bringing into

view the gneiss upon which they are superimposed, "

Some

thirty or forty miles to the south of

Ankaratra there

are to be seen about a dozen remarkably conical hills without

Whether they

craters.

are the cores of former volcanoes or

eruptive bosses or remnants of a former lava sheet, difficult to say,

though

Votovorona and lakiana

inclined to regard

them

Ihankiana?) are

(or

would be

as the

last.

probably the

highest of these cones, though even these are of no great height.

Votovorona

feet high,

350

The angle of

granite.

its

and has been protruded through slope

over

nepheline-hornblende-phonoHte.

eruptive bosses.

or twenty-

N.N.E. of Ankaratra, and some seven or eight miles

W.S.W. of Antananarivo, 200

The rock

About twenty

the south-east of Vavavato mountain. five miles

50Â°.

few similar cones exist on

feet high,

and

It is

there

another of these probably

knob of perhaps

a low conical

also

known by

consists of oli vine-basalt.

the

There seem

small outflows of lava from the

hill,

and

name to

50 or

of Votovorona.

have been a few

not improbably forms

the core of an old volcano. "

and

In Mandridrano district, on the western side of in

Lake

the neighbourhood of Betafo, in Vakinankaratra

former being

fifty-five

Itasy,

(the

miles west, and the latter seventy-five

THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA.

miles S.S.W., of the capital), there are numerous volcanic cones,

which are undoubtedly much more recent than the volcanic

Both

of Ankaratra.

localities are

about 130 miles from the east

coast of the island, and 170 from the west coast.

necessary to say that

It is

hardly

these volcanoes are extinct, and that

all

any part of

there are none in activity at the present time in

Madagascar.

pile

the west

Lake

side of

Itasy the volcanic

cones exist in great numbers, and these therefore shall be

first

described. "

The

extend

extinct volcanoes

for a distance of

the

district

The cones

and perhaps three or four east and west. studded over the

district, in

some

are thickly

parts clustering together

Occasionally there

thickly than in others.

Mandridrano

about twenty miles north and south,

a series of cones

which have evidently been heaped up by the simultaneous ejection of scoriae fissure,

from different vents situated on the same

a ridge, generally curvilinear, at the

summit

extinct volcanoes reach the height of

probably the highest,

the

This

plain.

perfect

on the sides have become

on which

of these

Kasige, which

found by aneroid to be 863

a remarkably

None

,000 feet.

feet

The

sufficiently disintegrated to

found a by no means scanty

above

and fresh-looking

volcano, whose sides slope at an angle of 32Â° or 33Â°.

soil,

line of

but so that the cones have run one into the other, leaving

flora.

scoriae

form a its

top

an unbreached funnel-shaped crater, which measures, from the

highest point of

its

rim, 243 feet in depth.

Kasige, and adjoining

its

Contiguous with

south side, though not so high, there

another volcano, Ambohimalala, and

many

others are to be seen

near by. "

One

thing with regard to these volcanic piles soon strikes

the observer; this the crater side

is,

higher than the other.

situated in

west of the

that in the majority of the cones one side of

crater.

Not only

so,

but the higher

most instances on the north, north-west, or This

accounted

for b}- the direction of the

wind during the eruption, causing the ejected fragments to

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

accumulate on the leeward side of the vent.

Now we know

that the south-east trades blow during the greater part of the

year in Madagascar, hence the unequal development of the sides of the cones.

The same

thing

may

also be observed

the

volcanic piles in the neighbourhood of Betafo. "

very large number of the cones have breached craters,

whence lava has flowed in numerous streams and flooded the plains around. These streams and floods consist, in most instances, of black basaltic lava

;

a sheet of this lava, the mingled

streams of which have flowed from Ambohimalala and some other vents, has covered the plain at the foot of Kasige to such

an extent as almost to surround the mountain. Similar sheets are

much

to be seen in other parts of the district, but they are so alike, that a description of

mamo

one

Amboditai-

will suffice for all.

a small volcanic cone at the south-west

end of Ifanja

marsh, and at the northern confines of the volcanic

district.

possesses a breached crater turned towards the east.

From

this

has issued a stream of lava which, following the direction of the lowest level of the ground, has swept through

a small valley

round the northern end of the cone, and spread out at western

foot.

This sheet of

which

lava,

the surface,, occupies but a small area of

square miles.

has been arrested

form of the ground. (Ikotombolo) which,

It is

its

some two

by the by a stream

worn a channel to the surface, which is slightly

places, has

feet.

Its

covered by hundreds of

mammiform

hillocks,

must have been formed during the cooling of the

The

hillocks are mostly from

twenty to thirty

lava itself

black, heavy,

which

liquid mass.

feet high,

apparently are heaped-up masses of lava, and not hollow

The

or three

flow in front

cut through in one part

some

depth of eighty or ninety cellular, is

its

extremely rough on

and

blisters.

and compact, being porphyritic

somewhat large crystals of augite. As yet it is scarcely decomposed sufficiently to form much of a soil, though grass and a few other plants grow on it abundantly.

with,

to the nature of the volcanic rocks of the district,

may

THE CRATER LAKE OF

TRITRiVA.

be said that these comprise basalt, andesite, trachyte, trachytic tuff,

palagonite

tuff,

and limburgite.

Some

of the trachytic rocks

contain large porphyritic crystals of glassy felspar (sanidine).

Pumice, obsidian, and pitchstone do not seem anywhere to be found. "

In addition to the numerous scoria-cones, there

may

seen scattered here and there in the district some dozen or more other volcanoes, differing entirely in character from those which

have been

hummocks craters,

spoken

above.

These are large bell-shaped

of trachyte or andesite.

They

are without definite

though one or two of them have more or

less

conspicuous

depressions on their summits, showing that eruptive action has altogether wanting. These hummocks are chiefly composed of a light-coloured compact rock. This rock, having originally had a highly viscid or pasty consistency, has accumulated and set immediately over the orifice through which it was

not been

extruded. " It is

hardly necessary to say that these extinct volcanoes of

Mandridrano must have been far as

in activity in

comparatively recent

Possibly they belong to the historic period, though, so

times. I

aware, no tradition lingers with regard to their being

That they are, at any rate, of recent shown by the good state of preservation in which most of the cones are still found and by the undecomposed (or slightly

in a state of eruption.

date

decomposed) character of the lava-streams that have issued from them. There have been no terrestrial disturbances or modifications of

any magnitude since the days of

conformation of

hill

their fiery energy the and dale was the same then as now, for in ;

every instance the lava-streams have adapted themselves to the

form of the existing valleys."

CHAPTER

VI.

AMBATOVORY, OXE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS IN MADAGASCAR ; WITH NATURAL HISTORY AND OTHER NOTES.

—

— — — — — — — — — — insects — Spiders — Butterflies — King Butterfly — Solitary wasps —Wasp-nests —Angavokely Mountain — Extensive prospect.

The Rest-house Amboniloha Hill A deserted village Ambatovory rock Woodland paths Birds Lizards and chameleons Grasshoppers ProWaning colours Beetles Ants and ant-nests Balltective colouring

the kind consideration of the Directors of the

Missionary Society

for

missionaries in the central province of Imerina, for

London

the comfort and health of their

some years past a pleasant Country-house

we have had

or Sanatorium, to

which, after a year or so of steady labour in college, or school, or hospital, or church

and

district,

we can go

for a fortnight or

This peaceful resting-place

a month's quiet holiday.

situated

about twelve miles east of Antananarivo, on the Tamatave road, a mile and a half beyond the mission station of Isoavina, and a

mile or less west of a great rounded mass of granite rising

about 400 vory,

i.e.,

feet "

and known as Ambatosummit and eastern and huge boss of rock are numerous trees,

above the

Round

rock."

western slopes of this

rice-valleys,

the

much more plentiful on the western side, where they stretch down into a deep valley and form an amphitheatre of wood and bush. forest,

This vegetation

probably a remnant of the original

which once covered a much larger area of

bare and treeless Imerina, and

it 96

this

mostly

forms a refreshing contrast to

AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS. the

moory

hills

and rocky mountains which are seen

The Mission Rest-house

direction.

dwelling on the slope of the the ground

hundred

falls

rapidly

hill

down

97 every

good six-roomed facing the south, and from it is

to the rice-valleys a couple of

ground belonging

feet below, the large piece of

to the

house joining on to the bush and scattered trees of the Ambatovory forest, so that in two minutes' time one can stroll into a number of paths have recently

the woods, through which

been

turning in the opposite direction, can walk over

cut, or,

breezy downs towards

the

workmen

for several

Here

Isoavina.

mission-house of Mr. Peake, with

the

pleasant

its

long row of cottages for

in the industrial school

which he has carried on

years,

its

school- and

class-rooms and

its

pretty

church and school-house, forming altogether a model mission station.

Behind the Rest-house it

rounded

hill

called

inappropriate name. a

number

rises for several

Amboniloha,

Like scores of

which can be seen

inspection treble

hills

line

hundred "

feet

Over-head," a not

that this

of a well-fortified town.

away, prove

miles

for

be deep fosses cut

the

above

throughout Imerina,

summit show

of deeply-cut lines round the

place was formerly the site lines,

i.e.,

These

hard red

closer

earth,

defence one within the other, the innermost

rampart being strengthened by a low wall of massive stones. No building now remains in this " deserted village," but many squares

grass-grown stones

can

be traced, showing the

former outline of the wooden framework of the houses

on the highest spot there

some of

;

and

an ancient tomb, where doubtless

the rude forefathers of the hamlet

sleep their last

sleep.

In front of the house, looking south-west, the view

shut

in,

at a mile or two's distance,

high above the rice-valleys far below

;

lofty

rocky

partly

hills

rising

but to the south-east one

gets a peep into a distant prospect of lines of

hills,

nearer ones being enormous masses of bare rock

;

some of the while to the

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

east the view

tovory

itself,

by the smooth, rounded slopes of Ambawith the woods around it and stretching down into closed

the deep valley at

its

base.

There are many pleasant walks

One

Sanatorium.

of these

rock, from which there

and south, are

to east

in the

neighbourhood of the

Ambatovory

to the top of the

an extensive view, and around which,

and pleasant shady spots, where and where ferns and other few years ago there was a small

fine trees

picnic party can be improvised,

plants can be gathered.

on the spot

village

number

that

people, as

;

four or five years ago there were about

of houses

;

now

while

there

not one

left,

the

usual throughout Imerina, deserting these incon-

But a row of half-a-dozen old

venient heights for the plains.

tombs, with small timber houses on their tops, shows that this

was a

village of

one of the noble clans or Andrlana, who alone

make such wooden

are allowed to

Trano mandra, as they are "

Cold houses

and will

i).

These

are,

called

houses, "

{i.e.,

however,

Trdno masina or

Sacred houses," or

now tumbling

to pieces,

two or three more rainy seasons heaps of rotting wood all that is left over the tombs of these departed great be after

ones of the

district.

Another

easily reached spot

a detached rock, something

like a miniature Ambatovory, but a short distance to the south

Here a scramble over a great sloping

it.

surface of gneiss

brings us to a rough ascent leading to an ancient gateway.

top of this rock was evidently a fort of the old times,

except where we climb up, there

and no need of

The for,

no approaching the summit

smooth rock slopes the days before guns

fosses or ramparts, as the

away perpendicularly

all

around, and in

and gunpowder a dozen resolute men could have barred the narrow approach against a hundred assailants.

The

paths through the woods are, however,

among

pleasant places for a walk in the neighbourhood of

vory *

;

and although the small remnant of old

" Cold,"

because they are houses having no hearth or

the most

Ambato-

forest

fire to

warm

too

them.

ambatov6ry, one of our holiday resorts. limited

there

still

extent

much

furnish

for natural history, especially if

Of are

variety

they

will

animal

who have

a great deal to interest those

99 life,

a taste

only use their eyes.

of mammalia there some of the small hedgehog-like as the woods are far too restricted in

four-footed creatures in the shape

none, except possibly

creatures (the Centetidae),

range for any species of the lemurs to find a there

no great variety even of

birds.

home

There

there,

and

a space of

of bare moors between this place and

fifteen or sixteen miles

the upper forest, so that few of the numerous feathered tribes

wooded regions come over the intervening country. In warm season the kow-kow kow-koo of the Kankdfotra, the

of the the

Madagascar cuckoo,

continually heard

among

the trees and

bushes, as well as the chirping and whistling cries of a few of

the smaller and less conspicuous birds, and the cooing note of

About the rocks one may constantly

one of the wood-pigeons.

hear the querulous cry of the

little Httsikltsika, or kestrel, and them hovering in the air or darting about and now and then we come across a flock of the Papdngo, or Egyptian kite, perched on the trees, or swooping down near the native houses to carry off an unwary chicken or mouse. Of course the ubi-

see

;

quitous Goaika, or native crow, fine

never far away.

With

his

white collar and square white patch on his breast, he has

a very clerical appearance

;

he haunts the neighbourhood of the

great open-air markets, where he apparently picks up a good living

the

from the scattered

warm

rice

and refuse of various

season flocks of the

little

both the Fody, the male of which at the hot season of the year,

brown in

livery,

weaver-birds

mostly of a

and the smaller

which darts down

Tdkatra, a

brown

solemnly about.

stork,

large as a truss of

may

builds an

hay and

be seen,

brilliant scarlet

Tsikirity, in sober

an arrow on the

companies of thirty or forty together.

kinds.

may

rice-fields

In the rice-fields the

be sometimes seen stepping

enormous

nest,

which looks as

fixed on the fork of a tree or on

the edge of a large rock, and there are

many

superstitions

and

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

TOO

In the old times of idolatry,

fables connected with him.

one

of these storks crossed the path along which any of the chief

was being

idols

carried,

was immediately taken back, and

was thought equally unlucky

crossed the road in front of

if it

the sovereign.

The

Two

inconspicuous.

seen

the pretty

lines

Ambatovory

to be found near

reptiles

are small and

or three species of lizard are frequently

Antsidntsy, with

little

and dark spots along

its

brown coat and white inches long,

sides, eight or ten

darts about like an arrow on rocks

and sunny banks, while a is of an exquisite green

smaller species, about four inches long,

colour above, with black and white lines along

its sides,

and pale

often seen running around the fleshy

grey underneath.

leaves of the aloes,

its

tinting forming a protective resemblance

among of

Equally beautiful are the bright

surroundings.

its

some of the small chameleons

—black

—and equally protective

also, in

and green

tints

and yellow, and red case of need,

their

power of changing into dull grey or brown when alarmed. Small pretty brown snakes may be often seen, from eighteen inches to two feet long, and happily they are perfectly harmless, as,

indeed, are

there are none to see

how

alarm.

all

the serpents of this great island

whose

bite

And

dangerous.

the Malagasy leap out of their

yet

—

it is

way with

least,

amusing

the greatest

found on one occasion a very large earthworm,

three times as long and bulky as any

we had

ever seen in

England.

But perhaps

shining, the air

from the locusts

many

most constantly. is

the insects which attract one's attention the open downs, and

filled

species

with the

hum

which cover the ground.

of chirping insect

life

small

insects,

which leap

all

proceed, sometimes dashing on

The majority of these brown and green, and some of the

one's face with a smart blow.

Every step among the long

dry grass disturbs a score of these

shades of

the sun

of grasshoppers, crickets, and

directions from one's path as

various

when

are of larger

AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS. of

Species

grasshopper are

remarkable

for

their

lOI

protective

Here is one whose legs and wings are exactly like dry grass the body is like a broad blade of some green plant, the antennae are two little tufts like yellow grass, and the eyes are just like two small brown seeds. But, curiously enough, colouring.

;

when

it flies

You

conspicuous. insect,

when

make

a pair of bright scarlet wings

pursue

settles,

and

very

to catch such a brightly coloured

it,

its flight

has vanished

resembling green or dry grass remains, which

;

only something

requires sharp

eyes to distinguish from the surrounding herbage.

Other grass-

hoppers are entirely like green grass blades and

stalks,

others, again, resemble equally closely dried grass,

and unless

and

move under one's eyes it is almost impossible to them. One is puzzled to guess where the vital organs

the insects detect

can be placed

such dry-looking

sticks.

little

species of mantis also, which, in the shape

There

one

and colour of

its

wings, legs, antennas, and body, presents as close a resemblance to

its

environment as do the grasshoppers.

Their curious heads,

however, which turn round and look at one

in quite

an uncanny

manner, and their formidably serrated fore-legs or arms, put up in

mock

pious fashion, give them a distinctly different appearance

from the other

insects.

In the dry and cooler season, on almost

every square foot of ground

many of them close together, But the most handsome

a large brown caterpillar, often

feeding on the insect

Valdlanaviboa, or dog-locust. coloured, the

young blades of grass.

one sees on the downs

This

and

large

the

gorgeously

body being barred with stripes of yellow and

black,

while the head and thorax are green and blue and gold, witli

shades of crimson, and the wings are bright

most desirable one, for

insect for a cabinet, but

tection, so that

taste,

this,

as well as

appears to be

no bird or other creature feeds upon

insect seems, therefore, a

has no need of

seems a

impossible to keep

has a most abominable smell, and

probable possession of a nauseous

scarlet.

good example of

protective resemblance

its

it.

This

warning colours "

lest

its

pro-

" ;

should be

MADAGASCAR IJEFORE THE CONQUEST.

102

devoured by enemies

can flaunt

;

its

gay

livery without fear,

indeed this seems exaggerated in order to say to outsiders

"Hands

''Nemo

off!"

impune

vie

have a proverb which runs thus

The Malagasy

lacessit."

Valdlanamboa

ny tonipony

The dog-locust, even its owner dislikes it." There are many species of beetles to be seen, although none The most common of them are very handsome or conspicuous.

aza

tsy tia ; "

kind

a broad

i.e.,

flat insect,

about an inch long, and dull dark-

brown in colour, which crosses one's path at every step. Another is seen chiefly on the bushes, a smaller insect, but bright shining

Another, which

jet-black.

mimicked a wasp

in its habit of flight,

green, with very long legs,

and

golden green and metallic but on one spot,

tints

which has puzzled us most

wing-cases.

its

one that

which

this,

in colour, is

closely, as thick as

like a beetle

they can

that they look at a

beads

;

and

lie,

together,

little

about five-eighths of shape.

It is

warm

all

These

insects cluster

groups of from a dozen to

round the thicker stems, so

distance like strings of large

brown

some of the topmost branches they form a con-

tinuous mass for two or three

brown

and on

with a line of black and then of yellow

perfectly flat below.

more than a hundred in

has

But the

within a few yards of the Rest-

an inch long, and almost hemispherical next the head, and

rare,

on a large bush of Roiiiiemy, a plant with

viz.,

house at Ambatovory. reddish-brown

have never seen

acacia-like leaves, with prickles along the leaf-stalks,

only one bush of

constantly taking short flights

Another one, but much more

or running rapidly.

insect

appears as

shot with brown and

feet.

Amongst

these shining

insects are a few others of quite a different colour

shape, perfectly

flat,

like a

minute

tortoise,

grey, exactly resembling the lichen on the bark of the tree,

the edges of the carajaace scolloped. ^

and

and of a uniform

These grey

and

insects are in

' Mr. Baron tells me that both kinds are certainly species of bug, and that they are common on other kinds of trees. They have a very bad smell. Nearer the forest are other kinds of bugs, but of the most brilliant colours, and also evil

smelling.

AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS.

about one to forty or fifty of the darkerThere are also a few individuals of the same

proportion

the

of,

coloured ones.

shape as the brown one, but yellowish-green these grey insects can be, and

what

much more numerous brown one, ascertain why they all remain I here, at

any

although

they seem not to have altered in position,

thought at

way on the as indeed

motionless and in

first

tree, as their

body

the whole

that they

must be feeding

some

heads seem closely fixed to the bark, ;

but on minute examination

no trace of any puncture or sign of

find

Nor can the same

think the lower clusters are slightly diminished in

number.

rate,

cannot make out.

What

in colour.

relation they bear to the

During the three weeks of our stay

weeks together.

position for

103

their

gnawing

can

or eating

the bark, although the branches on which they are most thickly clustered

seem more dry and withered than the

others.

Their

torpid condition certainly does not arise from inability to move, for,

on being disturbed or shaken

distance,

these

and

insects

previous visits ber),

will

they will

off,

creep along the branches.

on the same

fly

a considerable

have noticed

and nowhere

bush,

else,

during

to Ambatovory at this time of the year (Decem-

but not during the cold season.^

[Since writing the above,

have had another inspection,

the cold season, of the tree with

these curious insects.

There

now (June) to be seen not a single one of the brown bugs, but the branches are thickly covered with hundreds of young are

ones, about one-fourth to one-third of an inch long, but these

are

all flat,

The

and grey

in colour,

difference in shape

with the edge of the body serrated.

and colour

in insects so closely associated

together certainly seems remarkable.]

The ants are, many species.

as in

all

tropical countries, very

numerous and

All of them, from minute kinds not an eighth

of an inch long to others half an inch to five-eighths of an inch in length, .shafts

appear to make nests

leading

down '

them from the

have subsequently seen

the ground, with circular surface. in

It is

other places.

amusing to

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

I04

watch the busy industry of these

Httle creatures, the sides of

the shafts being covered with their shining black bodies, those

coming up being laden with a little pellet of earth, which they deposit outside the slope, and then hurry back down below. All round the mouth of the entrance is a considerable mound of earth,

The

all

brought up grain by grain by the busy workers.

ants are the scavengers of the

country.

beetle, or

worm, or grub, or animal matter of any kind, can be many minutes on the ground before

communicates the diately

fall

on the

stronghold.

It is

detected by

fact forthwith to its fellows, spoil, cut

and convey

in pieces,

astonishing to see the heavy loads

sugar-cane, or yam, or other food

stagger along with for the

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;that

common

minute point, an

marvellous things

ant's head,

therium

These

sp.),

to their

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; pieces of will

The

thinking power

certainly one of the

most

animated nature.

While speaking of wingless different kind of

who

Truly, although they

weal.

ant,

two or three ants

are small folk, they are " exceeding wise." in that

some

and they imme-

one from the

insects,

may

notice here a very

ants, viz., the ball-insect {Sphero-

of which there are several species in Madagascar.

insects, called

not very elegantly by the Malagasy Tain-

klntana, or " star-droppings," have the

power of instantaneously

rolling themselves into an almost perfect sphere,

which form

they retain as long as any danger threatens them, and no force short of pulling

animal legs, tail

them

to pieces can

make them

unroll.

The

formed of nine or ten segments, each with a pair of

and covered with a plate of armour are defended

;

while the head and

large plates, each of which

fits

into the

other and makes a more perfectly fitting suit of armour than

was ever worn by medieval knight. There are several species of these pretty and curious creatures. The most common kind here is one which forms a ball barely an inch in diameter, and shining black in colour.

Another, more rarely seen here, but

common enough in the upper belt of forest, is of a beautiful brown colour like Russia leather, and is quite double the size of

AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS.

In passing through the main forest in

the first-mentioned one. 1892,

IO5

we came suddenly one day

to a part of the road

which

number of

these

by such

was so thickly covered

a great

creatures that our bearers could not avoid trampling on them.

These were of a bronze-green

and are probably a

tint

third

species.

all

parts of

members of

the

Madagascar the spiders are very conspicuous The most common kind is a

insect-world.

webs and may be seen by

species of Epeira, which spins large

scores between the branches of trees and the angles of buildings.

These are large

insects, their legs stretching

over four or

five

inches, and their bodies being handsomely coloured with red and gold and silver markings. From the way in which these spiders

webs the fosses round the old villages they are called by the Malagasy Mampitahady, i.e., " fosse-crossers." The main " guys " or stays of their webs are strong and thick Another yellow silk cords, which require an effort to break. cross with their great

species, also

common,

somewhat crab-like in shape, with abdomen and thorax. Other found on leaves and in flowers, are surroundings, some being of various

curious spiny processes on the

smaller species of spider,

coloured exactly like their

shades of green, and others pure white, apparently that, with these

protective

upon the smaller

flies

may more

easily

pounce

and other insects attracted to the

flowers.

resemblances, they

In these bare upper highlands of Madagascar butterflies are

not found in as great variety as in the warmer regions of the island.

Still

there are a few species which are

the most plentiful being one which

common

enough,

satiny-blue above, and

spotted with brown and grey underneath.

This

to be seen all

the year round, especially hovering over the Euphorbia hedges

which divide plantations from the roads. ably common,

large

reddish-brown

edged with black and white.

Much more

Another, also butterfly,

rare

toler-

the wings

an insect with

four large round white spots on dark chocolate-brown wings

and another, dark-brown

in colour,

;

with eye-like spots of blue

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

I06

and on,

small species, yellow, white, or brown, or

Several

red.

and

silvery-grey

damp

blue,

places

found

are

hovering over, or settling

and there are two or three white

;

species,

with black spots or lines on the edges of the wings. the in

warmer season a handsome

large Papilio

rather

common

our gardens, with dark-green and sulphur-yellow spots and

markings.

somest

And

lastly,

butterflies in

but rather scarce,

one of the hand-

the world (more strictly speaking,

diurnal moth), the Urania

This

riplioea.

insect,

with

its

it is

colour-

ing of green and gold, and scarlet and black, and

its

fringing of pure white on the edges of the wings,

indeed one

The Malagasy

of the most lovely productions of Nature. Andriajidblo,

i.e.,

"king butterfly"

do not see many bees

One

call it

(or moth;.

Ambatovory wood, but wasps, whose habits are very

in this

there are several species of solitary interesting.

delicate

species excavates a hole in the ground or on

some unfortunate benumbs with her sting, carries

the side of a bank, and then, capturing or caterpillar, which she

the hole and lays an egg in

its

body, so that the

spider it

little

into

grub,

when hatched, finds itself surrounded by food, and then eats its way out into the daylight. The hole is, after being filled up, so carefully concealed that

quite impossible to discover

Another species of wasp builds a fixing cell

them

to the sides of houses

with living food for

mining

Our

its

and

progeny

and same fashion

rocks,

in the

layer,

storing each as its

cousin.^

longest excursion was one to the grand mountain of

Angavokely, which

two or three hours' ride

south of the Tamatave road.

Angavokely

and most conspicuous mountains 1,400

which

series of cells of clay,

the busy worker brings in pellets and builds up layer

it.

feet

above the general

level

to the east, to the

one of the highest

Imerina, rising 1,300 or

of the province

;

and

' For a ver}- full and illustrated account of these insects, see a paper by the Rev. C. P. Cory, " Notes on the Habits of the Solitary Wasps of Madagascar,"

Annual

xiv., 1890,

pp. 163-170.

AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS.

lO/

extends for two or three miles east and west, with two summits nearly equal in height, and quite a mile apart. of these rises

crowned by enormous with

rises

south

much

side,

The easternmost

from the surrounding valleys, and

steeply

piles of rock, while the

western summit

gentler slopes covered with bush, except on the

where great masses of granite appear, looking

the towers

some Titanic

castle.

couple of hours' ride

brought us to the rice-valley immediately under the eastern peak,

and from which we commenced the ascent, a pretty steep one.

At about

way up

a third of the

on which we were glad to

rock,

a large bare sloping surface of

Again we

and take breath.

rest

climb up, the grass being very slippery, and foothold very

As we

ficult.

get higher

bush and small trees

showy white

;

and

we come

dif-

into a dense shrubbery of

around are hundreds of the large

all

flower called Tsingdtsa (a species of Crinuni), with

One more halt immense bare rocks which form the summit, and which tower grandly for 300 or 400 feet above us, and its

long ribbon-like petals and powerful scent.

at the base of the

make

all

look like pigmies in contrast, and then

effort,

length

we come

granite, with

several

to a rough

go,

last

hundred square yards

ourselves

down on

between two walls of

staircase

and at

we make

the huge stones, until at

embroideries of moss and

beautiful

Up, up we

fern.

among

scrambling up

a final

come upon a

in extent,

lichen

and

level platform

and are glad

throw

the grass and recover breath after our climb.

From this " coign of vantage," many hundred feet above the valley, we have of course a very extensive and varied prospect. To the north-west is the round mass of Lohavohitra in Vonizongo, and the long serrated ridge of Andrhigitra, with (the

Malagasy Delphi)

;

away north

the line of

and the point of Ambaravarambato

katra,

on the way to Antsihanaka

;

its

Ambohimia-

Stone-gateway

"),

from north-east to south-east

Angavo and Ifody way to and from the treeless plain of Ankay and

the long dark line of the upper forest, with

mountains, over which coast

;

beyond

this

again

cross on our is

cave

the

;

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

I08

beyond and bounding the view, 50, 60, or 70 miles in the is the larger and lower forest, and ridges and peaks which we can see clearly from Tamatave. Only due west

Still

blue distance,

the view interrupted, for

pinnacle, there being to

still

not yet on the topmost

are

a mass of rock 100

feet

higher

still,

which our bearers scramble, but which we are quite

content to leave them the honour of scaling, as the ascent

appears somewhat the platform,

difficult.

we can

south and south-west

many

catch

Still,

all

the

by going round the edges of more prominent points to the

Iharanandriana, on the road to Betsileo

familiar-looking hills west of the capital

;

Antananarivo

its long rocky ridge, crowned by the group of royal palaces and two of the memorial churches and, rising gradually but unmistakably far above all, the mass of Ankaratra, the highest

;

point of the island, 40 miles away, and

peaks nearly 9,000 as

that

prospect,

above the

feet

from the general for,

point where

command

could

remarkably straight

and south-west.

its

three or four central

and about half as much

of Imerina.

level

except from Ankaratra

Steep down below us to the east in a

sea,

itself,

Truly a grand

there

hardly any

such an extensive view as is

this.

a pretty rice-valley stretching

both to north-east

line for several miles

The houses and hamlets below

look as

stone could be thrown upon them from this 1,000 or 1,200 feet of elevation

;

and as our eyes follow the green

after village appears

rising grounds, so that

rice- fields, village

on the promontory-like tanety or gentle

think what a fine

field

of work there

would be in this valley alone for a resident missionary.

CHAPTER

VII.

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES, Mixed nomenclature of coast and interior places Early European influence Arab and Portuguese names Influence of Fady or Taboo Name of Madagascar Mountain names The name-prefixes An- and Am Height and prominence Mj'stery and dread Size Words meaning rock and stone Animals and birds Personal names for hills Grandeur of mountain scenery River names Descriptive epithets Lake names Town and village names Dual names Names of capital and its divisions Town names from natural features Forests River banks from animals Personal Tribal Province names Appendix on Betsileo place-names.

—

— —

—

— —

—

— —

—

PLACE-NAMES, most

—

now acknowledged, form one

sources of information

of the

and and are among the most enduring and un-

reliable

prehistoric times,

—

altering records of the past.

all

to ancient

the older countries of the

world the names of the mountains and

rivers,

of the fields and

the valleys, of the farms and villages and towns, as well as of

all

other geographical features, reveal the existence and successive

occupation of the races of mankind.

soil

from remote epochs by

And

in the

many

to places tell in the plainest terms of their discoverers, fix

the date of their becoming

inspection of a

map

different

newer countries the names given

known

and often

to the civilised world.

of the island of Madagascar shows a

curious difference between the nomenclature of the coast and that of the interior.

In the latter the

names are

for

no European power has ever succeeded

the

in establishing itself

country for any lengthened period

fringed with a variety of

entirely native,

European words

;

but the coast

— English,

French,

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

—

and Portuguese as well as with Malagasy names. Thus we find "William Pitt" Bay, "Chatham" Island, and Port "Liverpool," commemorating the leading English statesmen of the time when the first complete survey was made of the coast by Capt. W. F. W. Owen, R.N., whose ships' names are also perpetuated The treachery of in " Leven " Port and "Barracouta" Island. " the native population is remembered in " Murder " and " Grave Islands, where some of Owen's crews were killed by the people English Admiralty and other officials' names were given to Port "Croker," Point " Barrow," " Dartmouth" River, Point " McClure," " Dalrymple " Bay, and " Barlow " Island and British surveys of the western coast have also left their mark in " Barren Isles, and in "Crab," "Coffin," and "Sandy" Islands, in the and at the northern extremity of Mozambique Channel Madagascar we find " British " Sound (more properly Diego Suarez Bay), with four deep inlets called respectively by the names of "English," "Welsh," "Scotch," and "Irish" ;

;

Bays.

marked by the names of Fort Dauphin, Port Choiseul, Foule Pointe, and Louisbourg,

The

earlier

French intercourse

a record of the monarchical times, nearly two centuries ago,

when

many

disastrous attempts were

made by

the French

to establish themselves on the eastern side of the island.^

going back

And

Madagascar by Europeans,

further, to the discovery of

the maritime enterprise of the Portuguese three hundred and

seventy or eighty years ago

marked indelibly on the map, by the names of various

together with their religious fervour, saints

which they gave to the chief capes

Mary,

St.

Andrew,

as the Isle of St.

Bay

St.

all

round

its

Vincent, and St. Sebastian

Mary, the Bay and River of

of St. Luce, the Shoal of

St.

shores

—as

—

well

St. Augustine, the

Bonaventura, the town of

St.

In certain old French maps Madagascar was called " He Dauphine," but this name did not obtain any permanence. = The most northerly cape of Madagascar, now known as Cape Ambro or '

Amber, was formerly

Day

(rfrVs

called

Xahilis Domini).

Cape

Natal,

from

its

being discovered on Christmas

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

Thomas (now

Ill

Tamatave i), and the name of San Lorenzo, by which the island was known for long after its discovery.2

Two

called

or three of their famous captains are also kept in in "

brance

Antongil

(Antonio Gil) Bay,

Diego Suarez

remem"

Sound, and "Juan de Nova" Island. Going back earlier still, to the Arab settlements both on the south-east and north-west coasts of Madagascar, although these

have

left

enduring traces of their presence

in the

language of

the Malagasy, they do not seem, as far at least as our information at present extends, to

of the country. tribes to the

have affected the place-nomenclature

The Arabs have

given the names used by

many

days of the week and of the months, the terms

connected with superstition, witchcraft, divination, &c., and words

employed music, &c.

the arts of civilised

life

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

dress,

money, bedding,

but their influence does not appear to have extended

;

names of towns or geographical features, with two or three possible exceptions.3 Thus the name of the extensive lake of

to the

Alaotra, in the Antsihanaka province, which, according to the

Rev. L. Dahle, the waves,"

probably the Arabic Al-lutat, "the dashing of

the

same word which

given as a

name

Arabs from beyond the Mozambique Channel, who are called by the Malagasy the " Talaotra." 4 the

The

object of this paper

Malagasy place-names trate

of "

the

mental habits

" Tamatave " is San Tomaso."

called

is,

however, to

call attention to

the

show how they illusof the people and their powers of

Madagascar

by the Malagasy

;

Toamasina," probably a corruption

^ Mr. A. Tacchi suggests that " Antongil " is rather a corruption of " Santa Angelo," as nothing seems to be certainly known of any "Antonio Gil." Ngontsy, the name of a place on the north-west coast, is thought by Mr. Tacchi to be a corruption of " Saint Gontran " and another word of Portuguese origin. 3 M. Grandidier has, however, pointed out several other names of places on the western coast which he believes are of Arab origin, although he does not give their meanings these are Kisimany, Kongony, Sada, Mibany, Kivinja, Sangoa, and Boinaomary. I should doubt some of these, which seem Malagasy words in ;

whole or *

"au

in part.

Dumont

large."

D'Urville's Vocahiilairc Madckass-Franfuisr, alaotr

translated

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

112 observation

some few historical facts which are names and to note a number of doubtful meaning which are embodied in

to point out

;

probably preserved

in certain

words of obscure or

many

;

of the names of places, and which are possibly relics of an

occupation of the island anterior to the arrival of the present

prominent Malayo-Polynesian element

knowledge of the various still

Malagasy language

too fragmentary and imperfect to allow of much being done

at present in the direction indicated in this last point

aimed

chief result ticulars

country

at in noting

down

here

but one par-

prove an exception to almost every other

will

a careful analysis of the names of

;

some of these

provoke inquiry and research on the subject.

Madagascar and

Our

in the population.

dialects of the

and

rivers, valleys

plains,

towns and

mountains

its

and other

villages,

not throw some light upon the

geographical features, does

earliest occupation of the island,

population which have passed

and the successive waves of

over

its

There are

surface.

believing that an earlier and less civilised

several reasons for

race than the present inhabitants once occupied the interior of

Madagascar, and

embodied

it is

possible that

some of the obscurer words

place-names are

certain

of this aboriginal

relics

people.

There Malagasy, to

is,

unfortunately, a peculiarity in

common

with

all

the habits of the

the Polynesian races, with regard

names, which introduces an element of uncertainty into

geographical nomenclature, or particles which their chiefs.

viz.,

the practice of tabooing words

enter into the composition of the

all

personal

names have some

distinct

names of meaning,

and are largely composed of commonly-used nouns, verbs, and adjectives, as well as the names of animals, plants, &c., it constantly occurs

that

the

names of most

farniliar

objects

and

actions have to be changed through forming part of their From this cause, writes Mr. sovereign's or chief's names.

Hastie, British

Agent

rivers, places,

the

names of

at the

Court of

Radama

and things have

817-1826),

suffered so

many

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

II3

changes on the western coast that frequent confusion occurs

;

being prohibited by their chieftains from applying any

for, after

particular terms to the

accustomed

not acknowledge to have ever

{Tyernian and Bennefs

signification, the natives will

known them

Voyages,

in their

2nd

276,

former sense

There

ed.).

reason to believe, however, that this cause of change and uncertainty applies

and eastern

much

to the place-names of the central

less

and that the taboo (Malag.

districts of the country,

fady) there more affects the names of objects and actions than those of places.

Before considering the names of places in Madagascar, a

word or two may be

said about the

There seems much reason car " is

name

of the country itself

to believe that the

not a native name, but

wowj^^adagas-

one that has been given

There appears to be no Malagasy root in the word, foreigners. and the combination of the consonants sc, or sk, is one not

The

allowed by the genius of the language. izao, "

termed by the people Izao rehetra ance with the belief of island

This whole,"

I.,

and subsequently,

ny 7iaka,

The

in accord-

insular nations that their

the principal part of the world

Radama anlvon'

many

island used to be

was

[land]

;

and

also

described

the midst

own

the time of

the

flood."

According to some accounts, an old designation of the country

was Nosin-dambo,

Island of wild-boars," these animals being

the largest wild creatures of the forests.

explaining the derivation of the word

have seen island, a

1609,

The only attempt Madagascar

that given in one of the earliest books

German work published

which

at I

upon the

at Altenbourg, in Meissen, in

and entitled Beschreibung der MccJitigcn und Weitber-

huvibten hisiil Madagascar, by Jerome Megiser, in which affirmed

that

tlf^

African

kings of

conquered the coast region of the island

Madagascar and Adel ;

that

the inhabitants

have also been forced to swear to recognise no other for their king, and the island also is to be called nothing else but

Magadaxo.

This word was afterwards corrupted into Maga-

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

114

and

dascar,

became Madagascar, which name

at last

Portuguese afterwards gave

until the

Whether

been mentioned before." historical fact

it is

now

many

others,

kept

not this contains any

Besides the names

difficult to decide.^

for the island already mentioned, this

another name, as has

German work

also gives

most of them applied by the Arabic geographers,

one being "The Island of the Moon"; they wrote the name either Kamar or Komr, the same word which enters into the

name

of the

Comoro

These islands are

Group, to the north-west of Madagascar.

by the Arabs Komair,

called

The name

Komr.

or the Lesser

as applied to the whole island survived until

the arrival of the Portuguese, for on one of the oldest maps, the

Charta Marina Portugalensiuvi, of the teenth century, the

name Komortina

addition to those of Madagascar and

Coming now

decade of the six-

first

occurs for the island in

San Lourenco. we may

to the place-names in Madagascar,

first

look at those of Mountains, the most prominent and awe-inspiring

all

natural features, and to which the imagination of simple

peoples soon affixes descriptive epithets.

The

interior provinces

all

these illustrations

of the island (from which regions almost

are taken) constitute an extensive elevated mountainous region,

occupying rather more than a third of the

total

area of the

The Rev. Canon Isaac Taylor (author of Words and Places) offers the following suggestion as to the meaning of the word " My guess is that the name Madagascar, which we got from Marco Polo, did not apply to the island, but to the Somali coast. He got the name from Malay sources. The question is whether Mala-gossc or Mada-<^ossc is its earlier form :

;

gossc

meant

men (=' Bantu

in the old

Swahili.

(J)

a gosse would be

Ma(^^yi-incn, the -ar being the Malay suffix in Zanzib-ar, Xicoba-ar, Malab-nr, &c.,

and meaning land '

The Hova language

island.'

is a Malay dialect Malay means mountains.' Hence Mala-gosc-ar might be 'The land of the (^^^^^) men,' while Mada-gasc-ar would be The island of the Mada or Madai men,' either the present Madai tribe southeast of the Victoria Nyanza, or else the land of the coast people in the present Somali Land, formerly called Maditn or Madiiin. On this hypothesis, Polo's name would apply to the Somali Land. He describes Madagascar as Moham-

;

medan and

full of

elephants, plainly not the island.

have another old form in one of the Polo MSS., Magastcr, where the il/rtwould be the Bantu plural prefix." "

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

II5

country, and raised from 3,CK)0 to 5,000 feet above the sea.

This

composed of primary rocks, and the loftiest summits are of granite, gneiss, and basalt. It will be seen, however, that one prominent descriptive class of names for mountains in most countries is wanting in these Malagasy names there are none denoting the whiteness given by snow, i^lthough the hilly region

;

only a

under 9,000

highest points

are

sea level, this

yet, in that part of the tropics, too

to He

;

snow

indeed unknown

no equivalents

its

Lebanon, or Himalayah

(it

for

Nevada of Europe,

Abode /

the letters

Snow ") all

might almost be termed an

other letter

adverb Any^ contracted to An- (changed before certain consonants),

word

bbhi-,

Further,

precedes.

syllables

" at,"

following

An-

contracted from

Am-

vbliitra,

for

snow

Snowdon, Ben Hormus,

or for the

of Asiatic countries.

article)

which

merely a is

prefixed

and personal names.

part of the preposition

low

these mountain-names

to denote place-names, as well as tribal

The

the

The former

above the

feet

Madagascar, and so there are

be noticed that almost

commence with particle

mountain-names

Nevis, Snafells, or Sierra

It will also

little

and demonstrative

for

euphony

Am-

giving a localising sense to the will

be also remarked that the

are, in a great

now

a word

number of

cases,

usually taken as

meaning a " town," and indeed forming the first part of a vast number of Malagasy town-names.^ But as there are quite as

many mountains their

names,

especially

the

same

it is

when

as towns having Anibbhi- as the

first

part of

probable that vbJiitra originally meant a

it is

" hill,"

remembered that the root of this word is number of words, such as bbhy,

as that from which a

bbhibbhy bbhitra, &c., are derived, " swelling," " puffing," "

all

of which have the idea of

convexity," and

protuberance."

One

of the grandest mountains in Madagascar, situated near the ' Ambohimanga, "At the blue town" Ambohidava, "At the long town " Ambohitrandriana, "At the prince's town;" Ambohimanjaka, "At the king's town," &c., &c. ' I am confirmed in this opinion by seeing that the word used in the Malay Peninsula for " hill " is biikit, no doubt the same word as vohitrn.i ;

;

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

Il6

northern extremity of the island,

more than 6,000

said to be

tain, tendrovibbhitra^

firms this

;

i.e.,

Ambohitra and is word for moun-

called

is'

The

feet high.

usual "

point of the town

" hill,"

also con-

the old towns in the centre of the island were always

built for security

on the tops of

names of

so that the

hills,

hill

and town seem quite interchangeable.^ Before proceeding to point out some of the most interesting characteristics of late a rather

Malagasy place-names,

venture to trans-

will

long extract from an essay by M. Alfred Grandidier

this subject,

which forms an appendix to the volume treating

of the Historical Geography of the island

(vol.

forming part

i.),

monumental work Histoire Physique, Naturelleet Politique M. Grandidier says de Madagascar (Paris 1892). of his

At a first glance at a list of Malagasy place-names, one is struck by the fact that a larger number, more than half of them, commence with the syllable Am or An, which is combined with one, two, and sometimes even three words, the sum of which very often describes, as we are about to show, some peculiarity "

characteristic of the place.

traction

wJiere there

the

which comes

adverb

demonstrative

where

is,

07ie is found,

after this

This syllable

adverb

near

to,

a con-

Any, which signifies upon. The first word

usually one of the following

bbhi, bdto, bbdi, ala, kazo, tana, tsaha, drano, pasi, bdla, kadi, kdra,

or ddka, but the most frequent of

these

all

the

first

about a

;

Ambohi, which lit, 'Where there is the mounis the village which Then

quarter of these place-names in fact begin with is

a contraction of

tain

Any

vhhitra,

which '...,' Where there

Ambato (from come, approximately Ambodi Any vcito, lit, 'Where there is a rock which' Anala (from Any (from Any vody, lit, 'At the foot of dla, lit, Where there is the forest which '...); Ankazo (from Antana (from Any Any Jiciao, lit, Where the trees are' which' village Antsaha there is the 'Where lit, tandna, in the

order of frequency

;

hill is

havbaua,

lit

" height.

;

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

Any

(from

sdka,

lit,

Where

there

II7

the valley, the water-course,

Andrano (from Any rdno, lit, 'Where the water (from Any fdsika [Hova], fdsy or fdsina Ampasi .) Ambala (from Any vdla, [prov.], lit, 'Where the sand is .) lit, Where there is an enclosure, a compound '...); Ankadi

which' is'

;

Any hddy,

(from

Ankara

'Where there

lit,

Any

(from

hdrana,

lit,

a fosse, a trench which' '

Where

there

;

a rock

which '...); &c. "This first syllable A)n, An, And, Ant often disappears, and

meaning of the name slightly changes one may, Ambohibe and VOHIBE (which signify At the great mountain, and The great mountain')

in this case the in fact,

;

say indifferently

respectively

;

Analasora ( Where

there

SORA {The wood of hedgehogs)

Ranomamy

water) and

wood of hedgehogs) and Ala-

the

is ;

Andranomamy

{Near the sweet

Antsahaondry

{The sweet water);

Ampasimena {On the red sand) and Fasimena {The red sand); Ambalanosy {Where there is an enclosure for goats) a.nd Valanosy {The enclosure for goats); Ankadivory {Where there is a circular fosse) and Hadivory {In the valley of sheep)

;

Ankaranandriana {Near the rock of the Haranandriana ( The rock of the noble), 8ic. But

{The circular fosse)

;

noble)

and

in the

second form of these names, the Malagasy often prefix to

the word the article denoting a proper name, which

a simple

and they say; IvoHiBE, Ialasora, Ifasimena, Ivalanosy,

Iharanandrl\na, "

&C.

Leaving out of consideration, amongst the words which

commence with any root

other letter than A, those whose

VOHI, VATO, VODI, HAZO, ALA, TANA, SAHA, RANO, FASI,

VALA, HARA, or IHARA, and which, as we have

said, are to

extent identical with those which have the prefix,

number commence with Be-

the greater

Fara-

initial

(the last),

proper to

Maha-

(that

which becomes

which .

.),

find that

numerous),

(large,

able to

some

which

Man- (a verbal prefix Manjaka- (he who

which, joined to the root, forms the verbs), reigns,

who

governs),

Maro- (much

.),

NOSI-

(island),

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

Il8

Saro- (by contraction dangerous, dear), SOA- or TSARA-

Sara-

Tsi (that which

not, or

river), is,

thus,

&c.

Tsiafak- (that mouth of a preceded by an I, which .

.).

(the

observed, the article denoting a proper

Imanakana,

Manakona,

ViNAN-

All these words are often

we have

difficult,

(beautiful, good, pleasant),

which has not

which cannot be attained by

Sarotra,

from

(?),

Inosifito, Ivinanimalaza, are the

;

Nosifito, Vinanimalaza."

As might be

supposed, the idea of height d^nd projuinettce

of the most frequently occurring in mountain-names in

Thus we

gascar.

name

same names

Angavo,

find several called

The

one

Mada-

lofty,"

and

Angavokely,

one of the grandest mountains

in eastern

" Liitle-Xohy" to distinguish it

from the Angavo which forms a

Imerina

magnificent tower or outwork, so to speak, of the mountain wall

There

on the eastern side of the upper plateau. sina, the "

Sacred-high

(place)

;

and one of the

the Vavavato district in southern Imerina lofty-defying-one," a mountain

word ambony,

nearly

/c'/^*?,

also

Avomapeaks

lavohaika,

7,000 feet high.

above," also occurs in several names, as

"head," in lavoloha,

Head-of-the-hill

(or town),

The-

The Ambo-

"Above-the-town" (or

niloha, " Overhead," Ambonivohitra,

as well as

loftiest

hill)

;

Lofty-headed," Lohavohitra,

one of the highest mountains

Vonizongo. Asdndratra, "raised," "exalted," forms part of several names, as Nasandratany up," in such

conspicuousness,"

" set

as also does drina

words as Ambohimiarina.

mountain-names "

;

There are numerous

which the root ringy, meaning

comes

thus

;

up," " lifted

" loftiness,"

Andringiring}-,

find

Mahakiringy, and Andringitra, a very prominent ridge fourteen miles north of the capital, and closely connected with the old idolatry

;

a cave in

its

steep southern slopes being a Malagasy

Delphi, the former abode of the god Ranakandriana.

meaning of height and eminence the root Idnga, capital

" tall,

Ambohimanga.

lofty

"),

Much

found

The same

Milangana (from

a lofty point north of the old the

same idea

implied in the

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. word applied

root ranga " having, the ears erect," a

and found

in the

name Andrangaranga.' "

position of

some

eight or ten Imerina hills

name

Mahatsinjo,

meaning

Able-to-gaze

root, tdzana,

Fitazanana,

"The

some

which

another

thorn,"

called

Antendro,

implied in their

The

peaks

sharply-pointed

accordingly given to some of them

and

Ivatotsilo,

Madiotandroka,

and Schreckhorn,

Ambohimaranitra,

At-the-point "

Sharp-hill

and others are

;

word

From an almost exactly name of another mountain,

again, have suggested the idea of a " spur "

hills,

fdtitsj'),

comes the

Outlook."

to animals,

The commanding

(from), tsinjo being a

to look at distant objects. ^

synonymous

II9

;

2 ;

(Mai.

while

another

Itsiloabo, " Lofty-

One mountain name,

Thorn-rock."

Clean-horn," reminds one of the Matterhorn &c,, of the Alps.

Height of course involves some degree of mystery and dread, which ideas are accordingly embodied in several mountain-

Thus we find Ambohijanahary, " God's-hill," in several districts the word Zanahary (Creator) being vaguely applied by the Malagasy to many things which they cannot understand as is also the other word for God, Andriamanitra, as in Andrianames.

;

manitravato, hill "

God's-rock," and Ambohitrandriamanitra,

(or town).

Of names

caves

spirits,

Tanala

Not-in-the-sky."

(forest) region is the

moun-

Malagasy Hades, the

being supposed to be the dwellings of departed

and

God's-

of this class are Imanondrolanitra

Sky-pointing," and Itsiandanitra,

tain in the

called Iratsy (or Iraty),

The-evil-place."

The few

Europeans who have ascended the peaks of Ankaratra, the highest mountain-mass in the island, have described the great

reluctance of the natives to

some supposed malignant Zdvona,

" mist,"

accompany them, and influence

on those

their terror of lofty

summits.

enters into the composition of several mountain-

names, as Ibezavona, "Much-mist," Ifotsizavona, "Mist- whitened," â&#x20AC;˘

imamo, =

hill

from which the "

Imamo

district

can he surveyed

Able-to-look-over-Imamo." Also found in reduplicate form, as Ampantsifantsj'. i.e.,

called Mahatsinjo-

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

I20

and Manelozavona,

free-from-mist," the

name

Mist-shaded

Inaccessibility

ratra.

involved

Tsiafabalala, Tsiafakalika,

and Tsiafajavona,

(?),

Not-

of one of the highest peaks of Anka-

names

several other

;

and Tsiafakafo (another Ank^ratra

names mean respectively " Impassable by a by a dog," and " by fire." Almost exactly the same meaning is giving in the names Tsiazomborona, Tsiazonamboa, and Tsiazompapango, which mean " Unattainable by a bird," " by a dog," and " by a hawk." The sharp cutting wind of these peak), which three

locust," "

name

elevated points gives a

(through) wind

" ;

one

Sarodrivotra, " Difficult

hill,

while the variety of blasts has probably^sug-

gested another name,Umarorivotra,

Many-winds." Possibly^the

howling of the wind round the top gives the name of another hill,

Ambohimitrena,

Somewhat

" Bellowing-hill."

names occur

poetical

" Hill-of-children-of-the-Sun,"

covering,"

nambo,

Malakialina,

Tompombohitra,

King-of-the-heights

Ambohijanamasoandro,

Fonovaratra,

(or

Quickly-night," the

Thunderbolt-

Kingly-height

name

of a

himanga, whose height causes a deep gorge

be soon

" Lord-of-the-hills,"

hill

Andria-

"),

and

north of

Ambo-

to the east of

darkness after sundown.

As height also involves size, the word be, " big," is found in many names, as Ambohibe and Ivohibe, " Big-mountain," Antanambe,

Big-town," Mangabe,

Big-blue

the colour of the basalt rock), Ivatobe, " Big-hill."

The

first

into several hill-names

hill,

and

little.i

find

(probably referring to

Big-rock," and Bongabe,

part of the last-named ;

means a

clod, a turf,

word

also enters

and also a round

Bonga, Bongabe, and Bongakely,

i.e.,

hills,

big

has already been noticed that the primary rocks form most

of the highest points of Madagascar, and the word vato (euphoniously changed after am- to batd),

" stone," is

therefore a very fre-

' Probably the same idea of rounded convexity comes in, somewhat indeHcately our English notions, in Bevohoka, " Pregnant " (lit., " Large-wombed "), and Kitroka, " Belly," both names of hills in Imerina.

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

121

quently occurring one in these mountain-names, and

one

connection or another forms part of about a fourth of

all

the

names of hills

we in

find

in its

which natural features are referred to. Thus simplest forms of Ambato and Ivato, and then

combination with the words

red,

for the colours blue, black, white,

and speckled, as Ambatomanga, Ambatomainty, Ambato-

fotsy, little,

Ambatomena, and Ambatovandana with those for size big, and immense, as Ambatokely, Ambatobe, and Amba;

tovaventy

;

for height, length, roundness, steep-

and with those

ness, bareness

(lit.,

baldness

"),

and wooded outline

Ambatoavo, Ambatolava, Ambatovory, Ambatomi-

ness"), as

Besides these are

hantona, Ambatosola,^ and Ambatovaloina.

many Famous-stones,

King's-stones, Prince's-stones,

some Level-topped-stones, Sharply-pointed

Some

peaked-stones.2

column of

Baka, that

is,

Male-stone

common ;

stones,

terminate

same name

rock, have the

(lit, "

which

hills

memorial erected stones, so Vatolahy

" hairi-

(lit.,

as well as

and Doublea solitary

to the

that given

in Central

Madagascar,

one with a double-head

called

V-shaped, a term applied to the horns of cattle

others, with three points, are the "Three-sisters'-rock"

telomirahavavy (a

hill

;

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Ambato-

with a grand mass of rock of this

name

conspicuous near the eastern edge of Imerina, and looks from

some the

points like a Titanic cathedral)

Three-men-rock

;

while others again are

(Ambatotelolahy)

and one

;

called

Ambatomandrindry, probably from a root meaning "thickly studded," here, of course, with boulder rocks. conspicuous, are called Ambatotokana, the "

idea

Straight

Upright

Rocky promontory."

Others, solitarily "

Separated-stone

;

and

of an upright column gives another name, Mahitsy, "

west of Ankaratra hill is

;

and we also

Ambatofidirana,

Antanjombato,

very remarkable rocky region south-

termed Vavavato, "

find

Stone-mouth

" ;

another

Entrance-stone," while both in Northern

Also simply as Antsola, " Bald-one."

Ambatomanjaka, Ambatonandriana, Ambatomalaza, Ambatomarina, Ambiitosampana.

fisaka,

.-^mbato-

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

122

Imerina and

Southern Betsileo are Varavarambato,

Stone-

gateway," names given to mountain-passes in those provinces.

But

would be tedious

combinaMalagasy mountain-names, the

to particularise all the varied

which vato enters

tions into

more so as many are now obscure in meaning.^ Another word for rock, hdrana, is also found in many names for hills. Ankarana is the name of the most northerly province in

the island, and

so called on account of

its

famous rocky

and

fastness (see Antan. Annual, No. III. p. 27);

this

word

probably the root of the word Ankaratra, the name, as already mentioned, of the

loftiest

Haranambe,

also find

mountain-mass

Madagascar.

Big-rock," Ankarankely, " Little-rock,"

Ankaramena, " RedIharanandriana, rock," Prince's-rock," Ankaramaina and Iharandava, " Dry-rock " and " Long-rock," and several names' include both the words for stone and rock, as Ambatoharanana. While mountain summits in Central Madagascar are usually of bare rock, here and there their names show that wood, more or less extensive, once covered their heights, and in many names ala, " forest," comes into combination. Thus we find lalaroa, " Two-woods," Analabe, " Great-wood," Ivohialabe, " Hill-ofmuch-wood," Analamanantona, " Hanging-wood," AnalamiraIharanarivo, " Thousand-rocks,"

Iharana,

viravy, "

Overhanging-wood," Analamanara, "

lamahitsy,

woods

meaning.

obscure

and several

;

" tree,"

Hazo,

names, as Ankazotokana,

distinguish

Inatobe,

trees

other

One

Heron's-wood,"

Beard," probably a fanciful

words of

including

others,

also occurs

several

Ankazobe,

miroh(?tra,

hill-

Big-tree,"

which would mean

").

hills,

red dye, Ambolobe, '

The names of separate trees or grasses Amberobe {z'ero is a long grass), Much-nato," the name of a tree whose bark yields a

company of

" Solitary-tree,"

and Ankazomirohitra (perhaps "

Cold-wood," Ana-

Analambano,

Upright-wood,"

Analambato, and also Isomotra, allusion

Much-bamboo,"

of the tribal divisions of the

vato, " Treaders-of-the-i'ock."

Ivoara, " Fig-tree,"

Hova Malagasy

bears the

name

and

Mandia-

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. Ambiaty, the name of a shrub. hibary find "

Tamponketsa,

have

several

for

hill " (?),

in the

Anativolo

district

many

word

the

hills,

forming parts of the following

manitra, Ivohimanitra, and Avomanitra.

mountain

Ambo-

;

and we also

;

found

grasses

fragrant

names

suggested

" fragrant,"

inanitra,

or four hills

Summit-of-rice-ground," and Antsahafary,

The

Sugar-cane-field."

a.nd/d7y, "sugar-

a very lofty mountain in S. Betsileo

places

" rice,"

Vdiy,

names of three

cane," also occur in the

Isaha-

wooded Wetnumerous

beautifully

called Vohilena, "

probably from the moisture attracted by

its

trees.

The

generally waterless character of the

hills

however,

is,

indicated in several of their names, as Andranoritra, " Dried-upwater," Fasina, " Sand," "

Earth-dust

;

Ampasimavo, " Brown-sand," Vovotany, while some others, which have lakes and springs

as the source of rivers, are called Andranofito, " Seven-streams," "

Imarorano,

Farihilava,

Many- waters," Masinony, and

Long-lake,"

hill is

called Anivonirano,

The

word

for

tsarabe, "Exceedingly-good-hill,"

frequent name), Nosifaly,

Bemasoandro,

settlement

" ;

salt) river,"

Dun-

perhaps,

One

plumbago).

In-the-midst-of-waters."

pleasant situation and pure air of

nized in their names, as Ambohitsara,

island,"

Sacred (or

Manjarano,

(coloured-)water " (this is also the "

many

recog-

hills is

Good-" and Ambohi-

Ambohitsoa, "Pleasant-hill"

" Joyful-island,"

Nosisoa,

Pleasant-

Much-sun," and Tokotanitsara,

Good-

while the steep ascents and difficulty of climbing

shown in the names of others, as MahakeThe traka, Disheartening," and Mahareraka, " Exhausting." deep liddy or fosses with which many hills are scored, and dug as defences for the town on the summit, give in various combito their tops are "

nations several names, as Ankadivory, "

Big-fosse," Ankadifotsy,

fosse," &c.

also the

" Circular-fosse,"

White-fosse,"

word

vdla,

Ankadibe,

Ihadimanga,

an inclosure,

Blue-

a part of a

few hill-names, as Ambalahirana and Ambalafasana, although â&#x20AC;˘

I.e.,

Amonest-the-bamboos."

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

124 is

strictly

and frequently,

might be supposed, a town-

name.

From

large

number of

extinct volcanic cones

the

Madagascar, extending probably almost

interior provinces of

an unbroken line from the south to the north and north-west, one might suppose that

we should find only

find

some

in the

fire

or heat.

at least

can, however,

two or three instances where possibly some remem-

brance of igneous forces "

names of some of them

reference to

Burnt-rock," and lamboafo,

mountains

the

Tanala

preserved,

province,

Kitroka, a word which means

and

Ambatomay, names of two

viz.,

" Lofty-fire,"

the in

named

another

" lava."

A considerable

number of mountains are designated after the names oi Animals and Birds. Most numerous are those called the guinea-fowl, akdnga, there being probably at

after

least

Stone-of-the-guinea-fowl." named Ambatonakanga, Then come several called after the cock, Ambohitrakoholahy the large hawk, Ambatomboromahery; the kestrel, Ikitsikitsika; "

a dozen

;

the

kite,

Masiapapango,

Ambohiboromailala

the

;

i.e.,

Fierce-with-kites

cardinal-bird,

Ifody

;

the

;

the

dove,

peacock,

Vorombola and there is one called " Feather," Volomborona. (As already mentioned also in speaking of names denoting height, there are numerous hills called "Impassable" by birds hawks, kites, &c.) The largest and most valuable animal of the country, the humped ox, binby, gives names to a good many hills in its simplest form, Ambohitromby, " Ox-hill," and Ambohitrombalahy, " Bull-hill," and in Andraokomby, " Lickedup-by-oxen," Antandrokomby, "Ox-horn," xA.ntrafon6mby, "Oxhump," and in Ambohimanoto, " Butting-hill." The words for ;

;

sheep {bndry), goat {bsy\ and wild-hog (Idmbo), are found several

hill-names

;

Antsahanondry,

Ambatonondrilahy,

Ambohitrondry, Ambatonosy, and Lohalambo,

Hog's-head."

Even the crocodile also appears in these mountain-names, as in Mamba, although, as might be supposed, it is more frequently found in river-names

;

and also the hedgehog,

Ambohitsokina.

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

also find " Many-rats,"

Marovoalavo

" ;

12$

Many-fleas," Maro-

parasy (a rather frequent and uncomfortably appropriate for

many

three

villages)

Many-ants,"

Marovitsika

name

and two or

;

Honey-hills," Ambohitantely.

number of mountains have received

smaller

may

which

;

names

almost be termed Persofial, and are derived either

from some renowned king or

have some obscure

chief, or

refer-

Thus we find of Ratrimo, Rasomotra, Razaka and Rafilo

ence to people, their numbers, relationships, &c. the

mountains

the "cattle-fold" (fahitrd) of Andriamandroso; and the "hill the

renowned chief who founded the Hova monarchy and

supremacy,

unconscionably long

in the

impbinimerina the interior

The name

of the supposed aboriginal tribe of

" People's-hill," " Son-of-men's-hill," hill," " Prince's-hill," "

and the

;

and of

Imerina

hills

King's-hill

hills

of the

Sacred-chanting

have a

Hovas

and

Hill-of-many-thousands,"

Hill-of-ten-ten-thousands "

Ambohipoloalina,

simply)

of Vibr\^d,nandrian-

Oriental exaggeration of numbers comes

Ambohitrarivobe,

name

contained in Soa.vashnda, and that of the

in Famohilan/^^t^^. in

(

" (in

also

find

Hill-of-the-old," " Slave's-

Manjakabe,

Ambohimirary).

Good-father," the

strictly personal

;

Great-king,"

Grandchild,"

Two

three

name, as Ramanarivo and

Rantoandro.

very numerous class of mountain-names

as of doubtful signification,

themselves are obscure giving such

names

hill,

very likely afford

many

cases

They comprise verbs,

the reason

probably hopelessly

examples may now be given

we "

find the following

Money-hill,"

adjectives,

some cases an examination of the inquiry among the nearest inhabitants, might some clue to the origin of the name given, in

and nouns, and while particular

have grouped

meaning, but that the reason for

doubtful.

meaning thereby not that the words

Anjomba,

Amperifery,

footed," Antemitra,

;

lost.

few

and of nouns used as names "

Conch-shell," Ambohibola,

Pepper-place,"

Matted," Sompitra,

Betongotra,

Rice-basket,"

Big-

Vinany

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

126 "

Ambohimizana,

Guess," Ambilany,

At-the-pot,"

Ankafotra,

At-the-hafotra

scales-hill,"

Money-

Laona,

(tree),

Rice-

mortar," &c.

employed as hill-names there are only a few, " Easy," and Maneva, " Beautiful " but a large number of verbs are used as hill-names e.g., " " Ambohitsimioza, Not-bathing-hill," Manana, Having," Amboadjectives

as Mangidy, " Bitter," Mora,

;

himanahy,

Unconquered "

(perhaps)

ing." literally,

hill,"

Ambohimanoa,

Tribute-paying-

name

Making-

Ambohitsileo,

"Receiving-hill,"

Manadala,

Making-foolish," Manalalondo,

Throwing-off-drowsiness," and curious

Knowing-hill," Mahasarotra,

Ambohimandray,

difficult,"

Disquieting-hill,"

Ambohimahalala,

hill,"

occurs

Mahasoa,

Benefit-

Mantsihoaiza, which

is,

"Say, where to?"

It will

be thus seen from these examples, from a few groups

of Madagascar mountain-names, chiefly taken in the centre of the island, that there

much

variety in

them

;

and that some

of them give evidence of considerable imaginative power on the part of the early inhabitants of the country.

attempt

here

(fossilised, so to

speculate on

do not

possibly embodied

the facts

speak) in another large group of names whose

may may in

some

meanings are obscure, and which

probably

prove to be archaic words, and

others preserve obsolete

cases

forms of the verbs and other parts of speech.

The

T^zL'^r-names in

although they are

we have

than

less

Madagascar next claim a

little notice,

striking in their descriptive character

seen the hill-names to be.

glance at a

map

of the island shows that the largest rivers flow to the west, the water-shed being comparatively near the eastern coast, so that,

except the Mangoro, few very large rivers flow into the

Indian Ocean

many

;

but there are a great number of small streams,

hills, and by numerous cataracts and falls. Two words are renirdno, which is literally used for " river " in Malagasy " mother of waters," and any, a word which, it will be seen, is

of which have cut deep gorges in the chains of

are broken

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

frequently combined with others in forming river-names. latter

word

Malayan

sugnie^ a river

prefix

;

the Malagasy

;

same

(This

Malayan both languages a very loose noun and the coast n is nasal and equal

in origin,

s being in

;

and

the

as the

to gn:)

Descriptive epithets of natural features are of course found

lanana,

Brown

Black-river

water." "

and

Imaintinandro,

also

Onimainty

White-river," Onilahy,

Black-by-the-day

deep

Fitamalaina,

Andriamamovoka,

bears

The

Drowned."

meaning "To go

portion

river

Capt.

believes

Onifotsy,

and

heavy

Little-(but)

some

rain

strong,"

them

astray,"

and

i.e.

The

;

the broken

Matiandrano,

Madagascar

course Tsiribihina,

or falls)

Having-cataracts," while

name

but probably meaning

said,

by the rapids

largest river

a word

its

the noisy character of some,

;

ominous

the

and

Male-river,"

The power

(?).

channels of others in Imanandriana,

Big"

Dust-raising-prince " (probably alluding

to the spray or mist caused

another

Concave

the difficulty of fording

;

Unwilling-ford

by sudden and

such names as Kelimahery,

Kelilalina, " Little-(but)

AmpivaAndranomavo,

and

(water),

find

streams when swelled

noticed

In-the-heart-of-the-land,"

/^.t-the-descending

Much-water," Lempona,

Ampontany,

Hollow,"

small

river-names, as in Onibe and Onive,

Andranobe,

river," "

many

a good

called

The

i.e.

the Mania,

the

lower

unfordable," so

impassable."

this

Norwegian mission-ship, says he down more fresh water than the

Larsen, of the

that

brings

Ganges at its mouth the sea The meaning of Betsiboka, the

;

to the north-west,

fresh three miles

from land.

large river flowing from Imerina

Much-fresh- water," as

potable at a mile's distance from

its

waters are

still

its outlet.

The names of Animals are applied to a few Madagascar rivers, as in Mamba, " Crocodile " (almost every river swarms with these "

reptiles),

At-the-White-bird

Ombifotsy, (an

egret),

White-ox," Amborompotsy, Antanandambo, " Wild-hog's-

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

128 foot "

(lit, "

hand

"),

Sahalambo,

Wild-hog's-field," " field,"

This word saha,

" Eel's-field."

amalona,

and Sahanis

found

" Difficult-field,"

Sahasome other river-names, as Sahasarotra, omby, "Spacious-(?) field," or perhaps "Ox-field," and Isahanonja, "The-field- (or place) of-waves" or possibly 7f/<2(?, "

Ambato, well as

of a

fish.

At-the-stone,"

found

several river-names, as

those (as already seen) of mountains and towns

in these cases

stream takes its

name

also Sahafilo,j^/(C=" needle,"

;

its

probably refers to some rise

or near which

hill

;

or rock where the

flows, or possibly

from

Thus we find, Ambatolampy, " At" At -the -fighting- stone," AmbatoAmbatomiady,

rock-impeded channel.

the-rock,"

At-the-black-stone," and

mainty,

kicked-stone

One

river

ened)

At-the-

called Ankazotsipihina, " At-the-ruled-(or straight-

tree,"

Ambatotsipahina,

(probably with some reference to giant legends).

another

meteoric stones, and another

As with mountains,

name

called Fantara, a is

Varahina,

also

given to

Copper."

so also a few rivers have

names

referring

two or three have the personal prefix Andrian-, as Andriambilany, and Andriamenakely, " Prince-of-the-estate."

to persons

One

kolona,

;

curiously called Ikotoratsy, "

Bad-boy," another, Zana-

Son-of-men," and another, Andranonandriana,

At-the-

prince's-stream." said, however,'that the

must be

above examples include

(excepting the Mania and the Onilahy) few of the

largest

streams of the island, such as the Betsib6ka,i with the Ikiopa,

Mangoro, the Matsiatra, the Sofia, the Mananara, and Mananjara^ (there are several examples of these two names),

the

the Mahajilo,3 the Sisaony, and

whose names

obscure.

many

ance with dialects other than the of the i.e.

names applied

to rivers.

Lit., "

Jilo

Many-not-lepers." sharp-pointed."

is "

meaning of

fuller

acquaint-

Hova to understand many name of the Matit^nana,

In the

Dead-handed," a S.E. coast '

others, the

probably need a

river, -

a piece of legendary

Lit., "

Having-a-share."

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

enemy,

said to be preserved

hand across the stream

history of a giant having thrown his at an

but

;

probable that

some

names of

tribes

the story has been invented to account for the name. portions of the east coast of Madagascar the

and of the rivers flowing through the territory are identical, and it is often difficult to say whether the people took their

name from

the

some of the

Mr.

Shaw

says,

rivers,

way

Betsileo,

though on account of

river,

wet season.

capital in the

the only

journey,

Matsiatra

the

from putting

one of the greatest obstacles

it, it

and from the

e.g.,

a splendid

of the people deterring them

the superstition

a canoe upon

Curious superstitions cling

or vice versa.

river,

of getting the

in travelling

In one itinerating

goods across

writer's

was by balancing them upon the native water- pitchers, a man swimming on each side propelling the cranky vessel forward."

The Za/^^-names they are very few

Madagascar

number

will

for so large

not detain us long, as

island.

The

largest

Antsihanaka province, has already been mentioned as probably embodying one of the few Arabic words one, of Alaotra, in the

Malagasy place-names.

allied

word

Laut

(It

will

largely

be remembered that the

surrounded," in the Malayan archipelago

The next "

shallow," the

dishes.

whose name

in size is Itasy,

word

tds)'

Timor Laut, &c.) would mean

at first sight

of recent formation, at least

goes back to a time when

tradition

;

" sea-

i.e.,

being applied chiefly to plates and

that this lake

It is said

" island,"

used for

said to have been

formed by the breaking down of some embankment

Vazimba

chieftain.

in the rainy

season forms a grand waterfall, always issues from

Itasy and forms the river Lilia (a word of to

myself, at

the

lake

least), this

seems a

little

name

I.,

1875),

unknown meaning,

mythical.

made by Mr. W. Johnson

Annual, No. separate

by a

As, however, a considerable stream, which

(see

every bay and division of

applied to

it,

map

Antananarivo it

has a

a proof of the minute distinction

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

I30

by the Malagasy of places by giving appropriate names.^ The full name of the lake is Itasi-hanaka, the latter word being a root signifying

on blotting-

to run out as a liquid," as ink

also used as a synonym for

example the word is meaning lake, pool, &c., but is not much employed. This word is also found in the name of a northern central

paper, for

;

others

the Sihanaka, probably from the character of the country

tribe,

they inhabit, with extensive marshes, and the lake Alaotra, just mentioned,

that the dialects,

its

north-east corner.

worth notice

word idsjy is found in several of the Malayan island and there means "sea." A lake in the province of

Malay peninsula is called Tassek Bera, evidently the same word as in the Malagasy. A small lake

Pahang

south-west

the

Ankaratra

word frequently used on the

called

east

Vinaniony coast

for a

vindny

;

river-opening

through the bars of sand which partly block up the mouths

of most of them, and means "breach," "irruption."

the

south-west coast are two lakes called Heotry (or Hoetry) and

Tsimanampetsotse, but the meaning of neither of them

the eastern coast of Madagascar

of coast lakes or lagoons, into which the rivers

have doubtless been formed by the incessant the rivers and the ocean, for there

fall.

strife

These between

a constant heavy surf

So nearly continuous

by the south-east trade-wind.

raised

is clear.

a remarkable chain

are these lagoons that by cutting about thirty miles of canal

unbroken water-way of two hundred and

to connect them, an

sixty miles in length could be formed along the eastern coast.

These lagoons are distinguished by separate names,

as Nosibe,

Irangy, Rasoabe, &c.

There are two or three examples of small but profoundly deep lakes formed '

issues

;

from the lake (4) Ambavanandriana, " At-the-prince's-mouth, or opening," between broad reaches (5) Loholoka, meaning doubtful (6) Anjiva, " Wild-hog's-ford." (7) Fitandambo,

strait

ditto

;

of some of the old

(i) Tarazo, "Hereditary" (?) (2) Ampefy, " At-the-embank" Opening," as this is the point where the river (3) Kavanta, possibly

These are:

ment a

in the extinct craters

;

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. One

volcanoes.

of these, Tritriva,

I3I

said to be unfathomable,

and is the traditional abode of the Fanany, a seven-headed dragon or monster, about which marvellous stories are told Chapter

{see

V.).

now

turn

to the

names applied

the

division of the subject, that of

last

Towns and

Villages in Madagascar.

Before giving a few examples of these under the different

which the mountain-names have been divided, there are two or three points which should be kept in mind in conclasses into

town and

sidering

The

first

of the hill-names,

names found among the Malagasy.

village

of these

the fact already mentioned

speaking

that on account of the ancient practice

viz.,

of the interior tribes of building their villages on the summits

of to

and mountains,

hills

distinguish

very

many

cases

impossible

exactly between what are strictly the names

and what are those of the villages. It is possible, therefore, that some of the examples already given of mountain-names may be names really applied to the settlements of

hills

formed on their slopes or hand,

names

may

points

loftiest

while,

;

on the other

be the case that some of the town or village

mentioned are really those of the

to be presently

on which they are

hills

built.

Another point which should be borne in mind is, that while and eastern provinces the population has a stable,

in the central

character, having remained

settled

many

of the towns

or villages

probably for centuries

originally

founded

ancestors on their

first

the western

on the contrary, the Sakalava

side,

occupation of the country

their

those on

;

tribes,

are

much more nomadic in their habits. They do not practise agriculture so much as the other peoples rice, which in the wet method of culture, as followed by the Hova and Betsil^o ;

and east-coast

tribes,

requires

embankments, aqueducts, are more exclusively

Besides

this, their

&c.,

a good

is little

pastoral,

deal

earth-work,

used by them

;

and they

keeping large herds of

superstitious fear of death, or rather of

cattle.

some

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

132

malign influence exerted by the them,

said, to

it is

of the departed, leads

spirits

break up their villages when a death occurs,

camps than villages, same superstition, but they avoid most of the inconvenience by removing any so that their settlements must be more like

The Sihanaka have

properly so called.

one who appears dangerously

him

ill

a hastily-constructed

down and

left to

decay.

the

out of the village and placing

hut,

which

afterwards pulled

shall therefore

probably find

There

of interest in the village-names of the Sakalava.

little

how-

the principal names, whether of

ever, this noticeable point in

towns or geographical

is,

features, all

round the

island, that the

majority of them are distinctly recognisable as containing roots

which are Malagasy as spoken by the Hova, and thus they confirm the

fact,

unity

essential

supported also on

the

other

grounds, of

the

Malagasy language, notwithstanding

various dialectic differences.

One more arising

posts

may be

point

there occurs

places

from the

fact

here mentioned,

perplexing

rather

the Hova,

that

the maintenance of

for

their

viz.,

that in

duality of

when forming

many names,

military

supremacy over various

parts of the island which they have conquered, have generally

given them a

on the same

name

differing

site or close to

where he

These

latter usually retain the

sometimes a stranger

original appellation, so that

to understand

from that of the native village

it.

his going, or

puzzled

what place the people

are speaking about.

word or two may be

said

first

about the capital and chief

towns of Madagascar, before proceeding to

towns and villages according in other place-names. city, signifies, "

The name

somewhat

City of a Thousand," that

colonists,

classify the smaller

to the divisions already observed

of Antananarivo, the capital

an Oriental vein of exaggeration, is,

probably, settlers or military

who were placed there after its conquest by the Hova Some have considered the name as referring rather

chieftains.

to the homesteads or

compounds, which clustered probably

for

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

a long time as detached settlements round the slopes of the

long steep ridge on which the city

names

in the city,

street-

indeed there are only three or four streets

mass of houses, but the

or principal roads through the dense

of most houses

position

There are no

is built.

tolerably exactly

ascertained

the numerous names which are given to different portions of the varied and broken ground over which the capital extends,

every prominent hollow or slope or level portion having some special

from the white

the southern end of the ridge

;

of-observation " (or attention),

Antsahatsiroa,

near the centre

;

soil

and

of that part, at

while Ambohimitsimbina, is

" Hill-

Then

the highest point.

Not-two-fields

there

or valleys, a steep descent

the precipices of

Tarpeian Rock of the

place," the hill

;

find Faravo-

(or hill), at the northern extremity,

" White-hill,"

Ambohipotsy,

Thus we

and often very appropriate name.

hitra, " Last-village "

Ampamarinana,

capital,

Hurling-

on the west side of the

the open triangular space of Andohalo, the coronation

ground and place of public assemblies, on the upper part of the city and the level square plain of Imahamasina, " Place;

of-consecration," at

the

foot

of the

hill

military reviews take place and where

the west, where

some of the sovereigns Near this is Anosy,

were publicly recognised by their subjects. "

At-the-island," an artificial lake with a small island in the

(Each royal house has

centre.

kamiadana,

Masoandro,

its

Sun," Manampisoa,

Analakely,

Zoma,

Little-wood,"

South-west of the city

called

Hill-of-honey,"

Guinea-fowl-stone," Amparibe,

place, so called because the

by Radama

on the

site

market

Manja-

" Silver-house,"

Adding-good," &c.)

parts of the city are Ambohitantely,

nakanga,

proper name, as

Reigning-peacefully," Trano-vola,

In other

Ambato-

Much-sugar-cane,"

Friday," the great marketis

held on that day, &c., &c.

a large timber palace which was built of a

hill

which he partly

levelled,

and

Isoanierana, " Good-for-inquiry," or consultation, ix, a

convenient place where he might hear complaints and dispense j

ustice.

To the east

of the capital

Ambatoroka, " Craggy-rocks,"

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

134

a rough piece of ground covered with boulders, and a former place of execution

thousand

;

" God's-hill "

hij^nahary, north, "

further south

;

while to the west

and south

immense

Mah^zoarivo,

and stretching

;

the

a rounded

for

rice-plain

hill

Having-a-

Amho-

called

many

miles west,

of Betsimitatatra,

name evidently given before its enclosure it is now much divided by tatatra or water-

Great-undivided," a

and

cultivation, for

channels.

Ambohimanga,

" Blue-hill " or "

Famous-hill

" (or

town),

the

ancient capital, eleven miles north of Antananarivo, and possibly

so called from the mass of bluish gneiss rock which forms the highest point of the triangular

The

slopes

entirely

are

hill

on which the town

built.

covered with woods, which form a

refreshing contrast to the generally bare

of the greater portion of Imerina.

and

treeless character

at Antananarivo, various

more ancient capital are distinguished by special Amboara, " The fig-tree " {vodra), Ambatomitsangana,

parts of the

names, as "

The

Andakana,

name

At-the-canoe," &c.

of the

and

people,

form and

town of the northern Tanala, or

chief

forest

given to some other towns as well, both in this

Ambohimangakely {kdy = little). The Betsileo province has a name probably given

that

capital of the

by the Hova on "

The fragrant-field," Ambohimanga is also the

Antsahamanitra,

standing-stone,"

Good-learning

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Fianarantsoa,

their conquest of the country ;

town with about 6,000 or 7,000

inhabitants.

The

chief port of the

N.W.

coast of Madagascar, the town

of Mojanga (incorrectly called by Europeans and on charts

Majunga), derives Arabs,

who were

its

the

name from first

a colony of Swahili-speaking

occupants of the

site.

They

found,

so say their descendants, the shore lined with flowering shrubs,

which, as the most remarkable thing about the place, led to call their village viji-angaia,

was subsequently corrupted tooka takes

its

name from

the town of flowers.'

Mojanga.

The Bay

them This

Bemba-

a small village formerly existing on

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

Fombitoka =^fomby tbkana, " One-rofiapalm," and corrupted by foreigners into Bembatooka.'' Turning now to the names of Towns and Villages generally, and

its

shores,

find, as

have

called

with those of the mountains, that natural features

suggested

frequently

noticed, the building of

the

summit of

many

cases, to

hill

has

hills

all

made

be sure whether the

name

Avomalaza and Avomanitra

Ambodinambo,

" At-the-foot-of-height,"

the-head

that of " ascending

;

Goat's-ascent

and that of

;

Man^rinarina, &c.

" in

The two words

form frequent combinations

;

" in

"),

Upon-

many

and Mrana,

from the presence of the places thus

Women's-stone

in its virtue to give "

high

Ambohimiarina,

for rock, vd^o

(probably from

one of the stones resorted to

by women, from a belief Ambatosoa, Amb6divato, gombato,

{avo, "

Amboniloha,

in village-names

as Ivato, Ivatovkvy, "

there being near to

that, as

Fiakarana and lakaranosy,

" lifting

of bold rocks and precipices near

named

itself

also find the ideas of " height " in a

;

given to a town on

hill

few town-names

already

not impossible in

difficult, if

not more strictly that of the

with mountain-names,

appellations.

their

ancient towns of the interior on

and anointed

them

children),

At-the-bottom-of-the-rock," Ant6n-

At-the-foot-of-the-rock," Ivatofotsy

and Ambatofotsy,

At-the-white-rock," Ivatolavo, Ambatofisaka, Ambatotokana,

"At - the - solitary-rock," Amparafaravato, "At - the - stone - bed stead

;

entrance

this is

treaty, since

one of the three Malagasy towns to which

forbidden to Europeans by an article in the 1865

they were then the seats of the chief

Sihanaka province silver-bedstead,"

Then

stones."

In the

idols. "

a town called Amparafaravola,

and there are several Ambatomalaza,

At-the-

Famous-

there are found Iharana, Ankaranila, Ankara-

malaza, and Ankaratsinanana.

The

colour of the

soil also

gives

frequent names, as Antanifotsy, "White-earth," Ambohipotsy, "

At-the-white-hill," Ankadifotsy, " At-the-white-fosse,"

Ampasi-

See paper by W. C. Pickersgill, Esq., in L.M.S. Missionary Chronicle, Oct. and Atitaiiauanvo Annual, No. XIL, 1888.

1882, p. 323

;

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

136

mena,

Much -bamboo,"

many town-names, "

Anakakondro,

also

Ambolobe,

At-the-plantain-shoots,"

" At-the-foot-of-the-rofia "

Ambodirofia,

&c.

Two-towns," and Ifitobohitra, "Seven-towns."

Trees and woods give "

" Red-hill,"

At-the-red-sand," Ivohimena,

Ambohidroa,

find

Antapiabe,

(palm),

" (a tree

with edible fruit, and used for silkworm Ampangab6, " Much-fern," Ivohidroy, " Bramble-town," Amboatavo, " At-the-gourds," Ankazomasina, " At-the-sacred-

Mnch-tapia

culture),

lalamalaza,

tree,"

wood," Ambaniala, "

Tamponala,

many

Famous-wood," Analamaizina, "

Below-the-wood," Beravina,

The

Top-of-the-wood," &c.

villages gives appropriate

names

At-the-dark-

Much-foliage,"

pleasant situation of

to not a few of them,

which contain the words isdra (good) and soa (pleasant), the latter of

which

especially frequent, as Antanantsara,

Ambo-

hitsara, Itsarafidy, " Well-chosen," Itsarahonenana, " Good-for-

dwelling-in," Ambohitsoa,

Ikianjasoa, "

Isoaririnina, "

The

Pleasant-to-dwell-in."

in villages called

latter

word

also

Soavina and Soamanana

tsimanampiovana, of security

Ambatos6a, Ambalasoa, Antsahasoa, Pleasant-in-winter," and Soamonina,

in frequently

one

termed Soa-

Unchangeably-pleasant," and the same idea

expressed

" Causing-to-live."

;

comes

Fiadanana,

The open

Peace," and Mahavelona,

position

many

villages,

exposed to sunlight, gives a name to several as, Masoandro, B6masoandro, " Much-sun," and Ambohibemasoandro and the ;

;

extensive prospect from others gives their names of Mahatsinjo, "

Able-to-overlook," and Tsinjoarivo,

New

settlements,

Overlooking-a-thousand."

now probably very

ancient (like our

own

Newports and Newcastles), have left their traces in Ambohibao, "Newtown," a very common village name in Imerina in Ant6by, " At-the-camp," and Andranovao, " At-the-new-house " (?) while the advance of settlers upon ground previously unoccupied ;

;

seems to have given a name to the many places called Ambo" himandroso, " Progressing-town," and Mandrosoa, " Advance *

remember

villages

this

name, a rather common one, is that of one of the filthiest the whole place being a foot deep in cowdung.

ever stayed a night in

;

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

Many

(verb imp.).

village-names include the Malagasy equiva-

Anglo-Saxon words

lents for our

ham, burgh, btuy,

ton,

the Danish by and thorpe, in the words vala,

&c.,

and

a homestead," as

Ambalavotaka, Ambalatany, Ambalavola, Ambalasakay, and

Ambala, &c.

;

a fosse," one at least of which surrounds

in hady, "

every old village (and homestead), and very frequently several

deep trenches are found one within the other

as Ankadibe,

;

Ankadisarotra, Ankadimainty, Ankadifotsy, Ambodihady, and

Ankadivorib^,

country house

Big-round-fosse " (the hadivbry')

;

name

ordinary

in sdha, " field," as

and

for

Antsahape-

traka, Antsahafilo, Antsaharoaloha, " Two-headed-field," Isaha-

and Isahabato,

fary, "Sugar-cane-field,"

" Stony-field,"

&c. There

are a very few village-names referring to roads, or rather paths, as

;

choose your

two or three places at the junction of

cross-

another bears the (probably often too appropriate)

name

path," applied to

roads

You may

freely translated, "

Antsampanimahazo,

of Ampotaka,

From

In-the-mud."

the situation of

many Malagasy

villages

on the banks

AntsamAmbodiriana and

of rivers are derived several descriptive names, as

pandrano,

" At-the-branching-of-the-waters," "

Ambonirlana, hantsana,

Last-rapids

(on

and

At-the-foot-of- "

Upon-the-cataract," Ifara-

the river

Ikiopa), Isarahanony,

(perhaps) " At-the-separating-of-the-streams," Andranomandry,

Amparihy, " At-the-lake," Andohatinjona, " Atthe-head-of-the-promontory," and Imavorano, " Brown-water "

"By-still-waters,"

;

while

find

an exact equivalent of

and an approach to bridge."

Cambridge

One name seems

Itsimisirano,

Oxford in

" in

Ampitanomby,

Tetezambato,

Stone-

complain of a lack of moisture,

There's-no-water

the sea-coast several

village-names include the word i;/ÂŤ^ÂŤj'," river-mouth," as Ivinany,

Vinani6ny, &c., and also Masondrano, a word of similar meaning, found both in this form and in that of Masondranokely.

A nosy,

considerable

which

ever, in

many

number of village-names include the word

generally translated cases to mean,

island "

;

appears, how-

exactly, a rising ground

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

138

Standing up from marshes and

rounded by them, a very near

Thus we

less sur-

Anglo-Saxon ea

find Nosivato, " Rocky-island," Nosi-

manjaka,

" King's-island,"

Nosikely,

Anosivarika,

and more or

names Chelsea, Thorney, Putney,

or ey, " an island," as in the

Chertsey, &c.i

rice-fields,

parallel to our

Nosisoa, "

N6sizato,

Thousand-isles," and, simply.

Nosivola,

Nosipatrana,

Hundred-isles,"

Nosy

Nosiarivo,

or An6sy.

number of village-names some additional descriptive

In the central district of Imerina a include that of the province, with

word

some

these are probably, in

;

certain additions of territory or find

cases at least, memorials of

change of boundary

thus

;

Imerimandroso, Imerinavaratra, Imerintsiadino, Soavini-

The western division of Imerina, the name to a few villages, as Arivonimamo and Tsinjovinimamo. The habit of the central Malagasy m6rina, and Im^rinarlvo.

Imamo

gives a

district, also

of assembling at large open-air markets for the sale and pur-

chase of every kind of native product gives a villages near such markets, according to the

on which they are

So we

held.

Alahady (although markets

name

days of the week

numerous places

find

many

are no longer held on

called

Sunday

the central provinces), Alatsinainy, Talata, Alarobia, Alakamisy,

Zoma, and Asabotsy.

with mountain-names, so also

words

villages, the

the words

"dog," all

for various

mamba and

bsy,'' ^ozX." fbza,

occurring

;

thus,

those of

vody, " crocodile," dznfa, " leech," ambba^

"crab," hdla, "spider," and

Mambazato,

Marovoay,

Arab settlement near

many

Hundred-crocodiles

exaggeration this in numberless places) suggestive,

some towns and

animals enter into their formation

;

(no

but very

less definite,

Many-crocodiles," a

others,

Hova

post and

mouth of the Betsiboka river Masomboay, Antsahadinta, Amboatany, Ambohitrosy, Antsahamarofoza, and Antohokala. Most frequent are those compounded with bniby, " ox," as Mamiomby, " Sweet-to-oxen," probably referring to

the

;

good pastures (Soaronono, '

Cf.

Words and

Good-(for) milk,"

Places, p. 367 ct seq.

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

probably of similar meaning to the foregoing), Antandrokomby, "

Ox-horn," Lohaomby,

Ox-head," Ambohitromby,

Ox-town," and Ambositra,! " At-the-ox " (or oxen). Fahitra, the word for the sunken pen or fold in which cattle are kept and fattened, enters into many village-names, especially places where these fdhitra were numerous or of great size, or made by some famous chief of former times thus, Ampahitra, Ampahitnzana, Ambo"

;

difahitra,

word

Ampahimanga, &c.

Here we have a

similar use of the

to that in our English place-ending by or byr (cf Scot.

byre, " a cow-stall

").

name from some

few villages take their

prominent or numerous tree or plant growing plentifully near

it,

Amboatavo, " At-the-gourds," Amboasary," At-the-lemons," &c. The most common village-names of the class already grouped as personal are those derived from chieftainship, freas

quently including the words manjdka, sovereign, and andrianay prince, noble

;

and our English Kingstowns, Kingstons, and

Princetons find a Malagasy parallel in numerous places called

Amb6himanjaka, Ambohitrinimanjaka, Ambatomanjaka, Manjakanandriana, Miadamanjaka, " Reigning-peacefully," Ambohitrandriana, Ambatonandriana, and Iharanandriana some of ;

these being probably the chiefs village in earlier times.

Of some-

what similar meaning is Ikianjamalaza, Famous-courtyard," and Ikianjasoa while the principal village of a former petty state, often a very little place, is remembered in many an Amb6hib6 and Ivohibe, " Big-village," and in frequent Antanamalaza and Ambohimalaza, " Famous-towns " and " villages," We also find Ambohitompo, " Lord's-town," and Ambalampi"

;

tsara, "

â&#x20AC;˘

Judge's-homestead."

former

Vdsitra

Other

famous king or

the ox, strictly so called

generally; hence

oJiibilaliy,

villages preserve the

chieftain,

;

oviby being a wider

bull," ZLiuakbmby,

name

Ambohidrabiby,^

calf,"

word

for cattle

&c.

- Rabiby was an early king in Imerina, who is said to have slain an enormous wild-boar and he is also remembered as the first who discovered that beef was good to eat. This tradition is probably true so far as it recalls an early period when the ox was considered a sacred animal, and its flesh was only eaten ;

as part of a religious service.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

I40

Ambohidratrimo, Ambohidrapeto/ Ambohidratamo,

Ambohi-

dramijay, and Ambatondrazaka.^

Some tribal divisions or boundaries are probably preserved in the many village-names which include the word a7ivo, " thousand," sdto, "hundred," and/olo, "ten," as, Ivohitrarivo, Ambohipoloarivo (io,ooo), Soavinarivo, Iharinarivo, Ambohijato and

Ambijato, and Ampolo.

names are given

Tribal

which were formerly perhaps

villages,

some

their chief settlement

Anjanadralambo (the Zanadralambo are the sixth and Ralambo, lowest rank of andnana, the noble or royal clans their ancestor, was the same as the Rabiby just mentioned, and was so called from his slaying the wild-boar or lambd) ; and

as,

;

Ampahidralambo, "Ralambo's-ox-fattening langina (the

Betsileo people).

probably

;

and Ambodila-

and tribal or family history are such names as Itelolahy, " Three-men,"

Bits of local

fossilised in

Ivohidraivo, "

pit"

Lalangina are the easternmost division of the

Imarovavy,

Raivo's-town,"

Many-women,"

"Many-children," Fierenana, "Dividing-place," Refuge," Isoanierana, " Good-for-inquiry " (an open-

Imarozaza,

Fierena,

Ampihaonana,

court),

air

" Father's-village,"

janaka,

Good-(by)

Ambohidray,

Meeting-place," "

Ambohijatovo,

Children's-village,"

Tsarahavana,

Youth's-village,"

Ifenovahoaka,

Ambohi-

Full-of-people,'

Itsiazombazaha,

relations,"

Not-

Old sacred places and shrines are indicated by many an Ambohimasina and Ambatomasina, {indsina, sacred), and perhaps in Ambohijanahary and Am-

taken-by-foreigners," &c., &c.

" Creator's-"

bohitrandriamanitra,

and

and venerated trees as Ankazomasina and Ankazobe. About the other two divisions ijidzo)

village "

names may be

obscure

meaning,

classed,

Rapeto

said to

have been a =

The

God's-town."

Sacred

a few village names,

which Malagasy town and

viz.,

those of

doubtful " or

unnecessary to speak here, for the

reasons given in speaking of the

of strength.

give

also

giant,

chief

town

names of mountains and and

of the

rivers.

have performed marvellous Sihanaka province.

feats

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES.

Some

I4I

local allusions, obvious

enough on the

many

class of

bably explain

of the

first

spot,

names

;

would prowhile fuller

knowledge of old and obsolete or provincial Malagasy, and

among the natives, will be required to meaning of many of the second of these classes.

careful inquiry

the

elucidate

Before concluding, a few words must be added upon one other class of Malagasy place-names yet unnoticed,

and

of Provinces

in distinguishing

of them from those of the tribes

inhabit these various regions to say

they

;

many cases name from

since in

whether the people take their whether the country

live in, or

from that of personal, or

rather, tribal,

as on the coast plains, river-names

may

The meaning vince of Imerina also occasionally

Among district

names.

is,

as regards the priority

name

of the central and leading pro-

termed Ankova, from

the subdivisions

fully discussed, but a

obscure (to myself at least)

" Cut-off-(lit.

Vakintsisaony,

In other cases,

be given.

of the is

almost inseparable

These points cannot be now

few examples

difficult

the country

and tribal-names are equally

of exact discrimination, that

of the two.

it is

who

called after the people.

So that here the study of place-names

difficult

those

Here, however, a difficulty occurs

Districts.

many

viz.,

its

the district

;

Hova

inhabitants.

of Imerina are Vakinankaratra, the

by-Ankaratra

broken-")

(mountains),

Imamo, Voniname), and to the

Cut-off-by-(the river) Sisaony,"

zongo, Valalafotsy, " White-locusts

a (tribal

Among-

north, Avaradrano, " North-of-the-water," Anativ61o, "

the-bamboos," &c.

But the smaller

district

numerous, and would require a separate

names

are

very

article for their

full

treatment.

South of Vakinankaratra

the Manandriana district, the

northernmost division of the populous Betsileo province, home of the " Unconquered

tribe (so

named, although they have

been overcome by the dominant Hova) divisions of centre,

and

;

with the other sub-

Sandra, so called from the river flowing through

this,

again, traditionally said to be

named

its

after a

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

142

Hova, one Andriantsandra

;

Ilalangina (literally,

Ouiet-road,"

and larindrano but there is probably some other meaning) " There-is- water,"i probably from the numerous streams. Further ;

south

the

still

Bara country.

this

province,

with

its

widely scattered population, there appears to be necessarily a <TOod deal of change in its place-names, since the numerous petty kingdoms or chieftaincies are, like many African kingdoms,2 called after the names of the reigning chief

On point, its

the eastern side of the island, beginning at the northern "

the Ankarana,

the

Rocky

province, possibly taking

a remarkable rock fortress where the inhabitants

name from

have often held their own against an invading force.3 Coming south, are the districts of Vohimarina, " Level-hill," the promon-

word

Maroa (in Hova this Be many," it is said to be of the same name, possibly thus

Bay and

tory sheltering Antongil

called

an imperative form meaning

so called from a small river

its sudden increase in the heavy rains of the wet south of this, again, are a number of districts, and season) some called after the principal town in them, some after the chief river, and inhabited by numerous tribes generally

named from ;

termed

the

Betsimisaraka,

from these

Many-unseparated."

the Betanimena country,

the great marsh district

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;the

Much-red-earth," while

Malagasy fen-country

but chiefly south of the chief lake, Alaotra, hanaka,

the

" Lake-people's-district."

Inland

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; around,

called

South of

this

Antsiis

the

open plain between the two eastern lines of forest, and called Ankay, the " Clearing," from its comparative absence lono-

of wood.

Its

inhabitants are called the Antankay, and also

the Bezanozano, reo-ion is

East of misaraka

Bush

people."

called the Tanala country, this

again, on

district, are

the

coast

the regions

The south-eastern forest " home of the Foresters."

plains

south of the Betsi-

occupied by the Taim6ro

See Rev. G. A. Shaw's paper, " The Betsileo Country and Antananarivo Anmial, No. III. pp. 74, 76. ^ 3 See Antananarivo Annual, No. E.'^. Urambo, after Mirambo. '

People," III. p. 27.

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. tribe,

I43

a word of probably similar origin to an identical one used

meaning " the live sea," The Taimoro occupy a coast

the Melanesian islands, and there

because of the active surf

exposed to the

come

full

force of the

the Taisaka, the

Taifasy,

trade winds.^

S.E.

and other

extreme south-east corner of Madagascar

Ambolo,

Tanosy, or point, island,

districts.

Then At the

the fertile vale of

At-the-Bamboos," and the region occupied by the "

Islanders

(?)

;

and proceeding round the southern

and turning northward along the western side of the are the territories of the Tandroy, the Masikoro, the

Vezo, the emigrant north of these

Tanosy, and

Antifiherenana

the

;

and

the extensive region, extending nearly to the

north of the island, inhabited by the various tribes loosely called Sakalava, because conquered by a warlike people of that name.

This conquering race formed two kingdoms, that of Iboina to

Menabe south of it. The latter of these two probably the same as that used by the Hova to denote

the north, and

words

an estate held direct from the sovereign. It will

be evident, therefore, that to treat

combine with this

may

this division of

would be necessary to an examination of tribal names and perhaps

Malagasy place-names completely,

;

be attempted at some future time, when our informa-

and accurate than it now is. Enough has probably now been said to show how full of interest the inquiry is, and how much light is thrown upon the mental

tion

on these becomes more

full

character of the Malagasy, as well as on

by the names they give

and towns they have formed over

surface. '

subjects,

to the natural features of the country,

as well as to the settlements its

some other

See Antananarivo Animal, No.

p. 25.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

144

APPENDIX. BETSILEO PLACE-NAMES.i

Among the most common and characteristic place-names amongst the Betsileo are the following I vohibe, Ambbhibe, Ambohimandroso, Mahazoarivo, Vohitrarivo, Tovi-ns. :

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

Ambohitromby, really Ambohitsaombe. The compounds with -ar'tvo ("thousand") are very frequent as names of towns e.g., I vohitsarivo, Mahazoarivo (the ancient capital of the Isandra province, where Andriamanalina lived at the time of his famous really Vohitsarivo, Ivohitromby, really Ivohitsaombe,

;

negotiations with Andrianampoinimerina), Akarinarivo, Ambohimiinarivo, Andrainarivo, Ilanjainarivo, Tomboraivo. As far as my own experience goes, towns with this noun of number (indicating great quantity of wealth of cattle, slaves, subjects, &c.) are or were invariably the seat of rather superior Umpo-menakely {i.e., feudal land proprietors), never, so far as I have seen, mere villages included in but not the capital of the mhtakely (estate).

Fenoarivo appears

be an Ambaniandro

name given

to the

the Betsileo and southern tribes) name. There is one Fenoarivo in the Manandriana province, but not in the Betsileo proper, i.e., south of the Matsiatra river ; and that one Fenoarivo is a Government town, probably

Hova by

named, as undoubtedly many Government towns in the south were named aborigines, but by the (e.g., Fanjakana and Fianarantsoa), not by the There is another between Ikalamavony and colonists from the capital. Modongy but there are too many runaway slaves and Hova there to make it a real Betsileo village. The compounds with -buy are also Ony in these words is not used as the equivalent for river characteristic. and, indeed, it is doubtful whether lano (water) is not a more correct translation for that word at all times, the bny being simply the confluence ;

;

This paper on the place-names of the southern-central province of Mada-

friend and brother missionary, the gascar, the Betsileo, is from the pen of Rev. Charles T. Price, formerly for several years resident in that part of the island, and which he kindly allows me to add to my own paper.

This chapter was written thirteen years ago, and first published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, April, 1873. Since that time M. Grandidier has published the volume on the Historical Geography of Madagascar, in his great work on this country and in his very elaborate tables of all the known place-names both on the coast and the interior he has given the meanings of many hundreds of these. He has also added an essay on the place-names, from which prefixes An- and Am- in the early part of I have extracted paragraphs as to the The only other paper I know of on the subject is an amusing one this chapter. by Vice-Consul W. C. Pickersgill, in Antananarivo Annual, No. XII., 1888, some Curiosities of Topoentitled, " Revision of North-West Place-Names graphical Nomenclature." He shows how Europeans, ignorant of Malagasy, and Hovas, ignorant of provincial dialects, have alike corrupted the coast names. ;

;

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. At any

of the laiio.

rate, in

place-names onv means the confluence of

people, a large gathering, profanum

the

145

viilgiis

Rome,

TroXXoi

Thus, Nasandratsofty (corrupted by Hova and Europeans into Nasandratony) is the place that was raised up, or built, by the multitude a name easily understood by any one who has seen the large gatherincrs of people in this comparatively small village assembled by Ramavo, a descendant of Andriamaniilina, and chieftainess there. Other instances of Athens.

—

Ambohitsoaony, Ambalamisaony=the homestead where there is a of people), and Tondroinony. Either by the " -diiv " or " -aiivo," or some other such addition, important towns generally have names far removed from the mean or commonplace. One mi^fht be tolerably sure, for instance, that such a place as Amboasary or Itaolana are

gathering

was not anciently of great importance. Villages and homesteads. Frequently such names begin with the contracted place-form of vbhiira or vala, as Ambohibary, or Ambalabe.' Vbhitra is a village or town, and although vala is often used of a collection of houses numerous enough to be called a village, yet strictly

—

speaking a vala is a homestead, the equivalent in Imerina being tamboho. Our place at Fanjakana, with its house and outbuildings, including kitchen, school-room, scholars' dwellings, &c., standing in a large garden, was correctly named Ambatolahinandrianisiahana =: " At - Andrianisiahana'svatolahy," or monument (not grave), which stood at the very gateway of

But the place vi^as usually spoken of as a vala, occasionally and once I heard a native speak of going outside the compound, as going outside the tanana. This seems to indicate that there is no fixed law for the use of either word in forming place-names of villacfes or towns. Not so, however, with the prefixes I- and Am- or An-. I am the premises.

as a vbhitra,

not referring to the simple omission of the

I-, as in Fianarantsoa a mere matter of habit and fashion but to non-interchangeability of the simple form with or without the I-, and form with the Am- or An-. Vohibe or Ivohibe, for instance, is not same as Ambohibe, nor Ivohipbtsy as Ambohipotsy. Vodisandra is

Ilianarantsoa,

which

;

for

the

the the the

Sandra river Ambbdisandra is the name of the adjacent Vatolahinandrianisiahana is the name of the deceased judge's monument but it would have been incorrect to call our place Iviitolahinandrianisiahana it was ^;»b:itolahinandrianisiahana. I have heard ti-ndrombbhitra used for vbhitra : is it not possible that the true vohitra was

mouth

of the

;

village.

;

situated at the tcndrombbliitra

that Ivohipotsy, for instance,

at the top of the hill Ivohipotsy,

side

and Ambohipotsy the

was the village on the hill-

village

^ ?

common

in the

—

The compounds with harana, a precipice, more precipitous parts of the Betsileo province.

Physical features.

are very

Names

with this compound invariably represent faithfully the nature of the place. Instances are, Ankaramalaza (at least two in the larindrimo, and one in '

Ambalavao

this point,

one c/.

of the

most common, wearisomely

p. 133 ante.

so.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

146

the Ilalangina), " goat-tract," ().sv

Ankaranosy

(tlie

ascent to which might well be termed a More common still are names

= goat) and Ankaratsinimana.

recording other physical features of the locality, as Iviitoavo, Ambatoreny, Ambatosba, Vatomitatana, Ambatomena,Andranovbrivato, Vatofotsy, Anjolobato, Ambatomainty, Ambatofinandrahana ("the chiselled rock"), Ambohimiarina (which is " perched up " near the crest of a high hill), Midongy (on a hill in the south), and Modongy (in the west a cloud seems to be always sullenly' frowning round its overhanging brow), Ilamosina, Ampasina (= Ampasika), Viniiny and its numerous compounds. There are at least three places in the Betsileo named Andrainjato, one in each of the three provinces, and each of them rocky hills. That in the Isandra is a prominent rather than lofty ridge, on which are many rocks curiously piled but there It is, and I believe always has been, uninhabited together. are many other named places quite desolate. In the Sandra there is "Andrainjato ro avo-taiiy, namndratsa ny a current proverb, as follows ;

;

b'ltsika

ko ny bitsika ro be-loha, sasaisa ny nitao-tanc,"

i.e.,

Andrainjato

ground because raised by the ants and the ants have big heads because they are weary with carrying earth." The plants most plentiful or peculiar to the neighbourhood appear frequently to give the name to a village or uninhabited hill, e.g. Ikando (where the wild plant kando freely grows), Amboasary, Ankazosoaravina, Sakaviro ginger), Beanana, Andranorondrona, Anka(? a transposition of S(7/:flnr'0 fotsa {hafotra), Anahimalemy, Vahambe, Ankafina, Siiha, Sahamalaza, Besakoana. There are two towns, both in the heart of the sweet-scented fragrant) but one at least of these forest, named Ivohimanitra {manitra must be in the Tankla (forest region). Animals are represented in such names as Alambomandrevo, lavonomby Vohitromby, Maroparasy, Bevoalavo, larinomb}-, Itaolana, Kalaliio, Ankaranosy. Ambohitsandrazanimamba is not such an instance. The maniba or voay, with the Betsileo, is not only the crocodile, but the big, aweand Ambohiinspiring man king, chief, or governor in any place tsandrazanimamba was so named when old Andriamanalina, in dividing probably the his inheritance among his sons, directed that one of them eldest should leave the old Isandra capital of Mahazoarivo and reside at Ambohitsandrkzana. The mamba was to niiandry fanjakana (guard the kingdom) there, and hence the name. When any of the family die, the

lofty

;

—

body,

;

the course of

the funeral

ceremonies, involving a pilgrimage

round the province lasting some weeks or months, is sure to lie in state for a time at Ambohitsandrkzana. The family tomb and favourite residence of Rajoaka, the present prince and descendant of Andriamanalina, is at

the " timid village "), so named because it lies Ivohitsasaky (Ivohitsasaky completely hidden in a small wood at the base of the range of hills at the end of which stands Ambohitsandrkzana. Farther on, under the same range of hills, is Isorana, a village most of whose houses are built each on a separate boulder of rock of immense '

Dongy

= sulky, morose.

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. size, so that to

I47

get to a neighbour's house quite a perilous journey has to be to the other. In some cases, to get from one house

made from one boulder

descend from the boulder and pass through an There are two of these large caves one cliff. would hold a thousand people, and the other was used for storing rice in the old days of civil war. They had a spring of water there also, if I am not mistaken. Other of the houses are situated between the foot of the cliff and the boulders, almost if not quite concealed from view from the high road. The houses being almost the same colour as the rocks, and being either perched aloft in most unlikely situations, or else hidden by the huge boulders scattered about before them, the village was analogous to Ivohitsasiiky in respect of its modest and retiring situation. Even if the village were observed, the inhabitants, in case of alarm, would not have been found they would have removed by secret paths into the cave behind. This power of removing themselves may have been the origin of the name Isorana, or Isorane, as the pure Betsileo would have it. There is a proverb " Ivohitsasaky ny aiiaty ala ko Isorane ny anaty vato," which runs Isorane is within the rock." i.e., " Ivohitsasaky is within the forest, and The whole of the valley in which these two villages are situated, and at the southern end of which Ambohitsandriizana looks down from its lofty crag, is typical of the condition of insecurity in which, in former times, the Betsileo lived. Between Ivohitsasaky and Ambbhitsandrazana the wall of rock which shuts in the valley on the west is cleft by a winding gully On one of the steep sides of this gully', at right angles to the valley itself. perhaps 100 feet or more from the bottom, the rock forms a natural ledge 30 or 40 feet wide, on which stands a single row of houses forming the village of Ivohibasiana {i.e., " the village which can {only) be shot at " not reached in any other way). As you pass along the road in the valley this village is only perceptible from one particular spot, where, standing at exactly the right angle, you get in a line with that part of the tortuous gully for in which the ledge is. Even then the path up to the village is unseen the ledge appears to terminate abruptly, high up above the valley, on that side from which you would approach it from the road. It is worth while to remark that the word Betsileo would seem to be a Hova name applied loosely and ignorantly to any place or people south Immediately south of Imerina comes Viikinankaratra, of the river Sisaony. then Mimandriana, and after that Betsileo proper south of the Matsiatra river. But these Betsileo do not like to be so called they prefer their own name, judiciously confirmed to them by the Queen in a kabary in 1873 Ambohitromby, or, more exactly and full}', Andriambohitsaombeliihy, which, if shortened, should be Andriambohitsa. They have great wealth in cattle though superficial observers and new-comers have denied this. to the next

you have

immense cave under

the

;

—

;

—

;

—

;

The

fact

that the pasture-land

getting less extensive in the central

now keep most of their cattle in the extreme west, bordering on the Biira country, where in one small village it is not at all uncommon to see 500 to 1,000 head of cattle, all belonging to some rich man living far away to the parts of the Betsileo,

and

that the wealthiest landed proprietors

148

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

who places his cattle in these roomy plains under tne charge of herdsmen. The tendency of the foregoing rambling notes, as will be seen, is to show that the place-names have an intimate connection with the characteristics of the places themselves. Even now, with our comparatively slight knowledge of Betsileo history, the connection between the names and the peculiarities or distinctive features of the places named is traceable in most cases. east,

U'l'C to graph

A SAKALAVA WAKKIOK (HEATHEN).

l>y

Dr.

hNN.

CHAPTER

VIII.

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS CONNECTED WITH CHIEFTAINSHIP AND ROYALTY AMONG THE MALAGASY; AND NOTES ON RELICS OF THE SIGN AND GESTURE

LANGUAGE. The

— — — — — —

— —

" In Malayo-Polynesian Betsileo Special words or " Chiefs' language languages For Malagasy sovereigns Illness and death Burial MournRoyal servants Royal houses Chiefs' words among Diseases ing For elderly chiefs For chiefs old or For family of chiefs Betsileo Extreme honour paid to chiefs Fiuiy or Taboo in words young Royal names Sacred character of Veneration for Tabooed animals Sakalava chiefs' posthumous names Relics of the sign and royalty Salutations Symbolic acts Royalty gesture language "Licking the Kabaiys The Taboo. sole "

—

— —

—

describe

some

—

— —

object in the present chapter

among

—

to call attention to

and

peculiar words and customs in use

the Hova, or people of the central province of Imerina,

and also among the

Betsileo, the tribe inhabiting the district to

The Hova

the south of this first-named province.

are probably

the latest and purest Malayan or lighter Polynesian immigrants;

they are also the most advanced, various Malagasy tribes

anity have

made

;

intelligent,

among them

the greatest progress

;

and

civilised of the

education and Christiand, since the beginning

of this century, they have become the dominant tribe of the country, and their queen

sovereign of the greater part of the

island.

The

Betsileo are a darker race than the Hova, being pro-

bably descended from Melanesian ancestors, or from a mixture 149

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

150

of the dark and light Pacific islanders

perhaps stronger than

;

northern

their

they are also

taller

and

neighbours, although,

owing to the superior discipline of the Hova soldiers, they were subdued by them about eighty years ago, and have ever since

They

been obedient subjects to the sovereign at Antananarivo. appear to me, as well as to others

Imerina and

less.

lived

both in

the Betsileo province, to be less intelligent than

the Hova, but possibly this

have been

who have

Among

may be

because their advantages

them, however, very satisfactory progress

being made, and both the London Missionary Society and the Norwegian Lutheran Mission have a large number of congregations and many thousands of children in their schools. is

known

a fact well

It is

to all philologists that in several

groups of language there are found classes of words which are only used by the people when speaking of their sovereigns or chiefs,

with regard to their persons, their actions, and their sur-

roundings, as well as to the honours paid to them both

they are living and after death.

been known that

number of such

in the central

specialised

And

for a

long time past

when it

has

province of Imerina there are a

words which are employed with

regard to the sovereign, and these have probably been in use for centuries as applied to the chiefs of the central province.

It will

be seen that these are not words which are not also employed with regard to ordinar}' persons or things or actions, but are

almost special

commonly used words which have gained a and different meaning when applied to the sovereign. all

of them

The more illness,

noticeable of these words are connected with the

decease, and burial ceremonies of a Malagasy sovereign,

although there are also two or three which are applied to the living king or queen.

nature of honorific of words

sovereign

first

(Perhaps, however, these are more of the

titles

than strictly coming within the class

are here discussing.)

Avipingara-bolamena,

Thus, an old word literally

for

"golden gun," the

part of the phrase being taken from the Portuguese espin-

garda, so that this term

not of more ancient origin than about

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. three centuries ago, or, at most, three

Another term appHed which

formed

and a

half.

a word

tclo,

according to the rule for making ordinal from

numbers

from

third,

centuries

is /vf///r(^, "first,"

not used with regard to things generally, although strictly

cardinal

to the sovereign

151

being always used

from

{e.g.,fdharda, second,

three), the

word voalbhany

for " first."

two fdhatelo,

rba,

;

(voa, fruit, /d/m,

head)

term sometimes applied to

by elderly officers in public speeches seems to our notions somewhat impertinently familiar, viz., Ikdlatbkana ; in ordinary talk by the people this means " our only lass," and the word ikdla is often applied also to hens. If one might venture on such a free translation, it seems to mean {7iot " cock of the the queen

" Jien

walk," but)

of the roosting-place."

in its free familiarity, the

like,

by some

fellow ") to the former kings

The members

councillors.

Atinandnana

"the

i.e.,

of the

however, very

is,

most

of their

royal

you

privileged

family are termed

or "inside," of the sovereign or

liver,"

And among some

chief).

dj'dno,

(lit.

use of the word laldhy

tribes the chiefs are

whom

water channels," through

termed Mdso7ibenefits

all

are

supposed to be derived, as the water flows along the bed of a river.

Returning, however, to the more exact illustrations of the subject,

Malagasy king or queen

{inardry), but "

die

rather

warm

word folaka

And

iinafdnafdna).

{mdty), but are said to

{inianiboJio).

not said to be

" retire,"

ill

they do not

to turn the

back

In parts of Madagascar distant from Imerina, the (bent, broken,

of a deceased chief

weakened)

(With regard

employed

speaking

to people generally,

among

the Tanala and other tribes, the phrase fola-mdnta [inanta, raw]

A curious word for chiefs and their wives is used by the Bara, Sakalava and some other Malagasy tribes, viz., b)by which in Imerina usually means " animal," '

" beast," or, as

an adjective,

" sensual," " brutal "

of children as well, probably

much

in the

;

although

same way

also used here

words of an unpleasant children and infants from fear of as

(and even nasty) meaning are often applied to some envious and malign influence, such as the " evil eye." Perhaps, however, it is really a word of entirely difterent origin, from the Swahili h'thy, " my lady," "

mistress."

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

152 is

used for sudden death

arm

?],

for

dying young

where a corpse Hes is

not termed

;

folaka an-dantony

while t7'dno folaka

Then

in state.)

a corpse

the dead

\_lantony,

the fore-

the house [trdno]

body of a sovereign

(/dty), but " the sacred thing "

(r?.y

Queen Ranavalona II., who died in 1883, is always spoken of as Ny Mdsina in the government gazette and in proclamations, as well as by the people generally in ordinary

The

indsma).

late

There

conversation.

among

the Hova, as well as

other Malagasy tribes, a deep sense of

hedge a king late

" ;

and

among

the

the divinity that doth

acceptance of Christianity by the

until the

queen and her government, the Hova sovereigns were

termed "the

visible

God"

{Andriavidnitra

Jiita

mdso); other

terms of similar import were also applied to them.

ance also with

this

same

the chamber formed of slabs

corpse

which

deposited, a small timber-framed building

called the " sacred house

appearance exactly

In accord-

upon the stone structure covering of undressed rock, where the royal

belief,

{trdno mdsina).

erected,

This

like the old style of native house,

made

timber framing, the walls of thick upright planking, and high-

wooden shingles. This distinction of having a timber house built upon the stone tomb is also shared pitched roof covered with

by the higher ranks of

nobles, who,

should be remembered, are

descended from ancient kings in Imerina.

When

the corpse of a sovereign

in their various divisions or tribes are

lying in state, the

expected to come

women

in relays

mourn but this ceremonial mourning is not called by its usual name {viisaona), but the people are said to " present " or " offer tears " {inidti-drdnomdso). Then again, a sovereign is not to

;

said to be

buried

" {alevina),

the massive silver coffin

made

but

of dollars

hidden

{afcnina)

hammered

;

and

into plates,

which most of the Hova kings or queens in more recent times have been buried, is called the " silver canoe " {Idkam-bola),

a word in which a little bit of history is doubtless preserved a remembrance of a former period when the Hova were not, as :

they are now, an inland people, but a coast-dwelling or an island

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. tribe,

and buried

their

dead

an old canoe, as

is still

the custom

with the Sakalava,! the Betsimisaraka, and other Malagasy peoples living on the coast.

When place,

the royal corpse has been deposited in

and the stonework

closed up again, this act indsodndro)

of his

called

the sovereign being

;

its last

tomb

at the entrance to the

stopping up the sun

restingis

being

{tavipi-

the sun," the light and

warmth

and was formerly often so termed in public Much the same idea appears in the phrase used by

people,

speeches.-

some of the

coast tribes in speaking of the decease of their

chiefs, viz., " the

king

This same word

{inihilana ny ainpanjdka).

to denote the afternoon, the " decline of the

dndro).

on one side

reclining," or " leaning

very bold and poetical figure

used

day

Imerina

" {iniJillana

employed

also

express the general mourning at the decease of a sovereign,

Mihohoka ny tdny dman-ddnitra, turned upside

down

many and

detail the

This

i.e.^

Heaven and earth

not the place to describe

are in

curious ceremonies, as well as the numerous

things prohibited to be done, at the decease of a Malagasy king or queen

suffice

;

one's head

carried this

;

had

to say that, with very few exceptions, every

to be shaved

;

no hat could be worn or umbrella

the Idmba only (no European dress) could be worn, and

had to be bound under the armpits, leaving the shoulders

uncovered

;

all

singing, dancing, or playing of musical instru-

ments was prohibited,

as well as the practice of

many handicrafts,

making of pottery, gold and silver work, some occupations could not be altogether

as spinning, weaving,

&C.3

course

A somewhat

water used

similar historical fragment lies under the

in the circumcision

ceremonies

termed

word used

for the " salt

rirno iiiasiim,

water," and in the case of children who are heirs to the throne it must actually be fetched from the sea (rauoiuasinaj. Doubtless sea water was formerly used in all such cases while the Hova were still a shore-dwelling tribe. - And so concealing property due to the sovereign, or peculation of government dues, is termed nuiiuw uiasoaiiciro nn-ktiiviui, i.e., "putting the sun into a basket." 3 See account of the funeral ceremonies subsequent chapter.

the death of

Kadama

I.,

given

in a

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

154

abandoned, such as the &c.

rice,

tilling

of the

soil,

;

was mentioned as viildtsaka an-tsdha,

down

country," or "settling for "

word

sowing and planting

but such work was not called by the usual terms, but

market "

{tsenci)

going

the fields."

i.e.,

the

into

the usual

also,

not employed during the time of

public mourning, but these great concourses of people are called "

simply

meetings," or

places of resort

They

{Jihdonana).

are

also called tsena indlahelo, "sorrowful markets." In speaking of the

death of relatives of the sovereign, they are not said to be dead, but as

used by ourselves

are dead as " departed,"

reraka,

i.e.,

" faint," "

in is

speaking of friends or relatives

;

exhausted," and as Idtsaka,

down

some

are dead are spoken of as

{Idtsak'

dead

while the surviving

;

With regard

isa).'^

relatives are said to

done

" {vita)

;

who

employed by the Malagasy, who gone " they also speak of them as

" laid

figurative phrase

also

Idsa, "

say their friends are

The same

absent," or " missing " {disd).

members of "

i.e.,

not up to the right

" lost "

(very),

and also Idsan-ko rdzana,

i.e.,

a family of which

to the ordinary people

" fallen,"

and "

number "

also, their

" finished,"

gone

become

ancestors."

Although not

strictly included in the present subject,

may

be remarked that the same use of euphemistic expressions as those just mentioned with regard to death

used by the Malagasy

dread

of,

occasionally does called bele'mby,

made among

i.e.,

dition of the villages lavira,

also seen in those

fearful

ravages in Imerina, as

the coast tribes.

still

This terrible disease

greatly deserted," no doubt from the con-

where

had appeared.

It is also

called

an imperative or optative formed from the adjective

IdviU'a, " far off,"

speaking of things they have a great

especially small-pox, which, before the introduction of

vaccination, often

and thus meaning "be

feeling of delicacy causes other

far

away!" or "avaunt!"

euphemisms, such as the

' A very poetical expression, in which the word Vatsaka also occurs, is used in speaking of the dead, who are said to be as " Salt fallen into water which cannot be salt again " Q' Sira latsaka an-cirano ka tsy himpody intsony ").

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. phrase didiam-pbitra,

cutting the navel," instead of

literally,

fSra and other terms denoting the circumcision ceremonies.

The

some

use of

special words, as applied to certain classes

may

of royal servants or attendants,

here be noticed

although

;

possibly these also are not, speaking exactly, of the class of

the euphemistic expressions like the majority of those described

Thus the

above.

ones be,

royal cooks are termed the

{inadio tdnana)

even

describing,

;

were termed the shooters

sharp ones

The government

?).

lit, "

called keli-lokdlika,

{inaranitra couriers

little-kneed "

always

the

Eng.

cf.

sharp-

provinces are

while a class of palace

;

the

sovereign,

and from

i.e.,

never forsaking," because some of them are

attendance, day and night, upon the sovereign.

queen's representatives at distant "

;

the queen's messengers are chosen, are the tsiviando, or

tsiinandao,

i.e.,

name

of royal guards a few years ago

servants in constant attendance on

whom

clean-handed

they occasionally are not exactly what their

Then some companies

implies.

no doubt, what they should

eyes behind

general

" ;

places are called inasoivbho,

but this word "

sense of an

agent

also

now used

the

other persons besides the

The

sovereign. It is

an ancient custom that members of the royal family, class of andriana, or nobles (the Zanak'-

and of the next highest Andriamasinavalona),

who happen

have committed serious

offences, are not put into iron fetters, but are

And when any

subject of high position

carried

by government

officers

name

and fixed

of the sovein the

called Tsitialainga, fixed,

i.e.,

hater of

;

no inmate of the house can leave

chiefs, a

house set apart

called Fenovbla,

The

i.e.,

" full

for their

wives

and while it.

Among

who

significantly

remains so

the

Taimoro

are of noble birth

of money."

among the name given to

rapacious character of the upper classes

Malagasy

ground

This spear

opposite the door of the accused person's house. lies "

cords.

accused of crime, a

spear with silver blade, engraved with the reign,

bound with

shown by a

provincial

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

156

the chief people,

Amraldhy,

viz.,

shown

clearly

"gluttonous, eager to take

The despotic nature of Malagasymany native proverbs e.g., Ny

one's share before others."

sovereigns

i.e.,

;

onanjdka toy ny Idnitra, ka tsy azo refesina ; toy ny masodndro, ka tsy azo tohaina^'

be measured

sovereign

like the sun,

;

Another

The

i.e.,

with

fact

like the sky,

customary when a new sovereign comes

between the

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

annoyance

to Mr.

the building, to

standard.

&c.,

One

when

the arms were stretched to

was a matter of no small trouble and

Cameron, who designed and superintended

make

all

had, in

his

dimensions

make

fact, to

accordance with the

new

and of

its

scale,

for all the

verandahs, doors,

were multiples or fractions of the queen's personal

London Missionary Society's named Rajaonary, from North

of the students in the

Antananarivo,

College

Betsileo,

told

people,

that

such special words, as applied to the

were a very marked feature

and that

in the

speech of the Betsileo

were a much larger number of

fact there

these words employed in the southern province than were

among

use

the Hova.

of examples

;

and

essay on the subject.

Special

gave

in a

same time a number note down these words,

at the

then asked him to

which he accordingly did

measured by herself

refy, as

chiefs,

But

the chief dimensions of the build-

principal dimensions of the palace,

windows,

to the throne.

her majesty's case, about five feet eight

And

inches in length.

all

her fingers

tips of

be recorded.

863-1 868), a new

fathom, as measured by the queen herself,

refy, or

their full extent

the palace yard at Antananarivo, as

this case the standard for

ing was the

may

regard to royalty

During the reign of Queen Rasoherina royal house was erected

and cannot

and cannot be contended with."

iow days, writing quite a small

entitles

Words employed among the Betsileo with reference to their chiefs.

The

Betsileo are a people

who pay

extraordinary respect to

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. and from

their chiefs,

everything relating to them

this fact

thing kept specially for them, and

up with what belongs

to the

houses, although there

very

not allowed to be mixed

The

mass of the people. little

difference

chiefs

between them and

those of the people generally, are like something sacred or set apart

a special manner, so that no one can enter them at

but only after having asked and obtained leave of the

And

summoned by him.

after being

will,

chief, or

again, after having entered,

no one can push himself forward north of the hearth, or stand idly about, but must sit quietly and respectfully south of the ^

And

hearth.

the

same manner

also the things in the house

are set apart, for the drinking-tin, the spoons, the plates, &c.>

any one drinks from the mouth, and the water then

cannot be handled or put to the

lips

them, the hand must be held to

;

for if

The chief's bedstead cannot be used by any person except one who is also a chief The mat on poured into

from above.

which a chief

sits

must be

lifted

in his

And

but himself

house must not be trodden upon, but

in passing,

and cannot be

upon by any one

sat

the furniture in the house

all

thing sacred, and must not be lightly touched outside, for those

ddpa

receive

belonging to the palace

And

it.

who

are '),

carried

warned by the words an'

that they

own

use,

but also even those

may

take care of

in the people's houses,

should the chief have chanced to use them

;

and even

drinking-tins, ladles, &c., are often kept untouched

lips, lest

some-

not only are the things in the chief's house thus set

apart for his

own

when

the chief should chance to pass

by and

their

by the

require them,

so that the Betsileo are accustomed to drink water out of their

hands. "

But not only are

special use

tilings

their chiefs, but

thus

kept by the Betsileo for

many words

are also set apart for

them, both the names for certain things and other names as

These may be divided

well. "

Words

into three classes, as follows

specially applied to the '

The

Family of

Chiefs,

place uf honour in a Malagasy house.

:â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

from their

Ordinary Bit word.

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. Ordinary war

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

i6o Or^hmry

Bctsilco

word.

Miandiavana

Won! used for

j-^j^

^.^^,^.^^j

Lliicjs.

sing

Meaning. ^

Manipiotraka

(r)

Tranovitana

The

finished house

Mampiliry

cause

funeral

Bier

Trdnovorona

(lit.,

house

Micihy

'bird

(?).

lie in state

go round

about.^

Tomb

Tranomcna

To buiy

Mnniritra

Fdsana Mandevina

Red house.3 To plunge,

dive

;

Imerina the phrase an'iritra is used to describe the temporary burial of a corpse until the proper tomb is completed. "

poles on which a chiefs corpse

The

termed hazomasina,

sacred

wood

carried to burial are

and the water into

' ;

they are cast away after the funeral of endurance'? {ariti-a, endurance, patience, is

dead from among the Raivelona

Living father

are prefixed to their

the word

common

Zdnahdry (God,

;

but

lit.

in the case

Creator)

^^â&#x20AC;˘hich '

water

When

&c.).

people are spoken

or Renivelona

names

called rdnodritra,

of,

the

the words

Living mother

of deceased chiefs

prefixed to their

names

when they are spoken of in the same way as the word Rabevbina (' The one overtaken by much calamity ?) is employed by the Hova in speaking of the departed, or simply, Itbinpoko;

Idhy

Sir,'

lord

'),

or Itovipokovdvy (Madam,' or

lady'). "

The

common

chiefs of the Betsileo are considered as far

people,

gods.

and are looked upon almost

above the

as if they

were

anything angers a chief and he curses, the people

consider the words he speaks as unalterable and must surely be fulfilled ^

;

so the persons

Hova hotraka means

whom

" boiling," but

may

chance to curse are

perhaps there

no connection

between the two words. =

Scarlet

the royal colour in Madagascar at the funeral of Radama I., one which he lay in state was draped from the ridge of the ;

of the large palaces in

the sovereign alone has a large scarlet roof to the ground with scarlet cloth umbrella carried over her, and dresses in a scarlet lamba or robe. 3 See Mr. Richardson's description of Betsileo funeral ceremonies, Antanana;

narivo Annual,

p. 71,

Reprint

p. 74.

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. exceedingly afraid and in deep hand,

And, on the other ') any

distress.

anything pleases him, and he thanks (Ht, blesses

one, then those

who

receive his blessing are exceedingly glad,

because they suppose that that also must certainly be

For the they

utter,

power

on account of

God

like that of

;

it,

Besides which, when a

accused by another of having done

bidden to

a power which works of

inherent virtue, and not power exerted

its

through soldiers and strong servants. person

chief, or to

measure

while doing

it.

lick (or kiss) the

his house,^

and

evil,

still

to imprecate evil (on himself)

In this way, so they say,

persists in

when

curse he invoked

measuring his house, he

the chief

it,

then

found out whether

it is

;

he did offend

believed that the

hand of the chief, or when upon him if, on the contrary, remain unharmed. In like manner also licking the

will return

innocent, he will

denying

and he denies

back of the hand of the

he really has committed the offence, or not

and yet

fulfilled.

supposed to have power as regards the words not, however, merely the power which a king

chiefs are

possesses, but itself

;

supposed to have power which works of

itself,

account of his sacred character, to convict of any secret

And when

the chiefs die they are supposed to really

God, and to be able to bless their subjects who are

and the reverence

which they are held

name chances

both before and after the utterance of

to be mentioned, the

;

living

;

when

for

utmost respect it

fault.

become

still

extreme

their it

l6l

before

paid

the

Zdnahary (God) must be prefixed, and after it the following words are added May the mouth strike on the

words

rock,

and the teeth flow with

God

And when people

the '

(the

speaker's

the chief's grave

dare not

Measuring the tomb

blood,

mouth

and

he has

for

teeth

being

do that unless they have

of their

meant).

cleared of weeds and rubbish

master

slaves in Imerina as an invocation of evil

gone

is, I

something of which they are accused. ' Mikapoha amy iiy viito uy vavn, ary inamichana ra Andriamanitra izy." '^

killed

a practice followed by

told,

on themselves

first

they have really done iiy uify,

fa cfa lii^an-ko

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

oxen and made supplication with outstretched hands

to the

deceased."

few remarks

tabooing

happen

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

all

over Madagascar, and

common

be here made about the practice of

making fady the words or parts of words which This appears to be form the names of chiefs.

prevalent

have

may

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; or

with

many

Madagascar (although there are bination

personal living

a custom the Malagasy-

There are no family names

they are so closely connected.

one name or part of a name

of the Oceanic races with which

tribal ones,

and although also

often seen in a variety of

com-

among members of the same family),^ and almost every name has some distinct meaning, being part of the

and

still

spoken language, either as names of things

birds, beasts, plants, trees,

colour, quality, &c., or

inanimate objects, or names describing

words which denote actions of various

So that the names of the chiefs almost always contain some word which is in common use by the people. In such a case, however, the ordinary word by which such thing or action has hitherto been known must be changed for another, which Thus, when the henceforth takes its place in daily speech. kinds.

Rabodo became queen in 1863, at the decease of Radama II., she took a new name, Rasoherina (or, in fuller Princess

form,

Rasoheri-manjaka).

Now

sohcrina

chrysalis, especially for that of the silkworm

the

moth

;

word

for

but having

been dignified by being chosen as the royal name, it became sacred {fady) and must no longer be employed for common use

;

and the chrysalis thenceforth was termed zd?ia-ddndy, So again, if a chief had or took the name

" offspring of silk."

of an animal, say of the dog [ainboa), and was

known

Ramboa, the animal would be henceforth called by another name, probably a descriptive one, such as fa?tdrbaka, driver away," or fambvo, "the barker," &c.

i.e.,

the

' Thus, a friend of mine at Ambohimanga, who is called Rainizaivelo, has four daughters named respectively Razaivelo, Raovelo, Ravelonoro, and Ranorovelo.

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 163

Among

certain Sakalava tribes certain birds

fady, or sacred or tabooed

Thus the grey families,^

by the

or sooty Parrot

and animals are

and

chiefs

their

one of the Vezo royal

\s>fady to

and the Tolbho or lark-heeled Cuckoos

Some have

of the system of totem, but

relic

the subject needs further investigation. stition

among

the putrid

serpent

the Betsileo and

liquid

c2X\q.<\

This tabooing of words to have been carried out

instead of a

tribes

produced, and that this

ment of the spirit of the departed. abode near the tribe and to act as

or has been,

very curious super-

some other

exuding from the corpses of

fanmiy

sacred to

one of the chief families of Menabe, further north. thought that we have here a

families.

It is

is,

that from

their chiefs

an embodi-

supposed to take up

its

their protector.4

names of

in the

by the Hova

seems hardly

chiefs

to such an extent as

it is,

by the other Malagasy tribes. With one sovereign, number of petty chiefs or kings, the changes would

be minute and would leave no great impression on the language.

For we can easily conceive what an annoying uncertainty would be introduced into a language by a wide extension of such

tabooed words, arising from a multiplicity of

England had had

such words as "^^dogy," part of the "

willing"

name

" victivn"

the

name

;

and such words as

taboo words like

will"

name

victory"

form part of

convict," &c., because these syllables

some surprise them than we

Among

;

for, all

because they formed

because they were part of the

had now

can hardly be doubted that

language has clone very much to differentiate the

various dialects found

large

" ^^-cigraphy," &c.,

of Queen Victoria.

this fashion in

It is as if

and make substitutes

King George

" w/Zful," &c.,

King William

to avoid,

chiefs.

that there find to

Madagascar not a

much

;

and

a matter for

greater diversity

among

be actually the case.

the western tribes of the country, on account of the

number of petty but independent and absolute

kings, a

great deal of change in the spoken language does take place, â&#x20AC;˘

Coracopsis obicura.

Ccnlropus

ioitloii.

" *

South-west coast. Vide iufra, Chapter IX.,

p. 176.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

164 "

The

Sakalava are averse that any name or

chieftains of the

sound either the name of themselves or any part of their family. Hence, when it was determined that the mother of Rataratsa, who came unexpectedly into the world, should be named Ravahiny [I'ahiny, a stranger], it was forterm should approach

bidden that the term vahiny should be applied to any other person except herself, and the word anipainsick to

denominate It

may

to use the

conversation

;

instituted

(See also Chapter VII. pp. 112-113.)

'stranger.'"

be here noticed that

name

was

it is

considered highly improper

of the sovereign frequently or lightly in ordinary

and Europeans happening to do

this,

through

ignorance of native customs, have been requested to desist by

Malagasy

officers

who chanced

The

to be present.

has a kind of sanctity, and must not be taken reverence instance,

for it is

royalty extends

also to

in vain.

name This

For or step upon a

property.

royal

a gross breach of propriet}- to

royal

sit

box or case containing anything belonging to the sovereign. And when anything belonging

or being sent to to the

queen

being carried or driven along the high road, whether cases, or water-pots, or bullocks,

all

passers-by must turn out of the road,

or stop close to the side of the path, and

the royal property has passed by.

remove

Further,

their hats until is

improper to

compare any other building to the royal palaces, or to use it as a standard of height and size and it is little short of a crime to ;

fire

off a

gun

in the direction

of the palace, as this would be a

The

sort of threatening or defying its august owner.

must

sit in

the highest place in any public assembly, and accord-

ingly the queen's

her

sovereign

majesty's

pew

seat

the Chapel Royal at Antananarivo,

higher than the pulpit

opening of one of our Memorial Churches

;

while at the

at the capital a

few

years ago the late queen's seat was placed in the gallery of the transept, so that '

no subject might

higher than their sovereign.

sit

In Dalmond's Vocnbiilairc Malgnclic-Fraiicnisc four Ics laiigtics Sakalavc ct

Bctsiiuitsara, p.

nouvel arrive."

find this

word

thus given

Ampentzek,

Xeuf, nouveau,

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE ^lALAGASY.

One more

165

names may be mennames are changed as

point as to Malagasy royal

tioned.

Among

the Sakalava the chiefs'

well as

among

the Hova, not, however, at their accession to

A new name

power, but after their death.

then given to them,

by which they are ever afterwards known, and it is a crime to utter the name by which they were called when still living. These posthumous names all begin with Andrian (prince), and end with arivo (a thousand), signifying that such a chief was a

prince ruling over," or

loved by," or

feared by," or

" re-

Thus a chief called by thousands," of his subjects. Raimosa while living was called Andriamandionarivo after death another, called at first Mikala, was after death known

gretted

;

M. Guillain says

only as Andrianitsoanarivo.

was not confined

to the Sakalava

;

existed

This custom

among

the different

populations of the south of the island, in Fiherenana, Mahafaly,

and Androy."

Drury,

who

lived as a slave for fifteen years in

Madagascar, from 1702 to 17 17, also says of the south-western tribes

They invoke

them

the souls of their ancestors, and hold

they call them by names which they give veneration them after their death, and even regard it as a crime to mention them by that w^hich they bore when living and these names are principally characterised by the word arivou, which termi-

in great

;

nates them."

The

following particulars

may be

recorded as

among

gesture and signs accompanying oral speech

of the

relics

Hovas

the

of Central Madagascar. I.

One

of the native customs which will probably soon strike

a foreigner coming into the country in

passing in front of a superior,

respect

due, or

or,

that which

indeed,

desired to be paid.

made

any one

This

not exclusively, observed indoors, and consists

to.

chiefly, in

use of

whom

though

the person

passing in front of another,

who

body

hand extended and nearly touching same time the words Mbay

low, and, with the right

usually sitting, bending the

the ground, generally using at the Idlana,

Tompoko

e ("

Allow me

to pass, sir

").

These words are

Âť

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

bending of the body,

also used, with or without the

when

&c.,

walking along a public path, and passing any one sitting at a door, or window, or on wall.

Xhe. fijercna,

or elevated seat above a

boundary

have not heard any explanation from a native of the

meaning or

origin of this particular gesture

now

But the Hovas look with scorn

lost.

may be upon those who

possibly

;

neglect such acts of politeness, saying of them, contemptuously, "

He 2.

passes on like an ox, and does not say,

Another expressive gesture among the

that which

used

in presenting

me pass.'" Hova Malagasy Let

hdsina {the dollar of allegiance),

or any other present to the sovereign, or to the representative of

royalty.

the close of the speech of formal complimentary

phrases the speaker stretches out both outspread hands, with the palms outward, and, bending his

downward and

hands towards the great person addressed

when making an of still more profound

significant gesture 3.

sign

mission

this is

offering.

respect than

use,

viz.,

milela-pdladia.

to " lick the sole " (of the foot).

now only

recent period the act

shown

in the

preserved in the phrase for abject sub-

common

still

meaning of Hovas this

they are

until

This appears a very natural and

about level with his head.

foregoing gestures

forward, raises

The

literal

Among

the

a phrase, but up to a comparatively

described was one in

common

use as a

token of respect from slaves to masters, wives to husbands, and

Robert Drury (referred

from inieriors generally to superiors.

describes himself as frequently per-

to in the previous page)

forming

others.

Luke as

this act of

vii.

the

kissing

38)

homage, and seeing

Scriptural will

parallels

occur to

all

{cf.

constantly rendered

Isa.

xlix.

23,

Ix.

;

readers of the Bible, as well

homage paid by Roman (not his toe, as commonly

Catholics

the

Pope by

said, but) the cross

on his

slipper. 4.

There are

several

Malagasy customs

connected

with

royalty which are significant outward acts, although, perhaps,

not strictly to be reckoned as portions of the gesture language.

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 167

Among lation

by the whole popu-

these are the shaving of the head

death of the sovereign

the

;

the wearing at royal

funerals of the Idniba, or outer loose robe,

below the armpits

instead of over the shoulders, so as to leave the upper part of

body uncovered and the turning out of the way and baring the head when any royal property is carried along. The bent of mind among the Malagasy leads them to use symbolic acts,^ as well as to the profuse employment of figure and metaphor and parable in their public speeches and more formal the

;

addresses. 5.

One

can hardly be long

that the people use a different

Madagascar without observing motion of the hand in beckoning in

we employ in similar by stretching out the hand with the palm downwards, moving the fingers toward them, instead of turning the palm upwards, as we should do.

another to come near from that which cases.

They do

this

Again, in pointing out the position of anything near to

them, the Hovas

will

with the hand, as

not always trouble themselves to do so usually do, but motion towards

the month, stretching out the head, and

ugly enough fashion certainly

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the

protruding

lower

lip

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

with

the required

direction. 7.

Another point

to be here noted

the act which takes the

The kiss place which kissing occupies among Western peoples. seems almost unknown among the Malagasy, except as introduced by Arabs and Europeans, and its place is taken b}- noserubbing, or rather of nose.-pressing, a custom, as is well known, widely used by uncivilised peoples, and apparently a

relic

of a

very primitive habit of recognising another person by scent or The native word for this is majibroka, a verb derived smell.

probably from the root brona, nose (Javanese, urong), the

terminals na and ka

The shaking

of hands

being often interchangeable.

not a native custom, but

largely adopted where foreign influence '

i7-ong ; Celebes,

See Gnat African Island, pp.

prevails. Zt,2-t,2,-\-

being

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

68 8.

In a recently published journal of a missionary tour along

Shaw

the east coast of Madagascar, Mr. G. A.

says

Only a

short time since, in a village in the south, pressure from the

Hova being brought

some Betsimisaraka to send a school which was in the same village, the

their children to

women went

to bear on

about with their hands clasped on their heads (a

Betsimisaraka sign of

grief),

bewailing the loss of their children."

Hova

In their ignorance of the milder

rule of recent times,

they supposed that school training was only a preliminary to

government

service, as in

the time of the

first

Radama (1810-

1828). 9.

piece of gesture language seems to be preserved in the

Malagasy word drdno, literally,

almost,

" blessing,"

for "

commonly employed

still

benediction," which

This act appears

blowing water."

among

not quite, obsolete

Hova

the

tsb-

now

but the word

;

doubtless preserves the remembrance

of an act formerly used by them in pronouncing a blessing.

Some

light

seems

thrown upon this custom by a very by the Rev. Dr. Turner, for more than

to be

similar one described

missionary

forty-two years a

the

Samoan

Islands, in

Years in Polynesia (Snow, London, 1861,

Nineteen

his

p. 224).

case of disease attacking a Samoan, the high priest of the village

sometimes told the

and throw

'confess

man's friends

sick out.'

" to

assemble the family,

In this ceremony, each

member

the family confessed his crimes, and any judgment which, in anger, he

member

had invoked on the it

then

ill

;

family,

on the particular

and, as a proof that he revoked

all

such

mouth and spurted it out towards the person who was sick. The custom is still kept up by many." I am much indebted to several Madagascar imprecations, he took a

little

water

in his

missionaries for the following additional facts connected with sign

and gesture language amongst the Malagasy.

In the ordinary salutation of the Hova, ("

How

dost thou do

of bending

down.

the head

Manao

akory hianao ?

usually thrown up instead

In expressing astonishment, usually with

CURIOUS ^YORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 169 the word

Odre

("Dear me!"

mouth.

frequently held to the

meaning of laugh, as

"Oh

dear!") the

As Mr. Thorne

fist

remarks, the

must have been originally to conceal a used when something funny has been said.

this gesture is

also

In challenging, or expressing defiance, the lauiba, or flowing

Although hardly gestures, strictly so called, there are sounds used by the Hova on These are a kind of certain occasions which are not speech. outer garment,

" click,"

tion

waved about

made by

the

the tongue, and employed to express admira-

approval of public speeches

air.

sound, somewhat like

and a deep humming

;

hoo, hoo," used

passing as a salutation to her.

when

the sovereign

ground when the stranger enters the house

mat on the

spread a clean

a usual sign of

welcome. Mr.

remarks that among the Betsileo

Price

referred to in paragraph

{ante)

the gesture

carefully obser\ed along the

roads with the shortened form of address, Oinbay, or Ovibako. It

implies respect, and especially

Jiuiiiility,

and

termed vian-

Even in a church superiors expect an inferior or younger person to show this mark of respect when passing. (2) The second gesture noted above is used every Sunday in the Royal

jbko.

Chapel, after the prayer for the queen, or the playing of the

Anthem also by who turn towards the

National island,

sovereign,

;

when

the troops in distant parts of the capital

the Queen," curiously altered the band.

and thus salute

the national air (which

their distant

simply our

Tsidikinina

God

save

played by

also used to other persons in giving thanks,

when any special request is desired to With regard to the third {ATilcla-pdladia), Mr. (3) " Price says, This may not now be literally performed, but that it is still more than a phrase I know from the fact that an old woman once, in begging me very earnestly to grant her some request, said MiUla-paladia, &c., and at the same moment stooped down and stroked my boots with her hand, and very

as to a senior or superior

be shown.

unpleasant

was.

Mr.

Peill also

says of this custom that

" it

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

I/O is

scarcely true that

have seen

it is

now merely

a phrase

among

the Hova,

Queen's messengers sent out

a certain village were not, as they thought, received with

proper respect

;

actually done.

they therefore

dreadfully afraid, and

with their hair

all

down

The

down below

chiefs of the village

(that

is,

with the numerous small plaits

their shoulders, dishevelled,

their shoulders.^

royal messengers they at once

When

ance.

the case, the custom

is still

sometimes

when

For what purpose do a

great

assembly), and the queen appears, put

down

there

a joke or not

customs are quite credible." off' a

number of heads

versation

cannot

The

tell.

all

kabary

the

(public

their umbrellas

has been said that they do so whenever the queen

whether that

frequent than formerly was

less

occasionally observed."

Mr. Price further remarks

his feet, at

his acceptance of their repent-

yielded to their request, and returned with them.

have no doubt that while much

people,

their

at the feet of the principal

fell

same time humbly begging

and

they reached the

one of them, a judge, and actually kissed or licked the

were

messengers

followed after the queen's

and knots unloosed) over lavibas

the village without having

left

delivered the royal message.

spits,

but

ridiculous

use of the fingers in

totting

or points in a discourse of private con-

very remarkable.

They do not merely touch

the

left-hand fingers on the side with the right forefinger, but hold-

hand out palm upwards, they pull up and lay over flat on the open palm the fingers one by one."^ "In descriptions of persons, things, events, &c., they often take up little bits of stone or stick, or anything that is to hand, and lay them out ing the

left

order to represent the different people, things, events, ideas,

heads, &c., about which they are

speaking.

Frequently they

' These two acts are done not only at the death of a sovereign, but also at those of relatives and friends, and occasionally even the head is shaved. The hair is dishevelled for a long time, and children in the schools, and adults in the congregation, refuse to sing at all for a long time after the death of a relative.

Malagasy children very frequently count on their

fingers.

toes,

instead

their

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY.

make

the talk

much more emphatic by these means." be known {i.e., when she is

woman may sometimes

by her going about the

trade)

her Idinba.

reproach to a certain

town

loose

which

was made a

that she, a stranger, walked through a

house at which she was to stay,

to the

plying her

streets with her face covered with

remember one case

woman

171

covered like a harlot'"

Gen. xxxviii.

{cf.

also used to denote other feelings

The

15).

with face lainba

lower half or more of the face with the Idinba when a person

this

always do is

when they are simply when they are sulky."

Here they

sulky or sullen, squatting on the ground in silence.

may do

Note the covering of the

lazy and not sulky, but they

The covering

of the

mouth

modesty or shame, often further shown by

also indicative of

uncovering the feet and lower part of the

legs.

In giving

assurances of loyalty and obedience at a public assembly the

speaker often dances, flourishing his spear or sword, and throwing off the Idniba.

This

intended to express rage at and

defiance of an imaginary enemy."

of a period

{i.e.,

adds

Peill

of a public speech) they

jump

down stamp with both

ground, and coming

ground,

Mr.

the end

clean from the

feet together

on the

order to emphasise what they are saying."

walking together, friends do not go arm-in-arm, but hand-inhand, or the hand of one shoulder or round

the

may be thrown round " The Betsileo in

waist."

make the same bend forward and make a sort

superior do not

away, far

Peill

remarks

saluting a

gesture as the Hova.

They

of scrape, at the same time

laying hold of the forelock and tugging at

Mr,

the other's

it."

In pointing to an object

some distance

have often noticed that the Malagasy point the finger

higher than Europeans under like circumstances would do.

They

point in the direction of the thing to which the}- wish to

call attention,

of course, but up to the heavens in that direction,

not towards

the earth."

subject that she

is is

Another custom

illustrating

this

the vidvipitdJia, one wife imitating another to show I have equally clever, both with her hands and feet.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

172

watched young girls engaged in and amusement, and I imagine

this

game

with great interest

that apart from

object of the elder wife showing that she

the general

equally clever with

the younger, each gesture conveys some definite idea to the natives, illustrating the things

which the one

in " I

to equal or excel the other."

supposed

have seen Malagasy women,

on receiving news of the death of a near selves flat on their faces on the ground,

relative,

throw them-

and creep towards the

bearer of the message, at the same time rolling in the dust, and tearing their hair in their grief."

Mr. Thorne points out that there are

many

symbolic acts

used by the Malagasy, which are somewhat connected with

and

signs

Among

gestures.

these are the kiddy, or sign of

This

ownership, or possession, or protection.

of tabu, or

and

tapii,

usually a

tall,

is,

fact,

of grass fastened at the top, and stuck into the ground

how

came

this

Something

come

before a journey

one end of the palanquin pole to for

and

will

claim to carry.

putting a stick or sticks across rear are to avoid

acts

must

tie

although

;

who

bearers,

signify that they are

road or path it

often

a piece of grass round

engaged

also tabu-Qd

to signify that those in the

Mr. Thorne further remarks

it.

Symbolic

one time have been much more numerous among

the Malagasy than at present.

wood

piece of

practised

made and

mark

needs further inquiry.

possession

signify

similar to this

upright stick, with a bunch

sent

One

naturally thinks

by Andriamanalina of

nimpoina (King of Imerina), as

his n]fj'

of the

Betsileo to Andria-

measure (about

feet

8 inches to 6 feet, a measure formed by stretching out the arms and hands as far as they will reach) and of the large Idinba on which Andrianimpoina killed the bullock, not one drop of whose blood fell outside it, and of the Idiiiba afterwards sent by him with a hole cut out of the middle. Also of Andriamampandry's ;

symbolic teaching of Andriamasinavalona.^ acts

still '

customary

Among

have thought of the following

symbolic

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Spitting

See Chapter X. for fuller description of these sj-mbolic acts.

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY.

on noticing a bad smell (perhaps rather a sensible sanitary precaution)

;

initsbngo dia

a desire to share in another's

(lit.,

pinching the

good fortune

;

sole),

symbol of

iniala faditra

(throwing away some object which has a supposed connection, often merely verbal, with disease or calamity), to be rid of

some calamity

mixed with dust from a

;

inisbtro

royal

tomb)

symbol of a desire

vbkaka (drinking water ;

and

inively

rano

(striking water with a spear, at the time of taking an oath to the

sovereign),

symbol of allegiance." '

See Chapter XIII. on

Divination," &c.

CHAPTER

IX.

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR

—

— —

SUPERSTITIONS.

The ox Birds Insects Fabulous animals Fanany or Seven-headed Serpent Footprints of giants Trees and plants Ordeals Folk-lore of home-life Lucky and unlucky actions Sickness and death Witchcraft and charms Food and Fady of the Sihanaka Snakes'and lemurs Tabooed Evil omens, days, in clans, and villages Good omens, for food, and wealth as to famine, trade, poverty, and death Weather prognostics Various

Animals

— —

portents

—

— — — — —

—

— Dreams.

chapters of The Great African Island a

of the INofone particulars were given as

Madagascar.

shall not repeat these here,

fresh facts of the

that paper

was

butions to the subject

own is

but give instead

same kind which have been

written. is

The

number

to the popular superstitions of

first

collected since

of these additional contri-

a reproduction of a short paper of

contributed to the Folk-lore Record, i88i.'

The second

a paper by Mrs. Mackay, of the L.M.S. Mission in Antsiha-

naka, on third

The Food and Fady

the

a paper by the Rev. S. E. Jorgensen, of the Norwegian

Lutheran Mission Superstitions." to the

And

of the Sihanaka."

Madagascar, on

These two

latter

Some Popular Malagasy

papers were

all

contributed

Antananarivo Annual, and by the kind permission of the

authors

allowed to reproduce them

in this

volume

as a part

of the present chapter.

SOME ADDITIONAL FOLK-LORE. Animals.

— Many

curious customs and superstitions,

be remembered by readers of the paper mentioned paragraph, are connected with the largest '

Some

may

animal found

Additional Folk-lore from Madagascar." 174

in the first

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND I'OPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. Madagascar, the humped and long-horned ox. of Menabe, on the west coast, not only seldom food, but at their circumcision festivals,

175

The Sakalava kill

red oxen for

and then only, they

kill

and the child to be operated on is seated on the animal's back during the customary invocation. The royal tribes of Maroseranana and Andrevola, in the Fiherea

bull,

instead of an

;

nana province (south-west

coast),

used sometimes to employ

human sacrifices instead of those of oxen. The tribe or clan of the south-eastern Raminia,

provinces, called Zafy

not eat flesh unless the animal has been killed by the hand of one of their own tribe. will

The Rev.

Moss relates that " a place called Analavory [between the capital and the north-west coast] was described to C. F.

us as the burial-place of an extinct race of kings

that every year, at the feast of the

and it is said Fandroana [the New Year's ;

a very great occasion with the Malagasy], a herd of

festival,

own accord

cattle gather of their

at the spot,

whereupon the

ones die of themselves without waiting for the butcher

fat

while

;

the lean ones, led by an ancient cow, run away, to return to the

same spot and go through the same course of procedure the following year. We were also assured that if we stood there and shouted, no matter how dry the day, rain would surely come." Oinby or ombe, the native word for ox, is an equivalent for " chief," " head," and the bull is held as sacred among the Sakalavas.

new gateway

In digging out the foundations for a

to the

royal courtyard at Antananarivo, a few years ago, the remains

of one of the former queen's fighting bulls were discovered, carefully

wrapped

a red lamba, the ample cloth forming the

outer article of native dress.'

Among '

The

the Sihanaka tribe any one

close connection of the native

name

for the

words may be seen from the following examples OnibaUihinify, eyetooth OnihaUihi-fanbto,

used

in the

lit.,

;

Onihaliihiiitdiitiotra, heel

;

lit.,

who

sees a large black ox with

many Malagasy

" bull-tooth." " bull of foot."

" bull-pounder," a

circumcision ceremonies.

name given

to the rice-pounder

when

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

176

moth

called

kakabemaso

{i.e.,

"the enemy with

alluding to the eye-like spots on liable to

many

eyes,"

believed to be

The

an attack of a disease called sh-atra or trbmba.

same consequence

wings)

its

also follows seeing the bird called vorondreo.

native evangelist living

hare-lipped

cow and two

among

same people had a

These animals caused much

rabbits.

anxiety to the superstitious

the

folks,

number of whom waited

upon him, and requested him either to remove or kill them, as such creatures were tabooed amongst them, and would bring sickness and other calamities

Among When whale.

the Hovas a

allowed to remain.

was connected with the

bit of folk-lore

an earthquake shock occurred they used to say,

Mivadika ny U'bzona " (" The whales are turning over ") and " Manipandro ny zanany ny irbzona " (" The whales are bathing "

their children").

Fabulous animals.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Some

account was given in the chapter

already referred to of a curious belief of the Betsileo (central

southern Madagascar) in a kind of transmigration of souls

;

the

spirits of those of noble blood being supposed to enter a creature

called fandny, variously described as a lizard, a

serpent,

which

people.!

years

the

worm, and a

regarded with idolatrous reverence by the

friend Mr. G. A.

Shaw, who has resided

province,

Betsileo

has

kindly given

additional particulars as to this curious superstition. t\\Q fandny is

supposed to be the result of the

life

for many me some He says

of the princes,

come from below the left armpit for the body, when dead, is bound tightly to one of the posts of the house, and the creature that appears in the liquid exuding from the body by and

the

pressure applied

;

they say, the

is,

life.

This creature

carried to the nearest water, river or otherwise, which from that Ombal'ahi-vbla, " silver-bulls," are small ornaments of silver about an inch an ox, worn about the wrist or chest as charms.

long, in the rude shape of

Ombalahin' Andriamanitra,

God's bull,"

the

name

Ombivblavita, "oxen finished (?) money," are speckled for sacrifices and as presents to the sovereign or chief. '

Vide ante, Chapter VIII.,

p. 163.

of a bead. cattle,

frequently used

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS.

No more

time becomes /ddj or tabooed. but they think

it is

not

killed,

seen of

(of course),

but changes into a snake or lizard,

some animal forming a connecting link between reptiles. Here native authorities differ, some asserting legs, while some are uncertain whether the dona (a or

serpent)

from the

not

When

it.

district

one of these

assemble round

has answered

coaxed on to a clean

cloth,

before the fandny, which

an ox

these two that

has

found the chief people

moves

its

if it

head,

when

the affirmative.

killed,

species of

and alternately ask

it,

be not ihe/andn_y of such-an-one, until they consider that

177

and the blood

set

then carried to the chief village of

the prince to whose name it is supposed to have answered. A great feast is made oxen are killed rum is drunk to excess ;

;

and

at last the creature

carried to the

into

which the worm said

come from

placed.

The

fafidny, they say, can never die

another head grows

;

but any one injuring cially since

the

same tabooed water body was originally

if it

;

cut in halves the missing part

The

will die.

belief

decapitated is

dying

renewed out, espe-

such confusion of ideas exists as to what animal

really the fandny.

While speaking of fabulous animals it may be here noted is, in Imerina at least, some trace of that widespread

that there

belief in the footprints of supernatural beings, giants,

men, and gods.'

mighty

Rapeto, traditionally known as a chief of the

Vazimba, the aboriginal inhabitants of the

interior provinces,

the popular imagination been magnified into a giant,

has by some curious

holes in rocks

by the

north of Antananarivo, are supposed to be his footprints.

good deal of imaginative power less cavities,

village

of this

and

roadside, four or five miles

requisite, for

they are shape-

probably produced by the action of rain-water.

two or three miles west of the capital bears the name chief, Ambohidrapeto, i.e., the town of Rapeto.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

In the times when bull-fighting was Tj-ecs and phuits. common, the owners of the bulls held a plant called tsivd'

See Tylor's Early

Cirilisatioii, pp. 114-116.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

178

londriana in their hands to ensure victory.

wooded

Concerning a hard-

tree called hdzotbkana, the Malagasy used to believe

if any part of it were brought into the house the rice-pans And formerly, the root of a plant called would be broken. varikitia was brought by the father of a newly-born child (if the first-born), who held it over his head outside the house, then

that

dashed

was

on the ground westwards, with the idea that the child

some way

or other benefited thereby.

In addition to what was said about Malagasy Ordeals

be noted that in the tangcna ordeal the poison

may

was occasionally

given to dogs or fowls, instead of to the culprit personally,

its

upon these being the test of guilt or innocence. It was believed that certain charms could make the animals die in

effect

;

the case of a dog these were called tblakaviboandrd7io.

Although the use of the tangena ordeal was abolished in Madagascar by an article in the Anglo-Malagasy treaty of 1865, there can be no doubt that

the people.

it is

still

by numbers of

believed in

This was shown unmistakably

in April,

the prevalence of a very fatal epidemic fever led

1878; for

many

of the

people in a village only a few miles distant from the capital to resort to the tangena, several dying from the effects.

The

Government, however, promptly interfered and punished severely all

the inhabitants of the place.

have been made Folk-lore of

Still

more recently attempts

to revive the custom.

home and family

life.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Among

the Bara there

are no midwives, or rather, the midwives are men, the husbands

and elder sons doing

that

all

required at a birth.

After

giving birth to a child the mother remains in the house four days.

the

commencement

of the

new year

red earth used to be

taken from some specified spot and put at the foot of the middle post supporting the roof of the house this was called sdntatdona, ;

i.e.,

" first fruits

of the year."

certain occasions a cord

directed

by the

diviners to be

fastened from the south-west corner of the house to the north-

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. east (the sacred) corner of

of obtaining blessing, and "

this

;

done as a sorona or means

called tadivita,

i.e.,

finished " or

perfected cord."

The Tanala

(forest) people, as regards their

way

of eating,

may

be divided into two classes

river

Rianany, going southwards, they eat with wooden spoons

from the boundaries of the

when

tribe lock their doors

at their meals,

;

The Zafimanelo

but going northwards, they eat with leaves.

and hardly any one

ever sees them eating.

Lucky a?id imlucky "

Shaw

Mr.

in Betsileo,

&c.

actiojis,

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Of

says that, although

the river Fanindrona, it

a splendid river,

on account of the superstition of the people deterring them

from putting a canoe on

and from the

to travelling to

itinerating journey the only

it,

one of the greatest obstacles

capital in the

way

wet season.

In one

of getting the writer's goods

was by balancing them upon the native water

across

pitchers,

and a man swimming on each side propelling the cranky

vessel

and although scarcely a year passes without some being drowned, yet no inducement is sufficiently strong to over-

forward

come

;

their superstitious

Sickness

and

which a corpse

death.

dread of allowing a canoe to be used."

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Among the

carried

Hovas the rough

bier

called tranovbrona,i.e., "bird's house,"

possibly from the idea of the spirit of the departed having flown

away,

like a bird

from

its

cage.

whirlwind {tadib)

supposed

to consist of the ghosts of the dead.

The is

sacredness attached to royal names

extended

after

the death

among

of the sovereign

connected with their tombs and

funeral

the

ceremonies.^

they do not say of a king that he has died, but has niianibbho,

home

lie

the usual (thing)

and

;

his

lit.,

turned his back

down," inbdimandry

word and

tomb

" .

upon

not buried

His corpse

{alcvitia),

Vide ante, Chap. VIII., pp.

gone

not called/^/;',

ny inasina, "the sacred" but

hidden

not a fasana, but trdno indsina, '

Thus,

" retired,"

his subjects, or has "

for that of a subject, but

Hovas

everything

151, 152.

" "

(afcnina^

;

the sacred

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

l8o

house," in which

hidden the

Idkambbla, "the silver canoe."

by a name

different

which

silver coffin,

Everything,

termed

in short, is specialised

from that applied to the same thing

con-

nection with the people generally, whether nobles or otherwise.

The Rev. W. D. Cowan,

speaking of the epidemic of

malarial fever in the Betsileo province in 1878-79, says:

may be

"One

The town and its curious suburbs were visited by an epidemic of catarrh. The natives At this time we at once said that locusts were near at hand. coincidence

had heard of no

locusts being in the neighbourhood, but, strange

to say, they appeared in great

Witchcraft

mentioned.

and channs.

a person had trodden upon

numbers within the week."

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; By it

mixing charms with the dust

was supposed that a disease

called

rabdia (rao -= raoka, gathered, collected, dia, footstep) would be cau.sed to that person.

the Betsileo charms, Mr.

Shaw

says they consist

" for

the

most part of pieces of wood about a span in length, cut from various trees, some growing only, it is said, in distant places, and hence costing considerable sums of money " and that he had in his possession between twenty and thirty bdy^ of each ;

Some

of which he had ascertained the use.

are believed in

simply as medicine, the sticks being rubbed on a stone, and the dust thus grated off eaten by the

dote to any poison an

sick.

One

enemy may have

used as an anti-

placed in the food

;

while others are efficacious for curing cuts and open wounds, delirium, sudden illness,

and as protection from

thieves, lightning,

crocodiles, &c.

the Sihdnaka, the Rev.

numbers their

Pearse says: "In 1877 large

of the people wore a single grain of Indian corn around

neck as a talisman against a disease which,

Tenrec (one of the

Centetidce,

announced would appear.

was affirmed,

hedgehog-like animals) had

During

this

year a similar story

In the month of February a report was dog had spoken, and announced that a hurri-

agitated the people. circulated that a

cane causing grievous famine would devastate the

district,

that

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. immense would

hailstones

fall.

l8l

would descend, and that even the heavens

prevent this calamity the people were told to

them round the any harm overtaking the wearer. The result was that men, women, and children were seen with these twelve beads hung round the neck as a charm." They also wear two white and two black beads to cause rain to fall, but if the string be broken the charm is useless. get six black and six white beads, and to wear

neck, as that would prevent

THE FOOD AND Of late years rivo Annual ?in<^

FADY " OF THE SIHANAKA.i

good deal has been written

country, and scope

may

has

less still

to their staple diet,

be found

viz., rice,

their

been written than of their

Food and Fadyr The Sihanaka are no exception

;

Antanana-

But of the people, the Sihanaka, of

manners and customs,

cultivated

in the

elsewhere about the Antsihanaka province in

N.E. Madagascar.

few remarks on their

for a

Madagascar as

to the rule in

which

and

plentiful

ver}- easily

but owing to the imprudence of the people, and

probably also to their laziness, the supply sometimes runs short,

when they

Those

are reduced to considerable straits.

living

the eastern border of the province on the edge of the forest are in

a less fortunate position than their neighbours with regard to

their rice-fields, as very little suitable

ground

available

;

and

when, to make up the deficiency, they plant manioc and sweet potato, the wild boars chiefly reap the benefit. far more than rice and some considerable broadness of taste, acknowledge when they hear that rats,

But the food of the Sihanaka includes presents great variety and as

readers will

snakes, and owls are included in the

mention crocodiles, and even cats

list

right to state, that of these only the cat dish, its flesh '

of food-stuffs, not to

be is

just,

however,

strictly a

Sihanaka

being a delicacy which they compare to goose.

Vide Aiitananarh'o Annual, Vol. IV.

301 ft

siq.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

The crocodile was not originally used as food, as to eat its flesh seemed a too near approach to cannibalism but of later years some have come to consider it waste not to consume what is to hand in such abundance. With regard to snakes, their resem;

blance to eels

Rats and owls are only very

the attraction.

by any means generally appreciated,

occasional dishes, and not

Radama

but the Sihanaka seem to have something of

when he wished

of mind of

all sorts

as food,

know

us,

would be

eaten by most Malagasy,

viz.,

turn

the distinctive merits of things

and caused them

to be tasted.

Besides these very striking articles of which, to most of

II.'s

little

diet, there are

inviting,

others

but which are

the various animals, &c., found in

the forest, including the different kinds of lemur, the fbsa, the wild boar, and

many

other creatures.

with the Europeans in

its

Finally,

and

never-failing source of appetising food in the fish

Lake Alaotra, and

The

first

explain that

signifies that

ing account of

may

which

may

a very familiar

be necessary to

Malagasy 7^<^

tabooed.

be seen from Mr. Standing's interest-

Antananarivo Annual

in the

may

lake.

but as to the wox^fady,

a large subject, as

and wild fowl

theory in leprosy, as lepers are

neighbourhood of the

all,

fish

division of the title of this paper

subject to us

common

their free indulgence in the former

prove evidence for the plentiful in the

neighbourhood, the Sihanaka find a

(}Jo\. II.,

No.

vii.,

1883). It is a pleasing fact,

of the Sihanaka one

losing weight with those in

Antsihanaka

and

however, that while writing on \k\Q^fady

treating of a subject which

whom

most concerns,

certainly

for superstition

being gradually cleared away by Christianity

civilisation.

far as

can ascertain there are comparatively few things

which are fddy

work

common

their rice-fields

portant as this

houses

all

the Sihanaka

;

of these few, to

on a Thursday seems to be the most im-

may in no

case be done.

build brick or

mud

not permitted, death being the supposed penalty in

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS,

case of transgression. or for smoking,

remarkable from the

fady Malagasy is

injurious, is

to viifady (verb

use hemp, either in the form of cloth

The last-named

also universally tabooed.

fact that

very unusual for the

from fddy) anything which

and no doubt to smoke hemp

;

really

for instance,

rum

never refrained from on the same grounds that other things

are tabooed, that

which they

naka abstain most

may

fear

and

entire families

rigidly

be prepared with

lard,

carry a load which they suspect to contain

food be cooked

nevertheless they

Many

tribes.

Siha-

from pork, objecting to use ointment

and even refusing it

neither

;

may

their

pots or pans previously used for cooking pork

may eat

;

the flesh of the wild boar, which seems

rather inconsistent.

Besides

'Cci'S^fady

common

has inherited a set oi fady of versal

fady

may

not

sell

will

;

so in addition to the uni-

be another day of the week

be taken out of the house, the mats

Some

not be swept, &c., &c. others

own

its

Thursday, there

for

on which nothing

ing

to all Sihanaka, each family or clan

families

may

not

sell

eggs,

may and

anything which they have inherited, except-

Various foods too numerous to mention are included

cattle.

in this class oi fddy.

Others, again, abstain from tobacco, and

some insects and birds which may not be killed, and woods which may not be used for fuel. The foregoing are family /m/j', but there are some which pertain to individuals only and then again there are the fddy of places ox fddin-tdny. Separate villages, again, have their fddy, and certain things may not be taken into them. At Imerimandroso water-pots with broken rims, and rushes which have not lain overnight to dry after being cut down, are fddy, and may not be taken into also the pad of grass which a woman wears on her the town there are certain

;

head when carrying her water-pot must be hole in

it,

perfect,

comes under the same ban.

i.e.,

without a

other places

these things would be considered harmless, while other equally

innocent practices would bring

heads of the inhabitants.

down

Water

all

also has

manner of evil on the its fddy, and to carry

l84

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

lard across

Lake Alaotra

to ensure rough weather, to jDour oil

on the troubled waters might then prove a near a relation of the

curse,

being too

lard.

Besides the universal y^(^, the _/"^?<i^ of families, of individuals,

and of

places,

we have fady

certain classes,

and

In sickness

cines.

circumstances and for

for particular

finally the fadin-bdy,

it is

the fady of medi-

i.e.,

usual to abstain from eating chicken even

before taking the medicine, which will require abstinence from a

Nursing mothers must inifddy the

great variety of things.

of calves

flesh

they have not been separated from their mothers,

they should have to mourn their children as the cows do

lest

their calves

moreover they

;

may

not eat a certain sort of banana

baby can pronounce the name of

until the

look at a child's corpse.

it,

Young women must

neither

refrain

may

they

from eating

on a certain day every year.

rice

the/ady, however, the fadin-bdy seem to be the most

all

onerous, not to mention the preparation of the medicine

itself,

which sometimes involves twelve or more pots containing many

and various

The

time.

anything

leaves, roots, &c., being

kept boiling at the same

following are a few of the fadin-bdy

in the

form of herbs or vegetables, fresh

chicken, eggs and other

wholesome foods

;

the eating of

beef, fresh fish,

allowing any one to

made

enter the house of the sick wearing a garment not

one

piece, or with freshly plaited hair

speaking outside the house.

It is also

;

or answering

fady

The

any one

for the sick to look

at the sun rising or setting, or at anything red, or to sunset.

all

traders from Imerina have introduced

lie down n&w fady

at in

connection with foreign medicines, such as iodide of potassium

;

salt,

rum, and cayenne pepper the people are told to refrain from.

The

traders

no doubt, to secure a better

this,

wares, for the Sihanaka have

no fady

connection with

come under my tion, is lest

notice,

very peculiar

little faith in

it.

and one a child

The very I

sale for their

a medicine which has latest

fady which has

should think of recent inven-

not allowed to accept a picture,

should be followed by European ghosts

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS.

SOME POPULAR MALAGASY SUPERSTITIONS.^

Many of the Malagasy beliefs They

where.

some value

are of

show great Europe and else-

to be here described

resemblance to those which are found both

study of the daily

for the

life

and habits of thought of the Malagasy, showing what occupies their thoughts, and how they think. I.

Good Omens, or Tokens of Good Luck.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The

saying of

Caesar that people believe what they wish to believe large extent, true,

and they usually look out

fortune and prosperity.

to a

is,

good

for signs of

This the Malagasy seem to have done

with no small diligence, for

among

may

the signs of what

happen which I have gathered no small portion refers to the good they expect to obtain. Thorough materialists they seem to be, for of the various

good omens

great majority refer to ohtzxnva^ food

nine examples refer to food

;

which they believe the

mtd

riches.

The

following

and that the four of these have

who has seen Malagasy The nine examples are as

reference to beef will surprise no one

gather round a slaughtered ox. follows

When

eating sweet-potatoes,

some portion

falls

out of the mouth,

sign that one will get potatoes to eat.

When

eating potatoes,

some portion

falls

down, one

will get

manioc

eat.

When When When When

some portion falls down, one will get maize to eat. some portion falls down, one will get rice to eat. rice, if some portion falls down, one will get beef to eat. beef, if some portion falls down, one will get honey to eat.

eating manioc,

eating maize, eating eating

The climax

of course clear

;

simpler to the better sorts of food.

Malagasy

notions,

rice is the highest ("

man once with the

enough,

rice, is

me)

;

are proceeding from the

what, according to

one class of food, roots and grain, Rice

andrianidnitra

viz.,

[god], said an old

then comes the other class, what

eaten

&c, {laoka), and of this class, honey, remarkably

reckoned higher than meat.

Vide AHtatiauiivivo Aiiinial, Vol.

II.,

As No.

meat, however,

viii.,

1884, p. 27.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

very valued article of food, we find other tokens for obtaining it,

for

When When When

one stumbles on going out, he will eat meat a fly comes into one's mouth, and one treads on an animal going out.

The Malagasy

;

ajid so also will he do,

are very fond of money^ and

quite in

accordance with what we should expect to find that they have

become

several signs betokening that they will

Some

rich.

such

lucky omens with regard to getting wealth are the following

When

the rice, while being cooked,

AVhen

the rice, while being cooked, swells in the middle.

makes a

border.

When If If If

one has a boil on the shoulder. any one finds fifteen maize stalks standing in a row. any one has red hair on the top of the head or on the nape any one does not arrive in time for the meal.

Some omens abundance of

When

well

When

refer to obtaining a certain

rice,

hedgehog and this ;

do the following

of the neck.

kind of

riches, as

grow

{Trail draka) is not properly buried, the rice will

will also be the case

one gets sore eyes.

Other events, the occurrence of which must be considered as fortunate,

and

for

which omens are found, are the following

When If,

one has white hairs appearing while still j'oung, he will live to be old. a journey, one is met by a crow {Goaika), the journey will be a lucky one and so it will also be one is met by the kestrel-hawk (H'ltsik'itsika ')

when going on

;

Evii Omens, or Tokens of Calamity.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Many

of these are

signs of calamity {lozd) in general, as are the following

When

a Takatra- (the tufted umber) crosses the village, some calamity will as also the walls of a house crack in two places! opposite to each other also a hen crows-; and a hen lays small eggs and a hen eats her own eggs and one sees an Androngo (a small lizard) with two tails.

happen

When When When When When '

;

Tinnunciilus Ncwtonii, Gurn.

Scopus umbrclta, Gurn.

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS.

Some omens have When When When

\.o

famine, as the following

the dogs eat unboiled manioc. the dogs dig up earth-nuts

{itioanjo).^

the opening in the Tsikinty's

the case

When

relation

nest turns anotlier

the cry of the cuckoo (Kankafotra

Some bad omens following

way

than

usually

and

;

3),

refer to trade

heard, the rice will not grow.

and

travelling, as

do the

When

a trader on his way out is met by a certain hawk {Jih'iaku *) he will have no success auii When a traveller is met by a Takatra on the road, he will meet with some;

thing unfortunate during his journey.

Certain things are regarded as signs of coming poverty, as the following

When some one comes in unexpectedly When one has speckled finger nails.

to a

meal

;

and

Several are signs of death, as the following

When When When When When

The

the eyelashes quiver, one will hear of death one's

left

;

as also

ear tingles, one will hear about death being near

one's right ear tingles, one will hear about death being far

the antaniba's^

one

en." is

;

and

off.

heard near the house, somebody will die will hear about death.

;

and

met by a snake, one

superstition about the cry of the

evil significance

antamba reminds us of the

of the cry of the owl, believed in in European

countries.^ 3.

but '

Weather Prognostics.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Of these there are probably many,

have only collected a few, as follows

Voandzcia subkrranca, Thouars. species of Weaver-finch, Spvrnicstcs nana, Pucher.

Cnctilns Rochii, Hartl.

A A

species of Long-legged

Hawk,

Polyboividcs radiatns, Scop.

mythical animal. * The screech of some of the Madagascar owls at night has probably given rise to this superstition. It is certainly fearful enough to suggest evil. 5

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

When When

the swallow

{S'i(liiifs}diita ') flies low, there will be rain. the screech of the owl (Katoivka ') is heard, drizzling rain (crika)

will

When When

fall.

the lark (Soivhitra

makes a deep

heavy rain

nest,

will

fall.

the rain beats on the south-west corner of the house, there will be heavj' rain mid ;

When

beats on the south-east corner, only a

Portents

OtJier

Various

little

Kinds.

rain will

fall.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; There

some

are

portents where a remarkable likeness between the thing which

regarded as a sign and the thing or event signified seems to

be the main

When When

Thus we

idea.

a hen crows, there will be a female sovereign

any one having teeth

will-grow far apart

;

children,"

on the other hand, if those who plant maize they will have produce " with many

back,

the notion that

woman

maintains a crooked or bending posture when arranging eggs in a nest to be hatched, the chickens will have crooked necks.

The Malagasy some

and

an abundant harvest.

strange than these

less If

i.e.,

;

set apart (^inakcika nify') plants maize, the plants

ivliilc,

carry a child on their

are told that

are a very hospitable people,

and they have

signs which denote the arrival of strangers, for

When When When When

digging manioc, and the root is struck by the spade people get sleepy in the middle of the day and

Two

very amusing ones relating to Jwiisehold affairs are as

follows

the hens cackle at the door, strangers are

any one

coming

;

as also

and

;

a spider

falls

down

in the house.

the walls of the house (when not well built) incline towards the south, the

the walls incline towards the north, the husband will have the best of

wife will be the stronger one in the house

Dreams.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The

Malagasy of

;

whereas

course, as

it.

the case with

other nations, notice their dreams and regard them as signs

all

of what

will

A name

Scops 3

happen

to them.

They

are also troubled

rutilis,

given to two species of this bird and a Hairj'-footed Owl, Xino.v snperciliaris,

Pucher

;

Alaiida hova, Hartl.

their

Gon. the Madagascar Scops Owl,

exactly, the Edible-nest-building Swiftlet, Colloealia franeiea,

Vieill.

MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS.

dreams, and consider what natural causes there might be for

them, so as to counteract the

evil

them suggest. They " console had an evil dream by saying

forebodings which some of

their hearts "

when they have Winter dream, it is unmeaning chatter summer dream, it will be taken away by the streams (swollen to a larger degree than usual by the heavy rains) spring dream, the dry soil will absorb it autumn dream, we :

;

are too satiated (by the recently harvested

rice),

and

chatters

to no purpose."

many

cases there seems to be

the dream and that which

times this connection

some connection between

regarded as a sign of; some-

shown by the

similiarity of the two,

but sometimes by the contradiction between them, the dream really is

denoting the very reverse of what one would have supposed

to signify.

few instances,

apparent, are as follows

When

;

which a certain similarity

one dreams that he

will soon die

going

to cross a river

and does not get

over,

as also

one dreams that he

speaking with

tlie

dead,'

and submits

to their

calling for him.

When

one

ill

and dreams

that the

dead bring him medicine, he

will

recover.

When If If If

one dreams about blood, he will have a fight with some one. any one dreams that he meets the Sovereign, he will get a high position. any one dreams that his spoon is lost, there will be famine but one dreams that he is buying a large spoon, the season will be fruitful. ;

More is

often, however, the

very reverse of what

believed to be about to happen, as in the following

When

one dreams that he has made a lucky

hit in trading,

dreamt of

is :

he will lose

in his

bargain.

When

one dreams that he

eating with the dead, he will live long

;

as also

' The Malagasy have a very strong belief in life after death. Very interesting " My flesh are the words of Andrianampoiniinerina shortly before his death will be buried, but my spirit and my mind will still be with you {i.e., his subjects) and Kadama " and, " I will not go away, but shall still whisper to him " (i.e., :

;

Radama).

Malagasy Kabdry

;

collected by

W. E. Cousins

(p. 7).

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

I90

When When

one dreams about a tomb. one has lost anything and dreams that

find If If If

;

will

be found, he will not

icliciras

he dreams that he does not find it, he will find it very soon. one dreams about a green tree, some one will die. any one is ill, and some one else dreams that he is getting better, he will be ill for a long time. one dreams that he is crossing a river where there are many crocodiles, he will prosper in the business he is undertaking. any one who is far from home dreams that he has returned home, he will die on the road.

In the other dreams which

have noticed there seems to be

nothing indicating any correspondence between the thing dreamt of and that which

examples

When When

supposed to be signified by

are as follows

it.

Some

one dreams that he is one dreams that he

flying, is

will die.

out catching

fish,

he will meet with some

calamity.

When When When

one dreams about a fight between red o.xen, or one dreams about fire, he will be conquered by his enemies. one dreams about red soil (the soil here in the interior is mainly dark red in colour), he will come to poverty. When one dreams that he is falling down from a precipice (the dream of young people everywhere), he will be taken ill us also If one dreams that he is crossing dirty water. When one dreams that he is drinking brandy, he will get well. When one dreams about fog, he will lose his o.xen. When one dreams that mice are pursuing him, somebody will take away ;

his wife.

BETSIMISARAKA WOMEN.

CHAPTER

MALAGASY ORATORY, ORNAMEXTS OF SPEECH, SYM-

AND CONUNDRUMS.

BOLIC ACTIONS,

— Folk-tales— Proverbs Kahary— Oratory and of speech — The — Mutual love—The bird—A divorced wife—Transitoriness of —Bereavement — Death— Imagination—Boasting—The crocodile—A place love — Friendship — Thanksgiving — Evil speech — Symfor everything — bolic acts — The two kings — The heir to the throne — Riddles and conun-

Folk-lore

figui-es

desolate one life

Filial

drums.

THE most

valuable contribution to our knowledge of Mala-

gasy Folk-tales has been made by the Rev. Lars Dahle, of

the Norwegian Lutheran Mission,

who

published at Antananarivo

in the early part of 1877 a volume entitled Specimens of

gasy Folk-Lore. is

Except the preface and

entirely in Malagasy,

who

and

title-page, this

therefore a sealed

are unacquainted with the language

which

book it is

Malavolume

to those

written.

In 1877, several Europeans residing at Antananarivo formed

little

society for the purpose of collecting and printing the

Folk-lore of Madagascar, such as

and allegories, Twelve numbers of the publications of this society were issued at somewhat irregular intervals, the whole forming a volume of 288 pages (i886).i In additales, fables

proverbs, public speeches, &c.

tion to the

subjects already mentioned, this

specimens of native

riddles,

of mnemonics, intended to aid arithmetic.

volume contains

and of rhymes which are a species in

the learning of the numbers in

these varied contents also

propose to give

specimens and translations. "

Folk-loif

and

Folk-lalcs 0/ Madagascar. 191

L,M.S. Press.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

192

In the year 1871 the Rev.

E. Cousins and Mr.

Parrett

published a small volume of 76 pp., containing 1,477 MalagasyProverbs, a branch of native traditional

language

very

rich.

second and

wisdom

which the

much enlarged

edition

of this work was published in 1885, containing 3,790 proverbs

arranged

in alphabetical order, so as to

the year 1882 the Rev.

And

be easily found.

A. Houlder completed a work upon

Malagasy proverbs, arranging them according

to their subjects

under a number of heads, giving also racy English translations

and numerous fully

After a long delay this care-

illustrative notes.

arranged book

now

course of publication in the

Antananarivo Annual. In 1873, ^^- Cousins published another small volume containing twenty-six Kabciry or royal and other speeches and pro-

clamations, dating from 1787 to 1872.

These public addresses

are not only of considerable interest as historical documents,

but they have a great value as preserving archaic words and obsolete or obsolescent forms of conversation, and thus throwing

important light upon the language.

Three years

later

still

(in 1876),

Mr. Cousins issued another

small volume containing native accounts of Malagasy customs, including the circumcision the

Tangena

observances, the administration

poison-ordeal,

and those connected with the been made of

many

marriage and burial ceremonies,

New

of these in

Use has

Year's festival, &c.

some of the chapters

the

writer's book, The Great African Island (TruhnQr, 1880).

Mention must also be made of a work

was printed at the Jesuit Mission Press intervals in

three

Malagasy, which

Antananarivo at

between the years 1873 and 1881. This is a publication crown octavo volumes containing altogether about

2,059 P3-gGS, and

a History of the Kings of Iinerina (the

central province), derived from native sources, that scripts written during the last

is,

few years, and traditions.

work amount of information about the native customs,

manuThis

gives, in addition to the political history, a considerable

as they are

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS.

supposed to have successively arisen from the earhest times, including not a Httle folk-lore, and native beliefs as to supposed

supernatural beings, divination, witchcraft, the idols, &c. Several articles containing information on folk-lore are also

included in the contents of a Malagasy work entitled Isan-kerintaona, or "/Annual," but of

and 1877) were published

which only two volumes

(for

1876

at the press of the Friends' Mission in

Antananarivo.

The substance

of this chapter was given in various numbers

and 1884, as well as a selection

of the Folk-lore

from Malagasy

ou7'nal iox 1883

folk-tales.

societies are but

thought

But as the proceedings of learned

known

little

general reader, I have volume most of the informa-

to the

well to produce in this

tion there given.

Fuller particulars as to minor papers and articles referring to

Malagasy

may

be found by those interested

the Antananarivo

same

the

title

Section first

and popular superstitions

folk-lore, folk-tales, songs,

Annual

for

in the subject in

as this chapter.

Oratory and Figures of Speech.

of the nine sections into which Mr. Dahle's book

treats of Hain-teny

speeches,"

i.e.,

article in

1889 (No. XIII. pp. 29-32), under

Idvaldva,

lit,

divided

Somewhat lengthy

Oratorical Flourishes and

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;The clever

Ornaments of Speech,

As with who have had no

which are occasionally expanded into an allegory.

many

peoples of lively imagination, but

literature, the

Malagasy

are, as

rule,

ready and fluent speakers,

and many of them have considerable native language

vowels and liquids, and free from ances

;

oratorical powers.

pleasant and musical in all

its

sounds,

The full

harsh and guttural utter-

and the mental habits of the people induce a great

amount of

illustration in their ordinary speech,

proverbs and

similes.

which

is full

In their more formal and public addresses

these are also found in abundance, as well as allegories, fables,

and

figures derived largely

from natural objects. 14

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

194

Here

one of the

examples, which

first

entitled,

The Desolate {one) forsaken by Friends.

(am) a straggling piece of peel from the young shoots of the plantain

when

I still had possessions, while I still was in happy circumwas loved by both father's and mother's relations. When I when I admonished, they submitted so spake, they were shamefaced that I was to father's relatives their protection and glory, and to mother's and was to them (as) the calf born relatives the wide-sheltering sunshade This in the summer,- both amusement and wealth, of whom they said one is the great jwra (a species of ficiis), ornament of the field this the

tree

but

;

stances, then

;

great house, adornment of the

splendour, this (he

;

town

;

this is protection, this is glory, this is

this will preserve the

wide-spreading grass in the deserted

as")

fathers.

boasting

they thought

Yes,

(received) both with shoutings

memory

village,

of the dead, for

and succeeding

a memorial stone set up, and

his

was

and acclamation.

from the shoots of and now I am left spent and desolate and having nothing, and hated by father's family, and cast off by mother's relations and considered by them but a stone on which things are dried in the sun, and, when the day becomes cloudy, kicked away. Yes, O people, O good folks, for while I admonish you I also reproach myself, for I am both reNevertheless

the plantain tree

(but) a straggling piece of peel

;

Wherefore, hark

good care of and the lean ox is not licked by its fellows, and the desolate person is not loved. So do not waste the rice, for those whose planting-rice is gone, and who have to proached and openly ashamed.

property

;

when

for

property

gone, gone

ye, take

adornment

enter into the fellow-wife's house, are in sad case.

cloth, for

having rags It will

cannot arrange the cotton

wear

;

not trample on

weave another, and

is ill

in the winter.

be observed

these few sentences

;

how

large a

number of

figures there

some of the allusions are explained in somewhat obscure to those un-

foot-notes, but other points are

acquainted with the habits and customs of the Malagasy.

Many

of the shorter of these "flowers of oratory" have the

' The word thus translated means, literally, a post set up as a protection to taboo a house or piece of ground. ^ That is, in the rainy season, when there is plenty of fresh pasture. 3 Memorial stones are largely used in the central provinces, and consist of massive monoliths erected with immense labour and expense.

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. sententious forms of the proverbs

I95

and others take the shape of

;

a conversation between imaginary persons, whose names often

key

afford a

the sentiments they express.

names

readily lends itself to such coinage of

;

The language some one of half

a dozen different prefixes being joined to words or short sen-

them

into proper names, each appro-

priate for the speakers, whether

male or female, old or young, &c.

tences immediately turns

Very frequent which

allusions are

made

to fidelity to friendship,

a strongly marked feature of the Malagasy character,

shown by the practice of brotherhood-by-blood covenants. Here is an example, entitled,

Mutual Love. Let us two,

upon the For, alas

friend, never separate

narrow valley should part such loving ones as we arc

that this

for thou wilt

advance and go home, and

thou, the traveller, shouldst not be sad,

a child

should

still

left I

shall return to remain, for

much

less

should

home

weak and given up

the one

companions, and playing with dust

its

not be utterly

friend for going

Some

upon the high mountain, nor part

nor leave each other on the wide-spreading plain.

lofty rock,

to folly,

all

left.

;

if I

;

but

blamed

alone

of the pieces remind us of the English nursery rhymes

of the type of the

old

woman who

her husband's supper ready

" ;

home

could not get the following

The Bird wlio could find no Place

lav

Jicr

to get

Eggs.

The high

(sought to) lay, says a bird, upon High-tree.-

tree was blown by the wind the wind was stopped by the hill the hill was burrowed by the rat the rat was food for the dog the dog was conthe man was conquered by the spear the spear was trolled by the man conquered by the rock the rock was overflowed by tlie water the water was crossed by little " red-eye " (a small bird). I

;

Several of the pieces in this section of the book refer to '

The common amusement

of native children, equivalent to the

"mud

pies"

of English children. ' Here personified by the addition of the personal prefix Ra-, tree meaninjl strictly " the lofty one."

and the word for

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

196

and

divorce,

made

to the attempts often

husband a wife who had been put away.

to bring

This faciHty

the least pleasing features of Malagasy society

being usually

div^orce

back to the

;

one of

the power of

the husband's hands, and being often

exercised for most trivial reasons, and effected in an absurdly

easy fashion. that the

power of fickle

It will

be seen, however,

woman was sometimes

the following piece,

quite equal to her husband in

and could speak with stinging sarcasm of

repartee,

conduct and heartlessness

his

Sending home a divorced Wife.

Where away, O the west,

If to

pair of bluebirds

will

you going

are

bind you hand and foot

east, or

going west

Rabarimaso that for

to tell to

a whole year and throughout seven months thy friend has not bathed in

warm water, but tears May you live, says

say

longing for thee have been his bath. Ratsaralwbitsimbahofaty'- [that

is,

Therefore

the husband], for

thou art not forgotten by him, though the distance be great and though

And when Rafaraelanandeferana []\Irs. LongUpon my word, I am astonished at thee, Andriamatoa [a term of respect to an elderly man or eldest son] when you married me, you thought the road was not big enough for me, but when you divorced me, you considered me a mere nothing when you asked for me, you spread out like the broad roof of the house, but when you put me the streams be in flood.

enduring], heard that, she said

;

away, you folded up

And

like its gable.

so she proceeds to pile

his ill-treatment of her

;

telling

So enough of

figure

him

that,

upon

Andriamatoa, &c.

figure to illustrate

Perhaps you think me a poor little locust left by its companions, which can be caught by any one having a hand. ... A protection (she tells him) can be found from the rain by sewing together the mat umbrella, but it is love that is spent, and love that is scattered, and love 1

that has removed,

together.

and the cut ends

all this

the husband rejoins

Unfortunate that '

from

of the threads are not to

be joined

There

its literal

some

am, Rafara, wife beloved,

significance in this long name, but

meaning.

sent unfit persons

;

it is not quite clear to ine Referring to the threads used in weaving cloth.

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. get you

home were

have accompHshed the house

they sent, nevertheless to keep us separate

come home

;

I97

what they

then, Rafara, for our children are sad,

desolate, the rice-fields are turned into a marsh, &c.

Whether these

may hope

were successful

efforts

one

to conjecture;

is left

that after such moving appeals the injured and indig-

nant wife came back to her family followed by this additional address at large to help

him out of Second

especially since they are

;

by the husband

his difficulty

to the people

Ratsarahuby.

spcccli of

had all but caught has flown off and the bird I had almost obtained for rearing has been carried off by the flood, and the bull I should have obtained for fighting has escaped to the top of the high mountain. So help me, good

Help me, good

fowl

folks, for the

into the long grass,

and say thus

people,

storm destroying the

I will be humble what you have done for

Rafara

obstinacy, and will agree to

rice, let

And

the eyes,

let

And

dances.

be the

be the wide

the support of

life

;

so send

occurs frequent mention of

life

me home

no support

Rafara, lest

that

and

its

absence of any certainty as to a future

what

to-morrow we

for

die."

Take your

ye prosperous people,

while you

mouth

live

;

heathen saying,

For example fill

[the native

Here

since

life,

a fool.

;

and

the

a sentiment some-

Let us eat and drink,

live.

your

folks, take

fill

of pleasure

to the " stone with the little

made

are

which a small entrance

return the same day, but to stop there to sleep

sleeping

nations, there

all

of Pleasure while yoii

ye well to do

slabs of blue granite, in one of

when dead and come tombs, among the Hova,

for

become

shortness life,

parallel to the old

let

Because gone

lake, substitute for eyes.

Malagasy philosophy, as

on which

field

thou art as the whirlwind blinding

obstinacy, for gentleness only remains, for there

Rafara

And

be the tree trunk plucked up.

rice, let

thou art as the thunderbolt falling to the earth,

the rock on which

without

spirit

thou art as the

;

thou art as hail destroying the scattered.

;

it is

of large is

cut],

not to

undressed it is

not to

visit only,

but

a play upon native words (^uii>di-nuiiidr\<) which are used alike for for a night, and also for dying.

away from liome

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

198

The covering

to remain.

earth

stone

what presses down over one, the red

above the breast, a temporarj' roof and tent walls surround one

^ ;

no turning round, no rising up.

Another piece speaks of Things here on Earth not enduring;

and

after referring to the different leaves, fruit,

various trees, proceeds to moralise thus

Thou sider,

dost not perhaps

O young

remember

and

and days

down.

And

of misfortune

they were they would reach the skies.

just so with ;

men

;

piece,

them come prosperous

they have their days of youth, and of old

and of death but those who die happy and and Radama,3 they are the fortunate ones.

age,

Con-

not thus, for they have their time of springing and of growing,

of being cut

days,

the sayings of the ancestors

your stay here on the earth, for the trees grow only,

folks,

but are not joined together, for

But

and flowers of

characteristic feature in native ideas

which enforces the doctrine that

heaven follow Impoina

" It is

shown by another better to die than

to suffer affliction."

Many

of the compositions in this section of the book are in

wisdom and denunciation, of folly in fact, perhaps no people are more ready to give and receive good advice than are

praise of

;

the Malagasy.

It is universally

recognised as the privilege of

to give admonition to others, even to those highest in rank, is

administered

as a simile,

;

animals

that a complete

its

these

almost every bird known to the Malagasy

and

if it

the form of advice or dnatra.

There are a great man\- references admonitions

used

habits are described with great accuracy

;

huge -

The

collection of all the references to the animal life

of Madagascar found in the proverbs and fables would throw little light

all

upon the fauna of the

island.

four stones forming the sides of the

Hova tombs

are covered in by

one

slab, called the rangoUihy.

Referring to the native customs at a funeral, and in making a new tomb. Hova sovereigns the first of whom, also called Andrianampoinimerina, died

in 1810, the

second

in 1828.

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. Here

a curious piece in the form of a dialogue, exhorting

those in sorrow not to hide

from their friends

The Bereaved one questioned and attempting

Who

that person before thee

know

Who

not, for

Why

not, for

do you sob so

am am

weeping

thinking.

appear woebegone, but

she bursts into a flood of tears and makes

fatalistic

from the

sentiment appears

child

dead

earth,

from the wood,

a bit of

;

" tall talk," in

dead.

which the powers of nature are It

should be noted that

the natural objects mentioned are personified

by adding

the personal prefix Ra-, which can hardly be paralleled in lish

by our When

numbers *

prefixes Mr. or Mrs., &c., without a

which to

the

therefore

the forsaking place of the beloved ones,

home when

invoked to help against an enemy.

effect,

when

nor,

and the Fanoro- shrub dies on the ground.

the dwelling of the living, the

not to be avoided.

head cannot bind death, and tears cannot hold him

the people sorry.*

in the following, entitled

flying departs not

give up the dead, for the earth

Here

all

do not hide your calamity.

Dying

hairs of the

eye.

woebegone

The guinea-fowl when hiding,

not sighing, but have a cold.

Consider well

do not wish

beside yourself

you sighing

Why are you Then

not weeping, but have got dust in

Why are I

rise.

not beside myself, but

Why are you I

not sobbing, but merely yawning.

Why are you I

he did not overtake me.

not erect, but chanced to

Why then

hide (Sorrow).

did not overtake him.

then are you so erect

yonder person beliind thee

know

I99

all

them Eng-

somewhat comic

quite absent in the Malagasy.

a death occurs in any house, the relatives and friends assemble in large condole with the family, to luitsapa aliiliclo, i.e., " to touch sorrow."

Gonipliocarpiis fruticosiis, K. Br.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

200

Power

Tlic Fai'-rcacliiiig

The sun

indeed

my subjects my rice-plot, ;

one's

the

the meteors are

who

will fire at those

Says Rafaralahy

who

when

stooping, eating

ambntana

(fruit) ?

;

poor, having

" Art

thou Rafaralahy,

money sought

on horseback yet not calumniated, and carried

and

evening playing with citrons,

"Just so."

says Andrianaivo [middle male]

when

" Art thou Andria-

rising up, eating the aviavy^ (fruit),

morning bowling lemons

men

Boasliii}^.

male, or youngest son]

Namehana

art child of

child of larivo

abused

hate me.

the form of a dialogue between two

[/.c, last

naivo,

Then

mother, the stars are but

another example of the same habit of boasting of

own power,

in the

Iiiicigiiuiiioii.

guns, and the thunderbolts are

Each

and

of the

moon

Betsimitatatra [the great rice-phiin west of Antananarivo]

cannon, with which

Here

my father,

for

by creditors

who ;

art

riding

in a palanquin, yet

not

" Just so."

Malagasy sayings, together with the

careful study of these

upon the notions of them contain much good the avoidance of various vices and follies, together

native proverbs, throws considerable light

the people as regards morals.

counsel as to

Many

with rebukes of the loose native habits with regard to marriage for

example, there

a richer one

Then we have warnings

gluttony, dishonesty, and

lying and

prodigality,

The good and

liars.

;

one against forsaking one's wife to marry

patience under misfortune

against bad company,

and very many against

the evil

man

are compared,

commended, and we

are cautioned

against trusting in appearances in the following allusion to the habits

of the crocodile, the

inhabiting Madagascar

most feared of

The Slow-going one

red male crocodile going

advance unheard,

its

all

the animals

down

be Feared.

the Ikopa with the stream,

movements unobserved, lying

still

its sly

in the pools with-

^ These are both fine trees, very common in the central parts of Madagascar they are species of Ficus, both bearing edible, though not very palatable, fruit.

;

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. out diving, and lying in the water without paddling. folks,

perhaps the old fellow

but has

let

still

;

moving a

the water, not food.

I, good dead and therefore

So then, say is

But the people say dive, there

" your senior "]

somehow prevented and so does not return. Thou art indeed childish and dost not perhaps the crocodile, when he lies in the deep pools and does not and when he lies still in the warm place where he sleeps

does not show up, or

consider that

[lit.,

201

that teach

an eye

foot, that there is the place

you

that the old fellow

where he obtains

his

not dead by any means,

to business.

This reference to the crocodile

but one out of scores of pas-

sages noticing the habits of animals in these pieces, and which reveal, as already

habits.

remarked, most accurate knowledge of their

In one of

them the

eels in the

Lake

Itasy are repre-

sented as in council, expressing their disappointment that a stone breakw^ater,

made

lake, has not

may more

where they

different cries

unfitness of

to prevent a too great rush of water out of the

proved a place

for their greater

easily be caught.

and habits of various birds are compared, and the

all for

carrying a message, one, the Vbrondreo {Lep-

tosonia discolor, a peculiar species of roller), distinct cry

;

enjoyment, but

In another piece 'the

which has a loud

while as to others, Fitatra (a species of warbler, the

Pranticola sybilla) would be always looking for food species of Nectarinia)

would be too melancholy

;

the Soy (a

and the FSdy

(the cardinal-bird, Foudia inadagascariensis\ which goes in flocks,

would always be

flying off with

This observation of bird

its

life is

companions.

also illustrated in a short piece

which enforces the familiar English household maxim that

Evciytliing lias

The whitebird flies

and

(a species of egret

ifs

Place.

[Ardca bub ulcus], which feeds on the

parasites of cattle) does not leave the oxen, the sandpiper does not

hawk does not depart from the tree, the valley is the is the home of the mist, the water of the crocodile. And the sovereign is the depositary

forsake the ford, the

dwelling of the mosquito, the mountain holes are the lair (lit.,

" resting-place ") of the law,

and the people the depositary

good

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

202

Equally numerous are the allusions to the various trees and plants and their qualities, and the

human weaknesses and Love of children

They

are called

marked

the fat (that

road," says one piece, "

and

which they

illustrate

feature in these native sayings.

loved like one's

there, but for all that

way

the

it is

difficult,

{inenaky

Equally

&c.

self,"

of one's native place

dreary and

life "

the best) of one's

is,

home and

the love of

follies.

ny aina), and are said to be distinct

way

Yonder

twisting about here

leading to the door of the

house of father and mother." Still

expressed

which we

fully

in the following

may

Ah, just

sweep

so,

might go yonder mother,

lest

family affection

and would

over,

bird

;

and

in war,

with

Motlier

away by night ? Hast away ?

art thou fined, that thou thus hastest lost,

nor a fine do

in the place of

that

to the top of the

also

dread

but the road to

;

enjoyment do

rest.

were a bird and could

fl}',

that

high tree to look over and see father and

they should be dead,

been separated

warm

bird, art thou speeding

Neither in gaming have

be travelled

this

lament of a captive taken

that I could see Fattier

yonder,

game, or

lost in the

conclude this division of the subject

Where away thou

and pathetically

lest

they should be

ill

;

long have

wc are held in bondage by the people, and they are persecuted with gun and spear. We are slaves here in Imerina (the central province and home of the dominant Hova tribe) manure is our friend, the spade is our brother by blood, and the basket is our companion,' ;

for

;

Our necks wait feet the fetters.

salutation

(lit.,

for the

wooden

collar,

our backs await the irons, and our

And father and mother sigh out their lives at Vohibe may they live ") until we meet again, for long has been

;

our

separation.

for

Most of the principal towns and villages in Imerina are noted some circumstance or other, either in their natural position,

or their productions, or the disposition of the people, as clever,

covetous, or brave, &c.

This

proverbs, which are quoted

sometimes expressed

in stinging

their neighbours with great gusto,

' Alluding to the constant work in the rice-fields done by the slaves, in digging, carrying manure in baskets, &c.

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS.

203

and are heard with equal chagrin by the unfortunate objects of

Thus the people of Ambohipeno are " The arums of Ambohipeno

these satirical bon-vwts.

held up to scorn

they had rather

The

the saying,

them

let

one to a neighbour."

rot than give

sixth section of Specimens of Malagasy Folk-lore consists

of a short series of seven Speeches, under the heading of Haingom-pitencnan'' ny Ntaolo rdha nifandnatra izy, that

is,

Orna-

ments of Speech among the Ancients, when they mutually

Although

admonished."

Mr. Dahle's selection these follow

the native songs, they would seem to be

more properly placed

next to the

first

Hainteny Idvaldva, or

Flourishes,"

Oratorical

division of the book,

somewhat of the consider them in this

they partake

and we shall therefore some little difference in the style of these pieces, and in that of the Hamtcny Idvaldva ; and as they afford good illustrations of some features in native oratory and its profusion of figures, two or three of them may be translated in full, although some of the allusions are very obscure. character of these

There

place.

;

Pica for Friendship.^

As regards ourselves and not other people for we are people born one root, one stock, brethren following the footprints of the cattle not broken, even if torn a hundred 1.

;

one mother and people of one orighi

;

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

measures of each

rice,

mixed

other),== right

and

;

in the storehouse,

left

houses built north and south (of

hand, eyes and nose, rice in two measures, yet

born of one person only. Therefore

for the distant

measures of

There

for

rice is

let

us love one another, for those far off cannot be called

fire,

as they say, one

cannot

warm

;

and a hundred

cannot be carried (by one).

none overtaken by another

[that

helped by strangers]

;

we call for other people's relatives, they say, it is night, but if we call own relatives, then it is broad day,^ for look, even the name of Such-

our

The

the ground of relationship old

;

lit.,

Hova houses were always

plaiting of friendship."

built

south, the front of the house facing the west, 3

with their length running north and tlie

lee-side.

Referring to the strong and universally admitted claims for help in various

circumstances that relationship involves.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST,

204 an-one

become

strangers

Xot-overtaken-by-another

Therefore as for thee,

Not-indebted-to-

Senior like to a father, thou art an ambbra

and the thick

tree for holding fast,

forest for hiding,

and the sun and moon, and the sky

ing,

(or

").

and the hoof for feastand the earth for

to cover over,

treading upon.

Thou

art the breast joining

to the wings,

and palm

of the

hand

joining to the forefinger, and knee joining the muscles.

Thou

place,

and the

art the sole vbauiaintilany (seed) remaining,

of the forest,

and the bird

and Such-an-one

substitute for meat, living

still

(amongst

and thou

sapling

tree,

art Chief of the

us).

Thanksgiving Speech. Pleasing, friends

swallowed

;

{i.e.,

acceptable), friends

great and cannot be swallowed are ye.

are dregs

savourj'

;

sweet) indeed

(lit,

indeed the sugar-cane, but incomparable.

Sweet indeed salt,

wood

;

but

it is

sweet, friends

;

like a stone

(only)

on the day

of doing

it,

in to to

shall

be rewarded when awaking

remove grease, and

keep

off

shame.

Another speech

Short

soon spent, and other things come to an

an admonition to companions who shirk

of government (unpaid) service our word.

without bulk, and

a speech of the old, and

Sirs,

too short, then rolled about

made by

trench for sweet potatoes

bathed

enduring.

home

for that is water

;

anointing to cause to shine, and cloth to wear

fat

For money

end, but friendship, that

their share

like the feet of

the cattle treading the rice ground,' but will be pleasing taken it

sweet

;

but the good done by you

Nevertheless, friends, be of good cheer, for the good you

have done will not be pleasing sleep on, for

;

honey, but there

Ikarijovbla,

long, yet height

so let

;

and the germs

(fig.

the

topic)

extracted.

With regard to yourself, Such-an-one the people (ht., " hidest away ") go upon the Queen's service, but thou ;

day

dost not go to do thy share, but only just

So that here now thou actest

black

its

when

Cattle are

before planting.

employed

;

when emerging

by the water

thou dost ;

for

in secret,

and

puttest in an appearance.

like the little butterfly

wings, able to expand them diving, black

now

the under the

like the

thou dost

trample over the softened

mud

able to

water-fowl like the little

of the rice fields

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS.

205

grasped by the hand and yet not got, sprinkled with and not coming out then we detest that, Sir And now if it appears that what is under the eye is not seen, or is under the tongue and is not chewed, or near the nose and not smelt, or looked at and not known crab in the hole

—

water,

—then

we utterly detest that, Sir So, although your feet even may go, and although your knees even may skulk along, and although your chin may touch the ground, we will not let you off unless you perform the service for the honour of the sovereign. !

Here

another piece, the subject of which

Do It

not use Evil Speech.

men

not well that

should

both speaking good and speaking

make

For

evil.

hammer is

act like the tongue of the ox, licking carefully the

the feet

;

with two heads

evil thing, friends, to

hump and

licking also

able to enter into the nostrils, able to enter also the mouth.

Take heed to the mouth, friends, for the mouth is a compartment mouth is just like a piece of cloth tearing this way, and tearing that way the mouth is like Alakaosy (the unlucky month), and if 2.

—

(or room), the

;

one does not butt another, one butts one's

mouth

they say, as a meal

is,

;

self.

For the good (speaking)

but the evil mouth

they say, a thing

is,

cleaving to one.

The

For there

owner.

who

mouth

evil

are guilty in

they say,

just

hke the

no one guilty

mouth

are guilty.

so that

;

its

only

body, they say, but they

For the unguarded mouth,

cause of calamity, and those

they say, reveal secrets

binding

loin-cloth,

what

who is

are free of speech,

done by the mouth,

they say, endangers the neck. 3.

Take heed,

friends, to the

brings lasting good.

For

mouth, and do what

right, for that

one does good when young, they

say,

only

they

have something to take to old age, yea, even to take with them in death. For that has given rise to the popular saying, " Do good that you be not forgotten, even

they say,

packed up

(lit.,

" a set-up stone

"),

For the good done, and the good done is good

for a journey.

It will

there

when you have mouldered away."

a memorial

be noticed

of the word

this

/io^w,

speech what a frequent repetition

" the\'

say," or

" it

said "

;

appar-

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

2o6

ently guarding a speaker from personal responsibility for

him under the authority of

of his counsel, and sheltering

This

much

others.

quite characteristic of the native mind, which shrinks

from very direct assertion or accusation, and always prefers an

mode of statement. The symbols and figures which

indirect

preceding pages to be a marked

will

have been seen

in the

Malagasy

characteristic of

speech are not, however, confined to words, but are sometimes

extended scriptures

Kings

1-3;

(iii.

Testament

aware of the frequent use made of such methods

of teaching by the Ezekiel

Every reader of the Old

actions.

iv.

Hebrew ;

vii.

Book of

prophets, as seen in the

xxiv. 1-4; xxxvii. 15-17), and in

;

xxii. 11.

some interesting examples employment of symbolic acts, especially before the general use of writing had made written letters common. Towards the close of the last century, Andrianimpoina, King In Malagasy history there are

similar

of Imerina, had reduced under his authority a great part of the interior of the island, and, confident of his

own power,

sent

messenger to the principal chief of the southern central

was " his son " (a common Malagasy expression implying that one person is subordinate to another), and requiring him to come and acknowledge his province, Betsileo, telling

him

that he

The Betsileo chief, however, replied that he was no son Hova king, but that they were brothers, each possessing own territory. The Hova returned for answer, " I have a

father.

of the his

large cloth (to cover me), but thou hast a small one if

you are

which for

all

far

the

little

thou art

me you

from

are cold

;

for

;

so that

the island to

ones resort, therefore come to me, thy father,

son."

When

the Betsileo chief received this

message he measured a piece of wood between his extended arms (the rcfy or standard measure of the Malagasy, between the tips of the fingers utmost), and sent

measure

;

when

the arms are stretched apart to the

to the king, with the words, " This

bid Andrianimpoina equal

;

wood

he can .span

is it,

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. then

trying

long

his son,

and not

Upon Andrianimpoina

his brother."

he was unable to reach

20/

was But the Hova king would not give up his and replied, " My measurement of the wood is of no

point,

for the Betsileo chief

it,

the arms.

consequence, for kingship does not consist

thou art

Kings

{Cf. 2

father." Still

therefore

little,

son

;

length of arms

;

great, therefore thy

xvi. 7.)

the southern chief was unwilling to submit, and sent a

ornamented with beads, with a up upon it, as another sign

particular kind of native cloth

ox should be

request that an

cut

whether he was to acknowledge the Hova king as his superior or not.

This

test also

turned out to his

own advantage

length Andrianimpoina would have no further

back the cloth with a piece cut

one end of

off

it,

but at

;

trifling.

sent

and a spear-

hole through the middle, as a significant warning of his intentions unless

immediate submission was made.

not lost upon the weaker chief

begging that he might not be

;

day let me eat of the tender (food) of the impoina is lord of the kingdom."

seed

kings.

royal,

son,

it is

was

to-day,

Andrian-

related of

to the throne in

1828

old at that time, of the

and descended from the

The queen then announced

boy her adopted

While

earth, for

similar kind of symbolic act

Queen Ranavalona I. When she came there was a little boy not many months true

lesson

he returned a humble answer,

killed, saying, "

all

Something of a

The

line of the ancient

that she

had made

and that he should be her successor

;

this

even

she should have children of her own, his right to the throne

should remain good.

Afterwards she had a son of her own,

she named Rakoton-dRadama many thought that her own son would succeed her, but the declaration in favour of the other was never rescinded, and hence arose much animosity

whom

;

between the two princes.

When

a singular way, substantially

meeting of her

officers,

became old and and she settled follows She held a

the queen

feeble, the subject of the succession

came as

up,

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

judges, and heads of the people, with

MADADASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

208

solemnity,

great

of making a

intention

Two

princes.

fine vases or

covered vessels were placed on the

and the two young men were called

table, first

when she announced her valuable present to each of the two

within the palace,

directed to choose which he would have.

on opening the vase

was found

gems and valuable ornaments.

The queen

to contain

did

some

The younger,

then opened his vase, and found of earth.

the elder

;

her

so,

was and

beautiful

own

son,

contained only a handful

then addressed the assembly, saying that

the elder prince was to be advanced to high honour and riches in the

land

but, as the land could not

;

who had

prince,

name

Radama

be divided, the younger the

handful

of earth,

(He eventually became king under

should be her successor. the

God

from

received

II.,

but only reigned about eighteen

months.)

Section

Riddles and Conundrums.

II.:

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The

second

division of Mr. Dahle's book consists of about three hundred

Malagasy proverbs, here sembling Proverbs"

;

called

but, as this

Shorter clever Speeches re-

branch of native wisdom and

observation really requires a separate paper in order to do justice,

book.

Besides which,

shall

will

from larger collections than

work we are

not here give extracts from this part of the

be necessary to take illustrations this

supplementary one from the

chiefly using as a text-book.

and fourth sections of the book comprise a small collection of Malagasy riddles and conundrums, Fanipanonbnana

The

third

and Safidy, the

latter

meaning

choosings,"

similar things being offered for choice

two somewhat

enigmatical language.

Such playing upon words is a favourite amusement of the and, as some of them show considerable shrewdness a few examples may be given, all of them beginning with the

people

;

question, Inona ary izany ? (" I.

What

then

this

").

At night they come without being fetched, and by day they are

without being stolen

lost

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. The

Stars ;

according to the

for,

common

belief,

209

they go

completely away from their places by day. 2.

Cut down, and yet not withering

Hair, when cut 3.

Six legs

Money

scales,

pan, which riddle

and two

off.

feet

" soles")

compared

native idiom

its "

(legs) for

each

tongue," but in the

to a foot.

Lying on the same

The

(lit.,

which have always three strings

called

pillow, but not

rafters of a roof,

pillow), but rest (that

on the same bed

which lean on the same ridge-piece (or the opposite sides) on different wall-

is,

plates (or beds).

Coarse rofia cloth outside and white robe inside

The manioc

which has a brown

root,

skin,

but very white

floury substance, here contrasted with the ordinary native habit

of wearing coarse and often dirty clothing below, and a fine

white cloth or Idniba over 6.

If boiled,

never cooked

;

all.

but

roasted, ready directly

Hair. 7.

Cannot be

carried, but

The public road ; rights of

may 8.

way

can easily be removed

for, until

quite recently, there have been

Madagascar, and any one can divert a path as

please.

Fetch the dead on which

to place the living

Ashes and fire, alluding to the fetching a live coal or

two

in a

common

native practice of

handful of ashes. IS

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

210

Standing erect he gazes on heaven

down he

gazes on the oxen's footprints

which while growing stands

Rice,

(Ht.,

" the Creator ")

;

stooping

but when ripe bends

erect,

downwards. Its

10.

mother

Let us spread out our hands, but

says,

Let us double up our

fists

The full-grown fern and rounded knobs

at the

The

foot above the leg

12. Cut,

to a foot

13.

The mother

A its "

ladder "

Let us stand up, but the children say, Let us

lie

water.

says,

and its rungs;

Has a mouth

pair of

God's

An 16.

stalk to a leg.

its

the latter are called "children of the

{zana-tbhatrd).

tongue

15.

whose broad

leaf

and

ladder 14.

full

grown.

and yet no wound seen

A shadow and across

compared with the

latter,

leaves of the ho7'irika, an edible arum,

compared

children say,

the young fern shoots, alluding to the

heads of the

outspread fronds of the plant when 11.

its

no stomach

to eat with, but has

scissors.

cutting edge

to retain food

called in native idiom

" {lela\

little

bag,

whose

stitching is invisible

egg.

Living on dainties, yet never

lampstand, which

fat

continually fed with

fat.

ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. 17.

Earth under the person, the person under dry grass, dry grass

under water, and water again surrounded by earth

211

water-carrier

and

the waterpot he {or she) carries, together

with a ring of dry grass used as a pad for the waterpot, the

water carried, and the earthen siny or pot enclosing the water. 18.

When

the

The great cover or hat

little

one comes the great one takes

store waterpot in

off its hat

a house, from which the straw

removed when water

drawn with a

Jiorn or tin

ladle. 19.

Dead before

begins to bluster

drum, referring to the bullock's skin of which

Many

20.

shields,

The lemon the round

many

tree,

spears, yet

it is

cannot protect wife and children

alluding to the spines on the branches and

fruits.

In the appendix to the book three specimens of

games

made.

conundrum

are given, the custom being for the proposer to mention

number of things from a dozen to thirty, calling upon the what they are when he has done. In number of insects, birds, and household the first of these a objects are mentioned by some more or less vague description of them, such as Adornment of the sovereign ? The people. the people? Guns. Horns {i.e., protection) of Top-knot of first

rest of the party to guess

the town

big house.

he gets arms and legs

Two-thirds of his sense gone before

tadpole,

when

changes to a frog

&c. In the

second game

the different parts of an ox are

all

described in an enigmatical way, thus

Two

teeth.

lakes at the foot of a tree

fighting but never separating

night and can't be torn the third

In forest

Ginger.

game

Its lips.

God's pavement Its eyes.

Its

Continually

Blanket worn day and

Its skin ; Sic.

occur the following: Fragrance of the

Fat of the trees

Honey.

The

lofty place,

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

212

a safe refuge from the flood?

good

for

sheltering?

Antananarivo.

Ambbhimanga^

The

lofty place

Rising up and

not

The roof-posts of a house : for a native, when ? up from the mat, would invariably be asked. Ho aiza vioa hianao ? (" Where are you going ? ").

questioned rising

Because of the woods which clothe the slopes of the

hill.

CHAPTER XL MALAGASY

POETRY, CHILDREN'S GAMES,

SONGS,

AND

MYTHICAL CREATURES.

— Dirges—Sihanaka laments— Ballad of Benandro games — Rasarindra — Soamiditra — Sakoda "Leper" game — "Star-killing" — New Year's games — Counting games Marvellous creatures Songoinby —Faiiaiiy, or Seven-headed Serpent — Tbkandia, or " Single-foot Kindly —Dona or P)Iy (serpent) Laloiiiciia —Sioim. (Hippopotamus A

Songs

the

Friendship

Sovereign

—

Children's

iigiiliipona

SECTION folk-lore

Ntaolo

—

Next in order in this collection of number of native songs or Hiran' ny Ancients "). The Malagasy people are

Songs. find a

Songs of the

very fond of singing and of music, and have a very correct ear for harmony. They like singing in parts, and when they hear a new tune will often improvise a tenor, alto, or bass accompaniment. The native tunes are somewhat plaintive, and are often

accompanied with the regular clapping of hands and the twanging of a rude guitar or other instrument. the children and

young people

will stay

moonlight nights

out of doors until the

small hours of the morning, singing the native songs, in which

they take immense delight.

It will

be seen from the following

specimens that although these songs are not rhymed or metrical, they have nevertheless a certain rhythmical

and a

swing

parallelism of structure, and are arranged in

or flow,

somewhat

regular form as regards couplets and stanzas.

Several of these songs are in praise of the sovereign, and

were

chiefly

Ranaveilona

composed I.,

who

honour of the persecuting Queen

reigned from

1828 to 1861.

heathen

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

214 times,

1868,

in "

that

God

was customary

Queen Ranavalona

accession

the

until

is,

sovereign

the

salute

II.,

the

by the eye," the visible divinity {Andriamanitra Here is one of these laudatory effusions addressed

seen

hlta ludso).

queens

to the former

Salutation, Rabodonandrianiinpoina Suns (there are) not two Suns but one only (namely), Rabodonandrianimpoina

;

Going

Coming 3.

Imanga,^ she's no stranger

shield of beaten gold Rising up (she is) light of the heaven Stooping down, lamp of the earth.

Another song

;

stanzas of five lines each 1.

more regular form, consisting of

May you live, Rabodo, And Ramboasalama-Razaka,'' And Rakoto (son of) Radama And the whole (royal) family, to

s ;

be counted up.

of these songs are

call,

composed '

six

wordy and

full

especially in the choruses, which are very

should

;

Rabodonandrianimpoina. South of Ambatonafandrana,3 North of Ambohimitsimbina, West of Imandroseza, East of Ambohijanahary.

Not

Some

;

to larivo,- sovereign of the land.

English, the " tra-Ia-la

of repetitions,

much

" style

;

what we

but several are

a grave and serious strain, some enforcing the

This was the official and semi-sacred name of the queen. Shortened forms of Ambohimanga and Antananarivo, the

ancient and

present capitals.

This and the three following words are the names of the northern, southern, and western portions of the capital city, the royal palaces being in the centre, and on the summit of the long rocky ridge on and around which the 3

eastern,

city is built. *

The queen's nephew, and

heir to the throne until the birth of her son

p. 207. s

Her

son, afterwards king as

Radama H.

(1861-1863)

;

see p. 208.

;

see

AND MYTHICAL CREATURES.

SONGS, POETRY,

21$

honour due to parents, others expounding the nature of true friendship. In one of these latter the hearers are cautioned not

make

mist friendship," which soon dissolves

which cannot be joined again

friendship,"

form or

friendship,"

which can be twisted

liked but

not swallowed

pushed

liked indeed, but

these songs, the different

who

some

to, in

;

places in

may

act in accordance with the

Thus

qualities.

fro

nor

and so

not

;

on.

province are

the central

be called So-and-so, those only

name have

truly such-and-such

place-name is Tsianolondroa (lit., " Not-for-two-people Yet it's not the place is (really) .Tsianolondroa, But 'tis the wife who is "not-for-two people."

place-name is Ambohipotsy (White-village) Yet it's not the place is (really) Ambohipotsy, But those who hate uncleanness arc white.

Malagasy songs are some

these

employed

as dirges for the dead.

Mr. Dahle consists of in

three

specimen

stanzas

;

called sasy,

An example

which

given by

of which

five different strains, the first

of these the second

");

;

.\ place-name is Ambohibeloma (Village-of-farewell) Yet it's not the place is (really) Ambohibeloma, But it's those who go home who say, Farewell.

Among

;

tobacco

door friendship,"

are

severed "

cases with a punning on their names, to the

although they

effect that

and

;

again

stone

but to

;

proverbs and oratorical pieces, so also in some of

in the

referred

broken

which can be welded again

iron friendships,"

" silk friendship,"

nor

;

may be

given

E, malahelo 6

Tomany

e malahelo 6

alina alina alina

alina

ah, sorrowful

night

Weeping by night Ah, sorrowful

Weeping by

E, malahelo 6 ny havany etoana

Tomany

Ah, sorrowful

E, malahelo 6 ny zanany etoana

Tomany

Weeping by

E, malahelo 6 ny vadiny etoana

Tomany

Ah, sorrowful

here his wife

are here his children

night

Ah, sorrowful O are here his relatives Weeping by night Ah, sorrowful O are here his slaves Sorrowful are they all !

E, malahelo 6 ny ankiziny etoana Malahelo izy rehetra !

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

2l6

The

following description of the burial customs and chants

of the Sihanaka tribe

intelligent

three years "

translated from the account given

young Hova

evangelist

who

among them

lived

for

867-1 870):

Their customs when watching a corpse are as follows

number of women, both young and old, sit in the house containing the corpse, and the chief mourners weep, but the rest There

and beat drums.

sing

sometimes does not take place

The

people.

for a

week,

the funeral

although that

until the burial,

the case of wealthy

dirges sung on these occasions are distressing

strange to hear, and

and of what

state

no cessation

customs and singing day or night

and show plainly their ignorance of the future beyond the grave for the dead are termed ;

{yeryi), lost as people who are left by their companions, lost and do not see the way to go home again and death they look upon as the messenger of some hard-hearted power, who drives hard bargains which cannot be altered, and puts one in extreme '

;

peril

(lit.,

the grip of a crocodile

The dead they

prevail.

and they will not allow

call

'),

where no entreaties

the gentle (or pleasant) person

and children and

his wife

to think of anything but their bereavement,

;

all his relatives

and the

evil

they

have to expect from the want of the protection they had from the dead is

;

for

now

the pillar of the house on which they leaned

broken, and the house which sheltered them

and the town they followed

lived in

overcome.'

living are in trouble,

And

pulled

down

destroyed, and the strong one they

they declare that the

after that

and seem to agree that

had been better

not to have been born. "

While they are yet singing

man

tone,

the

manner

goes round the house and sings a dirge

upon hearing which those

are perfectly

still.

Then

gone away

a melancholy

house stop suddenly and

the one outside the house proceeds

rapidly with his chant, as follows

in the

just described,

Is the gentle one,

gone away, oh

the gentle one, oh

AND MYTHICAL CREATURES.

SONGS, POETRY,

Ah, farewell, ah, farewell, oh Farewell, oh Farewell, oh

farewell to his wife

farewell to his friends

Farewell, oh Farewell, oh

farewell to his house

farewell to his children

Then those within doors answer, Haie " Then they inquire and reply as '

What

to say,

that

sound of rushing

The

cattle.

that rattling chinking

feet

Amen.

those outside

follows,

asking, and the others in the house answering

What

21/

sound

The money.

What

referring

the

making such a noise The people

property of

outside chants again

O O O O O

Then

the deceased.

distressed

and sad are the many is overgrown with weeds !

the plantation

scattered are the calves

silent are the fields

weeping are the children

gone away, gone away,

Farewell, oh

The

Then those in the house answer again, Haie " Then the one outside the house again sings

the one

the gentle one

farewell," &c., &c.

longest piece in Mr. Dahle's collection of songs

kind of ballad,

forty-four stanzas of three

relates the fortunes of an only son called

lines

each.

a It

Benandro, who would

go off to the wars, notwithstanding the entreaties of his father and mother. Of course he at last overcomes their opposition, and goes away with a confidential grief, for

taken

ill,

dies

slave,

but soon comes to

on the road, and the slave has,

according to native custom, to bring back his bones to his disconsolate their

loss.

parents,

Although

who full

are

ready to

of repetitions

die with sorrow it

has a swinging,

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

2l8

almost rhythmical, flow, very like some of the old English

be seen by a few specimen verses

ballads, as will

Benandro a darling son, Benandro a darling son, Benandro a dearly loved one.

Then

12.

his

his father

pray do let pray do let For gone are

me go, me go all

;

Stay here,

piece of

The road you go

young men,

the

Then answered back his father, Then spake to him his mother, "

13.

I, Benandro mother O

rose, say

Besought Besought 3.

life.

is difficult,

Diseases dire will cut you off. Stay here, do thou stay here. 14.

The The

numerous. dangerous,

insects too are

fever too

Stay here,

piece of

life.''

goes away under the charge of Tsaramainty The Good Black "), who is charged to nurse him if ill, to feed him when hungry, to be, in fact, in the place of his father Flowever, he

and mother.

But

falling

ill

he remembers with sorrow his

self-

his " eight

willedness, gives directions to

Tsaramainty to take

bones," that

bones of the four limbs, to his

is,

the principal

parents.

Their grief at hearing of his death

described

Gone indeed

Benandro

to thee,

Benandro

grieve for thee,

Benandro

long for thee, Benandro O Take me with thee, Benandro I

Here

;

which the Hova

Let the living love each other it

Exhortation

attain

? 1

one of those moral exhortations

Malagasy delight

pathetically

Gone, and will return no more

Take me

for the others are

;

Friendship. for the others (the dead)

gone home.

cannot

AND MYTHICAL CREATURES.

SONGS, POETRY,

Let the living love each other

dead belong

for the

dead cannot be hoped

to the living

;

before (the deed), but after

and

;

for.

;

remorse, who, angry, give up your heart (to vengeance)

we can be mastery becomes a parent of much

no remorse

suffer

gets the

when

;

distant

;

many

;

but for

;

us,

vengeance which

guilt.

and do not build two houses too

cannot be called

for the distant (neighbour)

be preferred, and the

pacified, for

angry,

Let the living love each other

(life's)

and remorse does not come you (O men) who shall be full of

;

for the

;

for the kind-hearted attain

people love what touches the heart

;

belong

but the living can be hoped

for,

Let the hving love each other

end

dead are not companions

for the

;

to the dead, the living

219

happy

(together) are

but the near will

in,

for ants

;

consume a

small store.

Let the living love each other

fly off

;

Section

II.:

Children's Games.

our text-book treats of Children's

and as these are not without

when

fat,

introduction, in

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The

may

next division of

Lalaon' ny Ankizy"

be given.

from a native

evidently

Games,

which Malagasy children play

There

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Two

a short

describing the

source,

or three joining

together go to fetch their companions, the parents saying, play, for here are your friends calling you, for

and

they

interest as illustrations of national

habits and ideas, a few extracts

way

like the locusts

together.

" (lit, "

moonlight

on to other houses

until

(is)

the day").

number

And

so they

are assembled,

choose some spacious piece of ground.

All

bright

all

and they

having

come

who of their companions are absent, who are lazy and won't come, and these singing out, " Those who won't play because

together, they find out

two or they all

pot

three, or more,

make

fun

of,

their thoughts are ;

indoors hearing fat

about eating, friends of the iron cooking-

take care you don't choke with a

fowls,

answer,

this,

and so

say,

don't play are often share, the gizzards

That's

Come and

still

and

little bit all

play.' "

of skin."

very fine

and

feet

you

(These children who

killing fowls or geese, or livers,

;

Those see our

cooking their

and heads.)

So when

they go out, either that evening or on the following day, they

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

220

with

saluted

are

shouts

"Stuffed

with gravy,

Ikalovy

"Keep by

yourselves

Stuffed with gravy, Ikalovy!" and also,

The

like lepers,

play on the

first

of which word

called Rasarindra, the

not very clear, but the

common game

the

list

English

meaning

game seems very like called " Fox and

children

Geese." Rasanndra.

They

all

stand in a row, every one with his or her' lainba (the outer

round the

cloth) tightly girded

waist, the tallest in front,

and the younger

and weaker behind them, each taking hold of the tightly-bound dress of the one in front. Then one who is biggest is chosen to catch the rest, and this one is called " the robber." And another of the big ones is chosen to be " children's mother," to take care of the little ones. As soon " calls out, " Where is Such-an-one for who are hindmost. Calling out thus she comes near to the mother, who answers, " We won't give up Such-anone." Then touching the biggest one, she says, " Where is the children's

all

are arranged, the " robber

mentioning

mother

for us

lamb

the bleat of a lamb).

and does her best this one,

them

Then

won't give up children's

Where then

and

last

all in

our

line,

little

(imitating

lamb,"

little

of the row.

she then tries to catch those next in the all

Meh "

the catcher replies, " Here's our

to catch the youngest

another, until they are tecting

shout out, "

all

the catcher calls out again, "

So the youngest at the end of the line answers "

caught

those

Then they

Then

mother."

first

Having one after

caught, the children's mother meanwhile pro-

her power.

games somewhat resembling Oranges and Lemons," and what is known in England as here ending with " Here comes a light to light you to bed comes a chopper to chop off the last man's head." They are follow descriptions of two "

;

called

Sbaniiditra

Two '

boys.

(lit.,

of the tallest

These games are

Good

entering

No.

the party stand up, and face each

chiefly practised

girls,

or by girls and very

young

AND MYTHICAL CREATURES.

SONGS, POETRY,

leaving a space between

Other,

them

for

clapping their hands together they sing

221

gateway

and

;

Soamiditra e, miditra e, c miditra e entering O, entering O, entering !

Good

Then the other,

lesser ones form a line and take and stooping down, sing out

fast

hold of each

Valala manjoko a Kitraotrao Valala mandry a

Locusts stooping

;

Fight, fight

so they

Locusts lying down Lie down, down

;

Mandriaria

Aud

go on, entering the gateway formed by the two least come up to them then these two

and when the turn round also. ones,

tall

Soamiditra No.

The second in

;

follows

game has more

singing

but the children arrange themselves in the same way,,

two

the

variation of the above

tallest

and

ones

the

rest

singing

alternately

Manasa, relahy, manasa e ? Tsy ho any, relahy, tsy ho any e Nahoana, relahy, nahoana e ? Tsy ho vary, relahy, tsy ho vary e Ho vary, relahy, ho vary e Tsy ho hena, relahy, tsy ho hena e Ho hena, relahy, ho hena e Tsy ho akoho, relahy, tsy ho akoho e Ho akoho, relahy, ho akoho e

We hid (you), friends, we bid you We won't go there, friends, we won't ?

go there

Why

why

not

Not for rice, friends, not for rice For rice, friends, for rice Not for meat, friends, not for meat For meat, friends, for meat Not for fowls, friends, not for fowls For fowls, friends, for fowls !

not then, friends,

And all

so they go on, mentioning other kinds of food, and then

the different

go forward to singing

fruits.

enter,

When

making

this is finished,

at the

Varavaran' Andriambolamena, intelo miditra toy

little

ones

same time a loud noise and

the

ny akanjo,

Mpandrafi^ra arivo toy ny fantanana.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

222

Doorway

Golden Prince,

Entering three times like the dress, Carpenters a thousand like the weaving

Another Rev.

" variant " of this

song

staff.'

given by

friend, the

Richardson, Principal of the L.M.S. Normal School at

who

Antananarivo,

much

has done

for the musical

progress

of the Malagasy by instructing them in the Tonic Sol-fa system,

and has

numerous excellent hymns as well

also written

capital school songs.

of the tune,

some

Malagasy Tonon-kira (songs) and Hymno-

the Antananarivo Annual, No.

in "

says,

also supplies the Sol-fa notation

venture to extract a paragraph or two from a

paper of his on logy

As he

The only one

(song, that

rhythm can be found

hands, and

children join

little

the

is)

children's

two

first

1876,

II.,

24.

where an approach to play song.

The

take up the strain,

saying,

We bid you come, we bid you. Then they

are answered

by the whole body.

We'll not go there, we'll not go.

The

leaders again sing out,

And why

The whole body It's

The

(not come), and

why

(not)

then reply again, neither rice nor saonjo (an edible arum.-)

leaders cry out, and

lift

their

arms with hands joined as

in a country dance, It's

To which

the Cardinal-bird's house.

the whole troop of children cry out as they pass

under, It's

This

Colocasia antiqiiorum.

a red house.

the literal translation, but the allusions are obscure.

SONGS, POETRY,

These two I

AND MYTHICAL CREATURES.

last strains are

repeated until

append music and words Key F or

in the original

all :

223

have passed under.

224

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

And when

that

finished they

all rise

and leap about

like frogs,

same time slapping their chests and those who are tired first and stop are considered as beaten. The Sakbda No. 2 is much the same kind of game, but with at the

;

different words.

Another game steps,"

and

called Dian-ti'dndraka,^

played by

all

which gives "

imitation of the

name

its

Hedgehog-

the party arranging themselves in

rows, those behind taking hold of those in front,

bending down

i.e.,

all

singing and

movements of the animal

to the play.

Another game, resembling our English children's play of Tig " and " Touching wood," is called Kibokaboka {bbka is the

Malagasy word

The

for a leper)

children

all

;

it is

played thus

and put one of the number to stand Then they go round and from side circle.

ring,

Those who touch Those who touch

And leper)

those

who touch

and place

until every

this this

middle as

to the

Xamehana^ only

;

well,

are lepers."

In the second form of this

not stopping the

And when

that

ground and says

grandfather beneath the earth, for at

middle of the

to side, singing,

the one in the centre they call bbka (a

in the

down

in the

one are lepers one are lepers.

one has been touched.

every one bows

take fast hold of hands and form a large

am no

game

finished,

Listen,

leper, for the lepers

Then they spit, saying "Poa."3 game the children assemble in

some numbers, and one of them hides a small stone, concealing it inside the palm of the hand, putting it opposite one or other He then bids his companions choose, and when of his fingers. one guesses right the finger where the is

called bbka,

and they

all

rush

away

little

stone

is,

that

to save themselves

one

upon

The Tr'andraka is a small animal allied to the hedgehogs, belonging to the family Centetida;, of the order Insectivora. ^ This is one of the old towns in Imerina, where those afflicted with this disease live separate from other people. 3 It is a common practice with the Malagas}' to spit if they smell anything '

offensive.

See Folk-Lore Record,

vol.

ii.

p. 37.

AND MYTHICAL CREATURES.

SONGS, POETRY,

225

But when they come down on the ground they are chased by the one called bbka, and if he touches any one

some

stone.

then his leprosy removes to the one touched.

until all

say

have had their

Poa, for

it is

Another game

not

turn.

who am

other on the back," the

Where Carr}'

What

on your back, shall to

and

i.e.,

Carrying each

ones being carried by the big ones

little

round the house, with the following ditty Carry

so they go all spit,

a leper."

called Mifdnipibdby,

And

the end they

big one

carry you, eh

follow a clod, oh

? ?

eh ? The Takatra's ' nest, I mean, oh That Takatra whose mate is dead, eh Take me home, O big one. sort of clod is that,

" Star-killing "

{Manibno kintand)

children's play, also a favourite

number of them

We'll

name

sitting together get a little sheep's

kill (or

of another

one on moonlight nights.

dung

;

one of the brightest,

then, looking at the stars, they choose say, "

the

Then one

put out) that one."

of them

and and

who

has a good voice sings the following, the rest taking up the strain

Rubbed with sheep's dung, Tomato seed, gourd seed Cucumbers full of flattery, ;

Flattered by that deceiver, Shall he die

whose

fate is evil

&c. &c.

somewhat more elaborate game is called Petapetaka means " adhering to," " sticking to," and In^nibe is " granny "). A number of children being gathered together they all choose one about whom they say, " Dead is Granny Inenibe {petaka

Mrs. Moon-dead-by-day-but-living-by-night" (or "Extinguishedby-day-but-lighted-by-night,"i?rt:w/rt«rt;;/rt/z-^«(3rw-/^rt:-w/(9«'^//«^).

This one they place

the middle and cover her up with

The Tiikatm {Scopus nmbrcttii) is a stork which builds a very large and conspicuous nest in the trees, cari->'ing up a great quantity of dry grass and sticks, &c, '

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

226

Then they

quantity of clothes.

out

pretend to weep, and sing

all

Oh granny O oh granny !

Desolate, desolate, say

Your grandchildren young locusts passing. And so wake up, wake up, say I, O !

For miserable are the many children

And

come

back,

back, say

For starving are the many

Then they

call

some time, Then they keep

out for

has befallen them.

which they

call

all in

" squeezing," a

word used

softly

telling the calamity

quite

still

which

for a little while,

appear

(literally, for " pressing,"

to express the

time the one they

inspire (or

dreams

their

of people by the Vaz'imba this

ones

the night for sleeping, and for the old lady to

appear to them

During

little

;

by the call

dreams

supposed inspiration

spirit

of their ancestors).

the dead old lady pretends

them

to)

all,

and

calls

out

Oh Oh

little

children,

little

children,

Cross over

all

O O

of you.

For on return of this Sunday will be here. And I shall rise up then.

After a

little

pause they

all

(or appeared to me) that little

longer

still,

they

speak, saying she'll

say, "

Granny pressed me

be alive" (again).

The

Then granny

time's come."

gets up, and they pat her with their hands, saying

Waiting a

Petapetaka Inenibe, Petapetaka Inenibe.

Then they

all

rejoice very

much, dancing and beating

their

These are believed to be the inhabitants of the central provinces of Madaand unacquainted with the use of iron and are said to have been driven westward by a Hova king, named Andriamanelo. See Chapter II. p. 26, ante. A remnant of this tribe is said to be still existing in the western part of Madagascar. Their tombs are regarded with superstitious dread, and they are supposed to appear to people in their dreams. They are mostly malevolent spirits, '

gascar,

according to the popular

;

belief.

SONGS, POETRY,

AND MYTHICAL CREATURES.

and singing and making a loud humming

breasts,

these words

22/

noise, with

Kodonga Rambita," Kodongo-dahy Kodonga Rambita, Kodongo-dahy ;

The annual festival of the Fandrbana or Bathing, at the new year, is a time of great rejoicing among the Malagasy, or, more strictly speaking, among the Hova in the central provinces. On the day when bullocks are killed, the children Antananarivo assemble

great

numbers

large plain below the city to the west,

They

to the south-west.

all

Imahamasina,

and

at Isoanierana,

put on clean lambas and dresses,

wearing earrings and necklaces, and some being carried palanquins.

They

carry with them fruit of different kinds, and

small plates, bottles, glasses, and baskets, and go along singing

they come to the places just mentioned.

until

Imahamasina each party places the the glasses with water

fills

;

May we

The

others reply

fruit

on the

one division then enter, ladies

Arrived at plates,

calls

and

out

Pray walk

in, ladies.

Certainly, ladies.

We bring you a little feast. May you live long, ladies, in good may God bless us all, ladies

Yes,

on, imitating the formal

and so

health

;

and

polite speeches of their

Then having eaten the fruit they number of songs, children in the country places whose titles only are given. The have a somewhat different custom, for they take meat with them elders

when paying

visits.

sing and dance, during the afternoon singing a

to feast upon.

Before concluding this part of the subject, another children's '

Many

of the

no equivalent

words

in English.

in these

games

are really untranslatable, as they have

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

228

amusement may be mentioned, although confined to children,

songs and ditties intended to help in

viz.,

Mr. Richardson,

learning to count.

by no means

second number of

in the

the Publications of the Malagasy Folk-lore Society, gives ten

specimens of these productions, one of them being a song of ten verses of four lines each, but most having only ten lines,

and some only

four.

some of these

ditties there

a punning

different words for the numbers up to ten, some word of similar sound being brought in to help the memory. This is much the same as if we, to help to remember the number " one," brought in the word " won " in connection

on the form of the

&c.

Here

;

e Andrian/srt

Aza man;sn ny E,

efa tsy nety e

homba anao aho re E, ry izy aroy e

E, Andrianc;;n7rt

Aza E,

TSXTiViCnina

or with " eight," " abate,"

;

a specimen verse or two

E, Andrian/sa

before "

" four," "

or with

with

Mister

willing,

alohan'ny, olona e re

E, ry izy aroy e

Wwalo ^ fanahy tsy haditra E, homba anao aho re

I'll

") the un-

Mister Six

go along with you O, he's yonder there

Mister Eight

O O,

One

do one

not regret before people

Begging pardon,

Mister

(lit.,

go along with you O, he's yonder there

Mister Six

E, Andriam6a/o, e Andriam6a/o

E, ry izy aroy e

One

not count

e Andrianf/z/rm

homba anao aho

Mister Eight

will not

be obstinate,

go along with you O, he's yonder there !

In the following the numbers are simply applied to different objects

Isa

ny amontana,

Roa ny

aviavy.

the

the avilivy (trees).

amontaua

(tree).

Three spades. Four rofia (palms). Five gums.

Telo fangady. Efa-drofia,

Dimy emboka. '

One

Two

Playing on the similarity of sound between the words cnina,

uianeniiia, to regret.

The words

are

shown by

six,

and

italics.

^ A play on the words bcjlo =^ valo, eight, and mivalo, to abjectly beg pardon on account of these similarities in sound to unpleasant ideas, both six and eight are considered unlucky numbers. See Folk-Lore Record, vol. ii. p. 38. ;

SONGS, POETRY,

AND IMYTHICAL CREATURES.

229

Eni-mangamanga,

Six blues.

Fito paraky,

Seven tobacco (plants). Eight castor-oil (shrubs).

Valo tanantanana, Siv)- rongony, Polo fanolehana

Nine hemp

Ten

(plants).

twistings

In another, words are chosen in each of the ten lines that contain the

words

the

for

numbers from one

mostly names of plants, grasses, &c. H/'srttra (the

to ten

;

they are

peel of rushes).

Tsindrctidroatra (a grass, Sporobohis indiciis, R.Br.). Jt'/orirana (Cyfcrus sp.).

Efamm.

(?)

Dingadiiigana. (a shrub, Psiadia dodoncv

ctfolia, St.)

Voninc'/n';/a (a herb, Epalla^c dcutaia, D.C.)

F/7atra (a bird, sp. of Warbler, Pratincola sybilla, L.)

Kimftn/amta/ontandroka (the core of a horn). (Eng. a sieve). Tsipolopolotrn (the seeds of Bidcns sp.). S/t'ana

Some seem merely nonsense rhymes last syllables of

one

Aingisa,

;

and others carry on the

line to the first of the

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

230 described

Mr. Dahle's book, and

translation of what

few sentences which are merely wordy repetitions. "

heading

the

Stories,"

Betsileo

Madagascar.

Sampon-javatra

Sundry Marvellous

from

district,

It will

give a

shall therefore

said about each of them, only omitting a

In a note

Mahagaga,

Sctsany

come

it is

said that these stories

the

southern-central province of

be seen that some of the strange creatures

here described are not animals, but have some connection with

humanity death siona

men

the kinbly being a grisly reappearance of

the angaldpona being a kind of water-sprite

;

after

while the

;

a diminutive elf of pilfering propensities.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

The Songbmby^ The Songbviby, they say, is an animal In big as an ox and fleet of foot, and is said to eat men. I.

former times (not very long ago) the people in the south thought the horse

caught, they say,

the

thus

child

this

where the people think there

fight

attacks

them

fiercely,

fastened at the entrance of

den, so that it cries, and a net whereupon the creature comes and

our town (says the author of

one

Songbmby s

entrance,

The way

was a Songbmby come from abroad.

account)

spread at the snared.

Near

a hole in the rock

When

a Songbmby.

but the female,

is is

said,

it is

any

sees

does not

much, but only encourages the male, so that they always

go together.

once happened, they say, that a certain

man

and met with the Sottgbmby.

was going about by

night,

fought most bravely all night, and, being a very strong man, was not hurt. Another story about it is that a naughty child was put by its father and mother outside the house, and would have been devoured by one of these creatures had it not been quickly rescued. And another day, the tale goes, a child was

same way, the parents calling out, " Here's your Mr. Songomby " Then the beast really came up, where-

punished share, '

in the

The two words apparent!}' composing this name mean

songa, "having the upper lip turned upward, uncovered,"

gomby means, ^

respectively as follows

and

oiiiby,

ox.

Son-

called,

by a

figuratively, "lion-hearted."

The horse

of quite

modern introduction

corruption of the French word, sonvaly

into

= chcval.

Madagascar

;

AND MYTHICAL CREATURES.

SONGS, POETRY,

upon the

child cried out, "

Well,

the child's deception.

and

the child

made a

Many

great

But the was only

stir,

let

After a

blood dropped on the road

child's

him eat you," thinking it little while they opened the door, had gone. So the parents and the villagers and took torches to seek it, and lo there was

replied, "

parents

Oh, here he really

way

the

all

to the beast's den.

other stories are also told, which the people think confirm

the truth of the existence of this creature.

The Fanany with Seven Heads.

2. is

something which comes from man,

whose

intestines turn into

come from their when it becomes

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;This

creature, they say,

for there are certain

Fmiany ; but sometimes

does not

from their corpse as a whole

intestines, but

corrupt.

people

account

this

said to be a

frequent custom in certain districts in the south for the people to take the intestines of their

dead

the people

who change

when they

appears they say

produced, that

? "

its

They

to drink

and ox-hump to

where the person from

is,

And

head

whom

but

;

deceased nobles

if it

does not correspond,

in the

surrounding

acknowledges one of them as at,

it,

they

The animal

kill is

oxen as

oxen

;

When

eat.

its

district

own

;

Art thou Suchits

shakes all

own,

its

head.

the famous

until the creature

and as soon as

this is

similar in appearance to the water-snake

and when

was

came formerly

really

and

just described.

the Mdnditra (another snake).

seven heads

name they mention was

the

go on mentioning the names of

then

arrived

kill

ascends into the town where

and there the people of the place ask

an-one

nods

that because of this belief they

rum

blood and

first

But

see a large creature they believe to be a Fanany,

give

lived,

and place them

turn into a Fanany.

into this creature, they say, are of royal

(or noble) descent.

relatives

may

a river or small pool, so that they

has grown

and

a fierce creature, and has full size,

each of

its

heads

There was a certain man named Ralako, who conversed with me (says the narrator of this), and

has a horn growing on

this

he says he saw

it.

The Fanany fought with

a bull during the

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

232

and each fought hard. And during the

night,

did not bite with

conflict the

mouth, but fought with

its

each of these was successively broken, until at

by the

Just before death

bull.

drew

to the size of a mountain, so that

Fandny

seven horns

its

last

was

;

killed

up and swelled out

itself

the villages in the neigh-

all

bourhood could not be inhabited on account of the effluvium.

was a man from Imamo (the western part of Imerina, the central province) who told me this, and it was there, he said, that it happened.

There

When is

also another story about the

becomes

said to be

they say

big,

sticks

but others say that

when

Andraikiba

its

(Itritriva^

head and

tail

;

and when that

remained

became too big

done,

and mounts up

some say

to the

sky

in the lake

for

Itritriva,

they

it removed to same neighbour-

the lake

remains up to the present time.

have seen the animal called the Fandny (says the native

narrator), but

have not seen either

appearance of them

its

seven heads or any

and on asking the people the reason of

;

they replied that

this,

and when

(a lake west of Antsirabe, in the

hood), and there

as follows

mountain

goes into some great piece of water

sufficient for its size.

say, but

into the earth

tail

its

;

Fandny

anything to spare besides what goes round the

mountain, the creature eats it

encircles a

one of such mountains)

meet and there that

was yet too young. The size of the me was about that of an adult

creature they pointed out to

mdnditra, or somewhat 3.

step").

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;This

a large white animal (but smaller than the

Songbmby), and, as it

less.

The Tbkantbngotra or Tbkandia ("Single-foot" or "Singleits

name

implies,

its feet

are not cloven,

does not mean that the animal has a single leg

single one behind, as several It is

European writers have described.

it.

It eats

men, and goes about at night

This is the name of an extinct volcano in the Northern Betsileo country. is occupied by a lake of profound depth. See Chap. V.

crater

and

and a

an exceedingly swift animal, so that no other creature has

a chance of escaping '

in front

The

AND MYTHICAL CREATURES.

SONGS, POETRY,

There are people who say they have seen

Songbmby.

like the

who

but few compared with those

it,

233

testify to the existence

the Songbmby.'^

The Kinbly.

any one

who

dies

tives, until

creature

said to be

turns into a Kinbly, he

may go

buried by the rela-

the case, they open up the

out

;

their nails long, but they are

tomb

so that the

no longer

like the living

whole body, except the portions already mentioned, of a

human

They

being.

Sometimes they

it.

yet the

;

like that

are said to be constantly thieving

and when any one leaves out cooked take

decay

all

Their eyes are red and

goes out.

When

human.

the intestines and the skin of the stomach

and when that Kinbly

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;This

rice or other food,

they

also steal rice in the husk, but

any burden

said they can hardly carry

;

and a story

told of

some one who saw two Kinbly stealing rice, and hid himself to observe their procedure. They filled with rice some vessel they carried,

and the male one carried the burden, putting

shoulder

O my it

but as soon as

;

shoulder

where

;

(that

Then

it?

their

soon as

head

I'll

rested there, he cried,

said the female, " There's

carry

Then she

it."

carried

was placed

there, she is

called out, "

told of a person

its

replied, "

God

your

How

nails, said, "

is it

passed by them."

nails are so

your liver" (or

long?"

inside),

die)

its

tation,

;

O my

;

again, " I

tore the

How

may

tear out

man.

In the

present time, and this not long ago, but quite recently.

of these bowelless people

but as

;

eyes and the

Betsileo province people say that there are Kinbly

many who

;

on her head

I'm killed

Then he asked replied, "That it

on his

no carrying

your eyes are so red

upon which

the inhabitants there are

I'm killed

suddenly meeting a

Kinbly one day, and, seeing the redness of length of

custom when both husband and wife

Another story

to the

Among

believe in the reappearance

but they think

it is

a cause of lamen-

both to the person himself and also to his

relations, to

become a Kinbly. '

It is

commonly

said that those

struck dead or senseless.

who even

see the ThkancCia are immediately

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

234

The Dona or

creatures

;

Pily.^

makers of lainba take the day

it is

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;This animal

big and long, and

one of the

skin

its

other creature so

They say

fierce.

man meets

at night,

and compresses him so object attacked

big or

little,

when

that

small.

then raises is

bellows like a bull. encircles

him

any

at the loins

has the power of making

like indiarubber.

itself, it

It is

its

body

very crafty, so is

a creep-

appears to be afraid, and makes

Then comes

the serpent and twines round

to strike the

its tail

hardly any

meets with a serpent {Menardna\ which

ing creature like

body

tightly that in a very short time the

dead.

something

During

as a pattern for striped cloths.

quite gentle, so that even an infant can play with

and take no harm, but when night comes on there animal or

fiercest

striped, so that

Dona (for

barbed, they say, like a spear, and

the

tail

kills

of the

its

it,

its

and

Menardna by this

victims

Then the Dona swells its body suddenly, so that the Menardna is broken, as if cut with a knife. Such is its power that it is said to be able to force its way out of its hole, although opposed by the strength of the strongest man stopping it up means).

with a cloth stuffed in at the entrance.

makes

the

Dona

Whistling,

angry, although in the daytime

appears,

usually

tame. 6.

The Ldlomena or Ldliinena.

but lives

in the water.

and

said to be

it is

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;This

like the ox,

amongst the strongest of the animals which

live in the water.

It is difficult to

ance and qualities

are, for there is

name

animal

has two horns, and they are very red,

say exactly what

much

its

appear-

of the fabulous mixed

This account

is, I think, hardly correctly put except in two or three points, it is rather a piece of natural history observation, for there is no question at all about the existence in the western and warmer parts of Madagascar of one or more species of boa. These examples of the widely-spread tropical pythons belong to a peculiar genus, Sanzinia ; hanging from the branches of the trees, these ser'

Pily

the

of a serpent.

under the heading of superstitious

beliefs

;

pents are said to pounce suddenly on their victims, and, enveloping them in their folds, speedily squeeze them to death. They are even said to kill oxen, and occasionally man, but doubtless a good deal of superstition is mixed up with the native accounts of them.

AND MYTHICAL CREATURES.

SONOS, POETRY,

up with the accounts of retains traditions of the

235

it. It seems possible that this word Madagascar species of Hippopotamus,

an animal whose sub-fossil bones have been found

in the alluvial

deposits of Antslrabe in the Vakinankaratra district, south of

Imerina, as well as on the south-west coast, and which possibly

was

living

still

when

the island

was

first

These remains

peopled.

are said to be called those of the Lalomena by the people there. 7.

The Angaldpona.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; This

creature

are related to man, they say, although

human

being.

not wetted by

Its it,

abode

things which

not so large as a

said to be in the water, but yet

they say there

for

among

it is

a cave within the water and there the Angaldpona lives. goes out and in turns in the water, and so is

into which water does not enter,

The door by which is

by which

the road

passes to and

fro,

but yet

wet, although traversing water in this way. it is

that

when

little it

larger than a

young

stands upright

child.

it is

not at

regards

Its hair is

all

its size,

very long, so

almost reaches the ground.

It is

considered by the people to be the director of divination and

day foretelling, &c., so that the diviners call upon it when working the oracle with the words, " Arise, for thou hast come from Long-hair," &c. There are two persons still living who say that they have certainly seen it their names are Renisoarahanoro and Rainitsimanahy. The former (a woman) chanced to be in the uninhabited country, and was called by a name, a name which is pleasing to \hQ Attgaldpona. (For names such as Rasoa^and (fortunate)

;

the

are pleasing to this creature, so that

towards

its

fetches such

So the Angaldpona came and took her

as bear these names.)

den, passing through the water, but neither

woman was

nor

But when they came to the cave, she would not go forward, but remained at the side of the door neither would she eat food, disliking the things eaten by the the

This

form and is "

a very

wetted at

common

all.

female

name among

also in combination with other words.

good, pleasant agreeable."

the Malagasy, both in this short /^(7

the personal prefix, sba

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

236

Angaldpona, such as raw

and

eels

cray-fish

and the

like.

And

so because she would remain always at the doorway, her clothes

became covered with

So the Angalapona and his what they should do with her, and they agreed to send her back home. This they did after giving her water-plants.

wife considered together

And now

(power to work) divination.

she

applied to by the

people for that purpose.

And

Rainitsimanahy's account

was

that he

habited region, and at the time when every one

Angalapona came and desired him would not agree

Many

to be

its

asleep an

But as he

husband.

followed him about perpetually.

of the people say that they have seen this creature,

especially those 8.

to this,

in the unin-

is fast

TJie

who are The

afflicted

but

different both

Siona.

human about Angalapona.

it,

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

it is

It is said

with a disease called yz/(3:.

creature so called has also something

to live

from the Kinbly and the

away from men, and when any

one goes through the uninhabited country and does not take care of his say,

rice,

or chopper, these are taken

and conveyed and leave a

its

abode.

When

burning

(for their

by the Siona, they

the

woodmen go

custom

to place

a big log on the hearth before sleeping, so that they

may be

kept warm), then this creature comes and warms

Its

sleep,

a root called

stances.

upon able,

it,

still

Avoko

All over so that

fire

(

its

when

body

it lies

covered with lichen

down on a rock

although seen close to the place.

and out of their mind, their become a Siona ; and very people narrowly escaped this

saved by the strenuous

itself

food

Vigna angivensis, Baker) and other sub-

it is

growing

not distinguish-

When any

people are

ill

friends are afraid lest they shall lately fate,

was reported that some

from which they were only

efforts of their friends.

CHAPTER

XII.

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES.

— Crocodile and Dog—Three Sisters and Itrimobe—The Members of the Bird— Rapeto—The Lost Son of God— The Five Fingers —The Earth and the Skies—The Birds choosing a King— The Lizards Hawk and Hen —Vazimba — Chameleon and Lizard —-Serpent and Frog The Rice and Sugar-cane —Two Rogues —Wild Hog and Rat.

Bonia

Body—The

Little

now come

to the last division of the subjects treated

our text-book (Rev. L. Dahle's Malagasy Folk-lore\

that of Folk-tales

and Fables

—

or,

as they are called in yi^^L-

Angdno or Aj'lra ; i.e., fables, tales, and legends. These occupy nearly two-thirds of Mr. Dahle's book (294 pp.), and include eighty-four separate pieces, some occupying only a gasy,

single paragraph, while others extend to a considerable length.

The

longest story, that of Bonia, occupies forty-seven pages

another, twenty-three pages

down

to a

page or two.

fables chiefly referring to

;

another, thirteen pages, and so on,

About twenty of animals

;

several

these

stories

are

relate passages in

the adventures of two Malagasy rogues, whose fuller history had previously been published in a separate form some partake of the character of nursery rhymes some are mythic, professing ;

;

to explain the origin of stories, in

man and

nature

;

and several are giant

which a monster called Itrimobe

a prominent actor.

In various numbers of the Folk-lore Journal for 1883

1884

'irid

gave translations of thirty-eight of these compositions,

and those who are interested

good variety of them.

such studies

Here, however, «37

will there find

we can only

include

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

238

a specimen or two of each class of

but probably these

folk-tale,

will indicate sufficiently clearly the character

The most is

name

that of Bonla, or, as the

Malagasy

Mr. Richardson says

" It could,

and the additions contained

with a

our

folk-tale,

given in some variants of the

Andrian-ari-saina-bonia-maso-bonia-man6ro(!)

story,

tale

of the whole.

favourite, as well as the longest

little

various

renderings,

lengthened out into a good-sized three-volume novel, so are the incidents and dramatis personce ; while the

form of

(18 pp.)

[Malagasy]

that published in the

Normal School.

most concise

and obtained by

London Missionary

the writer [Mr. R.] from a teacher in the Society's

many

number of the

first

Folk-lore Society's Pr.blications,

this

padding

length and wealth of incident

Its

claim for a

place in

notices of the

certainly establish

its

Malagasy

Several of the following stories are translated

tales."

first

all

from Folk-lore and Folk- tales of Madagascar.

The Crocodile and the Dog.

Once upon a time a you from,

crocodile and a

Then

suddenly on the road.

younger brother?" dog.

brother," said the

dog chanced

said the crocodile, "

Upon

crocodile, "Where come from such a place, younger

the

dog

Yes,

Let us strike up a friendship together," said the said the crocodile

all right,"

you knows what is along then, young

right,

two struck up a firm

Whoever proves

Agreed," said the dog.

little

much more

friend."

Some

"I've just

brother," said he.

do you agree or not dog.

are

elder

What do you think about my proposal ? " What proposal is that, younger "

said the dog, "

brother ?

meet

also asked the

are you from, elder brother?"

And

"Just hereabouts,

that

Where

" if

young

little

fellow like

a senior like myself.

the

Come So the

and went on talking thus

crocodile, " shall

friend."

be scouted."

Come, let So he supplied the dog

time afterwards the crocodile

give you a meal,

Agreed," said the dog.

friendship,

false," said

;

said, "

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. with food, and when he had eaten his

239

fill, the dog Come, So the crocodile carried him but half-way across, he stopped and sank down into the water. Upon that the dog struggled a little, but presently got across and as soon as he landed the crocodile emerged from the water. So the dog said, " You've broken the agreement, old

carry

said, "

over, old friend."

;

fellow." I

Why,

want you

wasn't

there below

to be able to swim."

you

the

all

Nevertheless

same ? For dog had

the

not been able to swim, he would have been drowned.

Then

said the

dog

go yonder with

in his turn, "

meeting, young friend

? "

Come now, "

to-morrow."

old fellow, do

But where

you

the place of

Yonder, at such-a-place," said the

On the morrow accorddog took him some distance towards ground covered with the trailing tendrils of gourds. But it was to pay him out for what he had done. So the dog said, " I will give you a signal, old fellow when I bark, then run off, for people are Agreed," replied the crocodile.

dog.

ingly the

;

The

coming."

crocodile, be

family with him.

And when

said,

they

all

had brought arrived the

his wife

dog

and

set food

was half-way through he began ran, but some of the young ones were tendrils of the gourds and killed.

before them, but before the meal to bark.

entangled

in the trailing

off they all

So when they got to the water, the crocodile said, " What kind of a dog are you ? What's the meaning of this, fellow ? " "

There's no retribution, but the past returns,"

The

crocodile rejoined, "If

destroy dogs from henceforth, then inherit

and

And

this

was the

said the dog.

descendants and heirs do not

me have no

let

origin of the

heirs to

enmity between dogs

crocodiles.

The Three Sisters and Itrimob^. There was once a certain couple who were very had three children, theirs, the '

all

daughters.

And

rich,

and they

of these children of

youngest, Ifaravavy ("last female"), was the prettiest. native proverb

" .Yj tody tsy

misy,fa

iiy

aiao mivcrina."

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

240

One day she, "

the sun

was

Then is

lasses,

to her sisters

that she

among

and

us,

behind."

left

prettier than

said

;

dreamt that the son of

to take a wife from

you^wo he

he took, for

told

and

the two sisters were very angry about

enough

true

had a dream, and

came from heaven

whom

Ifara

have had a dream,

are,

it,

and

and if

said, " It

a prince or

noble should seek a wife, he would choose her, and not care for us

;

Come,

so let us consider what to do.

let

us take her out

to play, and find out from people which of us they consider the

So they

best looking."

called Ifara,

and

said,

"Come,

Ifara, let

us go and play."

So they went away an old woman. is the prettiest

" ? "

(the middle one)

all

dressed in their best, and soon met

Granny," said they,

Ramatoa

which of us three

(the eldest)

good looking, but

Ifara

sisters

good looking, Raivo better looking than

"Oh, dear," said they, "there's no doubt Ifara is prettier are." So they took off Ifara's Icnnba (the outer native than we

either."

dress, a large

oblong piece of

cloth).

Presently they met an old man. "

who

looking, Raivo either."

Grandfather," they said,

the prettiest of us three sisters

good looking, but

Dear me

? "

Ifara

Ramatoa

good

better looking than

although deprived of her lamba, she

is still

we are." Then they met with Itrimobe. (This was an immense monster, half human and half beast, a man-eating creature, and So they stripped her of her underclothing.

prettier than

with a frightfully sharp

"Who

tail.)

Oh, dear,

here

the prettiest of us three sisters? "

answered just as the old

woman and

old

isn't

Itrimobe

But with a

man had

snarl he

answered.

So the sisters were beside themselves with anger because was prettier than they were, and they said, " If we were to kill Ifara, perhaps father and mother would hear of it and kill us, so let us go and get some of Itrimobe's vegetables, so that he may eat her." So the sisters said to her, " Come, Ifara, let Ifara

us see

who can

she said,

" let

find the nicest vegetables."

us take

some of those yonder

" "

Come

along then,"

(meaning those of

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. "

Itrimobe). "

Ifara.

Shall

when

young ones ? " said they. Then they went

get the ripe or the

Get those just sprouting," said

two

to get them, but the

24I

took the full-grown ones.

sisters

the three showed theirs to each other Ifara's were the "

worst.

Oh, dear

yours are the full-grown,

" It's yourself,

you've cheated me." unripe," said the

why

cried she, "

two

;

go along and

who would

girl,

take the

some full-grown

fetch

ones."

So Ifara went off to get them but while she was gathering them she was caught by Itrimob6. " I've got you, my lass," said he, " for you are taking my vegetables I'll eat you, my lass." Then Ifara cried, " I am sorry, Itrimobe, but take me for ;

;

your

wife."

might take

The

Come her home "

sisters

tables, so

let

and mother, saying,

he has eaten

Then

her."

So Itrimobe

for sorrow.

not

to be fattened,

and

were exceedingly glad at

their father

tell

along, then," said he (but

fed

was that he

after that eat her).

and went away to

this,

" Ifara stole

Itrimobe's vege-

the old people wept profusely

Ifara at his house,

and would

her go out of doors, but covered her with mats, while he

went into the country hunting things

became very

fat,

to fatten her, so that Ifara

and the time approached

for

Itrimobe to devour

her.

But one day, when Itrimobe happened hunting, a Ifara's side

mouse wearing plantain

little

and

said, "

give you advice." "

Well, then,

let

Give

What

rice."

little

have gone abroad

white

jumped by Ifara, and I'll

rice,

advice can you give

me ? "

Itrimobe devour you to-morrow."

the advice you can give

the

fibre cloth

me?"

said Ifara, "for

So she gave some white

clothed in cloth of plantain fibre

;

rice to

and

said Ifara. "

But what

I'll

give you

mouse Be off and a smooth

the

little

said to her, "

with you, and take an egg, a broom, a small cane,

round stone, and escape southwards."

So tree

Ifara took the things

stem instead of herself

Presently Itrimob6

and in

set off; but she put a plantain-

her bed, and locked up the house.

came home from the 17

fields bringing,

with

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

242

him a spear

for killing Ifara,

at the door, but

;

so he knocked

Dear me, Ifara's got Said So he broke open the door, and coming he, "

no one opened.

so fat she can't move."

and a cooking-pot

to the bed thrust his spear through the mat, so that

Then he

fast in the plantain-tree stem.

"Oh

said,

stuck

dear, Ifara's

So he stuck it in again Ifara must be fat, for Why," said and licked the spear. her blood has no taste " But when he had opened the mat to take her for cooking, lo and behold, the plantain-tree stem " Oho the worthless wench has run off! " said he. Then he snuffed the air to the east, but there was nothing so fat the spear sticks fast into her." "

he, "

there

;

he snuffed to the north, nothing there

"Ah, there she

west, nothing there; he snuffed to the south,

Off he her

;

runs after her with

sets,

" I've

saying, "

got you, Ifara

By my

" is

speed, and at last overtakes

all

he snuffed to the

;

down

Ifara threw

her broom,

But Itrimobe took

his

become a Then a tail and cut

was

all

cleared

sacred father and mother,

let

this

dense thicket which Itrimobe cannot pass through." very dense thicket grew up.

away

perseveringly at the thicket until

off.

"I've got you now, Ifara!"

Then

down

Ifara put

and mother,

let this

her egg, saying, "

But Itrimobe began

a great pool appeared.

water and kept pouring dried up.

Then father

" I've

into the river.

got you now, Ifara

down

Ifara put

and mother,

felled.

" I've

Then

forest,

and kept

got you now, Ifara

down

immense

which

incessantly, but at

last the

water was

By my

But Itrimobe with at

work

sacred

Then

forest."

until the

his tail

whole was

" !

her smooth round stone, and said, let

this

become an

inaccessible

So it became an Then Itrimobe cut away with his tail last his tail became so blunt he could do

Itrimobe

precipice.

cane become a dense

sacred father and mother,

precipice

Then up the

to drink

her small cane, saying,

let this

Ifara put

sacred father

a dense impassable forest grew up.

hewed down the

By my

egg become a great pool of water."

cannot climb.

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES.

nothing more.

he called

attempted to climb, but was unable.

out, " Pull

Ifara replied, "

your spear

243

up, Ifara, for

Then

won't harm you."

But

won't take hold of you until you have stuck

So Itrimobe stuck the spear

ground."

in the

ground, and Ifara threw him a rope, which he laid hold

in the

But

of.

when he was nearly up he said, " I've got you, Ifara, my lass " Then Ifara let him fall, and he was impaled on his spear and !

was

killed.^

Ifara

was there upon the rock

and she wept and was

;

Then came

sad at heart for her father and mother.

and when

saw

Ifara

she sang to

yonder crow,

Take me

And "

And you

say

carry you there

Then came

yonder crow

will

smooth thy

" tail

eat unripe earth-nuts,

a hawk, to

whom

and

going to

are," said the crow.

she said

O yonder hawk, O yonder hawk Take me to father's well, And I will smootn thy tail "

a crow,

to father's well.

Stay where you

as follows

And you

to carry

say

After that a ing

its cry, "

thus

the eater of dead rats, and

Reo "

going

bird {Leptosovius discolor) came, repeat-

reo, reo,"

which,

when

Ifara saw, she called to

yonder Reo,

Take me

And "

Reo,

you there

Reo,

lass, for

yonder Reo

will

smooth thy

reo, reo," said the bird, " feel for

the sorrowful."

and placed her on a

to father's well.

tree just

" tail

come,

let

So the

carry you,

bird took her

away

above the well of her father and

mother.

Soon there came a

little

slave girl of theirs to

draw water

;

Malaj^asy spears have a small blade at the foot, by which they are stuck in the ground when encamping, &c., so that the large blade stands upright. '

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

244

she washed her out, "

word

saw

in the

and seeing a

head!"

But

Then

was the

water and took

the waterpot in pieces. "

reflection in the water, cried

have a pretty face Hke mine, and yet carry

a waterpot on face she

face, !

for her

reflection of Ifara's

So she broke

own.

Ifara called out

from the

tree,

Father and mother are at expense to buy waterpots, and you

break them

" !

the slave-girl,

whose name was Itretrikandevo,

Wherever was that person So she went off home. On the morrow she came again to fetch water, and washing her face again, saw a reflection in the water, and breaking the waterpot said, " A handsome face like mine, indeed, and have But it was Ifara's face she saw to carry water on my head " And again Ifara spoke from up the tree, " Father spends there. money buying, and you break." And again Itretrikandevo " looked about her, saying, " Whoever was that speaking ? looked

about her and

all

said,

? "

speaking

So she ran but

off to the

could not see

So the

pair

down, and her sisters Itrimobe.

village,

saying to her master and

There was somebody speaking yonder

mistress, "

who

at the well,

was, yet the voice was like Ifara's

and when they got there

came them how had deceived her so that she might be seized by So they disowned the two daughters and kept Ifara went

off to see,

three wept for joy.

all

Then

Ifara

Ifara told

as their child.

The Dispute for Seniority among

Once upon the Hand, the seniority,

and

a time,

Foot, and

in this

Said the Ear, hear

all

if it

" I

Members of

Belly disputed together about

manner went the dispute

Body.

Eye, the Mouth,

said, the Ear, the

the

tlie

the eldest of

all,

because

who

things whatsoever."

And when who

the

Eye heard

are the eldest, but

;

for

that,

he answered,

although you. Ear,

" It

isn't

may even

you hear,

wasn't for me, the Eye, seeing, then you would see nothing

of the

way you ought

to tread."

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES.

And when the Mouth heard that, he was angry, and said, You fellows here are talking nonsense, and disputing as to who be the head

shall I

245

while neither of you

;

may

myself; for although you. Ear,

may

see,

remain

was not

And when

hear,

the eldest, but

and you. Eye, even

me. Mouth, speaking, you would

for

silent as stone or

wood."

Hand

heard that he was startled, and said, ashamed of yourselves for talking such rubbish, and each of you saying, It is I who am eldest.' Why For although you don't you think a little before you speak ? all may be here, ear and eye and mouth, if it wasn't for me, the hand, which takes hold and works, what could you all accom"

the

Why, you ought

to be

plish

eldest, for

every one be

let

the hand, alone

And when What a

said, "

still,

no one of you

the Foot heard that, he burst out laughing, and set of fools

you peer into the about seniority

just look at the

shadow

first

before

People like you, indeed, quarrelling

glass.

For what are you but maize hung up, so that

although you, Eye,

may

see,

and although you. Mouth, may

speak, and although you. Hand,

me, the

for there

the eldest."

may

take hold,

wasn't for

if it

go and carry you, what would you be better

foot, to

than the bottom of the basket, to

sit

still

business than to be friends with the ashes

without any other

? ^

Don't dispute any

more about seniority, for none of you is worthy to be senior. For it is I, the foot, only who am senior." And the Belly, when he heard all that, said, " How is it these fellows have a mouth that is never tired, and lips above and below, and are not torn to pieces like a rag ? " This Ear, forsooth, making himself to be senior has ears just as much as you, and hears the abuse and

The dog

spoken by others

;

but

its

belly does not

know

rest,

evil

and

words

happy

to bear the abuse of others.

And

living '

you.

Eye, making yourself to be senior

thing sees

the darkness and the light

.-Mluding to the ashes carried in baskets as

manure

;

Every

but the belly

for the rice-tields.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

246

does not observe,

eye looks upon the good and the

for the

evil.

And

making yourself to be senior The mouth the same as you, but its belly is happy in

you, Mouth, also,

pig, too, has a

doing

and devours that which

evil,

And

its

had vomited.

making yourself

you. Hand, also

crab has hands just as so

much

as you, but

to be senior

The

belly has no thought,

its

hands can do nothing of themselves, either separately or

altogether.

And

ox has

see that the foolish,

making yourself

as for you. Foot,

and so

feet just as

made

the belly,

as you, but

its

You

belly

a treader of rice-fields and a breaker

up of clods.i So this is what any more about seniority, for because

much

to be senior

declare to you

I it

receptacle for the food which

alone

is I

who am

Don't dispute

who am

the eldest,

thinker and observer, and

to strengthen

you

all."

So they all humbled themselves to be juniors, and the belly only was agreed to as the eldest and they gathered together ;

there is

all

the emotions expressed in such phrases as "

belly

troubled," is

liver is troubled," "

heart

troubled," &c.

The meaning of this amusing fable will be remembered that the Malagasy use the word for a very wide

stomach, &c.

bowels are troubled,"

sense, ;

and that

including heart, bowels, in

clearer

if it

belly {kibo) in liver,

womb,

these organs they (like Orientals

generally) place the seat of the emotions and feelings, and the intelligence also. to that of

^sop's

idea which

seen

very

xii.

its

12-25.

The similarity of the main idea of the fable The Belly and the Members," is obvious, an

probably found full

It will

almost every nation, as

use as an illustration by St. Paul in

be noticed that seniority

equivalent

also

Cor.

among

the Malagasy to headship or lordship. ' Oxen are driven about on the soft mud of the rice-fields, over which water has been allowed to flow, after they have been dug up by the spade.

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. The

Once upon

Little

and

cried out thus

So the man

it.

young bird of the species was stoned by a certain man so the bird

Throws Throws Throws

;

stones indeed, does this man, O,

stones at the stones

little

to the

when he had got

;

and, the bird's foot being

ground and was caught by the man.

it, it

antsaly,

" !

went on throwing

still

it fell

ate

a time there was a

called antsdly,

struck,

Bird and he who

247

And

began to sing thus

Obtained indeed has this man, O, Obtained the little antsaly, O Obtained O !

Then

the

man

took the bird home.

his wife the bird

spake again thus "

And when

he had come to

Obtained indeed has this man, O, Obtained the little antsaly, O " Obtained O !

So the man's

wife was astonished, and said,

Dear me, why

this

Whatever you may think, it's an unlucky busiin all my life saw such a thing as this." But the man said, " If you won't eat it, I'll eat it by myself" So he killed the bird and cut it up, and said to his child, " Take hold, child, for it bothers me." But the mother interposed, saying, " If you're my child don't you take hold of it, for it's unlucky." So the child would not take hold, for it was afraid of its mother. bird speaks

ness

;

Then

for

never

the bird called out again " Will cut

up indeed,

Will cut up the Will cut up

little

will this

antsaly

man, !

Then

the wife said again,

to do that

Dear me, are you

bird speaking

really bold

and you dare cook

it ?

enough " But

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

248 the

man

did not answer and went on

began to

really

So the

cut. " Is Is Is

And

and presently

himself,

bird called out again

cooking indeed, is this man, cooking the little autsaly ! cooking !

after a little while the bird

was cooked and the man ate eat, for they were afraid. ;

but the people in the house would not

Then

the bird called out again

" Is eating indeed, is tljis Is Is

And and

eating the eating

man had

after the

eaten he sat

down north

it,

bird also called out again in his "Is

indeed,

full

stomach thus this

Is full

man,

Is full of the little aiifsuly

spoke again to him, " Now you see what you've you were admonished and wouldn't take warning."

Then

his wife

got

for

But the man could not answer, but wept, and apace.

the

And

his tears flowed

then, wonderful to relate, the bird's parents out in

field called

out "

And

of the hearth,^

and the children east of it. And time the man's stomach began to swell, and the

his wife sat south of

after a little

man,

little tiiitsaly!

Gone where is the little autsaly ? Gone where is the little autsaly ? Gone where ?

their child there in the "

man's stomach answered thus

Here indeed Here indeed Here

I I

am, father, am, mother,

Hova houses

which house.

are always built north and south, and north of the hearth, an open fireplace of earth and stones, is the place of honour in the

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. So the parent birds heard it and came near compound called out thus

of the

and coming west

;

249

Gone where Gone where Gone where

the bird answered again ''

the Hltle aiitsaly

the

little ciiitsuly f

Here indeed Here indeed " Here

I I

am, father, am, mother.

And when the pair heard that, they came into the house and also Was it you (pi.) who ate our child ? " Then the children

said, "

the house answered, "It was

birds spoke again, "

Why

was

daddy who

ate

it."

So the

that thou atest our child

But the man answered nothing, but wept

profusely.

Then

" ?

the

up the man's belly with their claws and got their and then the three went home into the woods, but the man who would not be warned by wife and children died.

birds tore child

;

The

which people

stories

ingly puzzling

;

still,

we may

The town where he

And

of Antananarivo.^ 1.

lived,

was

cooked would be

Rapeto are exceed-

they say,

Ambohidrapeto, west

the fables related of him are these

They say he was

although

relate of this

safely say that they are fabulous.

tall

as to touch the skies.

Ambohidrapeto that he

And

ate rice, the rice he

in the forest to the east [that

is,

twenty miles

away]. 2.

and

They say he went

amuse himself

was only one step from there

at Ambohitrarahaba,^

Ambohidrapeto.

[The

places are about six miles apart] 3.

Those

rocks, with hollows like

human

feet in

them, on the

Ambohidrapeto, that is, "Town-of-Kapeto," is a small town on a low about three miles west of the capital. ' This is a large village about three miles north of the capital. '

hill

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

250

roadside near Ambohitrarahaba are, they say, the impressions of his legs and feet and knees, by which he showed his strength.* 4.

They say he

children

;

fetched

moon

the

as a plaything for his

but he was struck by a meteorolite, and so was

The Lost Son of God (This piece

killed.

{a Natiire-niytJi).

was obtained from Fisakana.)

The following is a fable related by the people of old times when they met together and talked The son of God, they say, came down here upon earth, and Rakoriaho and Ravao were his nurses. And this son of God, :

was

said,

'tis

And

lost,

and neither he or

things of whatever kind sought for

all

be found.

his nurses could

him

;

whether the

stones which were below the earth, or the trees which covered

the earth, or the people which dwelt upon the earth, or the water or the beasts.

things without

life,

was

among them

lost.

Still,

that everything, whether living creatures or

sought him diligently,

God

said, "

all

not one found him.

And when

they sent to inquire of God.

Let everything stay

for the son

God

And

the messengers arrived

in the place

the stones went seeking below the earth

;

where

and as

the half part stuck fast in the ground, and so

went."

for the trees,

became

fixed there

by the word of God, " Stand still " and that, they say, caused some stones to be below the earth and the trees to have their roots in the ground, and their branches standing above, so that if the roots and the branches separate they die. And the people also spread abroad, seeking northward and westward and southward, and lastly eastwards. (That, they say, is why prayer is ;

;

made towards abroad '

the east.^)

And

that

why

people are spread

in various countries.

There are certain rocks with some curious hollows in them in the place They have probably been produced by rain-water and the unequal

described.

hardness of portions of the surface. = The sacred portion of a Hova house is the north-east corner, the zorofirarazana, or " corner of invocation " (from the root rary, a chant).

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES,

And God word

mouths cease

said also, " Let not your '

Rakoriaho

(and that

25 to utter the

said to be the origin

Akory hianao

of the

meaning is as salutation of strangers, " " And the dog is the proIs Rakoriaho there ? if one said, tector of Ravao then said God, " Let not Ravao be absent from your mouth." And that is why the dogs say " Vovo," ^ and the P)

and

;

its

;

meaning of that

And So God

the son of

said, " Is

they

God was

" ?

are not allowed to rest

And

Rakoriaho and Ravao are found."

night, until

day or

that,

night, for they are

who were

the nurses of the

still

seeking Rakoriaho and Ravao,

God Cause of the Separation of the Five Fingers.-

T/ie

Each of

the fingers,

after this fashion

said,

had

their

own

thoughts, and

The little finger said, " I am so hungry." The next to it answered, "If you're hungry go and that

they

what keeps the waters moving day and

say,

son of

there

said to have been lost in the water.

said to the waters,

Ravao

you may be

Then

steal,

satisfied."

said the next also, " Bring plenty, for

shall

want

some."

And "

said the forefinger (in

These fellows turn

little

one

;

one

I'll

back on

steals won't

But the thumb talk, so

their

said, "

Malagasy

the pointer," /^ÂŤ<?ÂŤ^r^),

bad advice) to the

(or give

he be punished

" ?

do not understand these

separate, for I'm big, since

you

fellows'

are plotting mis-

chief"

And into

that,

five,

they say, was the reason of the fingers separating

and the thumb opposing the

rest.

And

the two

middle fingers have no special name,3 because they had bad An onomatopoetic word in the Huva language for barking. The second and third fingers have no name in Malagasy, while forefinger, and little finger have each a name of their own. '

3 Literally, the five "branches"; the fingers, called riiiitsaii-tiiiniiui, " branches of the hand."

the thumb,

including the thumb, being

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

252

thoughts, and they have no particular business to do, and no

work they are

perform.

skilful to

The Eai'th proposing

The people in former pass away the time told

days,

fight with the Skies.

when they wanted to follows " Once upon a

said,

a story as

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

time the earth rose up and mounted aloft in order to fight the

So all parts of the earth agreed to set off at the same time, and the rocks, they say, were to be the cannon balls to fire And early morning was the time fixed to go up. at the sky. But it is said that the plains and the valleys crept slowly and sky.

sluggishly,

and

was

day before they

full

lagged behind

and so they

;

and that

ate their breakfast,

reason of the

the

inequality of the valleys and the plains and the mountains, for

they did not

the earth did not mingle, because

at the

same

Once upon a time all the who should be

to choose one

did not come, because

all

so the heavens

the earth did not

and

mount

time.

The Birds agreeing

just then.

And

keep step together.

all

make a King.

birds on the earth agreed together their king

and

happened that

leader, but the

mate was

his

Owl

sitting

the birds agreed that whoever saw the

Owl

and did not beat him should also be an outcast and be treated as an enemy.

For

Owl does

this reason the

by night

;

for

any

birds see

not go about by day, but goes

him they

all strive

together to

beat him.

And

the big

Hawk

himself, but the others did

from them

Hawk

all

sees he

and the

rest

and appointed

also sought to be king,

not agree to

enmity with them.

it,

And

so he

whatever bird

swoops down upon, because he chose one

who

went away

their

should be their king.

this

enemy So they ;

chose the Railbvy (a Shrike, Dic7'urus forficatus), because of his

good

position,

and long top-knot, and variety of

note.

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES.

And king

that

said to be

why

253

people consider the Railbvy to be

of the birds.

The St try and

the Antsianisy.

(These are two small species of Lizard.)

These creatures are both small animals, yet many people

They say

pay them honour.

when

that

a certain person called

Rasoavolovoloina has a child born, the Sitry went off to her, but

was stoned and

Then came and

visit

killed.

the Antsiantsy, and was also stoned by

Rasoa

killed.

And when Rasoa went came

also the Tdkatra

out to

feel

the sun's warmth, then

umber) and the Sltry and

(the tufted

the Antsiantsy went to the door of Rasoa's house.

And when evening came on, then the whole of the animals came and mourned at the door and devoured the child of Rasoa, and every one of them,

said,

And on

lamented.

account

of that, Rasoavolovoloina took an oath (or invoked a curse),

saying: "If any of

descendants should

Antsiantsy they must wrap up

There are not

kill

still

many

its

people

either of the lizards

;

who

them," say some

Hawk, they

say,

And

believe this story,

kill kill

die young."

the

Hen.

had a son born to

after the

and dare

Those who

silk cloth.

The Hazvk and

to nurse her.

a Sitry or an

kill

silk." 2

and should they accidentally

them, they wrap the corpse in a folks, " will

corpse in

Hawk had

her,

and a Hen came

been nursed a week she

went to take exercise, and gave her son to the Hen to nurse. But when it was broad day and the hawk did not come, the

Hen grew angry and So when Many Ainiiicil, -

the

killed the

young one. and saw

Hawk came home

its

native superstitions have collected about the bird.

Vol. IV., 1891, p. 295.

Malagasy corpses are wrapped

red

silk

lamhas.

young one dead, Wda Aiiiaiiiuiafivo

:madagascar before the conquest.

2 54

was enraged and beat the Hen, but the Hen held

they were equal

for

After

some

time, not seeing

a curse, saying

young of

the

kill

And

that

what

to do, the

Whoever would be my Hen, because she

this

said

its

ground,

Hawk

invoked

in strength.

be the reason

must

true offspring

my young

killed

why

the

one."

hawk

eats

chickens, but not hens.

The Vazhnba.

The Vazimba, is,

times

it is

and as

;

One day

the

coast.

;

snake

and

reported that they II., p.

still

26.)

by the water and took Fanany " (see p. 231) and

to play

the seven-headed called

it is

(See Chap.

Vazimba went

the animal called

heads

little

exist on the western

water

of the island [that

appearance they are said to have been

to their

small people with

when

said, lived in this part

Imerina, the central province of Madagascar] in former

;

Tbmpondrano

(that

is,

lord

of the

passed by, the Vazimba sent him with this message,

Go," said he,

speak thus to father and mother,

This

the

have gone under the water and

word of thy son, Ravazimba I send you my farewells therefore offer the blood of some living creature, and its feet, and hair or feathers, and the fat, for if you do thus you shall be blessed.' " So the snake went, they say. This is the reason some give for calling certain snakes They believe that the Vazimba gave them Tbmpondrano. :

;

power, and hardly any one will kill these creatures and should any one dare kill one they will wrap it up in silk." And some time after that the Vazimba sent the Kingfisher to his father and mother with this message, " Salutation to Thus saith Ravazimba, father and mother, and say to them send me fowls and sheep.' " And when the Kingfisher had thus spoken he returned to Vazimba again, who said to him, Because you were diligent and wise I will give you honour ;

Following the same custom as when people are buried, corpses being

wrapped

in red silk lumbas.

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. I

255

put a crown on your head, and clothe you with purple

will

by day and night when you lay eggs I will nurse you and if any one kills you, them will I kill while young." And that is why the Kingfisher is so beautiful, and makes its hole for a nest by the water. Therefore up to the present time many people Many believe this, and dare not kill or eat the Kingfisher. honour the little bird so called. Here in Imerina many people used to supplicate of the Vazimba thus "If thou wilt prosper me," or, " If I recover ;

;

from

this disease," or

&c., &c., "

then

called

Vazimba

then

will sacrifice

"If

child, or

will anoint thee

wife bears a child,"

graves] with fat and will reverence thee, and

sheep and fowls

The Chameleon and

These two

[meaning the ancient graves

creatures,

it is

in thine

honour."

the Li::ard.

The Lizard began

at the foot of a tree. "

pleasant thing

replied, "

Living

The Lizard was

it is

born

said, are children of sisters

one mother,^ and one day they happened to be to live,

good

the conversation thus

life is

astonished to hear that, and

full

said, "

of danger."

You,

think so because you're so thin and have bulging eyes."

Chameleon

And

replied,

you,

fellow,

The Chameleon

friend."

pleasant enough, but

sitting together

imagine

fellow,

The

because

you're ugly and dirty-brown coloured, that's why."

And

thus the two abused one another until Raolombelona

(Mr. Human-being)

came

up,

and they were each

startled.

The

Lizard slunk into his hole, and the Chameleon climbed up the

and

tree,

it is

were never friends afterwards.

said they

The Serpent and

Once upon a time

the Frog.

the Serpent called Manditra [a species of

boa] swallowed a Frog, and the Frog began to revile the Serpent children are considered by the Malagasy as almost the same as same mother they could no more intermarry than can brothers and sisters, while the marriage of brothers' children is quite common. '

Sisters'

children of the

;

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

256 thus

What

goggle eyes

a speckled appearance, and a blunt head, and

What's become of your

feet and hands ? " So worn off in pursuing you eyes stand out because dim with looking after

the Serpent answered, frogs

you

and

father

my my skin

and

;

feet are

speckled because I'm

of your precious

full

So the Frog was angry and cursed the Serpent it is hotly pursued by the serpents.

;

and that

why

The Rice and

The let

came

Sugar-cane, they say,

ship with

the Sugar-cane.

and spake thus to

it,

to the Rice, to seek friend-

"I say,

Sir Rice, come,

us be relatives and friends together, and share together the

and the

difficult

origin, for

each

bitter,

making no

difference, for

the produce of the ground

besides that, alike

;

are the things befalling and the things obtained

Why

living, similar in death.

(sugar-cane)

living,

so let us strike

Rice, however,

and similar

agree about us.

thought stink

friendship."

answered thus

relate

are almost

(rice) dSidifary

Your words

and particularise our

origin,

certainly are both the produce of the ground, equal while

;

it's

still,

here's

use, for

something which a thing

it's

so let there not be that friendship, and

For

it's

;

can't

do not you

an exceedingly bad thing to agree without

those

for fish

But

in death.

prevents us agreeing, so

blame

up a firm said,

enough when you

are true for

;

equal while

;

names even

but a slight difference between vary

alike, there's

The

look, our

we have one

who go along with fishermen, they say, who make friends with vagabonds are and those who make friends with workers

those

themselves vagrants

;

And

so you see,

good fellow, the reason of our declining friendship with you is your changing in For you see the end ; and that is why we can't join together. are workers themselves.

we have not that changing, whatever may befall us. You see that we are damped to become rotten, and when we have become so, we are soon put in the ground but after a little that

;

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. time we are

still

rice all the

And when we

same.

257

have become

we are uprooted and stuck in the much water yet we do not change, but still remain rice. And after growing again until we are ripe, we are then reaped with the knife yet we do not change, but still remain rice. And after stopping a little while more, we are then beaten on the stone yet we do not change, but still remain rice. And not only so, but we are buried in the rice pit we do not change, but still remain rice. And also, we are drawn out thence, and dried in the sun and when dry we are pounded in the mortar and our skin stripped from us, yet we do not change, but still remain rice. And not only so, but we are green on the earth again, then

ground, where there

;

put into the cooking pot and covered with water, and heated

and unless well boiled and thoroughly

with a fierce

fire

removed from

not

are

;

it.

chewed, and when masticated are

calamities which overtake and befall us still

remain

And

rice.

soft,

And when removed we are swallowed. And in all these

the land where

we do

not change, but

are not found

called

and the country where we are not found

famine-stricken,

called desolate. "

you sugar-canes, on the other hand, you are cut down and chopped up, and stuck about in the ground and then you do not change at all, but are still sugar-cane. And But as

for

;

you have grown and become tall, you are cut down with the knife and still you do not change, but are still sugar-cane. And afterwards you are chewed into fibres with the teeth and after

;

crushed are

still

the mill, but yet that does not change you, for

But that

not

after a little while

intensely stop. is,

you

sugar-cane.

by the

And upon

all,

for

you are steeped

you are put

a great pot

into a boiling pot

and and heated ;

a long time, and after you thicken, they

fire

that

you change, and take another name, that

sugar. "

And when you

have been sent back to the boiler again,

then you no longer are a substance in a lump any more, but 18

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

258

become steam and distilled drops, and go out along a bamboo or a brass pipe, and emerging thence, you become rum^ making wise men fools, and are no longer sugar-cane. So that we cannot be friends with you sugar-cane," said the Rice. Ikbtofetsy

and

IniahakaJ-

Imahaka displayed an it is said, Ikotofetsy and piece of manioc-root which they had was only a idol, but it And the day was very cloudy, covered with scarlet cloth.^ and just as if heavy rain was coming on the wind also blew very hard. So they called the people together, and bade them assemble in an open space and then they brought out the idol, but it did not move 3 (because it was only manioc-root). So Ikotofetsy and Imahaka said, " Since we brought out the god, and you did not bring tribute to him, he will not show you his therefore there will be heavy rains to-day, glory, and is angry and the waters will be flooded." (At the same time they knew well that rain would fall plentifully, and the streams be all

One

day,

;

flooded.)

Accordingly, the rain soon

and the waters were indeed

all

flooded

fell

heavily on that day,

and the people were

;

all

exceedingly astonished, and feared greatly.

Imahaka procured a serpent (called Mdnditra), and wrapped it up in scarlet cloth as they had done with the piece of manioc-root, and placed it in a basket. And

Then

Ikofofetsy and

spoke thus to the people

two fellows

the

This

the

he was angry yesterday, but we besought word of our god him, and so the heavy rain ceased so now look, for he will :

;

This is one of a number of short stories which are very popular with the Malagasy, giving the adventures and various tricks of two clever rogues. The most complete collection of these was published at Antananarivo some years ago. The meaning of Ikotofetsy is the " cunning lad " that of Imahaka is not quite so clear, it perhaps means "the light-fingered one," or one able to carry off by '

;

theft. ^

Malagasy

idols

were

no great

size,

and were usually covered with red

cloth. 3

was believed

that the idols

according to the will of the

idol.

had power

make

their bearers

move

or stop,

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. appear to-day, therefore

down on

was a filled

the ground, and

living creature.

with

fear,

each paid a

all

So they brought

an offering." set

let

259

dance, and every one bring

the serpent in the basket, and

struggled violently, because

the people were

all

confounded and

Then they

and every one danced a long time.

money

little

as an offering,

and the two men,

it is

amount of ten thousand on that day money So they put back the serpent into the basket again. And then they said to the people, " Should any of you be ill, come here to us, and bring money to the value of a halfpenny to the

said, collected

pieces.

and twopence, and a red cock, as an if

you

will forget the god,

And

so,

said,

will die

Besides which,

offering.

young."

numbers of people worshipped that men became very rich. And after

manioc-root, and the two

many

that also

of the people fetched [what they supposed to it was only Imahaka gave them.

be] pieces of the idol, but

Ikotofetsy and

wood which

pieces of

Rasbalavavblo.

Under she

water,

beautiful,

said,

hair,

of Rasoalavavolo, and

and that

long-haired

").

why she is Some say

a Vazimba,^ but others say that she belongs to one of the

conquered royal

families.

Both

untrue, since the whole account

They loina

home

volo is "

called Rasoalavavolo {lava

she

the

and has very long

stories, is

say, nevertheless, that a

went

to visit her,

silver rings,

and

however, are equally

fiction.

woman named Rasoavolovo-

to ask for a child,^

and offered two

and had given to her two round smooth stones,

which, they say, became two male children. brothers grew up they went

When

to visit Rasoalavavolo

the two

under the

One of the supposed aboriginal inhabitants of the central provinces of Madagascar, see auk, p. 26. = This is what native women very often do, visiting some of the numerous sacred stones and presenting small offerings, in the hope that they may bear children.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

260

happened

water, and offered her a string of coral beads, but she

when the

to be asleep

them of

(lit,

who have

people

the

all

brothers came, and so did not talk with

blew water on them

and they were the ancestors that

since

lived

time here

Madagascar.

And come

there are

still

many who

believe this fable,

to the story-tellers to beg for children, but

and who is

only a

piece of fiction.

The Wild-hog and

Once upon

a time,

'tis

the Rat.

Wild-hog and a Rat chanced

said, a

and the Rat saluted the other, saying, " How do you So the Wild-hog replied, " Oh, I'm tolerably well, do, say I ? " but how are you, young friend ? " " Oh, I'm very well," said the to meet,

same time, " Come, my elder brother, let us have a game." The Wild-hog replied, " Well, all right, young but what sort of a game shall we have ? " " Let us friend collect dry grass, and when we have got plenty, let us cover Said the Wild-hog, " Oh, ourselves with it and set it on fire. " that's a good idea, but perhaps you would not dare do it ? Rat, saying at the

;

Oh,

again

I'll

;

venture

and you

but

it,

also, if

if I

should shirk

it,

you daren't venture

not eat from this time forth," said the Rat.

So they pledged each

the Wild-hog.

I'll

never eat food

it,

then you must

Agreed," replied

other

keep

their

in first,

and

word.

Then I'll

said the Wild-hog, "

Very

go afterwards."

into the midst of the fuel

ground, and hid himself called out,

Shall

the Wild-hog set

he was safe

light

fire

Now

shall

pushing himself

but he burrowed rapidly into the

;

Presently the Wild-hog

the hole.

now

? "

to the heap, but

the hole.

you

well," said the Rat,

Yes," said the Rat.

as soon as

did not hurt the Rat, as it

was

all

burnt up, out

he came unhurt, and strutting about and looking very big, he How's that ? " shouted out, " What do you say to that ? adding, " Come, you must go too, Mr. Wild-hog."

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. "

Entered, the Wild-hog, ah

Pushed

Wild-hog, ah Is taken in, the Wild-hog, ah Is snugly hid, the Wild-hog, ah Is covered up, the Wild-hog, ah Is choked, the Wild-hog, ah Sleeps, the Wild-hog, ah The Wild-hog, ah Breathes hard, the Wild-hog, ah " Endures, the Wild-hog, ah in, tlie

So he but

set fire to the

alas

dry grass, and soon

about, for his back was scorched

Mr. Rat, ing

burnt

help me,

;

who

poor Wild-hog,

the

for

was

in a

struggled and

so he cried out,

;

blaze

;

turned

Help me,

help me, younger brother, for I'm scorch-

;

friend,

consumed

I'm

;

me, you

help

wretch, or I'm killed."

But the Rat gave him no help splitting with laughter, but

thus

for

all

that, for

he was

he danced about, and shouted out

Burn away,

fire

along, fire

Consume him, O fire Blaze away, fire Die, Mr. Worn-out

you old wretch Die, old Spade-mouth Die,

Die, old Fetch-what-you-see

Die, old Short-loin-cloth Die, old Snout-grubber

;

How How

do you like it ? are you now ? Soon you are done for, Soon j'ou squeal out. Soon you are shrivelled, Soon you are doubled up, Soon you won't move."

But

after a little the

got out from feet

Rat

among

the

Wild-hog made a desperate fire,

were terribly burnt, although he was said, " It

was

all

and

still

alive.

So the

a joke of mine, but go and bathe in the

So the Wild-hog went and did had bathed he was dead. water."

effort

but his skin and his fore and hind

so,

but as soon as he

CHAPTER

XIII.

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY, TOGETHER WITH NATIVE IDEAS AS TO FATE AND DESTINY. The

— Subject investigated by Mr. Dahle— Little organised idolatry the Malagasy— Diviners — Divination and fate — Invocation of the Sikhly — Sixteen figures of the Sik'uly— Sixteen columns of the Sikhiy — Erecting the Sikldy—Working of the Sikhly— Identical figures — Unique figures — Combined figures — Miscellaneous Sikldy — Gun charms —Trade charms — Medicinal charms — Fortunate places and days Ati-pako — Fate as told by zodiac and moon — Lucky and unlucky days — House divination — Fate as told by the planets — Days of the week— Decreasing influence of Sikhly

among

the Sikhiy.

FOR

more than two centuries past it has been well known Europeans who have resided for any length of time in Madagascar, that a somewhat elaborate system of divination, called Sikldy or Sikily, is practised by almost all the to those

various tribes inhabiting the island.

Within the

last five or six

years the subject has been investigated in a most complete

manner by the Rev. Lars Dahle, and

propose to give

in this

summary of the information Mr. Dahle has obtained, omitting many of the minuter points of philology. Mr. Dahle chapter a

has brought to his researches a very accurate knowledge of Arabic, as well as of the Semitic languages generally, and hence

he has thrown a flood of

light

upon what had previously been

hopelessly obscure.

Mr. Dahle thus describes the native divination

—

" If

you want

look into the future, to detect

what is to be your lot of means of doing it. And the best

secret enemies or dangers, to find out

good or

evil,

the sikldy

the

beliefs in the efficacy of

DIVINATION of

that

it is

the dreaded evils.

not at

all

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

263

does not, like the Fates or Parces of old, merci-

leave you

lessly

AMONG THE MALAGASY.

your destiny, but kindly undertakes If

you are

many

the uipisikidy or diviner does

sick,

of our modern doctors

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

you

treat

which really means leaving you and nature to

tatively,'

the matter between yourselves as best you can

;

diligent

men, they

set

and, as truly scientific doctors, they

cause of the

they can give you no other benefit

up your

at least cheer

first

ten-

are

sympto-

work immediately,

try to find out the

and then the means of removing

evil,

settle

neither

they shallow-minded enough to treat the case merely matically.'

avert

And

it.

with a good assurance, generally

spirits

terminating in a very emphatic phrase, to the effect that

you up

you

shall

your

spirit

die,

even

in despair, as "

be buried on has actually shall

the top of their head.'

left

not

a slight tinge of medical heresy about them, inasmuch

as their old system oifdditra

curantur

{i.e.,

expiatory offerings or piacuhi)

;

for the /aditra

(i.e.,

principle, Siinilia similibus

the thing the diviner ordered to

be thrown away to prevent or avert an

something that

name, shape, or number,

For example,

the evil in question.

evil)

was generally

&c.,

was similar to

the sikldy brought out

maty rha (" two deaths "), two locusts should be thrown away, to prevent the death of two men if ;

out niardry

sick

'),

a piece of the tree called

sick tree') should be "

friends from the accusation that

seems to jest upon the homoeopathic

you, they do not give you

am, however, reluctantly forced to admit that

And

have occasion to point out subsequently.

able entirely to exculpate there

a desperate case, they will

The people had

made

Q.fddit3'a,"

and so

killed it

and

brought

Ha.zo iiiardry

on.

a remarkable trust in their diviners and

names by which they called them. In Imerina and Betsileo (the two most important central provinces of the island), it was quite common to style them

their art

simply

;

this

did not so

appears even

mdsina

The

much imply

in the

sacred ones

'),

a term which, however,

sanctity as strength

and superhuman

MADAGASCAR BEFORK THE CONQUEST.

264

In the outlying provinces

power.

west

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;they

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;especially

are generally called

in the

south and

anibiasa or ovibiasy, as they

were also called among the Antanosy at Fort Dauphin as early

and

as the time of Flacourt, '

term

this

the Arabic

avibia,

prophet.' "

The word

incantation it

sikidy (probably from the Arabic sichr,

has been

generally translated

has a somewhat wider sense, as

vestigation of

what

remedy remedy

if it

for

it,

required

secret,

and the

charm, but

divination,'

includes both the in-

art

of finding out the

proves to be of such a nature that such a first. There employed almost exclusively while the other kinds have more

but the second depends on the

;

are three kinds oi sikldj which are in finding

out what

secret

do with remedying the

;

The

evils.

first class,

however, forms

sikidy par excellence, manipulated according to a rather intricate

system

the second class depends ujDon

;

somewhat more

it,

and seems

to be of a

arbitrary character."

Before proceeding further, a word or two must be said as to the Malagasy notions of vintana or sikidy

largely

depends on these

fate, as

beliefs.

the practice of the

The word vintana

Mr, Dahle believes to be an obsolete collateral form of the Malagasy word kintana, " a star " (Malayan bhitatig), and, in its restricted meaning, denotes the destiny of a man as depending on the times as declared b)- the stars at the time of birth, and also the

actions

proper

fitness (or

{e.g., ;

the reverse^ of certain

The

for a burial;.

the second was

(literally, "

for

certain

of these was the vintana

more accurately

styled

San-dndi'o

the hours of the da}-," from the Arabic sda, " hour,"

but also used in a wider sense of

name

inferred

from

correct),

the vintana in

different

first

times

its

(if

the

any moment."

As might be

above explanation of

upon astrology. The days of the month, and the months throughout the its

turn

rests

year, are each supposed to be connected with different constellations.

Mr. Dahle has shown that the native names of the

months are

all

Arabic

in origin,

and are the names of the twelve

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY.

265

Signs of the Zodiac, while the names for the separate days of

months are the twenty-eight " Moon-stations " on which the Malagasy (originally Arabic) chronology and astrology depend.

the

In the san-midro an important part

Planets

of the ancients, that

played by the

Seven

including the sun and moon,

is,

not excluding the earth, and of course also the more distant planets,

which were then not known at

all.

The

astrologers

had, however, a good deal to do outside the domain of astrology

and

fate, for

they had not only to find out, and,

necessary,

counteract the influences of nature, but also those of bad spirits

and bad men, as well as of the I.

evil eye.

The Awakening of the

Sikidv.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;The

was

sikidy

generally manipulated with beans or certain seeds, especially

When

those oi'Cci&fano tree, a species of acacia.^

the inpisikidy

had placed a heap of these seeds or beans before him and was about to begin, he inaugurated his proceedings with a solemn

upon God to awaken nature and men, that awaken the sikidy to tell the truth. The following

invocation, calling

these might is

the formula used

Awake, O God, to awaken the sun awaken the cock Awake, O cock, to Awake, O mankind, to awaken the sikidy "

Awake, O sun, to awaken mankind !

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; not to

tell

lies,

not

to deceive, not to play tricks, not to talk nonsense, not to agree

to an}'thing indiscriminately

look into what forest, to see "

Wake

beyond the

what no human up,

for

thou

but to search into the

;

hills

e)'e

art

secret, to

and on the other side of the

can

from

see.

the

Silamo

long-haired

(Moslem Arabs), from the high mountains, from Raboroboaka and others " (here follow nine long names). " Awake for we have not got thee for nothing, thou art dear and expensive. We have hired thee in exchange for a fat cow with a large hump, and for money on which there was no dust. Awake for thou art the trust of the sovereign and the judgment of the people. Tf thou art a sikidy that can tell, that can see, and does !

Piptaiicuiu clirysosfacliys.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

266

not only speak of the noise of the people, the hen killed by

owner, the cattle slaughtered to the feet "

But

(/>.,

in the

self-evident things),

its

market, the dust clinging

awake here on the mat

thou art a sikidy that does not

a sikidy that

see,

agrees to everything indiscriminately, and makes the dead living

and the

living dead, then

do not

arise here

on the mat."

evident that the sikidy was looked upon as the special

It is

means used by God for making known His will to men and at the same time characteristic enough that it was thought necessary to " awaken " God {cf. i Kings xviii. 27). In the long ;

it is

of persons through

list

whom

the people are said to have got

the sikidy are the Silamo (from are also called Karany,

readers,"

Islam

i.e.,

"),

those

chiefly Arabs,

who

read the Koran.

Several other Arabic words occur in this invocation, as well as in the

whole terminology connected with the

authorities " from

Among

received the practice of divination, are rather obscure.

them

that of the

Vazimba," who are supposed to be the

inhabitants of the

aboriginal

present Malayo-Polynesian

may

Most of the names given above, in the list whom the Malagasy are said to have

noticed further on.

sikidy, as will

island before the

and Melanesian

arrival

its

They

colonists.

be mentioned either because the diviners were anxious to

have the sikidy connected with everything that was mysterious

and pointed back

to the mythical days of old

because the Vazimba were really the people

;

who

or,

possibly,

first

received

the sikidy from the Arabs, and that the other tribes in their turn got It

may

seem each

made

from the Vazimba. be added that individual inpisikidy of any repute to have

had

their

own form

of invocation, or at least

considerable variations in the wording of

it,

although

its

much the same. The Sixteen Figures of the Sikidy. Having

general bearing seems to have been very II.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

began to work the sikidy up "), taking beans or fdno seeds, and arranging them on a mat on the floor according to rules to be presently finished his invocation, the diviner (lit.,

to raise

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. explained.

They were

These beans or seeds must be represented by as follows

Hova Names.

Jama

(or

Sakalhva.

Zoma)

Alahizany Asoraliihy

Votsira (== Vontsira)

Taraiky

Saka Asoravavy Alikisy

Aditsima (Aditsimay) Kizo Adikasajy

Vanda mitsani^ana {= Mikarija) Vanda miondrika (= Mulahidy) "

Alokola

Alaimora Adibijady

...

267 dots.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

268

constellations Virgo, Aries, Aquarius, Sagittarius, Pisces,

Capricornus seem

The Sixteen Columns of the

III.

Sixteen Mothers of Sikidy

").

ShvIdv

—To the sixteen

(lit,

in the

correspond the sixteen columns (called by Mr. Dahle

sikidy,

rubrics

places,

"),

working the oracle

or ;

rows,

which they are

one figure being placed

may

figure

figures

may

occur.

The

occur more than once, and some of the sixteen

not occur at

the sixteen columns, as that

all

purely a matter of chance.

manner usual

arranged

each column,

must necessarily

not, however, that all the figures

same

"The

figures, or various

combinations of the beans or seeds by ones and twos "

and

to be denoted.

If the

in the practice

columns are arranged

of sikidy,

in the

get the combination

of squares given on the next page.

be seen at a glance, however, that we have got more

It will

than sixteen names here, although the rows or columns are really not

more than

twelve, corresponding

Ny the

probably to the

If a skilful diviner

twelve Signs of the Zodiac.

sikidy i6 reny, he will only enumerate the first

row

(top)

{Tale — Vbhitrd), the

asked for

names given

four to the right of

in it

—

—Fdhavalo),

and the eight below {Trano Fdhasivy), giving us the sixteen complete. The others seem to be conSome of sidered as accessory and of secondary importance. {Zatbvo

them are simply

repetitions, with this difference, that they refer

to things in another person's house, not in that of the inquirer for

whom

the

sikidy operation

question

undertaken.

Others are placed to the left side of the lower square,

and others

at the six corners.

Mr. Dahle proceeds to investigate each of the thirty-four

words shown

in the

diagram

;

and points out that while the

majority of them are Malagasy, about four or five are evidently Arabic.

The Malagasy words

are those in ordinary everyday

use, as those for wealth, relations, village, youth,

woman, enemy,

house, road, inquirer, God, diviner, wild-cat, dog, sheep, goat, fowl,

much

bloodshed, &c.

the four or five derived from the

DIVINATION Arabic, the

first

AMONG THE

^MALAGASY,

word, Tale, apparently meaning

269 investigator

or "explorer," always represents in the sikidy the person or

thing concerning

whom

(or which) the inquiry

In reading or examining the columns, the

— Vbhitra)

and the eight below {Trduo from above downwards. The eight to the

fidvana) are read from

right to

left.

't?

made.

first

four {Tale

—FaJiasivy)

are read

right {Zatbvo

The

—Firia-

four to the

left

'-5?

Zatovo

Manna Vihivdvy

Fahavd/o

^e.'

^e,\

Tsinin ny

Zatovo antrdno

vHona

fidfa

Allka

Manna, do.

Olgndrdtsy

Kororozy t^ororozy

Vihivdvy, do

••

•«

'^c 5'5

|'§

•»

••

•

Finariava/ta do.

fO\

^•i-

^coi'^c-^^

2 5= ,|l|

Arrangement of Columns

AKKAXGEMENT OF COLUMN'S {Ko7'orbsy

the

IN'

— Tsinin' ny velona) are

names IV.

in the

Sikidy Divination.

THE SIKIDY read from

DIVINATION'.

left

to right, while

at the corners are read diagonally.

The Erecting of the

of the figures

the columns).

— So

SiKinv far,

the

placing

we have only

seen the

{i.e.,

machinery, so to speak, with which the divination

now

let

us try to understand

how

worked

;

the diviner proceeded in order

to gain the information desired in the great variety of inquiries

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

2/0

made

In the diagram here given,

of him.

that dots are used

The

figures

before

the

four

now be

rules for

given.

columns {Talc

following manner.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; VbJiitra) From

him the mpisikidy takes a handful If

left.

into the

first

The

are filled with

the heap of beans at

random, and from

handful he takes out two and two until he has either two

or one

fills

the columns are

instead of beans or seeds.

"erecting the sikidy'' will

this

all

with figures, just as a veritable vipisikidy would do, except

filled

first

two are

left,

he puts two beans,

one, one bean,

In the same manner he

or upper square of Talc.

the remaining three, Harena, Fdhatelo, and Vbhiira, square

square, from above downwards. 2.

When

these four columns

person or thing regarding

whom

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;one

of which represents the

or which the sikidy

made

manner described, the remaining eight are filled by a combination of these first four, or of others that have already been filled by a combination of these. This is done in such a manner that two figures are chosen and compared square are filled in the

by square from above downwards. If this combination gives an odd number {i.e., if one of the two combined squares has one bean, and the other two), only one bean is put in the corresponding square of the new figure to be formed but if it gives an even number {i.e., if the two combined squares both contain one bean, or both two beans), two beans are put into the new ;

figure. 3.

These combinations are subjected (a) Talc

and Harena

{i.e.,

described),

form

to the following rules

a combination of the two in the Lalatia.

{b)

Fahatelo and Vbhitra form Asbrotdny.

(c)

Lalana and Asbrotany form Mpanontany.

{g)

Manna form N'la. and Fahavalo form Fahasivy. N'la and Fahasivy form Masina. Masina and Mpdnonfany form Andriainaniira.

(//)

Andriamaniira and TaU

{d) {e)

(/)

Zatbvo and

Vehivai'y

iorxa.

Trano.

manner

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY.

2/1

glance at the diagram here given will show that

all

the

eight figures

below have actually been formed according to

these rules.

If we,

from

compare Talc and Harhia,

instance,

for

Lalana

which

formed,

get

dissimilar

numbers all the way, as all the pairs of squares have one and two, and consequently Lalana gets only one bean in all Exactly the same procedure mutatis mutandis its squares.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;takes place

the

of the remaining seven columns

filling

belo\\-.

The Working of the

" erected "

arranged

question arises it

What

Sikidy.

manner

the

to be

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;When

described,

just

done with

the sikidy

How

it }

the

work

so as to get an answer to your questions, a medicine for your

charm against the

sickness, or a

apprehensive, &c.

Let

which you

evils of

may

be remarked at the outset, that the sikidy properly

deals with questio7is put to

But

function.

it.

you ask what

To answer is

these

its

proper

evil,

or the

the root of an

means of removing or averting it, &c., the answer will of course point out to you the cure of your evils as well, and so far, appear as ars inedica. There are, however, kinds of sikidy in which no question is put, but the remedy for the evil is preBut as these are rather different from the scribed at once. ordinary jz'/^z^-process, they will section.

What

concerns us

business of which

The is

to see

first

what

I, 3,

be is,

noticed

figure ;

Andriamanitra.

for, 9,

answers to our questions.

we have got

in the

erected the sikidy"

column named Andria-

out of the sixteen figures, only half of them

12,

13,

"agree" with

14) are considered to

These are

called the "

Nobles

the sikidy, whereas the remaining eight are called If

any of these

a separate

the ordinary sikidy, the

thing to be done, after having

viMiitra (God)

(Nos.

to give

now

latter figures

happen

Kings

its "

Slaves."

to get into the said column,

the sikidy becomes invalid, and the whole has to be broken up

and commenced anew

;

for

the sikidy has not done proper

MADAGASCAR DEFORE THE CONQUEST.

272

honour

God

expected to

putting a slave in His column, and cannot be

the truth in His name.

tell

This point, however, being successfully arranged, the next business Vbhitrd)

thing

represent the question,

refers to.

one of the four

to choose

Talc

cannot be put under the headings

property," " relations," or

the choice cannot be very puzzling

" village,"

settled, the proceedings branch out

which Mr. Dahle terms

The Sikidy of Combined Figures.

(b)

Different Figures

thing

in the

columns

first

parts,

of Identical Figures

and

;

A. TJie Sikidy of Identical Figures. of the four

but this being

;

into the following

The Sikidy

(a)

the person or

rather,

or,

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

represent everything that

columns {Tale

first

The Sikidy

(c)

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Having

settled

;

which

to represent the question, the next

to examine which of the sixteen figures happens to be column representing it. This being found, we go on

examining

all

the other figures except the others of the

do with the answer), that

four (for these have nothing to

on the right

say, those

side,

those on the

two corners to the left. If we, thus examining them,

find that

left,

first is

and those on the

any of them

like the

may

not settle the

question, or, in other words, give us the answer.

This depends

on the nature (name) of the column

found.

This

going

one representing the inquiry,

Mr. Dahle

illustrates thus

to inquire about

Harena column

" If I

may

find the

me no

which

coming by means of the

find, for instance, the figure

gives

same

sikidy, the

represent

Jama

figure in the

answer, as

it is

expect a ship, and

(or property) will of course

examination this

its

this

there

(

it.

column

If in

this

and on further

column Tj^dno

(house),

no natural connection

between the two conceptions. If, on the contrary, I find the same figure in the column called Lalana (road), then of course I

know

that the ship

an answer

any

rate on the way.

to the chief question

;

but there

reasons for a sharp look-out, for there

may

have then got still

be good

difficulties in its

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. Suppose that

way.

same

also find the

named Fdhavalo (enemy), my mind with gloomy apprehensions of pirates be

will

prospects

if I

driaka (much bloodshed). hand, for

then

that,

may have

much produce much

man

with

suppose that find an if

the

in a

;

column

bit

filled

cheerful

be iiian-

under

consolation, on the other

must certainly be a blockhead

scarcity of food on board

could

figure

the same figure reappears in the column

although the ship

that a

Not a

same But what a

figure in the

immediately be

will

find the

2/3

if I

Nia

(food)

;

do not understand

a long voyage, there

and so

practice

on. It is easy enough to see and a good deal of imagination

manner

and

good many cases the mpisikidy were able

answer already

means of finding

information

in this first act it

this

;

of their proceedings, even

might seem scanty enough

to ordinary

mortals."

But there

much more

still

that

may

be done

;

for,

besides

the answers available from the fact of the identity of the figure

representing the question with one or more of those in the other it is of great importance to find out whether any two more of the other figures are alike, and in how many columns the same figure occurs in a sikidy. The detailed particulars given by Mr. Dahle on the point may be put, for the sake of

columns,

brevity, into a tabular Coliiiinis u'itli

form

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

274

The

somewhat

following five possibilities refer to

cases, thus

different

10. If the figure Alokbla (::) occurs three times in different columns, three stones are to be thrown away as a.faditra to avert evil. 11. If Vanda mitsaiigana ( v ) occurs three times, the feathers of a white hen

are to be 12. If

13. ::

)

AUdmbra

Sdka

Tret no,

(

be cured

;

)

occurs twice,

man

)

means

that the son of a

shown

.=.

if it

;

e.g., if

died, this

who was

child,

one will die

formerly

ill,

was

cured, this one

too. (

)

they are called

remedy against

the

disease, as

later on.

evident that

It is

occurs in Truiio and Vontslra ( ) in Talc, or Alainibra analogy of ( v ) in Talc, the case will follow the

14. If a sikidy happens to contain eight Vonts'ira eight healthy men," and are considered an excellent

will be

mighty man

too.

and Adibijady

the one preceding will

(

be a mighty

likely to

(

a.fii(iiira.

many

of these " meanings " can be con-

strued into answers to questions, although the general tendency

many of them seems to

used against the all

evil.

be rather to point out \h& fdditra to be

But

unlike one another, at

might happen that the

any

rate that those

figures

which were

were like

the one in the column representing the question were so incon-

gruous with

that even the

acuteness, sharpened

greatest

inventive imagination and the

by long

unequal to the task of construing

practice,

recourse to other operations, ,

of which

the

viz.,

first

answer to

was obliged

have

the Sikidy tbkana and the

one

comparatively simple,

while the latter one was very complicated.

now be

would prove

into a reasonable

In such cases the mpisikidy

the question.

Lbfin-tsikidy

Each of

these will

briefly explained.

—

The Sikidy of Unique Figures. If it happens that any Vbhitra and Trano of the twelve principal columns ( Tale Fahasivy) gets a figure which does not occur in any of the B.

—

other columns, this

alone

;

called Sikidy tbkana, " a sikidy that stands

and consequently there are twelve possible kinds of

this species of sikidy.

have unique figures

Often ;

many

of the columns

may happen

the diagram, for instance, Masina,

Asbrotany, Trano, and Tale have each one occurring in no other

column.

But

would be remarkable (although

it is

possible) if

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. all

the twelve columns got figures, so that

tbkana became applicable

The

same

in the

all

2/5

the rules for sikidy

sikidy.

twelve columns are enumerated in a certain order by the

comes Andriamdnitra (God), then the four

First

diviners.

the top of the diagram, and finally the seven remaining ones below.

the twelve classes of sikidy tbkana the meaning-

all

depends on which of the sixteen unique

in the

column

them have any

figures

in question.

meaning attached

special

from the following rules regarding each I.

many

that

occurs

to them, as will

class

cases only a few of

appear

Unique Figures in the Column Andriamdnitra.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; As

only

making we only get

eight of the figures can be placed in this column without

the whole sikidy invalid, as previously mentioned, eight varieties

{a) If figure

9 occurs,

denotes that a thing can be done seven

times without any hindrance. (6) If figure 7,

you must throw away a cooking-pot

and

full of rice,

are likely to get rich, (t)

which

If figure 3,

here called Maliatsaiigaiui,

beans composing

and applied

it)

the same length as the

and (d) If

this is

figure

14,

man

thrown away, it

whom

for

taken

{i.e.,

the

to a reed {volohaiigaiia) of

will bring

the sikidy

good

worked,

luck.

an excellent charm against gun-shot

{odi-

basy). (c) If

figure 13, the beans

composing

herb called taiubiubaua

and

it is

;

are taken and mi.xed with a

the sick person licks this

si.x

times,

then put on the top of his head.

(J) If figure 12 (here called Hcloka, guilt), the six

are placed on as

beans of the figure

many rice-husks, which are then thrown away

as afadiira. (g) If figure I,

a tree called aiidrarezina (a species of Trciiia)

the fJ diira. (//)

figure

a white hen and a tree called fbtsinanahdiy

one of the Creator") are to be the

Unique Figures

in Talc.

all the figures have a special

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; This

meaning

;

white

faditra.

the only column in which

but as they are

much

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

276 the

same

style as those already given

them

would be tedious to give here

secret

give

shall of course

do not intend the reader

him an idea

as to

Unique Figures

keep

what

for

under Andriamanitra,

to practise the sikidy (this

my own

use

but only wish to

!),

it is."

in the other Columns.

columns the number of

Mr. Dahle observes

in detail.

figures

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; In the other fourteen

having special meanings varies

from one to fourteen out of the sixteen

possibilities

;

but space

and time do not allow any further details, especially as their general character is shown by the examples given under Andna-

Most of them simply suggest an answer to a question, remedy against the evil intimated by the however, it may be mentioned that when specimen, As a answer. the figure Saka occurs in the column Trdno, it is considered as manitra.

frequently also giving a

an excellent remedy

for sterility if the five

with milk, which

mixed ments of pumpkin

are

and given

shell,

beans of the figure

then to be put into fourteen fragto fourteen children,

then to put some rice into a pot, from which the eats

it.

Many

sterile

of the rules in this kind of sikidy refer to

who are woman

sterility,

sickness, or death.

Under

Unique Figures, Mr. Dahle describes

this section of

two other kinds of sikidy which are closely connected with the preceding ones, and called respectively (i) corresponding" and

(2)

Sikidy mutually

Sikidy providing a substitutory sacri-

fice:'

would, however, be tedious to go further into detail on this

part of the subject

;

but

may

be remarked that

in the original

papers minute particulars are given of these various forms of sikidy

and of the ways of working them.

The same may be said of (C.) The Sikidy of Combined how further combinations of the figures

Figures, which shows in

by the observance of strict eighty-one new columns con-

various columns are obtained

rules in each case

;

many as many new

tributing materials for as sikidy, says

answers to questions.

This

Mr. Dahle, reminds him of the Danish proverb

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. " Deceit

277

when he gave

a science, said the Devil,

lectures at

Kiel."

Miscellaneous Sikidv.

VI.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; In

all

the

varieties

sikidy hitherto dealt with, the chief object in view has been to

get an anszuer

to questions,

and subordinate object that

is,

has been only a secondary

to find out the remedies against evils,

some

the answer informed us that

apprehended.

But now we come

chief object of which

was

some

remedy the

evil

might be

sikidy practices, the

evils,

or to procure a

In other forms of this miscellaneous

prophylactic against them. sikidy the

while

object aimed

was

when and where something was

to find to

times and dircctiojis

be found, or was to take

place.

by means of the sikidy of charms for various purposes, especially (i) charms against gun-shot (2) trade charms (3) love charms (4) general charms charms against vomiting (6) charms (5) against dislike to food (7) charms against food having a ghost in it (8) and charms for bringing back a semi-departed spirit. I. Andron-tany (lit., "days of the land," but in the sense of Rules are then given

for the obtaining

;

the different quarters or directions of the compass, as expressed

by the place in the house assigned to each day). What is really meant by this somewhat indefinite heading is, the art of finding out in what direction you are to seek for a thing that is lost, stolen, or strayed, &c. And this is denoted by the sikidy bringing out a certain figure in a certain column, showing that the thing wanted was to be looked for in a certain direction.

For

the old native houses, which are always built with the

length running north and south, and the single door and

on the west

side, the

names of the twelve months

window

are gi\'en to

twelve points of the compass, four at the corners and two on

each

side.

For instance,

the sikidy brought out a figure which

pointed to the south-east, the diviner did not it

pointed to Asorotany,

the

name

i.e.,

call it so,

but said

the constellation Cancer and also

of a Malagasy month, which,

the arrangement just

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

2/8

mentioned, has

place

its

assigned to

the south-eastern

corner of the house.

Andfo

fbtsy

(lit.,

"white days,"

something expected or sought says Mr. Dahle,

" I

have

for

lost

days on which

the

i.e.,

was

to happen).

slave.

know on what day

Suppose,"

of the utmost

him for him before the day is come. Consequently I go to the diviner. He knows that certain combinations in certain columns denote the different days of the week and if, for instance, these columns prove to be Harena and Fdhaslvy, then he knows that what he asks about will occur on Wednesday {Alarobla). And so with the importance to

then

shall find

do not trouble myself about searching

;

for

;

other days of the week."

The Betsimisaraka

besides

have,

the

systematic

sikidy already described {Sikidy aldnafta), at

These are said

kinds.

kind of divination

rows

number of in

simpler than the ordinary

two columns or

simply the following

your own mind luck,

all.

take an indefinite

two

But you must have settled

left.

at the outset

and two bad

Another kind of

mode

You

grass stalks, and you then take out two and

you have only one or two

good

all

much

one, for instance, has only

;

kind of six other

another kind can hardly be properly called sikidy at

;

The procedure until

to be

least

whether one

left

shall

mean

luck, or vice veisd.

sikidy, the Ati-pdko,

thus described

of recovering stolen property without detecting the thief;

the ser\'ants or employes are required to bring something, as

a small bundle of grass, &c.,

and

to put

into a general heap.

This affords an opportunity to the thief of secretly returning the thing stolen."

VII. that of

now come

to the last division of our subject, viz.,

VixTANA and San-andro,

or,

section might be termed, (i) Zodiacal (2)

as Mr.

Dahle thinks

this

and Lunary Vlntana, and

Planetary Vlntana. A. What, then,

said, "

vlntana?

If a

Perhaps the vlntana of his son

man was is

ill,

people often

too strong for him, or

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. he "

become subject

has

Vhitany izany angaha

some

" ("

misfortune,"

Perhaps that

279 they said,

his vintana

").

perhaps he was perpetually unsuccessful in business, and they said, "

vintana

Even immorality

").

" ("

{e.g.,

Perhaps that

there was no helping

an unmarried

by the remark,

ing pregnant) was excused

angaha izany

That man must have a bad

" ("

Olona ratsy vintana izany

her vintana

woman becom-

Vintany hidny

"),

meaning that

it.

Vintana seems like the fatuin of the Greeks and Romans,

an invisible power that made

The

destiny of a

man

itself felt

(his vintana^

always and everywhere.

depends on what day he

was born (partly also on what time of the day),

or, rather,

what constellation of the Zodiac governed the day of It

his birth.

was therefore incumbent upon the mpaviintana (those who with

dealt

declarers),

the vintana^, or

who were

the inpanandro (day-makers or

also diviners, to inquire about the

time of the day of a child's birth vintana,

under what constellation

i.e.,

what influence

this

would have on

order to

its

make

day or out

its

had been born, and

destiny.

names of the constellations of the Zodiac also became the names of the months, and of the days of the month the

(at least in the interior provinces),

was attributed to the moon

;

but that

not clear what influence it

was not considered

be without some influence appears from the following

facts

to :

Although the days of the months had seemingly borrowed

(rt)

their

names from the

represented the 28

constellations of the Zodiac, they really

Moon-stations

time (230 years ago) these were coast,^

but

of the Arabs.

still

the interior of Madagascar they have been super-

seded by a somewhat simplified nomenclature, that calling

them

equivalent â&#x20AC;˘

In Flacourt's

retained on the south-east

first

names),

and second, or as

the

case

first,

may

is,

by simply

second, and third (or be,

month,

each

(i) AsHere, for example, are the three Moon-stations in Alahamady names of the first three days in every

sharataiii, (2) Al-butaina, (3) Az-zurayya, or

month.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

28o

Alahamady, Adaoro, and the rest.^ was a lunar one (345 days). And

moon

{b) {c)

The Malagasy year

both the sun and the

take their place as governors of the days of the week.

Besides the division of the year into months, the Malagasy

have from time immemorial known a hebdomadal unit, the week, the days of which have Arabic names. These days "

were thought to be under the special influence of the

{i.e., what were by the ancients so called, viz., the Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn), as will be

Planets the

Seven

noticed presently under San-dndro. " It is

easy to

see," says

Malagasy would be thought

Mr. Dahle, "that the whole

life

of a

under the influence of these

to be

heavenly bodies, and consequently at the mercy of those who are supposed to understand these often very intricate

People are generally under the spell of those destiny beforehand (while they do not

have the power of remedying the

know

evils of

it,

affairs.

who know

their

themselves),

who

and are able

to tell

them both what they ought to do, and when they should do it. When we remember the great influence that astrologers had over emperors, kings, and princes during the Middle Ages, and even far into the seventeenth century, we can easily understand what powers they must have had (and

still

have) in a country like

Madagascar." '

The following

are the Malagasy month-names, with their Arabic derivations

and equivalent Zodiac signs Malagasy.

DIVINATION

With regard may be made

to lucky

AMONG THE MALAGASY.

and unlucky days, the following remarks

Although the

different

months were thought

have

their

peculiar character (according to the constellations they were

named from) and

and

their special piacula

offerings, &c.,

does

not appear that one month was considered more unlucky than

The

another.

was a difference between month which, it must be remembered, month-names also, eight having two, and

difference in this respect

the different days of the

were named

after the

;

four three, days respectively allotted to each, as

Alahamady

3rd of

ist

;

and 2nd of Adaoro

;

ist,

2nd, and

and so

on, but

each of the twenty-eight being also called by the names of the Manazil-iil-kamari, or 2.

The

moon -stations.

characters of the days evidently did not depend so

much on from what month-name station

Therefore

represented.

days with the same name

often find

common to both,

sidered good, the other bad

;

were good, and were, and are

what moon-

took, as on

two successive

of which one was con-

e.g.,

the ist and 2nd of Asorotany

still,

favourite days for fainadihana

ceremony of removing corpses from an old family grave to new one) but the third day was considered bad. a e.g., the 3rd 3. Some days were considered absolutely bad of Asorotany, the 2nd of Asombola, the 2nd of Alakaosy, and

(the

;

the 1st of Adijady

;

others were absolutely good,

^.^.,

days called Alahamady, and the 2nd of Alakarabo were considered 4. still

indifferent,

Some days

good enough

e.g.,

others again

the ist and 2nd of Alahasaty.

again were not considered good for special

;

the three

purposes

;

e.g.,

but

in general,

the ist of Alakarabo

was excellent for a house-warming the 2nd of Adijady was good for marking out the ground for a new town and the 3rd of Adimizana was a lucky day to be born on, but a bad day for ;

;

business. 5.

Some days had

a special peculiarity of their

children born on the 2nd of

they said.

own

;

Adalo generally became dumb

e.g., !

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

282

Even the bad days were generally so only in the sense of This was especially the reason

having too strong a vintana.

why children born on Hence

gift.

these days were considered a very doubtful

the infanticide in former times in the central pro-

vinces of Madagascar, and

still

practised in most parts of the

Some-

country where Christianity has not yet been taught. times, however, the

way

one

diviner

another

managed

remedy the

name which

required than to give the child a

Hence such names

its

strong

as Itsiman6sika,i Itsimandratra,^

Itsimaniho,3 Itsiman61aka,4 &c.,

all

expressing

that the child would be harmless.

Adalo were often

intimated that

the child would not do any harm, notwithstanding vintana.

evil

and occasionally nothing more was

;

in a

general

way

Those born on the 2nd of

called Itsimarofy ("

One who

not

ill "),

avert the danger of dumbness.

Not only were the twenty-eight days of the month called month-names (and also after the moon-stations), but,

after the

as already mentioned, a

Hova house

of the old style had also

its

and corners named after the same fashion, beginning with the first month-name, Alahamady, at the north-eastern corner, that is, the sacred part of the house, where the family charm sides

was placed, and where prayers and invocations were offered. The inmates, on each day, had to take particular care not to go to the corner or side assigned to that particular day,

would provoke the spirit of that region. Mr. Dahle says that the vintana is really the key system of idolatry with

it,

at least so far as

many B.

The

Planetary '

still

to the

whole

Madagascar, and to everything connected

while the sikidy practice points

or, at all

by so doing, they

events, not to place a sick person there, for,

got any real hold on the people

also closely

mixed up with

it,

although

need further investigation. of San-dndro

last division of the subject, that

Vinta?ia,

must be discussed very

One who does not push. 3 One who does not elbow.

briefly.

The word

^ One who does not hurt. One who does not weaken.

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. san-dndro, in

its

use

among

the Malagasy,

or character of the days of the

week

means the pecuharities

depending on the Seven

Planets, considered as governors of these days. is

list

characters Xaiiii'.

The

following

of the days of the Malagasy week, together with their

respective san-dndro

Eii,qlisli

283

names, and

their

special

numbers and

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

284

from the different planets

it is

say

difficult to

;

but the notion of

lucky and unlucky days has been tenaciously held by the

common retains

people

its

will

hold

the different countries of Europe, and

in in

many

be observed that the

gives a certain

still

places.

column of the above

last

number connected with each day-name, and

list

that

these do not follow the order in which the days occur in the week,

except

case of the

in the

first.

These numbers have, however,

great importance in the practical part of san-dndro, as will be seen.

The San-dndro of the Dead, or Direct San-dndro.

was to day (Sunday, but the proceedings depended greatly

reference, apparently, exclusively to burials

be buried,

would probably be done on a

Tuesday, or Wednesday)

on the numbers for instance, is 6,

;

a corpse

good

characteristic of the san-dndro of that day.

was on Wednesday, the

special

down a

If,

number of which

they had to stop six times with the bier on the

grave, throw

— This had

way

to the

stone at each stopping-place, and carry the

corpse six times round the grave before they buried

it.

And

so,

mutatis mutandis, with the other days, according to their special

numbers. 2.

The San-dndro of

counted

Backwards."

to sacrifices

;

the Living, or the

— This appears

offering

these, the

have had reference only

the

made by

invocations

priest referred, not to the san-dndro of the

made, but to that of

San-dndro which was

day the

day before yesterday,"

offering

the

was

other words,

two days backward. Offerings could only be brought on the three "

good 3.

Evils

days

;

but the sikidy could be performed on any day.

The Character of the Seven Days of the Week

and

the Foretelling of Evils.

given to Mr. Dahle by his native 1.

—-The

professor "

Sunday was the proper day

in relation to

following rules were

for

;

everything

loJiite

white-haired people, white stones, &c. 2.

Monday grass,

the day for everything green and blackish

forests,

skin, &c.

greenish

birds,

people with blackish

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 3.

Tuesday: the day of people who

285

many

ha\'e

scars

and are marked from small-pox. 4.

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

scarlet

day oi slaves. day of nobles and everj-thing red

the

the day of zuoincn and everything female

clothes,

&c.),

characteristic

the

(red or

higher

nobility. 7.

Saturday

the day of

young people and everything

young.

man

some

suffering from

came

evil

to a diviner

a Sunday, he would be told that his complaint had been caused

by some white stone

some

;

by drinking

milk, in which there

ghosts, or that he had been bewitched

woman

;

or,

any

he was

rate, that

were by some white-haired

danger of some such

mishap, and had better look out carefully.

he came on Thurs-

day, his trouble was almost sure to be attributed to

he was warned to beware of his slaves,

murder or bewitch him.

And

lest

some

slave

they should

so on, for the other days, accord-

ing to the nature of the day. 4. Foi'etelling

may the

of the Tasik' dndro,

in special

7'})itana.

danger of getting

i.e.,

ill

the day on which one

through the influence of

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;This division of the san-andro was a peculiar com-

pound of vintana and sikidy subjected to certain rules, by which^ beginning with Tuesday, different columns in the sikidy point to the different days of the week e.g., if a combination of the two columns Trano and Ldlatta in the sikidy erected gives a figure ;

which in

like Talc'

(which represents the

danger of being taken

ill

Ldlana and Mpdnontany ^xo.

day

for

him

;

man

on Tuesdav.

like Talc,

in question),

If the figures

Wednesday

the unlucky

and so on with other combinations.

As Mr. Dahle

says, the sikidy

most tremendous powers that their spell

and vintana were once the

Madagascar

;

let

thank God

broken, and their influence passing away.

CHAPTER

XIV.

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY.^ Two great divisions of the people — Idea of A revolting custom — Funeral feasts

impurity in connection with death Tankhraita Their carved coffins Analogies to those of Philippine Islanders Betsimisaraka Ranomena Tambahoaka, Taimoro, and Tanosy The Faiiano Tandroy and Mahafaly Sakalava The Zomba or sacred house Vazimba Behisotra and Tan-

— —

—

— — — — Sihanaka — Bezanozano — Tanala — Vorimo — Ikongo — Hova — —Enormous wealth put in tomb Betsileo — Bara — Funeral of Radama

—

drona

Silver coffin.

F UNERAL all

from

rites

and ceremonies are not the same among

this point of view, the

groups

Regarded

the different races inhabiting Madagascar.

first,

Malagasy may be divided

into

two

those whose cemeteries are hidden in the depths

of the forests, or in the midst of rocks, in solitary places, which

awe

are held in great relatives

by the

;

and secondly, those who

roadside,

and often

the

inter their

midst of their

dwellings.3

The majority trunk of a

tree,

of these place the dead in the hollowed-out

which they cover with a

pent, or rounded roof;

corpse in

Idjiiba,

wealth of the family ^

;

lid

in the

shape of a

the Hova, however, simply or

and

less it

wrap the

numerous" according

the

appears that the Bara content

Translated from an article by M. A. Grandidier

in the

Rcvuc

irEthnoi^vapliic.

Paris, 1886, pp. 213-232.

These are, the Betsimisaraka and other tribes on the east (with the exception Tambahoaka, the Taimoro and the Tanosy, who have a considerable Arab admixture), and the Tandroy, the Mahafaly, the Sakalava, the Tankarana, and ^

of the

the Bara. 3

These are the Sihanaka, the Taimoro, the Tambahoaka, the Tanosy, and Hova and the Betsileo.

especially the

286

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY.

287

themselves with placing the corpse perfectly naked upon the ground.

Besides

however,

this,

mediately proceed with the

toilet

relatives of the

same sex washing the

and wrapping

The two the

new

eastern

principal

corpse, dressing

the

tribes,

do not

on a

the others, that

all

part of the inhabitants of the island, place

cover

sur-

roof, or in

to say, the greater it

in the

ground and

with a heap of stones of rectangular shape.

of the corpse the

hair

they place

;

framework

little

rounded by a palisade and covered with a pent but

its

Tankoala, and

bur}- the coffin

either simply on the ground, or

;

im-

Betsimisaraka and

Tankarana, the

Tanala, as well as the

fissure of rock

always

cloths.

certain tribes of the Bara, it

Malagasy

the

of the deceased, the nearest

tomb

turned towards the

various

east,i

The head and they enclose in

such as earthen vessels, pots of

articles,

incense, cloths, &c.

All the Malagasy hold the notion of impurity in connection

with a corpse.

funeral procession can pass near a sorereign,

or even near to his dwelling or the sacred stones

have followed districts

where the tombs are placed

person found

in a

cemetery

punished with death.

Malagasy have a great the dead.

be buried

They

;

those

who

are obliged to purify themselves, and in those

think

from dwellings, every

considered as a sorcerer and

worthy of notice that the but also a profound respect for,

further

fear of,

of the

in the ancestral

far

first

importance that they should

cemetery or tomb

Hova, but the greater portion,

not

all,

;

and not only the

of the native tribes

often bring from great distances the bones of their relatives

so that they

may

be deposited

in their native soil.

cannot recover the body of a deceased

relative,

When

they

they inter in

its

stead his pillow and sleeping mat, and in any case they erect

a funeral

monument

commemoration of the departed, con-

' I have, however, been told that the Sihanaka turn the head of the coffin towards the north, and the Hova place in their graves the corpses of grand-

parents at right angles to those of their descendants.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

288

sisting of a slab of stone,

a timber

lolo,

vow

to the dead, to the

post

other structure.

as the coast people term them,

sacred.

There

a custom, as repugnant as

it is

which the corpse putrid

the

not interred immediately

body

the relatives wait until the collect

extraordinary, which

among

prevalent almost everywhere except

setting

out,

needless to say that in such circumstances the

It is

of the corpse neat rum,

far

from agreeable, and

by burning incense and

death

decomposed, and often

which flows

liquid

Hova, by

after

suet

aside.

"waking"

only by drinking

and even

hides, that

the parents and friends are able to bear the nauseous odours

which poison the offer

tribes

air.

food

During

and drink

essentially Malagasy, for

Malay

are of

origin,

who

east coast tribes, it

seems to have

all

this

time

many

the corpse.

of the native

This custom

not practised by the Hova,

who

nor by the families of the chiefs of the are descended from Arabs or Europeans

for its

;

object to prevent interring with the

bones the corruptible matter which causes decomposition of the flesh, and which they consider impure.

Funerals are also in

feasts, at least

all

over Madagascar accompanied by real

families

who

are rich or in easy circum-

They kill oxen, often in considerable numbers, they rum to excess, they eat plenty of rice and meat, they

stances.

drink

off muskets,

fire

the whole being interspersed

songs and weeping.

oxen

The

with

doleful

relatives never eat the flesh of the

on the occasion of the death of one of their own Mourning is always marked, either by unbraided and

killed

family.

dishevelled hair, or at the decease of sovereigns,

by the head

being shaved, coarse and dirty garments only being worn, the people neither washing nor combing their

hair,

nor allowing

themselves to look in a mirror, should they happen to possess one.

Such Malagasy.

are,

brief,

shall

the

principal

now proceed

funeral

customs of the

to point out, in the briefest

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. manner,

possible

the

north and the east.

among certain has commenced

which

differences

usages of the different It

nevertheless well

between

exist

beginning with

tribes,

happy

its

the

those of the

remark that

of them, especially those whose to exert

289

Christianity

influence, these old

customs

are beginning to disappear.

The Tankarana. dead either

the

rabannas fibre,

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The

Tankarana

an ox-hide, or

which they

(rofia cloth),

and leave them exposed

are accustomed to in

round with cords of

tie

for a

rofia

long time under a shed,

where they do not cease to burn various resins

in little clay

Beginning on the third day, they frequently tighten

vessels.

the cords, until there

hardly anything

which they afterwards place formed

a roof,

This

simply on the ground

placed near the deceased.

become decayed from

age.

given of one of these

History Museum,

with a

closed

coffin,

lid

then carried to a solitary spot, usually

an uninhabited island, where or

but the bones,

left

hollowed tree trunk, generally

in a

of rather small dimensions.

rocks,

wrap

bamboos, or

split

put

hollow of the

a supply of provisions

;

The coffins are renewed when they The following description has been

coffins,

which was sent

to the Natural

by a (French) naval officer, M. P. Germinet, commander of the Romanche, and which comes from the little rocky islet called Nosy Loapasana, whose name signifies " hollowed out by tombs." ^ This

feet

coffin, cut

broad

8;^ in.

in Paris, in 1886,

;

long by

out of a tree trunk, measures

ft.

long by

the cavity which has been hollowed out of 5 in.

to 6

in.

wide.

recesses increase the width to

a roof,

5 feet

in.

long by 9

a zigzag pattern cut in

relief,

inches. in.

the place for the head,

broad

The ;

lid,

it is

form

two like

ornamented by

which follows the edges, the ridge,

and the hips (so to speak) of the

roof-like cover

;

also

by a

transverse strip of herring-bone ornament at about the middle This islet is situated at the head of Dieg<j Suarez Bay under the name of He du Sepulchre. '

;

the

maps show

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

290

of the length and meeting at the ridge, and with four small circles

with cross lines cut

formed

round the hollow of the

all

projection of a

little

The

them.

more than f

lid fits into

coffin,

The

inch.

a rebate

and which forms a general form of

the coffin is in all respects similar to that of the

wooden

phagi which M. Alfred Marche has discovered

sarco-

the burial

caves of Marinduque and of other small islands near Luzon

Archipelago.

in the Philippine

the

Inside

coffin,

the skeleton, which

person of twelve or fourteen years of age,

that of a

very nearly

young exact

the head being seen at one end, and at the other the

position,

bones of the legs and feet. The rest of the body, evidently compressed transversely and mouldering in its wrappings, shows some of the bones more or less displaced in the midst of the remains of

rofia

rofia cords.

of baked clay

and other

which are

cloths,

still

tightly

bound

At the foot of the corpse are three small vessels mounted on a stand, which must have served for

the burning of perfumes during the ceremonies preceding the interment.^ ' It is not without interest to notice here that this example, buried in a coffin resembling the ancient sarcophagi used by certain tribes of the Philippines, presents the exact characteristics of cranium common to the Indonesians. M. Ham3', who has taken the principal measurements, has stated, indeed, that the cranium is very plainly brachycephalic (diam. ant. post, l68 millim., d. transv.

max., 143

ind. ceph., 85-1).

;

This exaggerated brachycephalic character cannot, in his opinion, be attributed, except in a ver>- small degree, to the age of the example, the cephalic index never rising, among the young negroes of Africa, above 78. This brachycephalism is, besides, in harmony with the existence of a large occipi to-parietal plate, such as one meets so frequently in crania from the Indian Archipelago. The vertical diameter is, at the same time, sensibly inferior la the transverse, a circumstance which

among

not usual

true negroes.

Here are, in addition, the principal measurements given by M. Hamy as to the cranium from the tomb at Xosy Loapasana Circ. horiz. 496 millim. diam. 82-1 ind. ceph. 85-1 d. basil, brcgm. 138 d. transv. max. 143 ant. post. 168 max. 120 biorb. ext. 102 bizygom. 124 height 96-5 front min. no millim. :

;

breadth of

Three adult

orbit, 37

;

height 36

skulls, collected at the

;

of face, 76

;

length of nose, 46 at the

same time and

;

breadth, 26.

same place by M.

Germinet, give the following means of the respective dimensions Circ. horiz. 504 mm. diam. ant. post, 176 d. transv. max. 141 d. basil, brcgm. 136 ind. ceph. 8o-i 77-2 96"4 front, min. 100 max. 118 biorb. ext. 108 bizy.f.'. 132 :

;

height of face, 90

;

orbit, breadth,

;

height, 36

;

nose, length, 54

;

breadth, 27.

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY.

Among

the chiefs of the Tankarana,

somewhat

bamboo

the

ceremonial

The corpse is exposed on a stage of sheltered by a roof, and covered over with

different.

hurdles,

aromatic herbs and hot sand, which the attendants constantly

renew

complete mummification

until

deposited in a coffin which grease, rum,

and

The

salt.

effected.

length

It is at

anointed with a mixture

putrid liquid which exudes during

the operation just described

received in vessels placed under

the stage, and the slaves of the deceased chief anoint their

bodies with

from time to time.

The Betsiniisdraka.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;1

Jie

their houses for a long time,

Betsimisaraka keep their dead

and the products of decomposition

are received in a vessel to be buried at a distance, in a place

where the

relatives erect a stone, to

frequently to offer prayers.

which they afterwards come

lamp burns night and day

the head of the corpse, and during

all

the time of

being

its

exposed to view, the widow ought no more to leave the funeral couch than she would do roof-shaped

ground as

her husband were

which are formed of a hollowed-out

coffins,

articles

regular order at a

shown

opposite.

little

The

laid

on the

distance one from the other,

the head they generally place various

which belonged to the deceased, especially a bottle of

rum, a very natural offering is

and

are placed in a dense wood,^

lid,

living.

still

tree trunk with a

higher up, on a

a country where drunkenness

Certain families, however, place their coffins

a universal vice. little

and construct a shed

stage,

from the rain and the sun

;

in these cases

to protect

them

every corpse has

its

hollowed-out

separate house.

Others place the corpse

trunk of a

resembling a barrel, of which both ends are

tree,

in the

closed by circular pieces of wood.

The customs gether different, '

some

followed at the decease of a chief are altofor

the

interment follows

places, Anonibfe, for instance, the coftins

immediately and (which

iire

exactly

tiie

except that the two sides of the roof do not project) are placed, sometimes thirty or forty together, under the trees by the sea-side.

shape nf

larjje do;^-kenneIs,

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

292

any notice being given

night, without

event tribe

;

to the people of the

the news of the misfortune which has happened to the not, in fact,

announced

much

until

remark here that the Betsimisaraka

It is

later.

well to

chiefs are of foreign

ex-

traction. TJie

Ranomhia.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Among

the

Ranomena, who

present

inhabit the district between Fanantara and Marohita, and are

descended from the inhabitants of that part of the east coast where,

Raminla,

hole

ancient times, Arabs landed under the leadership of

customary to place the corpses on the roadside.

formed to

receiv^e the liquids

composition of the body, and the place

coming from the demarked by means of

a piece of rock, to which the children of the deceased offer their prayers.

of the

The

come

cemeteries are relegated to the depths

woods, and no one goes there except at the time of

interment.

The Tdnibahbaka, Taimoro and Tanbsy.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The

Roandriana,

or chiefs of the Tambahoaka, the Taimoro and the Tanosy, who are of Arab origin, are interred at night, one or two days During the lying-in-state, which takes place in after death. the same chamber in which the person died, reddish-brown laviba or cloths are hung up, and a lamp is kept burning at the head of the corpse until it is removed for burial and, on the ;

first

day, food

relatives fasten to the

arms of the deceased small

covered with cabalistic signs and Arabic words.

time the news of the event village, is

and

it is

hoisted at the

The paper

During

all this

kept secret outside the royal

only after a month has elapsed that a white flag

summit of the house where the corpse has

informing the people generally of the

fact.

funeral ceremonies are performed with great

the colour for

bier.

strips of

placed at the side of the bed or

mourning

(many

lain,

After this the

pomo.

White

parts of) Madagascar, as in

the far East.

The tombs

of these Roandriana, which are called Ibnaka,

exactly the same word as that applied to the royal residences,

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. among

are formed,

the Tanosy, of two slabs of stone, one at

the head, the other, not so high as the

tomb. kept

and this is by the family of the Zafindrasara, who alone are

in repair

it.

The

bodies of the chiefs are not placed in

but simply wrapped

coffin,

at the foot of the

first,

circular palisading surrounds each tomb,

allowed to enter a

293

In former times the

in a lauiba.

Taimoro chiefs were interred in a house situated in the village, but this custom has been abandoned. The commonalty, the vohitra or free people, are interred in a coffin

which

moro), or

on the very edge of the roads

either

the midst of the

which the people

call

woods

(in

Antai-

The tombs,

Antanosy).

avionoka, consist of a trench lined inside

with stones and closed by a slab of stone placed on the ground,

with a white flag floating from a pole

and these are not

;

among

regarded with the same dread as they are

When

very shortly after death.

among

instead of

men

woman

has become some of the requirements

placed at the feet of her relatives, transversely,

The

their side, according to the usual custom.

but the head

general belief

chiefs,

disgraced

are placed on the bier on the right side, the

left side,

the

her family through violating

of caste, she

the other

Funerals take place, as in the case of the

coast peoples.

body give

by the

that the liquids produced birth,

colossal sea-serpent,

women on

always turned towards the

at least in

the

The

east.

dissolution of

the case of the chiefs, to

which they term Fananina or Fandno.^

There seems a remarkable parallel to this Malagasy belief in the transmigration of the souls of chiefs into some animal in the practice of the Samoans, " The uubiiricd occasioned great as thus described by the Rev. Dr. Turner Nor were the Samoans, like the ancient Romans, satisfied with a concern. mere tumulus iuanis at which to observe the usual solemnities they thought it was possible to obtain the soul of the departed in some tangible transmigrated form. On the beach, near where a person had been drowned, and whose body was supposed to have become a porpoise, or on the battlefield, where another fell, might have been seen, sitting in silence, a group of five or six, and one a few '

;

yards before them with a sheet of native cloth spread out on the ground in front of him. Addressing some god of the family, he said, Oh, be kind to us let us The first thing that obtain without difficulty the spirit of the young man happened to light upon the sheet was supposed to be the spirit. If nothing came, it was supposed that the spirit had some ill-will to the person praying. '

;

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

294

The Tanosy who, not being wiUing quitted the neighbourhood of Fort in the

still

accustomed to bring

where they formerly

flesh,

Sakalava and Mahafaly

tribes,

heap of stones arranged erect near the villages, in

yoke,

to settle

Augustine river

St.

dead to the land

their

Having waited

lived.

become divested of the

Hova

Dauphin and went

upper regions of the Onilahy or

(S.W.), are

until the

bones have

they follow the custom of the

and place the

coffins

an oblong form.

Some

remembrance of

their dead,

human

posts or pillars bearing on the top a bird,

to accept the

figure, or

under a families

wooden one of a

roughly carved, and on the different sides patterns more

or less regular, and figures of animals, such as oxen, birds,

especially crocodiles.^

end of

this post, to

and

scrap of white cloth flutters from the

which are also fastened the

skulls

and horns

of the oxen killed at the time of the funeral.

faly

The Tandrby and Mahafaly. wrap the dead in several

— The Idniba,

Tandroy and the Maha and carry them to the

cemetery on the day following the decease

The

corpse, laid

covered over with earth, and over

lainba

constructed an oblong

—

immediately

many

strips

upon the ground,

The rich people have coffins. The Sakalava bring the dead

stones.

The Sakalava. house

a kind of hand-

bed formed of a framework of wood with

barrow or

of leather interwoven.

heap of

out of their

after decease, and place them, wrapped

{evejt,

not odd, in number), upon a stage about

six feet high called tdlatdla, the head being turned towards the That person after a time retired, and another stepped forward, addressed some (Aher god, and waited the result. By and by something came grasshopper, butterfly, ant, or whatever else it might be, it was carefully wrapped up, taken ;

the family, the friends assembled, and the bundle

ceremony, as Years As^o

and

contained the real

Loiis^ Before, p. 150).

spirit of

—

^J.

was buried with all {Samoa a Hvndred

the departed "

One may compare

the figure of the cover of a coffin from Marinduque (Philippine Islands), by which it appears that, in the further East, as in Madagascar, crocodiles are carved on funeral memorials. This coffin lid, as well as '

the

two

coffins

which are previously described, form part of the collections Museum of Ethnography at the Trocadero

brought by M. Alfred Marche to the (Paris).

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY.

295

and a piece of cloth being thrown over the corpse, on articles which must be deposited in the bier.

east,

which are placed

A is

fire

under the foot of the corpse, and incense

lighted

burnt to overcome the

The women keep at the men at the south and

effluvia.

north-east side of the stage, and the south-east.

customary

It is

women

silent

and

;

squat

their arrival

opposite the family, which

then, without speaking, they begin

gloomily

weep and

Silence

their sorrow.

prevails

some minutes These tdlatdla

after

of a fresh party of visitors.

uninhabited place.

The corpse

upon a kibdny, or kind of lying on tree,

its

the

until

are after-

wards destroyed, and the pieces are thrown into water

of a

sob,

the females present join them in this manifestation of

all

arrival

down

of the deceased

friends

on these occasions.

to bring small presents

the

for

carried to the burial-place

and

bier or hand-barrow,

then put,

back, in a coffin formed of the hollowed-out trunk

which

supported on four

and the bottom of which

feet cut out of the

pierced with an opening so as to

This

allow the putrid matter to flow away.

covered with another tree trunk, which also hollowed out.

The

wood,

coffin

completely

larger

little

and

laid in a trench with various

objects belonging to the deceased, such as bowls, plates, boxes,

and

&c.,

covered up with earth.

oblong-shaped heap

of stones, of which the length runs east and west, shows the place occupied

white cloth

fastened to a

dead

a coffin

;

the head a small piece of

There are some

pole like a flag.

of the Voronioka,

families, especially that

their

by the tomb.

who do

they simply wrap them

and cover them up with

stones.

The house

not

a large

inter

mat

of the deceased

abandoned and allowed to go to ruin no person dares to touch and any one who, even without it under any pretence whatever ;

;

knowing

it,

should happen to use for any purpose the materials

of such a house, would be liable to severe punishment, some-

times even to death itself Just before death the Sakalava are accustomed to

make public

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

296

family of

confession before their

he crimes and principal

deeds which they have committed during their In order to offer their prayers to the relatives, the

hold

For

fall

ceremonies are altogether

encampment made

exposed

Then

forest,

which elevates

and

shrine

").

"),

ceremony and

the south-west, in

called

under a

tent,

the case of a king,

the

body

are brought out

the vertebrai of the neck, a

nail,

festivities, to

Mahabo

Zbmbavbla

the north-west

But previously,

the royal relics ox jiny

or, in

The

two months,

under the care of a particular family.

carried, with great

cemetery, which,

different.

for

for the purpose,

burnt night and day,

midst of a it is

of their

but to the deceased's house, which has been

princes, the

where incense in the

lolo (spirits)

into ruin.

corpse, enclosed in an ox-hide, remains either in an

Sakalava do not go to the burial-place, which they

in great dread,

allowed to

life.

a royal

(lit, "

(lit.,

that

" silver

that of a deceased king, ;

these consist of one of

and a lock of

hair,

and which,

placed in the hollow of a molar tooth of a crocodile,^ are kept

with religious care by his successor, together with those of the ancient kings, in a special house, which

The name which

held to be sacred.

the kings bear during their

longer be pronounced after their death; another for

it,

often of

immoderate length,

for

life is

may no

substituted

always commences with

the word Andriana (lord) and finishes with the word arivo (thousand), with one or several other

words placed between them.

Thus Raboky, who reigned at Baly, at no very long time past, never named by his old subjects as other than Andrianahatantiarivo, or " The lord who can bear a thousand calamities " Tsimanompo, the last Baraking of the district of Isantsa, is now is

;

mentioned only under '

This word jiny

known, a demon or

his

surname of Andriantomponarivo, or

really the Arabic

word

(lji;iu,

which

signifies, as is

well

having supernatural power. ^ The tooth of the crocodile intended to receive the //ÂŤr must be taken from a living animal they choose one of the largest size, and bind it firmly with strong cords then they insert between its jaws, at the desired place, a burning potato, and after a quarter of an hour, the coveted tooth can easily be extracted. The animal is then set free. ;

;

invisible spirit,

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY.

297

The lord who is master of a thousand." When a king bears a name having the meaning of something in common use, or approaching that of some word in the vernacular, this word must "

no longer be pronounced by any of the inhabitants of the country. Thus, after the death of Vinany, king of Menabe,

whose name

commonly used word all over Madameans a cooking-pot, the Antimena no indispensable article of household use by any

recalls a

very

gascar, vildny, which

longer calls this other

name than by one made

(lit., "

the boiling utensil

").

for the occasion, \\z.,

Any

fiketrahana

one allowing himself to pro-

nounce the former name of a deceased king would be considered as a sorcerer and punished as such, that is to say, by being put to death.

The Vazhnba.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The

Vazunba, who inhabit Menabe on the

banks of the Manamb61o, seem to be the aborigines of the island

very special

last

relics

of the

their funeral rites therefore possess a

;

interest.

After having washed the corpse and clothed

garments, they place

bed or couch), as friends attend

if it

its

finest

a squatting posture upon a kibdny (a

were

still

living

;

and the

night and day, talking to

it,

relatives or

putting into

its

of rice or any other kind of food, &c.

hand a spoon, Formerly the liquids produced by the decomposition of the flesh were taken to a special place, which was sprinkled with the blood of an ox in order to nourish the fandntna or snake, which full

they believe to be produced from these putrid liquids. Since the

conquest of the country by the Sakalava king Lahifotsy, these

customs have been to some extent abandoned, and as soon as the effluvium becomes too offensive, the corpse at the

end of about a year, they take

buried.

But,

out of the ground and

wash the bones, which are placed in a new coffin, and are then buried for good and all. The Behisotra and Tandrbna or Tdnkodla.^ The two tribes

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

Behisotra

probably a mistake for Bemihisatra.

The Tandrona

north-central part of the island in the neighbourhood of Mandritsara,

live in the

where they

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

298

inhabit the north-west coast between Pasandava Bay and Bay of Bembat6ka have the same funeral customs as the Tankarana. So we learn from a letter recently written by M. Vian, a naval surgeon, who was in the Bay of Mahajamba, and

who the

had the opportunity of

visiting

one of their cemeteries, which

a natural cave, in which he found several coffins about 4 feet

long by chiefs

foot 2 inches wide.

who have

certain that the Sakalava

north-west and the north of

settled in the

Madagascar have not exerted on the habits of the inhabitants of that part of the island (Ankoala and Ankarana) so great an influence as

they have in the west (Fiherenana,

Ambongo). The Sihanaka.

— The

their villages, those

hopeless,

who

and place them

Sihanaka take secretly away, are

ill,

in a solitary spot,

brought into the house,

killed.

where

After death, the lies

in state for

memory

of the deceased a

like a pair of ox-horns.

This

interred. tall is

The

and the

After these ceremonies, the house

abandoned, and the corpse the

from

where no one goes

certain time, according to the wealth of the deceased

number of oxen

far

and of whose recovery they are

but the person appointed to attend them. corpse

Menabe and

family erect to

pole forked at the summit,

called jiro,

and

placed on

the side of a road near the place of interment.

—

are to

The Bezanozano. The burial monuments of the Bezanozano composed of a single stone or slab erected at the head and the east of the trench where the coffin is deposited, and of

other stones, to which are fixed, on stakes, the skulls of the oxen killed during the funeral ceremonies.

Sometimes

tin

boxes or

mats which belonged to the deceased are also placed on these stones.

The Tanala.^

—The

free Tanala, called also

Hova, do not

inter

first settled after leaving their original Sakalava home in Menabe. Both the Bemihisatra and the Tandrona are merely branches or sub-tribes of the Sakalava, the Tandrona having a certain amount of African blood in them. Another important branch of the Sakalava in this part of the island is the Bemazava. J. S. * The word Tanala is merely a descriptive term, there being no one tribe

—

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. their

dead

they have lain

until

month

in state for a

299

For

so.

three days they leave the corpse uncovered, but after this they

wrap it in red cloths {lambd) and place it in a coffin, which they do not carry to the cemetery until the completion of the month. The liquid products of decomposition flow upon the earthen floor

of the house and

During

all

are simply covered over with

(husband or wife) sleeps

was

still

The custom

living.

house as

in the

place

solitary

the

forest,

palisade of tree trunks which hide

The And} tana

(Arabj extraction,

day of roof,

coffin,

in a corner of the

receives for six

weeks

from the people,

after

all

with a

in the

lid

to time in order to

The

thrown into the nearest

coffins in

fall

from time

into decay,

live at some distance from Mangoro and Mahasora, keep the

two or three weeks, and with

eating and drinking to excess.

feast,

all

The

their

corpse,

then taken to the

in the forest,

and

enclosure of stones, in a rectangular form,

little

of which the interior In

visited

which the bones are enveloped.

wrapped in a number of lamba and mats, tomb, which is situated in a solitary place

composed of a

when they

river

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;The Vorimo, who

their houses for

weeping, they

royal cemetery

renew the

the sea between the rivers

dead

image, sus-

house where the death took place,

and also to change the lamba

The Vorhno.

shape of a

carried into the

the signs of grief and marks of regret

which

with great ceremony.

by a

cover.

dense forest and placed under a kind of shed.

pended

deposited

surrounded

fixed a pair of horns,

the Betsiis

on the contrary, interred on the very

The

their death.

and on which

its

coffin

whose ancestors are of foreign

chiefs,

are,

among

The

and

spouse

his or her

obtains also

misaraka, the Tanosy, and other tribes. in

earth.

the time of the lying-in-state, the surviving partner

entirely filled with earth.

order to offer prayers to

their departed relatives, the

known hv that name. It sij^nities lorest-dvvellers, and tribes. The inhabitants of the south-east-central parts

includes several different of Madaj^jascar are doubt-

meant here, as these are often specially though erroneously referred Europeans as the Taniila. J. S.

less

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

300

Vorimo,

formed of three or four large stones, on which they

altar,

near their villages a kind

the Tanala, prepare

place their offerings of rice and other things.

Where of

its

a family has been unable to recover the corpse of one

members, or cannot bring

erect to

its

memory

Tsdngainbdto,

(lit.,

its

ancestral home, they

a slab or pillar of stone, which

standing stone

They

").

called

also place upright

stones at the spots where, during the funeral ceremonies, the

corpse had been temporarily deposited.

The Ikbngo.^ dead

inter their

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The in

Ikongo do not erect any tombs; they

the forest, and are content with marking the

by the help of a notch cut

place

funerals are

unaccompanied with

The Hova.

way from

in the nearest

cries or

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The graves of the Hova

those of which

tree.

Their

weeping. differ in a

we have spoken.

They

very marked are, in

fact,

family caves or vaults, large subterranean chambers, placed

and west, of which the

east

soil

forms the base, and whose sides

consist of large slabs of stone, closed over at the top

enormous stone

one.

They

are entered

by a doorway cut out of the

The

on the west side of the tomb.

wall

deposited, wrapped

by an

corpses are

lamba and mats, some upon the

ground, and others upon stone shelves which are fixed hori-

round (or rather on the three sides of) the mortuary Those of the head of the family and of his wife are placed along the wall opposite the entrance, i.e., on the east side while those of his family are laid on the sides to the north zontally

all

chamber.

;

and

south.

little

above the surface of the ground, there

square

Over the

cave, the top of

always raised a

a structure, almost

shape, formed of four walls of stones laid without

mortar, the interior of which is

which

is filled

with earth, while the top

often covered with small pieces of quartz, which are some-

times fetched from a distance. '

Ikougo

really only the

name

of a mountain.

The

inhabitants living in

neighbourhood are called Sandrabe(?), and are merely a sub-tribe Europeans call the Tanala. S.

its

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

^J.

what

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. The

building of their tombs

a very important undertaking. slaves are called together It

301

Hova

considered by the

All the relatives, friends, and

and leave

their other occupations.

all

indeed no easy matter to bring, often from a consider-

able distance, the five enormous slabs which are to form walls and roof of the vault.

the

In order to detach these from the

bed of rock, they commence by choosing a mass of granite or gneiss (this stone being found extensively throughout the central parts of the island), which naturally divides into layers

of a few inches in thickness.^

and dimensions of the

Here they mark out the shape by means of straight lines

slabs required

of dried cow-dung, which are set on the slab

thoroughly heated, cold water

producing a crack

all

along the lines

further to do but to raise the stone

drag is

When

fire.

where the tomb

to the place

there

;

dashed over

it,

then nothing

by means of is

the outline of

levers,

and

to be constructed

;

this

the longest and most difficult part of the whole business, for

may

be several hundred, sometimes several thousand, yards over which these heavy stones have to be dragged, across hills it

and

This work

valleys.

an occasion of feasting and

rejoicing,,

many oxen are killed, and other expenses incurred those who assist. The Hova tombs are always

during which in

feeding

erected in such a position as to attract attention

sometimes

;

they are even placed opposite the house of the head of the family.

Besides the tombs properly so called, throughout the whole

province of Imerina there are to be seen pillars or slabs of stone erected in

memory

Tsdngambato

(lit.,

of deceased relatives, and which are called "

standing stone

or Fahatsiarbvana

(lit.,.

makes remembered "). The Hova do not keep the dead in their houses as long as most of the other Malagasy, and they do not usually place

that which

' This has frequently been stated, but it is incorrect. The slabs are mostly taken from rock masses which show no divisional planes whatsoever, and often run directly across the grain (foliation) of the rock the splitting is due simply to. ;

contraction

when

cold water

thrown upon them

after heating.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

302

them

in coffins

they wrap them

;

considerable numbers

?i.fdrafara, or

the

tomb

kind of

or all round

;

reddish-brown Idviba, often

and they carry them

to the

tomb on

In former times they placed upon

bier. it

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; as

is still

the practice of the Betsileo,

the Bezanozano, the Sihanaka and other tribes

the oxen killed at the time of funerals

;

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the

skulls of

but this custom

now

abandoned.

returning from a funeral, the relatives

who have

led the

mourning wash themselves and purify the clothes they wore by steeping a silver coin in some water over which they have invoked the blessing of God by prayers. At the end of the those

who

have taken part receive also the dfana, or sprinkling with

this

meal which terminates the funeral ceremonies,

same holy water. The mourning observances

are rather

all

The nearest The women wear

strict.

relatives allow their hair to be dishevelled.

no jacket (akdnjo) or skirt, wrapping themselves only in the The men go without hats and let their beards grow they wash only the tips of their fingers, and their clothing

Idmba.

;

must be

soiled

and

dirty.

Dancing and singing are forbidden.

the close of the mourning the relatives take part in a meal,

which is observed the dfana, or purification of all concerned, by the sprinkling upon them of the water consecrated to God. The mourning ceremonies are much more severe at the All the people, both male and decease of the sovereign. at

female,

must shave

their heads, with the exception of the heir

crown and a few favoured individuals. Throughout an entire year no one can sleep upon a bed or sit upon a chair they must sleep and sit upon the ground. All mirrors must be to the

;

turned with their face towards the wall, for

during

the time of mourning for

all

selves in

a glass.

any one

not allowed

to look at

them-

All labour, except necessary agriculture,

stopped.

From time â&#x20AC;˘which they

call

to time the

inaniddika

Hova (lit.,

families practise a

ceremony

turning over"), and which con-

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. going to their tombs to turn the corpses on one

sists in

that they

may

position.

This ceremony

members of the

invited, and, dressed in

dead

relations,

and wrap up

new

music going

their best clothing, with

whom

family.

the relatives are

all

;

tomb

before the procession, repair to the family their

usually observed during the year

a time of feasting and rejoicing

side,

not be fatigued by remaining too long in one

following the death of one of the

This

303

order to

visit

they turn round, as above described,

lainba.

One day

saw passing, with

and drums, a procession which was moving the bones of a Hova woman of rank from the tomb of her last husband but one into that of her last husband, where she would finally rest. violins

Throughout tombs

spouses for the

had been made to visit these two company with each of her deceased they were now bringing her from several months her first husband, because the wife who had replaced several years she

alternately, keeping

;

tomb of

her in the affections of the deceased had died and required her place.

Many

of these customs, although

few years, are completely disappearing civilisation

The

practised

until the last

under the influence of

and Christianity.

Betsileo.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;The Betsileo bury

caves, which are

their

not, like those of the

but are simply excavated often considerable,

and

subterranean

the ground at a depth which

which access

dead

Hova, lined with stone,

trench, which they are obliged to

open

gained by a long

each interment, and up again afterwards. The corpses are placed upon mats spread on the ground, and are covered with a simple

which

filled

Rich people have

piece of cloth.

coffins with lids in the

of a roof, and covered with coloured

The

exterior

monument

not always placed exactly above

the grave, and varies somewhat in character. Imerina, length,

it is

Sometimes, as

formed of four walls from four to eight yards

and about four and a half to

in this point

shape

stuffs.

the interior

not

five feet high,

filled

but

differs

with earth, and on the

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

304

banks of the Matsiatra a tree

hasina or fano (species

Dracoena and Piptadenia respectively), or some other kind

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

Mania and Matsiatra planted these funeral monuments are surrounded and surmounted by a number of wooden posts more or less ornamented with patterns in

cut in

carved

relief,

rivers

and joined together with transverse bars also

by an ornament

posts are terminated

the corner

;

Between the

the middle.

In other cases, the memorial

the form of a vase.

a simple

dressed granite, measuring from eighteen inches to two

pillar of

feet square,

and from

six to nine feet high,

and carrying on

its

top a band of iron, bristling with points, to which are affixed the skulls and horns of cattle

;

it is

surrounded

at the

angles

with carved wooden posts, fixed together with transverse pieces of wood.

In some cases

reduced to a single post, orna-

mented with carving, and surmounted by the usual vase-shaped and with a wooden stage, to which are fixed the bleached skulls from the oxen killed at the funeral ceremonies. Some families do not place their dead in the ground they finial,

;

deposit

them

natural grottos, or in caves hollowed out by

hand, on the perpendicular faces of certain mountains, places to

which no access can be gained except by very lofty scaffolding. The Andriana or nobles among the Betsileo are not interred for

the

some time after body is already

thoroughly soften relatives fasten

their death.

About

swollen,

rolled

the

flesh

;

day,

when

upon planks so

as to

the third

and on the following day the

tightly to the central post of the house with

thongs cut from the hides of the oxen killed

for the funeral

Large ceremonies, and then make a large incision in each heel. earthen pots are then placed under the feet to receive the putrid liquid

which escapes from

the

decomposition

of the body.

These pots are examined with the greatest care, for the corpse cannot be removed from the house, and no one can work in the fields, until a certain small worm or maggot has made its appearance in one of the vessels. They wait sometimes for two and even three months before being able to proceed with the

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. The

interment.

vessel

305

shut up in the grave together with the

body, and they arrange a long bamboo, one end of which

plunged into the

the ground, in order that the maggot, after into a serpent or fanano,

and go and soul

was not

its

transformation

be able to come out of the tomb for the Betsileo believe that the

;

reappears under the form of a reptile.

of the departed

Formerly

may

visit its relatives

being flush with the surface of

liquid, the other

nobles only that these

in the case of the

repulsive ceremonies were observed, but

now they

are entirely

confined to them.

Bdra.

Tlie

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

appears that the Bara lay their dead entirely

naked upon the ground and cover them over with stones

tombs are not more than from a Certain families,

height.

among

Isalo chain of mountains, also place

among

caverns, or

them

who

;

inches in

inhabit the

quite naked, either in

rocks, with the skulls of the

during the funeral ceremonies a

foot to eighteen

others those

their

;

for a third part,

oxen

killed

and often even

of the oxen belonging to the deceased are killed on these

half,

The Rev.

occasions.

Richardson found

in the

western part of

the Bara country posts of eight or nine feet high, and bearing

summits rude female

at their

which

figures of the natural size,

were probably placed as memorials of persons who had died at a distant place.

Such are the

can see from the

that there

funeral customs of the

principal

sum

of the facts

Malagasy.

have brought together

a close resemblance between the burial customs of

the Malagasy and those of the Indonesians, which afford one

more proof, if any were necessary, of the emigration Madagascar of some of the peoples of the extreme East. Funeral Ceremonies at

the

Burial of a Hova King

{Radama

The article

foregoing

paper,

I.)

translated

by Mons. A. Grandidier, may,

concluded

the

by permission from an I

following account,

into

think, be appropriately

written

eye-

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

306

witness, of the remarkable ceremonial

Hova

of a

century

sovereign

employed

at the burial

during the early part of the present

Sunday, the third day

death of

Radama (August

after

the announcement of the

1828), there

was a large

kabciry,

or national assembly, held in a fine open space in the city, on

the west side of the

hill

on which Antananarivo stands.

In this

space were assembled from 25,000 to 30,000 persons, seated

groups according to the

At to the

person

districts to

the close of this kabdry

which they belonged.

was proclaimed

that,

according

custom of the country, as a token of mourning, every in

the

kingdom of every age must shave

closely the hair of their heads,

or cut off

and whosoever should be found

with their heads unshaved, after three days from the proclamation,

should be liable to be put to death.

Also, that no person

whatsoever should do any kind of work (except those should be employed

preparing the royal tomb,

who

coffin, &c.)

;

upon a bed, but on the floor No woman, however high only, during the time of mourning. her rank, the queen only excepted, should wear her Idmba or no one should presume

to sleep

cloth above her shoulders, but must, during the

same

period,

go always with her shoulders, chest, and head uncovered. During the interval between this Sunday and the I2th instant, the

mournfully

silent

appearance of the

city,

though

tens of thousands of persons were constantly crowding through

the streets

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;some dragging

huge pieces of granite or beams of

timber, or carrying red earth in baskets on their heads, for the

construction of the

tomb

;

others,

and those

chiefly females,

going with naked heads and shoulders, to the palace to mourn, or else returning from that place after staying there as mourners perhaps twelve hours, was exceedingly impressive.

deep melancholy on the countenances of

moanings of the multitudes who and the adjoining

filled

all,

The

air

and the audible

the courts of the palace

streets, quite affected us,

and produced the

conviction that the grief was real and deep for one

whom

they

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY.

307

regarded as their benefactor and friend, and as the best king

The wives of

that Madagascar had ever known. chiefs

from the neighbouring

districts

the principal

were carried to and from

the place of mourning, each on the back of a stout man, just in

the

manner boys

accustomed to carry one another

at school are

the lady having her person, from the waist to the

feet,

covered

with her white Idinba, or cloth.

Sunday, the nth, her Majesty sent to us to say that we

might be present the day monies us I at

;

cere-

at eight a.m., receive

house and conduct us to the palace.

his

at eight

assist at the funeral

after, to

and that General Brady would,

Accordingly,

on the 12th we attended, when General Brady and

Prince Correllere conducted us through the crowded streets of

mourners, through the guards of soldiers, and through the

still

more crowded courts of the palace, which were thronged chiefly by women and girls, couched down, or prostrate in many instances, making audible lamentations. There are several courts, with one or more palaces in each, separated from each other by high wooden railings and the whole of the courts and palaces are surrounded by a heavy ;

railing of great height, twenty-five feet, including a

wall on which the

wooden

railing

fixed.

was covered with white oldest and most sacred of the palaces. of

this railing

of Radama, lay,

floors,

palace

which he

died,

and where

called the Silver Palace

;

The whole extent

cloth, as

The in

dwarf stone

were also the

favourite palace

fact the

body then

a square building, of two

and two handsome verandahs running round is

named

the

Silver

Palace on account of

ornamented, from the ground to the large flat-headed silver nails

very high-pitched

This

its

being

by the profusion of of the same metal. The

roof,

and plates

roof of this palace (as indeed of

it.

all

the principal houses), a

roof, is so high, that

from the top of the wall

George Bennet, Esq., one of a deputation from the London Missionary and then completing here in Madagascar their visitation of the various stations occupied by the Society in different parts of the world. J. S. '

Society,

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

308 to the ridge

as great a distance as from the foundation to the

top of the wall supporting the roof

found

covered from

the roof to the ground with hangings of rich satins, velvets, silks, their

native costly silk Idinbas, &c., and

was covered with the

finest

all

the vast roof

English scarlet broadcloth.

In front of this palace had been erected a most splendid pavilion, surrounded by highly-decorated pillars, which were wrapped round with various coloured silks, satins, &c. The pavilion was ten feet square, raised on pillars also richly ornaA platform of wood was thrown over upon the mented.

and above

pillars,

verse

pole,

hung, supported by one trans-

this platform

immense canopy

pall

of the

richest

gold

brocade, with stripes of blue satin and scarlet cloth, the whole

bordered by a broad gold lace and finished by a deep gold All the arrangements were in good taste, and formed

fringe.

together a most brilliant spectacle.

had nearly reached the Silver Palace when we were

stopped,

being announced that the corpse was at that

moment

about to be brought out to be conveyed to the more sacred

White Palace previous to its being entombed. We immediately saw about sixteen or twenty females brought out of the apartment where the corpse lay, each lady on the back of her stout these were the queens bearer, weeping and lamenting aloud and princesses of the royal family, and formed the first part of the procession from one to the other palace our place was appointed immediately after the queens, but it was with diffi;

;

culty

we could

selves

get along,

mourners had done

and we

upon W^hite

many

on the path which was in fact

were

Palace that its

many it

in a

The

might pass over them,

times under the necessity of treading

The

corpse was carried into the

might, in this

old clothes

might be placed

have been kept open.

this that the corpse

their prostrate persons.

stripped of

females having thrown them-

more sacred

and clothed with new, and

wooden

honoured with a station not

coffin.

far

place,

also that

In this palace

we were

from the corpse, which was

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. being fanned by about sixteen or twenty young

ladies,

309

daughters

of principal chiefs.

eight,

on the morning of Tuesday, we were again

at the

by General Brady and Prince through the crowds of mourners, indeed over some of

and were conducted

palace,

Correllere

them, as well as over ten

fine favourite bulls of the late

these lay directly in our path, and

we could not help

king

The paths were all covered with blue or white The corpse had been transferred at the

on them.

;

treading cloth

of the country.

of the day before to a huge coffin or chest, of their heaviest and

most valuable wood. The coffin was then carried from this White Palace back to the Silver Palace in solemn procession, the queens, &c., following next the coffin, and we succeeded them some of the Europeans had accepted the honour of assisting to carry the coffin, which was a tremendous weight ;

judging from appearance.

declined

myself with the care of our missionary

On in,

honour,

the

charging

ladies.

again reaching the Silver Palace the coffin was not taken

but raised upon the wooden platform over the pavilion, over

which the splendid concealed

pall or

canopy of gold was drawn, which

entirely from view.

In this

platform (which was raised about seven

pavilion,

feet),

under the

upon mats placed

on the ground, the royal females seated or threw themselves

seeming agonies of woe, which continued through the day at sunset,

tations

when the entombment was taking

were distressing

in the

was

in the court

and not

far

and

lamen-

day great preparing the tomb, which

extreme.

multitudes had been employed in

place, their

;

All the

This tomb, at

from the pavilion.

which tens of thousands had been incessantly working ever since the

announcement of the

king's death

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;either

in fetching

earth or granite stones or timber, or else in cutting or fitting the stones, timber, &c. figure,

built

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; consisted

up of clods and

of a huge earth,

mound

surrounded

of a square or faced

masses of granite, brought and cut and built up by the people.

The

height of this

mound was upwards

of twenty feet

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

3IO

about sixty

square at the base, gradually decreasing as

feet

rose, until at the

top

was about twenty

actual tomb, or place to receive the coffin

destined to

accompany the

upper part of

in the

corpse,

mound

this

and the treasures

was a square well or or pyramid, about

recess,

ten feet

and

cube, built of granite and afterwards being lined, floored,

most valuable timbers.

ceiled with their

The

feet square.

mound had been

the foot of this

standing most of the

and massy silver coffin, destined to receive the royal coffin was about eight feet long, three feet and a half deep, and the same in width it was formed of silver plates all strongly riveted together with nails of the same metal made from Spanish dollars twelve thousand dollars were

day the

large

This

corpse.

;

employed in its construction. About six in the evening this coffin was by the multitude heaved up one of the steep sides of the mound to the top and placed in the tomb or chamber.

Immense in or

quantities of treasures of various kinds were deposited

about the

coffin,

belonging to his late Majesty, consisting

especially of such things as during his

thousand hard dollars were laid

upon

and

;

inside, or

either

placed or cast

all

There were eighty and

feathers

gold

spurs,

;

suits of

golden

Ten

him

to lie

coffin,

were

outside the

especially military.

habiliments,

very costly British uniforms, hats

helmet,

very valuable

he most prized.

in the silver coffin for

chiefly

rich

his

life

gorgets,

swords,

sashes,

epaulettes,

daggers,

spears

(two of

gold), beautiful pistols, muskets, fowling-pieces, watches, rings,

brooches, and trinkets plate,

;

his

whole superb sideboard of

silver

many

others

and large and splendid

solid gold cup, with

presented to him by the King of England costly

silks,

satins,

fine

;

great quantities of

clothes, very valuable silk lainbas of

Madagascar, &c.

were fatigued and pained by the sight of such quantities

of precious

things

favourite bulls finest horses

consigned to a tomb.

ten of his fine

had been slaughtered yesterday, so

were speared to-day and lay

six of his

in the courtyard

near

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY.

When

the tomb, and to-morrow six more are to be killed. all

311 to

these extravagant expenses are added the twenty thousand

oxen, worth here

Spanish dollars each (which have been

five

and used by them

to the people

given

for food

during the

preparation for and at the funeral), the missionaries conjecture that the expense of the funeral cannot be less than sixty thou-

sand pounds

All agree that though these people are

sterling.

singularly extravagant

no sovereign

for

they incur at their

was a royal funeral so expensive as

funerals, yet there never this,

the expenses

this

country ever possessed one-fifth

of his riches.

The

silver coffin

having been placed

in the

tomb, the corpse

wooden one was conveyed by weeping numbers from the top of the platform over the pavilion to the top of the pyramid and placed beside the chamber. Here the wooden coffin was broken up, and the corpse exposed to those near. At this time the royal female mourners, who had been all day uttering their moans in the pavilion, now crawled up the side of the pyramid They were most of them to take a last view of the remains. obliged to be forced away their lamentations were now very loud and truly distressing to hear. The expressions used by them in lamentation were some of them translated for us the " Why did you go away following was chiefly the substance " and leave me here ? Oh come again and fetch me to you The body was transferred from the coffin of wood to that of silver. Those who were engaged in this service seemed to suffer from the effluvia, though many were constantly employed When the transfer had taken place sprinkling eau-de-cologne. in the

;

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

was thrown piecemeal into the tomb. During the whole of this day, while the chamber in the tomb was being prepared, the King's two bands of music, with drums the

and

wooden

fifes,

coffin

&c.,

were

in the court

relieving each other

most delighted

turns.

and played almost unceasingly,

The tunes were such

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; many of the

England, Scotland

and

peculiar

Radama

and favourite

airs

Ireland, with waltzes, marches, &c.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

312

cannon and musketry were fired outside of the courts of the palace, and answered by musketry from the

During

intervals

numerous

soldiers inside of the courts.

the whole, while this funeral of

extravagant,

Radama was

the most

was the most splendid and orderly thing that

could be conceived amongst such an uncivilised people. [Extracted from Voyages and Travels Round the World, by the Rev. Daniel Tyerman and George Bennet, Esq. London, 1840, 2nd ed., pp. 284-286.]

CHAPTER

XV.

DECORATIVE CARVING OX WOOD, ESPECIALLY ON THE BURIAL MEMORIALS OF THE BETSILEO MALAGASY TOGETHER WITH NOTES ON THE HANDICRAFTS OF THE MALAGASY AND NATIVE PRODUCTS. feeling among the Hova — The Betsileo— Carved memorial —Various forms of tombs — Character of the carving Viitolahy or memorial stones — Graves at great depths — Carving in houses — Collection of rubbings — General style of ornamentation — Symbolic meaning — Malagasy handicrafts — Spinning and weaving — Different kinds of cloth — Straw-work —Bark-cloth— Metal-work— Pottery— Building — Canoes and boats — Cultivated products of country— Exports.

Absence of

artistic

posts

those

who have

paid attention to the indigenous art

developed amongst the uncivilised races of mankind, and

are

acquainted with the elaborate and varied ornamentation

used by the ]\Ialayan, the Polynesian, and the Melanesian there

something very surprising

in the

tribes,

almost total absence of

amongst the Hova and some of the other peoples If we look at any illustrated book inhabiting Madagascar.

ornamental

art

describing the inhabitants of the Pacific Islands,

or, still

better,

we carefully study the ethnological galleries of our British Museum, or the Pitt-Rivers collection at Oxford, we shall find

that every group, and sometimes every solitary island, has each its

particular

distinguishable

style of ornament, special

itself,

from that of other groups or

and

islands.

easily

Their

canoes and paddles, clubs and spears, houses and beds, dishes

and spoons, pipes and snuff-boxes, gourds and bowls, are all ornamented, sometimes most elaborately and beautifully and ;

313

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

314

extends to their own persons,

this decoration

in the practice

woven into the cloth or matting of their dresses, or stamped upon the bark cloth they procure from various trees. But we see hardly anything of all this in tattooing,

and

in the patterns

Imerina, the central province of Madagascar.

many

true that

of the large stone tombs built of late years hav^e

architectural pretensions,

and decorative carving

some

employed on

them, but the details are mostly copied from drawings of Euro-

pean buildings, and cannot be properly considered as examples of indigenous

art.^

was therefore much interested during a

journey to the south of Madagascar, made

the year 1876,

amongst the Betsileo there is a decided and of ornament, which is used in their houses, their

to discover that

special style

tombs, and dishes,

&c.

many ;

of their household utensils, as spoons, gourds,

and that a kind of tattooing

amongst them,

are also introduced. tribe

very

common

They

details

should perhaps here be noted that this

of Malagasy occupy the southern

Madagascar.

which some of the same ornamental

central highlands of

are darker in colour than the Hova,

and

although physically bigger and stronger, were conquered by them the early part of the present century.

They

are variously

estimated as numbering from six hundred thousand to a million '

the

The only examples I can recall of anything distinctively characteristic of Hova Malagasy as regards decoration are a slight ornamentation of the long

gable timbers or "horns," and also in the dormer windows, of the old-fashioned native houses, which sometimes have a chevron or "dog-tooth," or small semicircular ornament cut on their lower edge also the conventionalised square flower and leaf pattern, used on their finer silk cloths or liDubas ; and, perhaps, some of the patterns in the straw-work of their fine mats and baskets. In the interior ornamentation of some of the royal houses at Antananarivo there seemed to me to be a certain distinct style prevalent. This is chiefly seen in the painted decorations of the upper parts of the walls, and sometimes of the ceilings, which, both in the colouring and large bold style of the patterns, always reminded me somewhat of Assyrian ornament, as shown in the decoration of the palaces at Persepolis. There is very little that is decorative in Hova pottei-y, but a special kind of vessel made for cooking the beef at the New Year's festival is rather elegant in shape, much resembling some of the Anglo-Saxon pottery. These vessels are circular and somewhat flattened, and are frequently ornamented with a series of lines and zigzags, very closely resembling those on the early fictile productions of the Germanic races. ;

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. and

315

Probably they are really somewhere between

half.

these two estimates,

somewhat over a

i.e.,

million in number.

had occasionally heard from missionaries who had lived in or visited the Betsileo country that there was a good deal of I

;

but no one, so

all

adequately the

decorative carving in this southern province far as

aware, has

yet described at

character of this ornament, or the different varieties of tombs

and

memorials

burial

although

seen

the

coast,

may

knowledge of the

may, perhaps, lead those who are resident it

that thorough investigation which

first

noticed something

new

in the

and

Imerina, vault

made

squared,

may

common

and

tombs

door

sockets

Within two observed that

here remark, the

with

(In

carving.

Hova tombs

of a

consist

of large undressed slabs of blue granite rock, with

number of native is

in the tract

Imerina, but were finely

ornamented

stone shelves, upon which the dead are in a

and

placed near graves were not the rough

undressed blocks or slabs dressed

subject,

deserves.

or three hours' journey from the latter place

upright stones

capital

the province to

Isandrandahy and Ambositra.

country between

the

south-east

perhaps have some interest as a slight

contribution towards a fuller

to the

and

;

a rapid

and on a subsequent journey to Fianarantsoa, the

of the province, they

give

made on

my way

journey through the country, on

province

Betsileo

observations were only those

laid, tightly

wrapped up

cloth Idvibas, the outer ones of

The

silk.

of stone, with pivot hinges, above and below, fitting into ;

and the whole structure

usually

finished with a

square erection of dressed stonework, in two or three stages, often with a kind of headstone, on which, since the introduction

letters, is

the family.

frequently cut the

When

cannot be obtained

happens

name and

titles

of the head of

the corpse of a person of rank and position for burial in the

family tomb, as occasionally

war, a rough undressed slab of stone

burial memorial.

These are often ten or twelve

are termed vatolaJiy, which

means

literally "

erected as a

feet high,

male-stone

" ;

and

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

3l6

have sometimes thought that

may

the stone,

word, and the shape of

this

some ancient connection with phallus

indicate

worship.

one of the days of

stay at Ambositra,

walked to

the top of the rising ground on the western slope of which the

town

Here there was an old Ambntana'^

principally built.

tree,

and memorials to some of the early kings of the

The

chief of these

wood

square and about ten feet high, having pieces of jecting from a

Each

little

below the

face of the timber

Some

them

;

number of

others had a kind of leaf ornament

parallel lines

were arranged

different

of these were concentric

others had a circle with a

;

pro-

form a kind of stage.

a large one in the centre, with smaller ones

the angles in

top, so as to

was elaborately carved with

patterns arranged in squares. circles,

Betsileo,

was a piece of timber seven or eight inches

little

and

;

in different directions.

filling

bosses others

The narrow

spaces dividing these squares from each other, had in some cases

an ornament

like the

Norman chevron

or zigzag,

something similar to the Greek wave-like erection with

its

and

scroll.

ornamentation bore a strong resemblance to

the old runic stones, or the memorial crosses in of

parts

the

in others,

The whole

Scottish

The north

Highlands.

Ireland and

of this

face

memorial post was quite sharp and fresh, but the others were worn by the weather, and the carving was filled up with lichens. I was greatly interested with this carving, as being almost the first

had seen of indigenous Malagasy art and I having no appliances with me for taking a " or a squeeze." Not very far from this memorial

specimen

;

greatly regretted "

rubbing

there were

with a

some

lintel, like

up by a large

much

in the

others, consisting of

two

pairs of posts, each

a gateway, except that the opening was

flat

same

upright stone.

These posts were carved

style as the single

one just described, but

were not so massive, and were more weathered. the posts were carved into a shape '

filled

The

tops of

somewhat resembling a

Ficus Baroni, Baker.

vase.

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. I

317

then remembered that, two or three days before,

passed a newly set-up memorial stone carved squares, with

had

much

same kind of ornament

the

we had

three large

as these posts

wood.

now

more not having obtained some sketch of this group of burial memorials, because, on visiting Ambositra again twelve years subsequently, I found that the whole had been utterly swept away. The Hova governor had appropriated the site for his official residence and courtyard, and the picturesque tombs of the old Betsileo chiefs and the fine trees had been destroyed to make way for a great brick building, raw and commonplace, whose erection had been a heavy tax upon I

regret

still

the unpaid service of the people.

our journey from Ambositra to Fianarantsoa, at about

two hours' distance from the former

place,

we passed a tomb

by the roadside with a carved wooden post similar to those Ambositra. I got down from the palanquin and examined

some of the carving was

similar to

what

had already

at it

seen, but

some of But it the compartments were like the English Union-Jack. was on the following day, when passing over the elevated line of road between Zoma Nandihizana and Ambohinamboarina, that I was most astonished and interested by the profusion there were other graceful forms which were new, and

with which the carved roadside, as well as in visible

on either hand.

so describe hills

directions over the tract of country

Leaving an elevated valley

— a long, nearly

level

—

one can

hollow on high ground, with

on either side not a mile apart, and gently curving round

to the south-west

view,

memorials were scattered along the

all

and

— we

in sight of a

came out

mile to the west of the road.

has a few houses and a

at last to

rounded green

little

hill,

This place

an uninterrupted

about a quarter of a

called Ikangara,

church on the top.

and

But between

and the road there was a large number of tombs and memorial They posts, so my companion and I went to inspect them. were well worth a visit, as in a small space there were grouped

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

3l8 together

many

different kinds of

fifty

tombs, and on examining them there appeared to be the

following kinds

The

(i)

small feet,

monuments, with wood carving

Within a short distance were some forty or

in great variety.

largest

tombs

were two of them

stones, built in a square of

flat

and ^bout

five feet high.

of carved posts and

shaped

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; there

four sides

and

rail,

railing

those at each corner with the vase-

rails,

this

to twenty-five

But around them was a

top already described

transverse

some twenty

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; were

these were

;

connected by a

again was supported on each of the finished under the

by upright posts which

rail.

All

the upright timbers were carved in patterns like those seen at

Ambositra and on the road the previous day. (2) Another kind of tomb was formed by a square structure of small

flat

feet square

;

stones, four or five feet high,

and perhaps a dozen

but on the top was a square enclosure of four

carved posts with the vase-shaped heads, connected by

and with an intermediate four feet square,

was a

by seven or eight

feet high,

third

kind of

monument was

granite, from eight to ten feet high,

two

feet square,

touching them. cross pieces,

in the centre

massive block of

the top these were connected

and upon these the

Many

placed.

and from eighteen inches

with carved posts at the four corners and

the funeral of the person the

(4)

and

single carved post.

(3)

lintels,

This structure was about

upright.

by carved

skulls of the bullocks killed at

monument commemorated were

of these horned skulls remained in their places.

Another kind of memorial was a massive square post of feet high and fifteen inches square, carved

wood, about twenty on

all

four sides from top to bottom.

of these enormous posts here. of them, as split

nearly

if all

There were four or

In one case there was a pair

form a kind of gateway

down

their length

five

by the

;

two or three were

action of the sun

and

weather. (5) Still

another kind

was an oblong

block of dressed

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. granite, with

an iron hooping round the top,

fixed a dozen or

two of this kind of monument saw others on the road. (6)

pairs of slender iron horns. at this place,

319

which were There were

and we afterwards

Besides the foregoing there were numerous specimens

we had already seen at Ambositra, with the vase-shaped head and a small open staging near the top, on which were fixed upright sharp-pointed pieces of wood. These were for placing the ox skulls upon. of the smaller carved post such as

may

be here noted that the

being the largest animal known especially the bull,

humped and long-horned ox Madagascar,

this animal,

very often used in native proverbs, royal

speeches, songs, and circumcision observances, as a symbol of

power and authority, while the horn

an emblem of strength, much indeed as

was employed by the Among the Sihanaka people lofty erected near their tombs, and at the top of these

Hebrews and other round poles are

frequently employed as it

Asiatics.

a forked branch of a tree

blance of a pair of horns.

And

fixed, carved into a close in the

resem-

Tanala, or forest region,

the extremities of the gable timbers of the houses are fashioned

Among

the form of horns.

into

the

crossed and slightly ornamented, small

Hova

wooden

being often affixed to them, but they are horns," or tandro-trdno.

styled

these are simply figures of birds

still

called " house

In royal proclamations the soldiers are

horns of the kingdom."

There are many interesting

customs among the Malagasy, showing that the ox has retained semi-sacred

the

some

tribes

character

;

while

the chief or king

among

killed at certain seasons

The

bears

among many

only the chiefs are allowed to

evidently because the tribe

kill

nations

which have some

only

religious significance.

native kings are saluted as binbeldky, or " bulls " in

also the high-priest of

other Malagasy peoples the

same expression frequently occurs circumcision and other festivities.

;

the animal,

and the forms of benediction at the

return, however, to the interesting

;

group of tombs at

320

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

Ikangara.

Many

of these memorials were sorely weathered

and defaced, and others were

them being

fallen,

and were

But there was a great variety of pattern, many

rotting away.

had

falling, or

and copying.

well worth preserving

we turned from the main path to look at Ikangara, were a number of the more simple tombs, of They consist of a a kind that seem peculiar to the Betsileo. the roadside, before

plain square, almost a cube, of thin undressed stones laid very

some

evenly.

instances

had upright slabs

these

the

corners and centres of the sides, so that they were not unlike

Hova

tombs, but the majority were of small stones only, laid

horizontally.

From

memorials near

the

this

little

been an important place

number of handsome tombs and we judged that it must have

town, in

former days.

considerable time examining this

stayed some

ancient cemetery, and then

proceeded on our way southwards.

Our road

lay along the top of a long ridge, with a valley on

the west and an extensive plain on the east, with numerous hills,

and old

on their tops.

fortifications

Over the

plain were

dotted small villages and numberless green vala, or homesteads of the Betsileo, enclosed in a circular and impenetrable fence of

thorny mimosa or

Tsidfakbmby,

{Ccssalpinia sepiaria, Roxb.).

leaving Ikangara,

we came

i.e.,

impassable by cattle

About a quarter of an hour an old

fortification

the crest of the ridge, and called lanjanonakely

rampart extended

for

after

running along ;

a low stone

a hundred yards or more along the

hill,

and there were many tombs. Indeed we were struck by the number of tombs and carved monuments on the roadside all the

way

Ambohinamboarina,

plain square

tomb of

thin,

The most common form

small, undressed

stones,

the

and the

upright vdtoldhy, or block of granite, from eighteen inches to

two

feet square,

and eight

bdto in Imerina are

these

all

Betsileo are

to ten feet high.

While the tsdngam-

of rough undressed slabs of blue rock, of fine-grained, hard white granite, in

massive blocks, and dressed to a beautifully smooth

face.

They

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. are

often

and

couples,

one instance there were

stones, with an elaborately carved post

combinations

numerous all

of the

there

;

different

between them.

But the

kinds of memorial were very-

was something new every few yards

over the plain, near every

two

cluster of houses,

little

and

;

we could

see these white memorial stones.

South of the Matsiatra

and nearer Fianarantsoa,

river,

noticed that there were very few of the upright square memorial

we saw

stones compared with what

wood

there were no carved

the previous day, and that All the tombs, which

pillars at all.

hereabouts were very numerous, were the plain square or cube of undressed to

others

flat

The majority of these, I was surprised many having trees Hasina, Fdno, and

stones.

were hollow,

find,

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;growing out of the middle, which has a circular opening,

and overshadowing the whole tomb, a

From

Imerina.

the

this

was

corpses are deposited

ground, as

chamber

that this

;

and

which

above the

excavated at considerable depth beneath

only marks the place of one

below the

was

all

afterwards ascertained

the square pile of stones, which

also that there

never seen

chamber

does not project at

Hova tombs

does in

sight

clear that the

far

therefore not a grave, but surface.

noticed

most cases a long low mound of earth

extending from one side of the tomb to a distance of from thirty or forty to eighty feet

marks the

line of a

and upwards.

This,

appears,

long tunnelled passage gradually descending

from the surface to the deeply sunk burial chamber.

Mr.

Richardson says that some of the Betsileo tombs are "as much as sixty feet deep, and are approached

passage opening some forty or

chamber. square,

The tombs

fifty feet

a gradually descending

distant from the burial

of the rich are sometimes 15 or 16 feet

and are quite on the surface of the ground

four walls

and roof are formed of

five

;

and the

immense stone

slabs,

which are brought from great distances, and involve almost incredible labour.

more than

measured one slab of

18 feet long, 10 feet wide,

granite,

and nearly

which was feet thick

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

322

some

wide, and

parts.

was once

10 feet high,

tomb

formed of

i8 feet long,

five stones, in

14 feet

one of which,

to the west,

had been cut an opening, and a rude stone door,

working

stone sockets, had been fixed there.

The

finest

and was 4 feet in memorial stone I Sometimes diameter, and about 20 feet high above the ground. The most these stones are covered with carved oxen and birds. saw was almost

honourable superstructure

a solid mass of masonry erected

over the stone tombs just described.

and about 6 on

feet high.

These are square

have seen one, now rapidly

decay, on which were no less than 500 such skulls

symmetrical

new tomb, on

ever saw was a

in shape,

worked round the top, and the oxen killed at the funeral

cornice

this are laid the skulls of all

regularly arranged.

circular,

square, were arranged 108 skulls of

oxen

falling into !

The most

which, in the outer

most regular

order,

ox whose horns had grown There were also two other squares of skulls downwards. arranged behind this one. It was a strange sight to see so many skulls of oxen with the horns, arranged thus, and bleach-

every other skull being that of an

ing in the sun."

All through the country south of the so-called

we were many

uninhabited region, near Ivotovorona,

tattooing on the chest, neck, and arms of

" desert,"

struck

by the

of the people.

some cases the men had figures of oxen, and in others an ornament like a floriated Greek cross while the women had a In

;

kind of tattooed

collar,

which looked

vandyking on the neck and

chest.

But

deep lace-work or I

have never seen

tattooing on the faces of the people. I

regretted that, our journey being

made

chiefly for the

purpose of seeing districts further south than Betsileo, unable to

visit

Ifanjakana,

was

some of the

Nandihizana,

told there

we were

larger old Betsileo towns, such as

Ikalamavony, and others, where

a great deal of the peculiar carving to be seen

not only in the tombs, but also in the dwelling houses and furniture.

did,

however, see two specimens of this native

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. art as used in building:

first,

323

just before entering the

Tanala

country, and again, immediately on leaving the forest on our return home.

The

first

example was at a village of forty houses two hours south-east of Imahazony.

Ivalokianja, about

called

Here we went into one of the houses in the village for our it was the largest house there, but was not so large as our tent (11 feet square), and the walls were only 5 feet 6 inches high. The door was a small square aperture, i foot 10 inches wide by 2 feet 4 inches high, and its threshold 2 feet 9 inches from the ground. Close to it, at the end of the house, was another door or window, and opposite were two small openings about a foot and a half square. The hearth was opposite the door, and the bed-place in what is the window corner in Hova houses. In this house was the first example I had seen of decorative carving in Malagasy houses the external faces of the main post supporting the roof being carved with a simple but effective ornament of squares and diagonals. There was lunch

;

much resembling

also other ornamentation

Jack.

The

split

bamboo.

gables were

filled

The majority

the English Union

with a neat platted work of

of the houses in this and most of

the Betsileo villages are only about 10 or 11 feet long or 9 feet wide, and the walls from 3 to

seeing

many

5 feet

of these native houses for the

high.

first

stranger

time would say

that they had no doors, and only very small windows, for the

doors are so small and high up that entering such a house

gymnastic

feat requiring considerable agility,

and more amusing

to an onlooker than pleasant to the performer.

All ideas of

dignity must be laid aside.

The

other example

we saw

of carving used for house orna-

mentation was at a small cluster of half a dozen houses called Ifandn'ana,

the

some

three hours before reaching Isandrandahy on

way from Ambohimanga

in the

posts of the timber house, in which

with carving of

much

the

Tanala.

The

three centre

stayed, were

all

covered

same character as that used in the it was not quite so well

memorial posts already described, but

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

324

The

executed.

square window shutters

nearly

ornament carved upon them, much

circular

had each a conven-

like the

tional representations of the sun, with rays, proceeding from a centre, thirteen in

Betsileo province, interiors

and

;

During a more recent

number. I

had opportunities of seeing some other not only were the three posts of the

in these

house and the windows carved, but also the the fixed bedstead

the

visit to

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;quite

little

woodwork enclosing

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;as

room of

other timberwork about the building.

well

itself

In a paper contributed

by Mr. Shaw to the Antananarivo Annual for 1878, he re" The most distinctive indigenous art of the Betsileo marks is the carving, which is noticed by every one travelling in any :

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

part of the province.

There

an endless variety of patterns,

though a great number are formed by combinations of three or four simple designs, that appear, in some form or other, on nearly every house-post or door, which are highly ornamented."

carved memorial

One of the most perfect examples of the post we saw the same day, in the morning, at situated village of Ivohitrdmbo. eagle's nest

on the summit of a

country of the Tanala 2,500

lofty

tribes,

above which

very perfect, the carving very sharp, consisting of several pieces of

good preservation, with about

cone of rock, on the edge

This memorial was close to the

feet.

perched

and overlooking the great

plateau,

the interior

This place

the picturesquely

forest, the

towers about

village,

and was

and the stage near the

top,

wood crossing one another, ox skulls and horns still

thirty

in in

their places. It

men

may

in many cases figures of oxen and some of the panels or compartments of these but the ornament is chiefly conventional. The

be added that

are carved in

memorial Betsileo

posts,

name

the root teza also, "

memorial

pillars is teza or tezan-kazo

durability, anything firmly fixed,"

and

fixed upright."

In his says, "

for these

means

little

book

entitled

Madagascar of To-day, Mr. Shaw I saw during

Perhaps the most elaborately carved post

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD.

residence of eight years

village

about

the Betsileo was at a small

journey north-west

day's

325

Fianarantsoa.

This was the central post of a high house belonging to one of the chiefs.

was twenty feet high and carved from top

Each of the

to bottom.

four surfaces, about eighteen inches broad,

divided into sections

edge of the

was

squares with the

each of these were different designs

post.

cross-cuts forming

formed according to the individual tastes of the many men who were probably impressed into the service of the chief to perform the work. Some consisted of radiating triangles,

whose apices met

in the central point

;

some were

filled

pairs of circles touching each other at the circumference

were concentric

with smaller curves springing from the outermost circle squares were other, or

filled

;

filled

other

with zigzag lines running parallel to each

running diagonally across the square, while others were

rough imitations of

birds, bullocks, crocodiles, &c."

Before leaving the subject of Betsileo art that

others

;

and the corners of the squares

circles,

with

gourds,

may

be added

tobacco boxes (a piece of finely polished

fifes,

reed or bamboo), and other articles are often ver>' tastefully

ornamented with patterns incised on the smooth yellow the lines being then

filled in

lines, zigzags, scrolls,

with black.

surface,

These patterns consist

and diaper grounds, often very

artistically

arranged.

As already remarked, my

visit to

the Betsileo in 1876 was

too short and hasty to allow of a thorough examination of these interesting

examples of indigenous

And

art.

meeting with such specimens of carving, myself beforehand with any appliances

copying them

for 1876,

did, to

some

attention of

any way.

Annual

which

But an

some of in

not thinking of

had not prepared taking drawings or

article in the

have largely reproduced

extent, have the effect

and especially

for

Antananarivo

in this chapter,

desired in drawing the

brother missionaries to the subject,

inducing Mr,

Shaw

make

number of

rubbings of the more characteristic specimens of the ornament

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

326 employed. the

rich

by no means convey a proper idea of

these

Still,

effect

many

of these

sculptured

memorials, for

hardly anything but photography and the autotype process

many

could adequately reproduce the carving that are to be found careful

Many

;

but

still,

measurements and sketches and enlarged photographs. of the finest specimens of carving in the memorial posts

and tombs are being weather, and

fast

by the action of the

obliterated

not secured within a few years, the patterns

carved upon them will soon be past recovery. passing by Ikangara seven years ago,

of those

away by

had seen

when

Indeed,

found the interesting

group of burial memorials already described

Some

of elaborate

varieties

much might be done by

fast disappearing.

1876 were quite gone, either rotted

the rain and damp, or fallen to the ground and half

much

buried in debris, and the whole presenting a

appearance than during

(Of course these remarks apply are out of doors

;

visit

first

less striking

twelve years previously.

chiefly to those carvings

those in houses have a

much

which

greater chance

of preservation, but even here the desire to have larger and

more modern fashioned dwellings, will

fashioned adornments.) the

especially of sun-dried brick,

probably cause the destruction of

incoming

Besides

ideas

and

this,

fashions

many

of these old-

very probable that

from

foreigners

will

eventually lead to the discontinuance of this primitive style

both of memorial and of ornament, although recently found that such carvings are

memorial posts indigenous

still

art, it

as soon as possible,

set

up by the people.

have more

executed, and such

still

Still,

examples of

very desirable that they should be copied

and perhaps

might be practicable to

wood themsome place of

secure a few examples of the best carved pieces of selves,

and have them carefully deposited

safety for reference and preservation. interest, these carvings

may

Apart from

prove of value

their intrinsic

showing links of

connection between the Betsileo and some of the Malayan and

Oceanic peoples, and thus aid us

understanding more clearly

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. the race

affinities

observes,

" It

of the people of

327

Madagascar.

Shaw

Mr.

a significant fact that the simple designs [of

the Betsileo carvings] are almost identical with the

of ornamentation in Polynesia.

from Mangaia (Hervey Islands)

same

species

a carved hatchet-handle

possession

are

some

patterns precisely like those on the spoon-handles manufactured

by the untutored Betsileo. The wooden and horn spoons and wooden bowls for rice are also remarkably well carved, of good shape, beautifully smooth, and gracefully ornamented." have been unable to ascertain whether there are any

tions

among

tradi-

the Betsileo as to the origin of this peculiar style of

ornamentation, or whether the different patterns employed have

any

Not having resided in the have had no opportunity of making any inquiries of

religious or symbolic meaning."

province,

although

this sort,

interesting.

among

many

questions

hope that

the people will

try

now

suggest themselves as

brother missionaries stationed

and ascertain something more on

these points. It will

it is,

be understood that even Mr. Shaw's collection, valuable

cannot give an adequate idea of the

many of which,

memorial

posts,

feet high,

and eighteen inches square

size of

some of

these

as already mentioned, are twenty in section,

while those he

exhibited, in two of the rubbings, are only about four feet high. It

would indeed be a rather formidable task

to take a

copy of these largest memorials, and would require pliances

and

assistances, as well as

complete

many

ap-

an amount of time such as

missionaries can rarely give to pursuits outside their

more imme-

descriptions

mediate and special work, will give

and

will

in their

trust,

however, that

some clear idea of these productions of the Betsileo, show the decided love of ornament which they manifest peculiar style of wood carving.

' In the discussion that followed the reading of this paper, one of the members expressed a strong opinion that these ornaments must have had originally some He also pointed out the fact (which I had not myself religious signification. noticed) that in all the circles the rays were thirteen in number, therefore probably bearing some meaning. Miss Buckland remarked that many of the patterns closely resembled tliose on articles from the Xicobar Islands.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

328

MALAGASY HANDICRAFTS. This chapter seems an appropriate place for saying something further

about other manual

Madagascar.

and

handicrafts,

arts

by the people of

practised

proceed therefore to describe briefly their chief

must be remembered that these are strictly literal sense of the word made

mamifsictures in the original and

by hand, and not by machinery, steam-engines and power looms being still unknown to the Malagasy. Spinning and Weaving. Most of the Malagasy races are expert in the various arts in which dexterity of hand is requisite

—

— manufactures,

strictly

fingers look as if

formed

called

for skilled

— and

their

work.

In the processes con-

long,

tapering

nected with spinning and weaving, the Malagasy show no small

amount of and

fine,

rofia

palm

cotton,

silk,

leaf,

wood and

and

They make

skill.

a variety of cloths, both coarse

and hemp, and from the

spindles

bone, twirled by the hand, they spin the thread

But the weaving

produced are excellent

The

With rude

the aloe, and the banana.

then, with very simple looms, they

pared.

fibres of the

;

weave the yarn thus pre-

regular and firm, and the fabrics

in quality.

coarser cloths from the fibre of the rofia

palm not only

form the usual clothing of the poorer classes and the

slaves,

but

they also constitute a considerable portion of the exports from the eastern side of the island. the

thousands of them, under

of rabdnnas, are sent to Mauritius and Reunion, where

name

they are used

from the

Many

fine

for a variety of purposes.

The

pinnate leaves of the rofia palm

;

fibre is

prepared

these are stripped

of the cuticle above and below, leaving a glossy, straw-coloured material,

may

which

divided into threads of various breadths, as

be desired, by a sort of iron comb.

ground

The

straw-tinted

by an endless variety of longitudinal stripes, the dyes for which are procured from coloured earth and vegetable substances. Very fine and strong cloths are also made from this fibre some of these have the woof of cotton, obtained by unravelling English or American calico. is

varied

;

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD.

very favourite cloth, called arindrdno,

ground of

fine twilled cotton,

329

made

with a white

with narrow stripes of black and

coloured threads, and broad borders of black twilled

silk,

These form the Idinba, or outer native dress, which is folded gracefully, something in the fashion of the ancient Roman toga, one corner being thrown which

a central pattern of colour.

over the shoulder. the

Hovas and the

European cottons are

also largely used

east coast tribes, a piece the size of a good-

good

sized sheet or tablecloth forming a very

often have borders of coloured silk

sewn on

These

Idinba.

to the ends of the

stuff.

But the

skill and taste of the Malagasy, as regards weaving, shown most in the handsome silk Idvibas, which are woven by the Hova women. These are of considerable variety of

are

pattern and colouring (within certain conventional limits), often

very rich and elegant

in their effect,

and with a peculiar kind of

square leaf or flower introduced into the stripes, and various

These

combinations of small diamond-shaped patterns.

Malagasy each.

family, as they are worth from twenty to fifty dollars

They

are only

worn on

special occasions, such as the

Year's festival, and at marriages, &c.

Dark-red

New

Idmbas are

the Hovas, no

being employed for burial, but a great number of cloths

This dark-red Idinba also forms a sort of

instead.

judges and head-men of the districts

for the

them

silk

among

used as the outer wrapping of a corpse coffin

silk

form a considerable portion of the wealth of every

Idvibas

fine

metal beads are woven into the

;

stuff,

official

and

dress

many

so as to form a

variety of ornamental patterns across the ends of the Idinba.

Almost

all

Hova women, from

can spin and weave ainpela,

i.e.,

;

some

the

Queen down

tribes,

girl

to the slave, called zasa-

spindle child," a close analogy to our English

word

" spinster."

Straw-work.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; But besides spinning and weaving, the dexterity

of the Malagasy

From

women is

seen hardly less

in their straw-plaiting.

the great variety of grasses, as well as from the tough

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

330

many

outer peel of the zozbro {papyrus) rush, they plait

of baskets, large and small, coarse and

and

among

but

Among

the

the Betsileo and south-eastern tribes, mats

are the chief articles of clothing.

excellent quality are

head-dress.

peculiar

this is their general

considerable variety of straw caps and head-

particular

Broad-brimmed straw hats of

made by the Hovas, and

made and worn by

coverings are

districts.

by a

of bark cloth.

girdle

skilful in this

The straw mats used

Some

kept

for its

tribes are especially

The Sihanaka and

manufacture.

some being

the other tribes,

clothing are sewn into a kind of sack, which place

and coloured,

plain

fineness.

these are used for flooring, and lining walls and parti-

Hovas tions,

fine,

mats of various degrees of

also

kind,

Betsileo

make

mats of a great length, a number of these forming part of the

The Hovas

yearly tribute they pay to the Central Government. also are very ingenious straw,

some of them not

plait, with beautiful patterns,

Bark girdles,

making minute square baskets of

larger than f-inch cube, in is

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

The bark cloth made by the people of

Cloth.

forest tribes

;

but

this

which the

as fine as the finest weaving. just

mentioned, as used for

the south-east coast and the

branch of handicraft the Malagasy

cannot compete with the delicate fabrics prepared from the bark of trees by

many

Taimoro, Tanala, and other

the

brown

material, of

fibre

but

;

clothing,

Malagasy

its

little

one of the the

(among many other from the African

tribes,

a coarse reddish-

many

non-employment of skins

links of connection

Malayo-Polynesian peculiarities) to

tribes,

cloth of

strength, except in the direction of the

use, as well as the

and

The bark

of the Polynesian races.

who make such

between the

and

peoples,

mark them

for

serves

off distinctly

large use of the skins

of animals as articles of dress.

Metal Work.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; In metal work, the

Malagasy

also

show great

In gold and silver execution and ingenuity in design. work the native smiths make most fine and delicate chains, and they can produce copies of any article of jewellery with wonderskill in

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD.

Their iron work (which

exactness.

ful

wrought, not cast)

all

of excellent quality, and they can also turn out brass and

copper work of good

In the Memorial Churches erected

finish.

at the capital (i 864-1 874), the ornamental iron railings, floriated hinges, &c.

men.

Among

—were

work

—

finials,

executed by native work-

all

the Hovas, the smelting and working of iron

seems to have been known from a remote antiquity

;

and they

employ the same double-piston bellows which are used in the Malayan Peninsula and Islands. There seems to be no trace of a stone age when iron was not known to the Hovas although, ;

according to tradition, the aboriginal

whom

they displaced

tribe,

in the central province,

made

the use of metal, and used spears

Vazimba,

called

were ignorant of

of burnt clay, and of

the tough wiry bark of certain palms. Pottery.

are

many

— In

fictile art,

the Malagasy are not so advanced as

peoples who, in most other things, are their inferiors.

Perhaps, however, this arises from the large use

made by many

of the tribes of vegetable substances and leaves for plates and dishes and waterpots, so that the necessity for articles of pottery

has not been

felt

and also from the absence

;

plains of suitable clays.

near the

forests,

wooden

Amongst

the peoples

in the

who

maritime

live in

dishes are largely manufactured

;

and and

the forest and coast dwellers also use the leaves of the pandanus,

the banana, and the travellers'-tree for holding food and liquid while the jointed and chambered vessels for

bamboo

drawing and storing water.

straw or rush are also employed.

;

them with

Dishes of finely-woven

But, in the central provinces,

where vegetable materials are more abundant, pottery

supplies

scarce,

and where clay

manufactured, and water vessels of various

kinds are produced, as well as rude dishes, plates, and cooking pots.

the

New

special kind of vessel,

Year's

barrows," both in

for

cooking the beef at

—

much like some now and then found in ancient ornament and outline. Some of the water

festival, is

of the Anglo-Saxon "

made

jars are of fine quality,

elegant in shape

pottery

and deep red

in colour, like

Samian ware.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

332

The horns

of the fine

humped

cattle are

variety of articles, especially spoons, dishes,

manufactured into a

and

Almost

plates.

every tribe has some special pattern of wooden spoon peculiar to

it,

They

some of which are very elegant and beautifully finished. ornamented with various devices burnt in on the

are often

handles.

Building.

made

but

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; In the building

little

art,

the Malagasy, as a whole, have

advance beyond constructing the small and

Except

simple dwellings required by a semi-civilised people. the

houses are constructed almost

provinces, the

central

and without any metal fasten-

entirely of vegetable materials, ings, all

being tied together with tough, fibrous plants.

Canoes and Boats.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Water-carriage The

the rivers and coast lagoons.

hollowed-out trunk of a

native

tree, chiefly

made use of on canoe is made of the

largely

the varongy {Calophyllum

and some of the canoes are about three feet beam. On the south-east

inophylluvi),

called sdry, is

used

used.

This

in its construction,

forty feet long, with coast, a native boat,

a built boat of planks, but no iron

everything being tied together by the

wire-like fibre of the anivona palm, while the holes are plugged

tree-nails of

hard wood.

The seams

of bamboo, and loops of the same the larger oars.

The

seats pass right through the sides,

thus stiffen the whole, and bind or framework.

are caulked with strips

material form rowlocks for

These boats

rise

at the

stem and

used for going out to the shipping through the heavy

no canoe could possibly venture.

referred to

are adopted,

They surf,

and are

where

These ingeniously made boats

use for a considerable period, as they are

by some of the

written from

stern,

quantity of goods.

will carry fifty people, or a large

have evidently been

and

together, for there are no ribs

French books on Madagascar,

earliest

50 to 200 years ago.

and canoes

fitted

the west coast outriggers

with these and with

out to sea in a very fearless way.

The

sails

venture

natives along that portion

of the island are bold navigators, and until the early portion of this century,

they were accustomed to

make an annual

piratical

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. expedition to the

Comoro

which hundreds of canoes,

Islands, in

carrying thousands of men, were employed.

must, therefore, have

been

333

boats

Most of these size and

considerable

seaworthy properties. Products and Exports.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Besides

a number of roots and

rice,

vegetables are also cultivated by the Malagasy, the manioc root or cassava forming a considerable portion of their food, as well as

yams, sweet-potatoes, beans,

sugar-cane to

a great

also cultivated,

size.

coarse sugar

neighbourhood of the manufacture of a

called

made,

cane

grows

except

but,

the

chiefly used for the

tbaka.

districts

Coffee, spices, ginger,

tobacco, indigo, hemp, and cotton are also grown, but

chillies,

not

capital, the

spirit

warmer

the

The

Indian-corn, &c.

millet,

and

in large quantities.

many

kinds

There

a considerable variety of

fruit,

being indigenous, as the banana and plantain,

pine-apple, loquat, grape, citron, lemon, mulberry, raspberry, &c.,

and others introduced by Europeans, pomegranate, guava, and It

is,

however, the opinion of some

judge of the matter, that the

fertility

as a whole has been overrated,

good a

field

But bearing

many

this in

the

peach,

who

are well qualified to

of the

and that

soil

still is

of Madagascar

does not present as

tropical counties for

mind, there

parts of the island the soil

European

and

might

all

spices,

silk,

settlers.

reason to believe that in

capable of supplying

of the most valuable products of the tropical zone. coffee,

mango,

fig.

many

Rice, sugar,

cotton and hemp, indigo and tobacco,

be produced in practically unlimited quantities.

present, however, rice, sugar, vanilla, articles out of this list

cultivation of coffee

and

which are grown

coffee are the only

for exportation.

The

yearly increasing, and numerous small

plantations have been formed along the shores of the east coast rivers

by Creole

traders.

For several years past large quantities

of gum-copal and indiarubber have also been exported, but

owing to the reckless manner in which the trees supplying the latter have been cut down, it is feared that the whole trade will

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

334

come to an end remedy the evil. called orseille,

before long unless

some

steps are taken to

In the southern part of the island, a lichen,

which

siderable quantities.

valuable for dyeing,

collected in con-

Ebony and numerous hard and

beautiful

woods resembling teak, rosewood, and mahogany, are found in the forests, and are used for cabinet work, and in building, and also in making the parquetry flooring in the best class of houses.

The most important item of export at present is cattle. The colonies of Mauritius and Bourbon derive their entire supply of beef from the fine humped oxen which are shipped by thousands from the eastern ports. In later times, however, the trade is leaving somewhat the eastern side of the island, the ships fetching the cattle from the north-west coast, owing to their greater cheapness in the

able trade has also sprung Natal.

Sakalava country.

found

the

forests

now

consider-

up between the south-west ports and

Hides are sent down

in large quantities

being dried and salted for exportation.

trade.

also

The

from the

interior,

valuable woods

form an important

article

CHAPTER XVI ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIEyCES OF

LIFE IN

MADAGASCAR. present — First experiences — Native dress — Christmas Day exhibitions— Interruptions divine service — A nation of bald-heads — Native houses and their inmates — Receptions by Hova Governors — Native feasts — Queer articles of food — First speaking Malagasy — Try a relative — Transformations of attempts English names — Biblical names — Odd names — English mistakes —The southern side of his moustache — Funeral presents Church decoration —Offertory boxes— Deacons' duties.

The comic element everywhere Borrowed garments

THIS world there

of ours would be but a dull place to live in

was no room

for

humour and

fun,

and

could not sometimes indulge in a good hearty laugh.

happily there

no spot on

forms no exception to the general will

there

and Madagascar certainly

;

We hope,

rule.

be shocked at hearing that even

therefore,

missionary experiences

occasionally a decided element of the amusing, the odd,

and the absurd island

But

surface where the elements of the

its

comic and ridiculous are not present

one

;

anyhow, during several years' residence

this

most people come across a few curious experiences, and

hear of a good

many more

and

;

all

these

could

re-

membered and noted down, they would afford ample materials for

more than one paper.

bility,

while

may

but perhaps

away a

may

This, however,

be able to

leisure half-hour

;

recall

now an

enough

impossi-

to serve to

and some of these reminiscences

perchance throw a side-light or two upon certain phases of

native character and habits.

One's

first

landing

Madagascar

—especially

one has had

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

336

no previous experience of a semi-civilised country

most people

think, strike

only

the

dress

;

clothed

partially

" natives "

as having

appearance of so

and the odd gibberish,

aspects

many

the

European and other

the often absurd mixture of

;

— must,

some very comic

seems to

of an un-

us,

—

known language all these tend to excite one's amusement. I vividly remember my first ride in a filanjana at Tamatave, and how I was in fits of laughter all the way from my lodging to the Battery

men

irresistibly

ago

struck

—

then

—

comic.

the being carried

;

can hardly that

time

that fashion

now understand why

— more

than

thirty

— as

years

gentlemen very often travelled from the coast to the

which

capital in the long basket-like filanjana

now, nor has been

for a

October, 1863

but

;

never

used

long time past, except by ladies and

one of these contrivances

children.

came up myself in now care

suspect few gentlemen would

amusement and "chaff" they would by riding through Antananarivo in a similar conveyance. Yet even in 1873, the late Rev. Dr. Mullens also travelled up to Imerina in a Id^dys filanjana ; but it struck him at the time as rather ridiculous, for he said how it reminded him of one of Leech's pictures in Punch, of a London exquisite driving a very small basket carriage, and being saluted by a street gamin with to run the gauntlet of the

excite

the words,

Oh,

Bill,

here's a cove a-drivin' hisself

home from

the wash." I referred just now to the oddness of native dress, especially when only portions of European costume are used. One sees some absurd enough sights now and then, even at the present

time, in Antananarivo, but these are nothing ridiculous combinations which often

ago.

see a

parade ground

company

fitted

If a

compared with the

one's view a few years

of native officers

in all their variety

provoking spectacle.

met

come up from the

of dress was a very mirth-

hundred or two of men had been

out from an extensive old-clothes' shop, with the object of

making every one

different

from every one

else,

could hardly

{Phctof^rat'i

A HOVA Ol'FICER, MALAGASY AKMV.

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY

LIFE.

337

have produced a greater variety or have had a more bizarre effect than was actually the case. All sorts of cast-off uniforms ;

every kind and shape of hat, from the smartest to the shabbiest (the " shocking

bad

not excepted)

dress, policeman's, fireman's, &c.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

every imaginable civilian

;

all

might be

seen,

queerest combinations, often finished off by the

The sharp

green and red woollen comforters. friend of

mine

and

in the

commonest of

observation of a

(of the Society of Friends) even detected in an

Andohalo crowd the low-crowned " broad brims " once beloneinsr to some good East Anglian Quaker farmers, and pronounced that they must certainly have often figured in the sedate proceedings of "an Essex Quarterly Meeting." One of the richest points in these exhibitions was the extreme self-consciousness of the wearers of these wonderful in their personal

suits,

and

their evident pride

appearance, together with the serene conviction

that they were cutting a great dash.^

In the earlier years of the residence of those of us

we can remember what

lived here longest

who have

curious notions our

native friends and our house servants had about borrowing (with

and without our leave) our to

borrow one's best

either

their

own

Requests from the former

clothes.

go-to-meeting

or that of

some

suit to

wear

relative, or

weddings,

on other

festive

and it took a good many and a good deal of persistence before they could be got understand that such loans were not congenial to our feelings.

occasions, used to be very frequent

;

refusals

Our

servants, however, did not always take the trouble to ask

leave,

but would borrow coat,

trousers,

shirt

;

and

occasionally had the pleasure of discovering portions of our

own

dress

on the back of cook or house boy, as we sat at way home. With new servants it was a

church, or on the '

must, however, be said that a great improvement has taken place during all these particulars, largely through the efforts of the English

the last few years in officers

who have been engaged in training the Malagasy army. Most of the now dressed in neat and appropriate uniforms, and very many

native officers are

have a thoroughly soldierly bearing while the simple white uniform of the rank and file has replaced the cross-belts and loin-clotli which formed the sole dress ;

of the

common

soldiers not

many

years ago.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

338

common

thing

borrow a tablecloth

lainba

and

;

more than once the mistress of the house has been horrified, as her attention has wandered a little from the eloquence of the preacher, to recognise the familiar pattern of her best diaper table-linen enfolding the form of

not

far

from

her.

washerwomen have made

one of her domestics

known,

well

too,

that

sitting

some of our

quite a business of letting out shirts,

trousers, &c., as well as various articles of female dress, belong-

Sunday-

ing to their English clients, to native customers for

wear, and so adding to the legitimate profits of their business.

we have occasionally had the gratification of church how well our own garments have fitted native

In such cases also,

seeing at

wearers of the same.

our congregations

of a

few years

ago

was

there

primitive simplicity about dress which would rather astonish us

remember being amused by this one Sunday In the middle of the at the old Ambatonakanga chapel. sermon a little boy of three or four years old, and perfectly naked, came to the door and looked about to find his mother nowadays.

among

well

the people closely crowded together on the matted floor

of the building.

Presently she noticed the

little

urchin,

and

up him over the heads of her neighThe child quietly unfolded it and, wrapping it about bours. him with all the dignity of a grown-up person, gravely marched to his place, without any one, I think, but myself taking any

taking his

into a ball

notice

tiny Idmba which lay beside

and tossed

of the incident.

her, she rolled

special

occasions,

however, our

congregations used to turn out in gorgeous array, the ladies in silks

and

satins

and wonderful head-dresses, and the men in " chimney-pot " hats so that

black coats and pantaloons and

;

was for some little time quite impossible to recognise one's most intimate acquaintance in their unaccustomed "get-up." Christmas Days were the chief of these high festivals and I well remember how, on my first Christmas Day in Antananarivo,

;

was

utterly " taken

aback

on entering the dark and dingy old

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY chapel at for

Ambatonakanga

instead of the

LIFE.

339

to find such a transformation scene

clean white

Idnibas,

brighten up the place on ordinary occasions,

seemed to be darker than ever

in their

;

which did somewhat

native friends

dark cloth clothes, and

utterly (and comically) uncomfortable in their unusual finery.

little

before

commonly worn by

arrival here

European dress was much more

the well-to-do Malagasy than was the case

Radama II., and the ladies' crinolines were, more than one of our chapels, slipped off at the door and hung up on a nail outside in charge of one of the deacons. There were few raised seats in those days, and it was difficult to

after the decease of

make

the steel hoops, &c.,

their wearer

lie

comfortably or gracefully while

was squatting on the

floor.

Then, of course, there

was a considerable wriggling and contriving to get into them again, as the congregation dispersed, as I have witnessed on Another curious sight as people left church used to be the taking off of smart pairs of boots, which gradually became too irksome to feet unaccustomed to such

more than one

restraint,

occasion.

and were carried by

owners either

their

in their

hand

or suspended to a stick over their shoulder.

The wearer having

(or her) feelings to genteel

appearances during

sacrificed his ser\'ice-time, alities

would again

rejoice in

freedom from convention-

on the walk home.

Native churches certainly deserve credit for reverence and general propriety of behaviour during divine service.

some

newly formed congregations, however, curiosity occasionally gets the better of the proprieties

;

thus

friend the Rev.

Pearse

was once interrupted in the middle of an earnest discourse by a woman who was determined to know whether he would not sell her a smart green sunshade he happened to have with him, and how much he wanted siderable effort

for

it.

And

was not without con-

and coaxing that the good lady was at length

induced to defer her inquiries to a later period of the proceedings.

During a tour to the south-east coast one Sunday afternoon

1876,

in the centre of a village

was preaching

on the banks of

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

340

the river Matitanana, and was a half

coming

forward

most

struggled

rum, It

through

which was handed

was

little

difficult

of the

view of the

full

resume the

This, however, be

course.

chief

place

me a fowl — which clucked and the process — and also a bottle of

give

noisily

when about

confused,

little

by the old

address,

thread of

remembered, was

audience.

the

in a

dis-

heathen

village.

—

and of the occasional I was speaking just now of clothing want of it among the Malagasy. There are, however but perhaps it would now be more correct to say there were

—

now and

occasions happening

covering of the seen.

then

when even

the

—

natural

body, the hair of the head, was not to be

the decease of a

Malagasy sovereign, one of the

customs which have been enforced up to the death of Queen Rasoherina

(in

1868) was, that every person, high and low, rich

and poor, male and female (with a few exceptions in the case of the very highest personages in the kingdom), must shave the As may be supposed, the effect of this was most curious; head. one's most familiar native friends seemed totally altered and unrecognisable, for no hat or other head covering could be used.

One

missionaries wrote

brother

morning (April

Friday

1868) the people presented a very strange

They looked as if they had been suddenly transformed into Hindoos we found a nation of bald-heads, some

spectacle.

;

of them quite glossy.

was amusing

meet our

friends, as

many cases we did not recognise them until they spoke to A man walked up into the town with me in the morning, us. and from his familiarity I conclude he was a man I had known very well but I did not find out who he was, and have not been able to recall his identity since. The strangest part of the in

;

business was that the clipping was

all

done

at once, for

Friday morning the entire country round Antananarivo was

was clean clipped, except some score or so of privileged Malagasy and the Europeans." At the decease of the late

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY Queen Ranavalona probably

will

LIFE. 34I

however, this custom was not enforced

II.,

;

not be again revived.

Native houses are not as a rule at

desirable places to stay-

all

Madagascar they are certainly and more uncomfortable than on the coast or in the

In the central provinces of

in.

dirtier

forest regions,

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;bamboo, greater

where the entirely vegetable materials employed

palm leaves and bark

traveller's-tree, or

make

dimensions,

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;and

the

houses there very passable as

the

But the clay or wooden houses of

temporary resting-places.

the Flova, Betsileo, and other interior tribes are almost always

and infested with vermin

dirty

and

;

Night with the Fleas,"

or with the rats, or the mosquitoes, or the pigs, or the poultry, or

of them put together,

all

one of the

common

experiences

of Madagascar travelling.

Fleas of extraordinary agility seem mount to the highest stretcher bedsteads it is convenient to use, and make night one long-continued attempt to ignore their ubiquitous presence. Rats descend from the roof and able to

perform marvellous acrobatic feats over rafters and cords, playfully

running races over one's person and even one's

face,

with a

loud squeaking and squabbling which rouses us up with a start in

by the

the few intervals of unconsciousness allowed

plagues.

swarm of

Mosquitoes often come bees,

and unless one

attempts at sleep

futile

;

with a

hum

like a small

provided with netting,

and even

make

all

the net has been carefully

tucked around one, two or three stragglers often get

make

lesser

and

the net a very questionable benefit, as effectually keeping

some of the tormentors

keeps out their

companions.

Pigs being often domiciled in the house, resent their exclusion

on the night of your

stay,

you put up against your intrusion into

and break through the

their

domains

;

the house, they will persist in settling floors are often raised

of vested interests

slight barriers

their entrance with a grunting defiance of

above the ground.

shown by the

they do not get into

down under

fowls,

it,

as the

equal maintenance

who

will not

under-

stand that you have engaged the apartments for your exclusive

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

342

and again and again

use,

tomed

will

manage

to get in to their accus-

corner, raising a terrible dust as

you attempt

to dislodge

For, besides the dirt on the floors, and the blackened

them.

mats on the

houses are also liberally provided with

walls, old

strings of soot

hanging from the

tificate

from the rough upper

Such ornaments are considered

story often formed in the roof

by the Malagasy

rafters, or

as an honourable distinction, a sort of cer-

But they are

of an old and long-established family.

rather inconvenient in case of a sudden gust of wind, or a heavy

shower of

rain, or in ejecting a persistent

just mentioned.

and

on tablecloth and provisions,

clothes,

any of these incidents

result of

hen and chickens, as

plentiful sprinkling of soot-flakes on bedding

of course, the

is,

your stay

many

a native

house.

we come now

In going about most parts of Madagascar

and then

some more important

Hova governors

centres of districts, where

are stationed.

usually very kind and hospitable, but

oflicials are

and

places, military stations

it is

These

sometimes

The

very amusing to see the state and ceremony they keep up. military force under their

frequently

it is

command

often very limited,

and

impossible to get together any but a very small

proportion of even the few soldiers they have at their disposal.

But as soon

as they hear of your approach (for

considered

courteous to send on word in advance), some of the subordinate officers are

drawn up

soldiers as they can file, e.g.,

to receive you, together with as

muster (often more

four officers and

your appearance, a great out, all in

two

soldiers).

many words ;

the

Prime Minister, then the governor in

command, together with

As soon as you make command are shouted

Queen

approach to that saluted, then the

at the place,

for

is it

you

own presence to be Coming into the rbva

etiquette for your

to be

welcomed.

and then the

the playing of any music

they have available and the beating of drums then

than rank and

officers

English, or at least as near an

language as they can manage

second

many

;

and not

until

recognised and or

government

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY

LIFE.

343

house, the governor gives you a hearty shake of the hand and,

you are seated, commences a long and formal

as soon as

which runs somewhat as follows

inquiries,

friends

and

relatives,

have arrived, we ask you

lomanjaka, Sovereign of the land

How

Since you, our

How

list

Ranava-

Rainilaiarivony,

How is So-and-so, How is the kingdom of Ambohimanga How are the cannon ? How are the guns ?

Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief? Secretary of State

and Antananarivo

How are

? ^

the Christians

? "

whom we may

questioner

that in going round

rank than the

and

;

remember

Antsihanaka province, a

two-

little

Amparafaravola was carefully inquired

All these inquiries must be severally and gravely replied

after. to,

have recently seen

the

pounder brass cannon

much

(Often the queries are

&c., &c.

more numerous, including any governor higher

including assurances of the well-being of the cannon and the

guns (muskets). Native feasts are often amusing occasions, sometimes being very lengthy and occasionally very noisy.

Ankarana

forget one at

The dinner

honour.

was the

there was,

noisiest entertainment at

consisted of the following courses roast pork

4th, pigeons

poached eggs

;

2th, boiled

which :

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

curry

manioc

;

loth,

;

fried

13th, dried

assisted.

2nd, goose

;

5th, fowl cutlets

tongue

7th, boiled

bananas;

bananas

;

and certainly

have ever

ist,

and waterfowl

sardines; 9th, pigs' trotters;

cakes

not soon

shall

think, the longest,

beef sausages

6th,

the Taimoro country) given in

(in

3rd,

and 8th,

;

nth, pan-

and

last,

when

thought everything must have been served, came hunches of

roast

beef.

each dish

The

taking a constantly diminishing quantity of

managed

to appear to

healths of the Queen,

do some

justice to

them

all.

our friends the two Foreigners,"

then those of the Prime Minister and chief officers of State were all

drunk twice over,

all

already remarked,

a big

drum '

followed by musical (and drum) honours.

was a very noisy occasion,

for there

just outside in the verandah, as well as

Other chief

orticers of

was

two small

Government are occasionally mentioned.

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

344

and these were in full playroom was filled by a crowd of inferior officers and servants, and the shouting of everybody to everybody else, from the governor downwards, was deafening. It was a relief when the two hours' proceedings came at last to ones, with clarionets

and

almost

Then

the time.

all

fiddles,

the

a conclusion.

good deal might be said about the queer articles of food by the Malagasy. Locusts, divested of their wings and legs and dried in the sun, are very largely eaten and occasionally used

may

be seen

heaps

certain kinds of

Besides these,

almost every market.

moths are

also used for food, as well as the

chrysalides of various insects, different species of beetle, and

even some sorts of spiders

must

information as to these delicacies

never

bring

esteemed by

very

myself to

fruitful

confess, however, that

is all

second-hand

bonnes

try these

touches,

could

much

native friends.

source of

amusement (to those who have had a

longer knowledge of the language)

the unavoidable ignorance

of Malagasy on the part of new-comers and the absurd mistakes arising therefrom.

fear that very often

we say some shocking

things in preaching and public speaking during the earlier years

of our residence in

the country

ridiculous things goes without saying

Malagasy have not ludicrous,

make,

(at least so

we say innumerable

that

;

and were

not that the

think) a very quick sense of the

and are also very tolerant to the mistakes foreigners

our

congregations

must

certainly during

attempts be often convulsed with laughter. ever,

do we see anything of the kind

;

and

our

early

Very seldom, howoften think that old

European residents see a vast deal more that

absurd

the

attempts of newer arrivals than do the Malagasy themselves.

venerable missionary, deservedly honoured especially in connection with the re-establishment of the L,M.S. Mission in

Mada-

Sunday to thank God that He had given us another Day of Judgment using the v^ord Jitsardna (judgment)

gascar, used every

for fitsahdrana (rest).

another occasion he, quite innocently,

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY

LIFE.

345

used over and over again in a sermon a word which, as he pro-

meant something extremely offensive at last even the Malagasy could stand it no longer, and the women began to go out the preacher could not understand this and repeated the word with redoubled emphasis, adding, Aza mivoaka, iy nounced

it,

;

sakaiza

Don't go out, friends

which they,

the more,

all

would continue doing. Another brother informed his audience God was the " midwife of all living things," using the word

that

mainpivelona {velona,

living),

which

means having come

alive

;

the two prefixes

Meeting a few years ago

" Oil

still

jumped

earnest brother out,

in that sense,

to express

two very

different

Those who were present

ideas.

only used

to support, nourish, or keep

instead of manielona, which

Solika sy rano

and water

up,

at a Congregational Union remember with amusement how an

and

in a stentorian voice

shouted

tsy azo avipifangaroharoina izy roroa "

they cannot be mixed

the accent in solika in

the

"),

(t.e.y

but by his putting

wrong place he produced a most

comical impression.

But such anecdotes could be given almost

any extent, and

similar mistakes need not be further dwelt

upon. It is

well

known

long time the

to all

" relative "

who have

studied Malagasy that for a

form of the verb

puzzling features of the language.

one of the most

Several years ago,

when the

learning Malagasy were far less than they are now, some of us were much amused by the announcement made by a more recently arrived brother one Sunday morning, that

facilities for

he was still

going to try a

relative

much bothered and perplexed by asinoruvi

to-day."

was evidently

Another brother,

a very unfamiliar form to him.

after

the intricacies of this

being ^'

pons

of the language, decided upon a short and easy road

out of the difficulty

;

he determined to stick to the active and

passive forms and to ignore the annoying

" relative "

Another frequent source of queer mistakes

altogether

Malagasy tongues, of pronouncing our English names. are often so altered both in writing

them and

the difficulty, to

These

speaking them

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

346 that they

become

Who,

instance,

for

nerina the simple

word "

could detect under the form Misiteritbri-

name " Mr. Thome " ? or in the name of " Richardson " ? The names

English

Itsdridisaonina, the "

Briggs

and

Jukes

Malagasy forms,

unrecognisable by the uninitiated.

utterly

and

Sims

Birmgitra"

less altered

are

in their

" Shiipitj-a"

and

Jbkitra," ''

but

funny enough. Our distinctive titles of respect, Mr., and Miss, are very difficult for the Malagasy to distinguish and so " Miss Craven " becomes " Misitera Giravy " and

are

still

Mrs.,

;

Craven,"

as having

Graham," and

any

difference

Graves

while

;

continually confounded together.

noyed "

He had

James."

concluded that

fore

Wilson I

the

native

heard

and

for

names

all

styled

College are called

Betsileo

besopy"

also suffer curious

"much

(lit.,

but their adherents also are

same name

kolejy" and scholars are called

The name

;

each

sekbly "

The French

the country districts

danitra^ which, literally translated, !

speak of

In the same way, also, students at the

dent soon became known "

thus,

him

and there-

" it figures as " besbfina

they are themselves colleges and schools

heaven

are

Strangely too, not only are Episcopalian

!).

are "bishops."

all

for

" ^^i-^/>' "

distinguished from other Christians by the

and

Wills

equivalent for our Mr., Mrs.,

Official

besbmpy" while

great eared

clergymen

wife address

transformations; thus "bishop" becomes

(lit, "

name-prefixes Ra- and Andrian- are inseparable

&c., for their

soup

and

inquiring

was the proper way

parts of their proper names.

remember how an-

well

pastor

The Malagasy have no exact

me.

can hardly be recognised

during our early time of residence at

wife was,

Ambohimanga, by

;

Resi-

rest'an-

would mean "conquered

of the famous prime minister of Prussia,

Prince Bismarck, has actually become a Malagasy word as an "

manao

equivalent for cunning, craft, in the form of bizy

is "

the time of the

to act craftily."

This phrase originated

Franco-Prussian war, when the fame of Bismarck this country.

first

bizy

reached

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY

LIFE.

347

While speaking of words introduced by Europeans into the Malagasy language, a word or two may be said about other proper names, chiefly Scriptural ones, which have become thoroughly

naturalised

curious forms, and

came

instruction

names had

have

these

from the

arises

oral

these Bible

would appear as

taken

that

fact

some time indeed before

first,

be printed.

Many

here.

this chiefly

the

first

missionaries, in conversing with the Malagasy about the Saviour

Him by

of the world, had very naturally spoken of

name, pronounced

same way,

the

what would be the most correct form of

as well as of other names, that their

Greek

came

And

originals.

Kristo

New

Revised

Testament,

Kristy

;

while

pronunciation of the Redeemer's

duced

"Jeso-Kry

thus,

but

Jesus Christ

" /eso

Kristo

" (or

In the

correct.

has been substituted for

Kraisty, but the older pronunciation holds

of the books formerly issued by

Malagasy, a tolerably close

would no doubt have been more

name,

this sacred

so the English form

reproduction of our pronunciation of " /eso

all

did not con-

the nearest representation of

is,

to be "Jesosy Kraisty "

same

the

which they and

They apparently

English-speaking peoples use. sider

as that

own.

its

some

the Jesuit Mission, the French

name was in

their

phonetically repro-

later

publications the

spelling of the sacred name has been approximated to that employed in Protestant books. Other curious words which have

now become written

naturalised in

''/iosy "

Malagasy are Jews

and pronounced exactly

Gentiles {not " Gentile

"),

written "/enti/isa"

like ;

(not " " juice "

Jew

"),

and

;

so that the Mala-

gasy speak of one Jews, and of one Gentiles

Many

English names have become naturalised

among

the

Malagasy, especially the names of some of the missionaries

among them.

Thus we

Rajaonsona (Mr. Johnson), Raoilisona (Mr. Wilson), and Rasoelina (Mr. Sewell). On one

resident

occasion

find

missionary was conducting service at a country

was requested to baptise an infant. asking the name of the child, he was startled and not a chapel,

and

at the close

On little

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

348

own name

confused by the parents giving his

surname included) as the one he was

(Christian

and

young

to give to the

One of the oddest names I have heard of is Radewhich I am assured was taken from the title of the " day-

neophyte. boka,

book

which the parents had seen

odd name

name and

prefix Ra, then the

finally the native na.mQ /ao/era. is

have,

prepared by three young native

the native

altered to mose,

absurd mistake arising

England some years ago, but

officers,

one of

whom

years past governor of Tamatave.

several

Afiother

first

perpetuated on the title-page of a

Malagasy vocabulary published for

" monsieur','

French

from ignorance of Malagasy

Hospital

in the

Ramosejaofera, in which

editor apparently intended to describe

has been

The English

as " a dook (Mai. dokj/)

instead of by Rabezandrina " and his companions reads, " Boka no anarany Rabezandrina" &c., &c., which is literally, " Lepers are the names of Rabezandrina," &c. The three authors were long known to some of us as " the three written

which

;

lepers."

But

who make absurd mistakes It is known to many in Madagascar that the name by

not the Malagasy only

about names unfamiliar to them.

England who have which we

the

friends in

missionaries

here

natives

England, who had exact meaning

;

and other foreigners are designated "

Vazaha."

But a worthy minister

got hold of the term, slightly mistook

and, supposing

name

to be the

in its

of a division

of the Malagasy people, he gravely informed his hearers at a public meeting that are

still

the

Vazaha

are a tribe in

Madagascar who

but imperfectly acquainted with the Gospel

Many

" !

native customs strike us as very odd, and doubtless not less so

do many of our customs appear to the Malagasy. Thus they are accustomed to employ the points of the compass in speaking of the positions of things in the house, where the

left "

you."

One

to the right," or

" in

we should

front of

you

say, " to "

behind

brother missionaries was once dining with

a native friend, and while eating some

rice,

a portion happened

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY to

adhere to his moustache.

attention

wrong

side, his entertainer cried, "

of your moustache

side

host

circumstance, and on

the

His

349

poHtely called

No, no

LIFE.

friend wiping

the

on the southern

it's

his

sometimes takes a

time

little

our Malagasy friends to understand our ways. Thus I remember that when living at Ambohimanga we were visited one day by an old friend who happened to be then staying at for

After a

the ancient capital.

little

conversation

wife brought

out a good-sized plum-cake, and cutting a slice or two offered

— not

him.

slice

—

her great astonishment he quietly took

the whole

but,

But finding himself,

of the cake

and commenced eating

it.

embarrassed by

its

after a little time, rather

was a good deal more than he could then comfortabl}' manage, he gradually stowed it away in his pockets, remarking that his children would like it. We altered our way quantity, and that

of handing cake to native friends from that date.

The

money on At births and marriages, at deaths and funerals, when ill or when getting better, at the New Year, when building a house or when constructing a tomb, when going on a journey or on returning all

native custom of giving and expecting bits of

imaginable occasions seems very odd to Europeans.

from one,

times of joy or in times of sorrow

of them these wretched

from

little

bits of

It is true that at funerals

visitors.

—

at each

and

all

cut-money are expected a return

made

in the

shape of presents of beef; and the solemnities of death and

mourning are mixed up with the

— to

—very

incongruous

elements of the slaughter-house and the butcher's-shop.

one leaves before the oxen are instead of beef

home from in-state,"

made

a funeral,

;

and

or, at least,

killed,

But

a present of poultry

have more than once come from the preliminary

lying-

with a goose or a duck dangling from the poles of

palanquin.

Some curious Madagascar should be

said,

things are seen the

way

by those who

travel

of church decoration.

much about

here,

speaking almost exclusively of buildings erected,

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

350

by congregations

When

L.M.S.)

remembered

it is

that these

number more than

and are scattered over a very wide extent of country,

1,200,

some

connection, at least nominally, with the

missionaries having as

many as

these under their nominal charge,

seventy, eighty, or ninety of will

be clear that to only a

very small proportion of them can he give any personal atten-

tion or advice as to their construction or adornment. it is

only

is,

of the villages nearest to his station, and

in the case

here and there at important centres, that an English missionary

can do

much

and advise country church

to guide

The

builders.

majority of village churches are therefore entirely the product of native

skill,

many

and

their decoration the

cases, especially

outcome of native

some of the

taste.

districts nearest to

Antananarivo, the village churches are models of what such places should be

and with

;

glass windows, their neatly

their

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;sometimes â&#x20AC;&#x201D; they do credit to the

coloured interiors, and well-made platform pulpits elaborate structures of massive stonework

simple country people

who have

truthfully said that the majority of

are of this kind.

But

built them.

Madagascar

far the greater

cannot be

village churches

number of them

are rough

structures of clay walls with sun-dried brick gables and thatched roofs

;

and

their only furniture

brick, with a

a raised platform of earth or

rough table serving both

Communion, a clumsy form or two for floor, some lesson-sheets on

mats on the blackboard

for

every-day school use.

for pulpit

and

for the

the singers, a few dirty the walls, and perhaps a

There

certainly no fear

at present of the majority of our congregations being led astray

sestheticism in religious buildings or worship.

But frequently there are

decoration, and these are often ally highly comical little

church away

same time some attempts at very incongruous and occasion-

at the

(though doubtless unintentionally

north,

and otherwise very neatly

so).

finished,

In a is

band of ornament round the walls which is exactly like the figures on an ace-of-clubs card, and has probably been copied from

this.

other places figures of officers

and

soldiers

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY marching and even fighting are prominent sportsmen

(as

Ambohimanga)

in others are seen

;

impossibly big birds perched on trees

firing at

again

others

LIFE.

the

former

a large tree

Antsahamanitra

;

church

conspicuous behind the pulpit,

bearing tremendous pumpkin-like

(In this

fruits.

same church,

however, there were also some very tasteful groups of flowers

window arches.) In the church remember that the front of the

painted on the keystones of the at

Vohipeno (Matitanana) was decorated

pulpit

in the following

way

part of the space

was occupied by a picture of a European ship with two masts the other part had a church with a

Hoy

these was the legend, "

hora

Says the lord of

tall

izay tompony ity trano ity

this

house

and a coloured border.

also four birds

tower and spire

Fear

;

over

Mata-

and there were

Figures of clocks are

frequently seen, and also those of a spear and shield, whether

with any reference to

armour,

cannot say.

the shield of faith It is

and other Christian

worthy of note that no example of

symbolism or sacred monograms or emblems has ever come under

although passages of Scripture are

notice,

now not

unfrequently painted on the walls of village churches. with

many

and

fruit

places

;

flowers, often

and

showing some

taste,

one or two places a very

are

Trees seen in

effective decora-

has been formed by painted sprays of leaves or flowers

tion

scattered over the wall, giving the effect of a simple diaper or

wall-paper pattern.

During a tour province with

amused by the

Dr.

took

1874

Mullens and Mr.

round

the

Pillans,

variety of the receptacles

Antsihanaka

we were much

used at the doors

of the village churches for the weekly offerings of the congregations.

In one district old sardine tins were the favourite article

employed further on we found that Morton's jam tins were most while in yet another district old tin flasks formerly in vogue filled with gunpowder were in greatest request for the purpose. not very many, we In certain Malagasy village churches ;

;

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

should

hope

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; some

very curious additions

the

ordinary

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

352

furniture have been seen

the late

Queen

that her subjects

was

many

places interpreted

The wish of should worship the true God by petty officials as giving

by occasional

visitors.

them authority to force the attendance of the people, and to punish them if they were negligent. The command, " Compel them to come in," was, in fact, often very literally carried out.

down

Travelling

to the Betsileo province on

Davidson, while stopping

for

one occasion. Dr.

mid-day meal

his

at a country

chapel, noticed a good-sized stone near the door, the object of

which much exercised

his mind.

inquiring the use of this

he was told that if the people were negligent of the means of grace " and did not attend service regularly, they were seized and obliged to carry the stone to the top of a neighbouring hill and down again, to punish them for their Another sins and remind them to be more diligent in future.

stone, "

kind of penance used to be enforced at Tsiafahy

were irregular their

people

who

attendance at chapel were obliged to creep on

hands and knees round the

fdJiitra or ox-fattening

pen

the village, as a punishment for inattention to their religious duties.

a country chapel in the Friends' District, Mr. H. E.

Clark saw, on one occasion, a deacon sitting at the door with a handful of small pebbles.

When

this official noticed

any one

congregation asleep, or inattentive, or irreverent, he threw

in the

a pebble at the offender to rouse him up, or as a gentle reminder to be

Much preaching

careful.^

that :

odd

amusing might be noted with regard illustrations, strange

applications of Scripture, curious Biblical subjects, &c.

;

to native

misapprehensions and mis-

answers to questions about

but enough has,

hope, here been said to

my remark at the commencement of this paper, that the monotony of our daily routine is frequently enlivened by curious and comic occurrences, and that, together with the more serious duties of our work, there is often "a decided element of the

justify

amusing, the odd, and the absurd It need hardly be denounce all such ways '

said of

that

all

" in

our

life in

Madagascar.

true missionaries utterly repudiate

promoting Christianity.

and

CHAPTER

XVII.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR IN CONNECTION WITH THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE ISLAND, WITH NOTICES OF THE EXTINCT FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE OF THE COUNTRY.

—

General characteristics of mammalian fauna Remarkable difference to that of Africa An ancient island Wallace's " Island Life " Oriental and Australian affinities Vegetable productions Botanising in Madagascar Three-fourths of flora endemic in the island Three different regions described by Mr. Baron Floral beauty Orchids The Eastern Region The Central Region The Western Region Extinct forms of animal life Grandidier's discoveries Geology Huge lemuroid Link between apes and lemurs Small hippopotamus The ^pyornis Crocodiles Enormous terrestrial lizard Primaeval Madagascar.

—

— —

—

Section

—

— — —

—

General Characteristics of the Malagasy Mammalian Fauna.

BEFORE describing the

Malagasy animals, something must

be said about the peculiarities of the fauna of the island

taken as a whole.

large extent of country in

others, line

;

Madagascar

covered with

believed to surround the island in an almost unbroken

while there

in addition to this, a considerable tract

is,

country, less densely wooded, occupying

and southern genial

a belt of which, broad in some places and narrow in

forest,

habitat

reptiles,

plains. for

much

of the western

Here, then, there appears to be a con-

a vast

number of

and arboreal mammals

—

living

creatures

—

birds,

the thousands of square

miles of woods, which cover not only a great portion of the

353

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

354

warmer coast

region, but also the eastern slopes of the elevated

interior highlands.

From

these circumstances, as well as

from the variety of

other physical conditions prevailing in the country

and open downs, cool it

and

(in

the south-west) arid deserts

might be supposed that Madagascar,

entirely within

animal

the

first

the

But

life.

tent as one

not

so, at least,

always struck with their general

of the country does,

it is

exceptional forms of in

life,

as for

life

but

what

it is

almost with

filled

some most

forests for

The fauna

Not only

the position of the island with regard to Africa

and what

interesting

almost as remarkable

contains.

and

stillness

along the route.

true, include

is,

not nearly to such an ex-

would expect, and a stranger crossing the

time

omitted

situated, as

would be abundantly

tropics, is

the apparent scarcity of animal

highlands and sultry tropical

interior

plains, fertile river valleys

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; mountains

so,

for

but from

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;being separated

by a sea only 230 miles wide at its narrowest part, a distance further reduced by a bank of soundings to only 160 from

miles

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; one

would also suppose that the fauna of the island

would largely resemble that of the continent. But it is remarkwhole families of the larger mammalia are ably different :

absent

entirely felines,

;

lions,

there

are

no representatives of the larger

leopards, or hyaenas

;

none of the ungulate

order, except a single species of river-hog, sole relative here of

the hippopotamus,! no rhinoceros or buffalo zebra, quagga, or giraffe, or

and there is no any of the numerous families of

antelope which scour the African plains.

browsing still,

;

There

no elephant

wooded regions of Madagascar, and, stranger no apes or monkeys living in its trees. The few

in the

there are

horses and asses existing in the island are of recent introduction

by Europeans

;

even the

humped

cattle,

which exist

immense somewhat

herds, are not indigenous, but have been brought at a

' There was, however, formerlj' a small species of Madagascar hippopotamus, apparently only recently extinct, for its bones are found in a sub-fossil state, will be noticed more fully further on.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. remote period from Africa

;

and the hairy

fat-tailed

355

sheep and

the goats, as well as the swine and dogs found in Madagascar, are

all

of foreign introduction.

But notwithstanding which Madagascar

all

that, the

zoological sub-region, of

the largest and most important portion,

pronounced by every naturalist who has studied

to be

one of

the most remarkable districts on the globe, bearing, says Mr.

Alfred R. Wallace,

a similar relation to Africa as the Antilles

to Tropical America, or

much

New

Zealand to Australia, but possess-

richer fauna than either of these,

and in some more remarkable one even than New Zealand. The Madagascar fauna is very deficient in many of the orders and families of the mammalia, only six out of the eleven orders being represented,^ but some of these, especially the Lemuroida among the Quadrumana, the Viverridae among the Carnivora, and the Centetidae among the Insectivora, are well represented in genera and species. ing a

respects a

less

mammals

than forty distinct families of land

represented in Africa, only eleven of which occur in gascar,

which also possesses four families peculiar to

are

Madaitselfs

The whole

surface of the globe is divided by Mr. Wallace into six zoological each of which broad and clearly marked distinctions are shown to exist in the animal life as compared with that of the other great divisions. Each of these regions is again divided into " sub-regions," Madagascar and the neighbouring islands forming the " Malagasy Sub-region " of the " Ethiopian Region," the latter being a zoological division which includes Africa south of the Tropic of Cancer, together with its islands, excepting the Cape De Verde group. The following diagram shows the geographical position of each region, and, to a considerable extent, their relation to each other '

" regions," in

Pal^arctic

Ne.\kctic

Ethiopian

OKn:NTAL

Neotropical |

Australian' ^

These

are, Primates, Cheiroptera,

Insectivora,

Carnivora, Ungulata, and

Rodentia. 3 Cheiromydai (one genus and one species, the Aye-aye) Indrisida; (three genera and ten species and varieties) Lemurid;e (six genera and twenty-eight and Cryptoproctidce (one genus and one species, species and varieties) ;

;

the Fosa).

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

356

The following is a known to inhabit

list

the

the genera of

all

island,

mammalia as yet number of

together with the

species belonging to each, these latter, including well-marked

now amounting

varieties,

Primates.

107

Speciesand^

Species and

\ aneties.

Varieties.

Species and Varieties.

Siib-onici' Lciunroida.

Miniopterus

Oiyzorictes

Centetes

Propithecuv

Emballonura

Avahis

Triaenops

Taphozous Xyctinomus

Indris

Lemur

Rhinopoma Myzopoda

Hapalemur

Lepidolemur Phaner Mirza

Cheirogaleus

Fossa

Cheiromys

Viverricula

Cryptoprocta

Felis

Galidia

Eupleres

Pteropus Cynonycteris Phyllorhyna Vesperus

Vesperugo Scotophilus

3 2

Vespertilio

Ericulus

RODHNTIA.

Carnivuka.

Cheiropteka.

Hemicentetes Echinops

i i

Eliurus

Hypogeomys Xesomys

Brachytarsomys Hallomys

...

Schoenomys Pseudomyoxodon Brachyuromys ...

Potamochoerus

Ungulata.

Insectivora.

Sorex Microgale Geogale

Hippopotamus

total of 46 genera and 107 mammals, many of the genera being

have here a

varieties of

Madagascar.

All

The assemblage

{sub-fossil)

species

and

peculiar to

the species are peculiar, except,

some of the wandering

...

perhaps,

bats.

of animals above noted

remarkable, and

seems to indicate a very ancient connection with the southern portion of Africa before the apes and

and

had entered

felines

it,

all

itself that

present ungulates

mammals

these

animals

assemblage now found continent.

the island has once formed part

been very closely connected with, a continent character of

The

no doubt from the north.

presence of nearly a hundred species of

proof in

its

;

a certain of,

or has

and yet the

altogether different from

Africa

any other

the

existing

very slight acquaintance with the present fauna

of Africa would at

first

sight prevent us from thinking that

FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR.

TPIE

357

Madagascar could ever have been united with it and yet, as the tigers, the bears, the tapirs, the deer, and the numerous ;

squirrels of

its

Asia are equally absent, there seems no possibility

having ever been united with that continent.

then see to what groups the

and where It will

mammalia

must be looked

their probable allies

be seen from the tabular

Let us

of Madagascar belong,

list

for.

already given that the

most prominent feature of the Madagascar mammalian fauna the lemurian, the ten genera and thirty-nine species and

which are here represented forming about

varieties

of the whole

mammalian population of

the island.

four-fifths

The

lemurs,

which are the most lowly organised of the Quadrumana, and probably also the most ancient animals of that order, are

still

found scattered over a very wide area, but they are nowhere so

abundant as

Madagascar, having doubtless been elsewhere

largely exterminated in the struggle for existence

developed monkeys and apes.

examples

are,

by the

later

Straggling and disconnected

however, found, ranging from West Africa, where

there are two endemic forms, to Southern India, Ceylon, and

Malaysia.

own by in

The Lemuroida

their nocturnal

dense

The

forests.

closely allied

forms, so that

of these regions seem to hold their

and arboreal

habits, being

African forms of lemur seem not more

those of Madagascar than

mostly found

appears probable that

are

the

Asiatic

all

these animals are but

the remains of a once widely-spread and

much more numerous

group.

This

confirmed by the fact that lemurian animals

once inhabited North America and Europe, and possibly the

whole northern hemisphere, as in in

their

remains have been found

Eocene deposits of the Jura and of South-west France, and the Upper Eocene of Paris.

The

twenty-five species of Bats need not detain us at this

point, as they are

all,

as might be supposed from their powers

more or

less

nearly allied to forms found in other parts

flight,

of the world.

then come to the Carnivora, which are represented by a

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

358

peculiar jaguar-like animal, the Cryptoprocta, which forms in itself

a distinct family and has no near allies in any other part

of the globe, and by nine civets, belonging to genera peculiar

Here we

country.

to this

first

some decided is more and some of the

meet with

indications of an African origin, for the civet family

abundant

continent than in Asia,

this

Madagascar genera seem

Oriental regions, the civets

Miocene

be decidedly

Although now almost confined

groups."

were abundant

found over

Centetida;

—

find

the continents, but the

all

else

Indies, in

Cuba and Hayti,

on the globe except one genus

further to our

" thus,"

embarrassment

home of the Madagascar

fauna."

many

This group, however,

distinct types

The Madagascar Rodents

consist

mice of endemic genera, one of which species will

As in

still

;

but

West

adding

seeking for the original

found

found as

only of is

is,

peculiar forms in various parts of the world, but in

limited area are so

the

says Mr. Wallace,

Lemuroida, of high geological antiquity, and

American genus

them

— the other— the

one of which

but confined to this island, none being found

is all

anywhere

still

the next order, the Insectivora,

represented in Madagascar by two families,

—

and Europe during the

period.

Coming shrews

African

allied

to the Ethiopian

like the

numerous

no equally

Madagascar.

five

rats

and

said to be allied to an

probable that

this

order other

be discovered.

regards the last order, the Ungulata, this

Madagascar by but one

represented

living species, a river-hog allied to

and by an extinct form of hippopotamus. But, from the semi-aquatic habits of these animals and their

an African

species,

powers of swimming, the island

appears probable that their presence

explained by a former more close connection with

the neighbouring continent.^ ' For the substance, and in many sentences the \voi"ding, of the three preceding pages, I am indebted to those valuable works of Mr. Wallace, The Geographical Distribution of Animals, chap, .xi., vol. i., and Island Life, chap. xix.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. For a

full

359

discussion of the difficult problem of the deri-

vation of this very particular fauna,

would

refer the reader to

Mr, Wallace's interesting work Island Life, chap. xix. only here indicate

can

a very brief fashion the principal points

which now appear pretty well established from a consideration

we bear

mind the special and isolated character of many of the Madagascar birds, as well as the Asiatic affinities of some the peculiarities of the mammalian fauna, as just detailed the Oriental and American relationships of many of the reptiles and the Oriental, Australian, and even South American affinities of some of the insects and if to these facts we add the geological character of the island, and of

all

the available facts.

;

the

now well-known

conditions as regards the depths of the

surrounding ocean, the

drawn

deductions

following

may

fairly

Madagascar is a very ancient island geologically considered, and many of the animals now found here are very antique forms, survivals of a once

which

in early

much more widely extended

fauna,

times was spread over the continents, but has in

them become nearly or quite extinct through the introduction of other forms of animal better fitted to survive in the struggle for existence. fiercer e.g.,

In this great island, however, cut off from the

competition of continental

the

Lemurs and

life,

many of these earlier types,

the Centetida;, have held their own, and so

Madagascar has become,

to a certain extent, a kind of

of ancient forms of

to be seen

life

nowhere

else

museum

on the globe.

There can be no doubt that Madagascar had anciently a much closer connection with Africa than exists at present,

from that continent most of before, however.

Asiatic

present

and that

fauna was derived,

Southern Africa had received from the Euro-

continent

the time

its

most of

its

present characteristic animals.

when Madagascar was thus more

closely connected

with the continent. Southern Africa was probably a large continental island, like Australia, separated from

by a shallow

sea,

now

its

represented by the

northern portion

Sahara and the

THE CONQUEST.

:^IADAGASCAR BEFORE

360

Arabian

About the same time

deserts.

numerous groups of

islands,

now

also

probable that

represented only by

slowly

still

sinking banks and atolls in the Northern Indian Ocean, brought

Madagascar Asia, its

into

much

connection with South-eastern

closer

and so some of the Oriental and Australian

fauna are perhaps accounted

some of

forms of

its

life {e.g.,

And

for.

affinities

as for the likeness of

the Centetidce

among

among butterflies, and some of the among reptiles) to the living creatures

Insectivora,

the Urania

serpents and

tortoises

countries,

distant

no doubt only remnants

of a

the intervening regions, but

now

are

these

fauna once spread over

found only

still

all

such widely separated

islands

Cuba and

Madagascar. It

will

be evident, therefore, that although the mammalian

fauna of Madagascar consists, except lemurs, chiefly of small

the case of

some of the

and inconspicuous animals, many of

these creatures are of exceptional interest to the zoologist, and

throw no small

upon

light

earlier

conditions of

life

upon the

earth.

Having thus sketched the leading characteristics of the Madagascar Fauna, I proceed to give a brief outline of the Flora of the island, for the main facts of which I am indebted to a paper of

buted

November, 1888,

to the

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Botany.^

Section

II.

Rev. R. Baron, F.L.S., contri-

friend, the

Journal of the Linnean Society

The Flora of Madagascar.

The vegetable productions of the island are now tolerably known to science, since the country has been explored by

well

European botanists

many

mountains have been ascended, its

different directions. its

collections of plants have been

The Flora of Madagascar, with

highest

and number of places

lakes and marshes crossed,

encircling forests have been penetrated in a

and large

Its

map showing

made

;

at various times,

Botanical "Regions."

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. which have been described

the scientific journals of England,

France, Germany, and Holland.

far the largest

number of

England by Mr. Baron,

these have been collected and sent to

who

present the chief authorit}- on the flora of

Mada-

gascar.

In 1889 the number of plants from Madagascar which had been named and described was about 4,100, and these have since been increased to probably over 4,300.

The south-western

portion of Madagascar, and the lowlands of

known as made addition some

generally, are at present the least

but every year sees

of the island, and the blanks on the filled

map

its

southern part

regards the botany, to our

knowledge

are being rapidly

up.

Mr. Baron graphically describes his experiences collecting

in botanical

Madagascar, as those who have travelled in wild and uncivilised regions in other parts of the world will easily believe, is a totally different experience from botanising "

Botanising

Your

England.

who may will

collecting materials are carried

by a

native,

be honest or not, in which latter case the drying paper

begin gradually and

mysteriously to disappear, and

leather straps with which the presses are tightened will, one

For a

one, be quietly appropriated. special

weakness

belts, so that

for leather straps,

both

for the

the

Malagasy bearer has a

they being largely used for

sake of your

own comfort and

the

honesty of the men, the sooner you dispense with them the better.

the dried

for

plants

themselves, they are secure

what possible use or value they can from all pilfering You might leave your be, it puzzles the natives to conceive. collection in a village for a whole month, and you would find on ;

your return that

you

sit

down

in a

for of

was

still

intact.

If,

after the day's journey,

hut to change the sheets of paper containing

come in, and, standmute astonishment, turning

the specimens, the villagers will be sure to

ing round

circle,

gaze at you

over the plants so well

known

to them.

After a few minutes'

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

362

silent gaze, there will

laughter, or

may

perhaps be a sudden outburst of amused be a

would be something

world

the

men

are

! '

man doing ? Some of the

broth

to this effect '

What

you cannot eat them

you cannot plant them,

;

were

in the

strange creatures the white

plants,

whatever can you do

you cannot make them

;

they are dead

for

form them into bouquets or wreaths, withered.

Whatever

' :

people doubtless think that you are a

For these dried

kind of sorcerer. with them

or,

whispering, which,

little

audible,

surprising, then, if

for

into

you cannot

;

they are brown and

some of the

natives think

you are dabbling in the black art, and that your plants, some strange and mysterious decoction, are

that

the form of supply,

may

be, a potent rain-medicine, or a love-philter, or a

disease-preventing physic there are

many

For among the natives themselves

herbal quacks, who, for a consideration, are able

not only to prescribe for the cure, and even prevention, of disease, but also to furnish

charms against

or tempest, locusts

fire

or lightning, leprosy or lunacy, ghosts, crocodiles, or witches.

The explanation which

have most frequently heard given,

however, by the more intelligent of the natives as to the use

of the dried plants,

employed

that the

for patterns in

" It is not, then,

intended

are

weaving.

the natives that you have to fear in regard

to your collections of plants,

showers

leaves

it is

that, unless protected

the weather

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

those heavy

with extreme care by waterproof

coverings, succeed in soaking your specimens

and your drying

paper, so that you have occasionally to spend half the night in

some fire,

dirty hovel in doing

what you

can,

by the aid of a large

to save your collection from destruction."

large extent of country in

primeval

forest.

Madagascar

covered with

These woods are most extensive on the eastern

side of the island,

where they clothe the

hills

and the eastern

slopes of the edge of the upper table-land, where the principal

water-parting of the country, running north and south, It is

believed that the whole island

encircled

by a

found. belt of

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. forest,

there

but this statement

requires confirmation, although

still

no doubt that there are extensive

western

The

side.

eastern forest attains

the north-east of Madagascar, a

Antongil, where

however,

than 25 miles

it is

much

Bay of

north of the

little

has been calculated that

forests, there is

how

be easily seen

Besides

a large extent of country on the coast

plains covered with scattered patches of will

in the

an area of 30,000 miles of forest-covered

country, or about one-eighth part of the total area.

dense

on the

forests also

greatest breadth in

its

from 40 to 60 miles broad. Further south, narrower, probably not averaging more

in breadth.

whole island there

363

wood and

large a field there

brush, so

Madagascar

for

botanical research.

This large extent of wooded country

is,

however, being

diminished every year by the wholesale destruction of forest in

how

burning

recklessly

for rice-planting,

it is

cut

and

down and destroyed

the

grievous to see

for this

and other

more trivial reasons. The large concessions of forest land to European companies for timber-cutting and plantations also tend in the same direction, and unless some plan of forest conservation their flora

soon effected, the beautiful woods, with most of

and fauna,

will

eventually disappear.

Mr. Baron believes that the great bulk of the Madagascar plants

have been

already gathered, and

sufficient data to enable a

as to the character and distribution of the

flora.

quote from his paper to give these conclusions "

The

are

there

now

few general conclusions to be drawn

show

following figures will

will

again

at a glance the

number

of Natural Orders and genera of flowering plants represented in

Madagascar as compared with those known throughout the

world, according to Total

known „

The number

Bentham and Hooker's Genera Plantaruiu: in the

World

Madagascar

Orders, 200

;

144

;

„

—

Genera, 7,569. „

970.

of genera here given comprises those only that

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST,

364

indigenous to the island.

are

plants that have at

include

numerous

the

total

the genera would be probably raised to about 1,050.

number of

"Of

one time or other been introduced, the

the

4,100 indigenous

Madagascar, about remarkable

plants

3,000 (or three-fourths

of the

flora),

are,

Even of the Gramineae and

endemic.

say,

known

present

Cyperacese about two-fifths of the plants in each order are

There

peculiar to the island.

but one natural order confined

to Madagascar, the Chlaenaceae, with twenty-four species, which,

Of ferns much as five-

however. Dr. Baillon places under Ternstroemiaceae.

more than a

third are endemic,

sixths, facts

which

and of orchids as

themselves are sufficient to give a very

individuality to the character of the flora.

marked

the 4,100

known

plants, there are

Dicotyledons

3.492

Monocotyledons Acotyledons

248 360

4,100

The

following

list

shows the number of species

the

Orders most largely represented, and their percentage of the total flora

{i.e.,

of the 4,100 plants mentioned above) No.

Leguminosaj Filices

Compositce Euphorbiaceie Orchideaj Cyperaceie Rubiaceie Acanthacece

Gramine* "

The Palms and Asclepiads

34^ 318 281 228 170 160

Per

cent.

^"4

7ÂŤ 6-9

56 4i 3'9

I47

3'6

131

3'2

130

3'2

are as yet imperfectly known.

the former only eighteen are described, although the island

This includes only the Filices, Equisetacece, Lycopodiace:e, and SelagiThe remaining Acotyledonous Orders are as yet very imperfectly known. Of Mosses about 250 have been described, and of Rhizophoreie 5." '

nellace:e.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR.

Many

undoubtedly possesses a large number.

365

Asclepiadaceous

them are still The number of

plants have been collected, but the majority of

lying

unnamed

in various

European

endemic genera now reaches about

Many

herbaria.

148."

by Mr. Baron

interesting particulars are given

as to

these endemic genera, but these must be omitted in this place,

with one exception.

Leptolcena pauciflora, belonging to the en-

demic order Chlaenaceae,

is,

says Mr. Baron,

a hard-wooded tree,

from the trunk and branches of which, at a certain season of the year, there

a ceaseless dropping of water, sufficient indeed to

keep the ground quite damp.

This

hemipterous insects crowding together this afford

caused by a number of in a

slimy

liquid.

May

an explanation of the similar well-known phenome-

non exhibited by the Tamai-caspi, or Rain-tree, of the Eastern Peruvian Andes

" ?

regards the distribution of the vegetable

gascar, Mr. Baron sees into three Regions,

sufficient reason

life

Mada-

divide the island

and he gives a number of

parisons to justify his

figures and comRoughly speaking, these Eastern, Central, and Western

conclusions.

three Regions, which he

calls

respectively, correspond closely to the (i) eastern side of the island, east of the crest of the

mountain range which forms the

main water-parting of the country

;

(2)

the central

portion,

including the upper table-land, consisting chiefly of gneiss and other crystalline rocks

;

and

(3) the

western side of the island

including the extensive coast plains, comparatively

level,

on the

west and south-west.

The

great bulk of the plants

common

to the three Regions

are widely-spread tropical species, while iow plants reach right '

A few

written,

other endemic genera have been described since this paper was to be added to the list given above. They are San\aUua (i)

and require

under Kubiace^e, Mciiabcn (i) in Asclepiadeie, Pcricstcs (i) and Caiuarotca (i) in Acanthacea;, and Lcucosalpa (i) in Scrophulariace:e. It may also be added that since the publication of the above about 160 new plants (including 31 species of Crotoii) have been described from Madagascar, bringing the total number of species known in the island (excluding the mosses and some other of the lower cryptogams) up to 4,260."

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

366

over the island from east to west.

Among

these few

the Rofia

palm {Raphia ruffia) while a fern {Gleichenia dichotond) haps the commonest and most widely-spread specimen ;

whole

per-

the

island.

examination of the

of plants found in the three

list

Regions shows a wide difference between the

floras

of the

Central Region and of the two others to the east and west this is not to

be wondered at when

remembered

;

and

that the

Central Region has a great elevation above the sea (from 3,000

But

to nearly 9,000 feet).

not so easy to account for the

great difference between the floras of the Eastern and Western

Regions, seeing that they have the same position, as regards latitude,

and do not

much

differ

height

(although the western side of the island

Mr. Baron gives a very simple reason

above

the

sea

decidedly hotter).

for this, pointing

out that

and no doubt of very great antiquity, reaching possibly from the Palaeozoic era, and has therefore always formed a barrier (except at the south) between the floras of the Eastern the elevated central region of the island, running north

south,

and Western Regions. formerly similar, which to

become

different,

" is

The

floras therefore,

doubtful, have

differentiated in character

;

even

they were

had abundance of time

and

they were originally

they have been kept, by the existence of the mountain

barrier, distinct to the present day."

regards

travelled

much

beauty

floral

the

island will

of Dr. A. R. Wallace in his

Nature, that, contrary to the

and

Madagascar,

who have

agree with the statements

Malay Archipelago and

common

Tropical

opinion, tropical countries

tropical forests are not rich in flowers, although they are

unrivalled for luxuriance of foliage. tion to this rule, for

beautiful flowers.

meadow, with field

all

its

Madagascar

no excep-

There is nothing to compare with an English and its buttercups and daisies, or with a

clover

of poppies, or with the effects produced

and heather.

possesses comparatively i^vf plants having

Nor

are there

many

by gorse and broom

flowering trees in the forests,

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. and any one expecting

to see great

There

there will be disappointed.

number of handsome

numbers of are,

367

beautiful flowers

true,

a considerable

both on the open downs and in the

flowers,

woods, but they do not occur, with some few exceptions,

in large

masses, so as to strike the eye, or to produce a distinct effect in the landscape.^

One

forest in the

month of November

of the most conspicuous flowers in the upper is

that of a liana (^Strongylodon

Cravenics\ which has a stem about as thick as a one-inch rope,

and spikes of creamy-yellow flowers set pretty closely on the main stem. These spikes are from 10 to 16 inches in length, each containing from 40 to 60 large flowers growing closely together, so that they are very conspicuous in the forest, forming

immense festoons of

flowers,

mounting

to the tops of the highest

crossing from one tree to another, and shining almost

trees,

golden

colour in the brilliant sunshine.

The Orchids

are a prominent feature in the

woods near the

east coast, especially several species of Angrcscinn ; of these

the most plentiful, while A. sesquipedale, with

its

superbuiu

long spur and

large pure white flowers,

also very conspicuous.

In the interior of the island there are several striking ground orchids

one yellow, another

;

in colour.

some

Among

trees

brilliant scarlet,

and another blue

and shrubs which have the most hand-

flowers are species of Rhodolcena, Impatiens, Ixora, StepJia-

Conibretum, and

PoinciatM, Astrapcea, Ipomcea, Kigelia^

notis,

others.

A tics

few particulars

may

be added as to the special characteris-

of each of the three botanical Regions.

The

EasteT7i Region.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; This

a comparatively narrow strip

of country lying between the sea and the central highland, of the interior.

averages about 60 to 70 miles

about 900 miles long from north to south. belt of grassy

and wooded

breadth, and

includes a littoral

plains, with a series of lagoons stretch-

ing in an almost continuous line for 300 to 400 miles tract of country with a wild confusion of '

rounded

See, however. Chapter IV., p. 72.

;

hills

then a ;

and

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

368

thirdly, a series of

two or three mountain ranges, running alm(

throughout the whole length of the island, and rising

tA^

western range to a height of about 4,500 feet above the

se|ji'

Facing the Indian Ocean, and meeting the vapour-laden soutl

east winds, which blow for the greater part of the year, thi; eastern side of Madagascar is naturally the moistest portion o

the island, and

its

vegetation

large proportion of

its

surface

there are innumerable patches of

no continuous

accordingly most abundant.

covered with dense

forest,

wood and bush where

and

there

forest.

The narrow littoral belt, with its attractive park-like scenery, has been made most familiar to English readers by descriptions of

many books

relating to

Madagascar

;

which extends between Tamatave and Andovoranto

traversed

by almost

turf,

clumps of trees and shrubs, and

its

make

all travellers

lake

green

scenery,

Casuan'na, or beef-wood tree, which grows in long

lines mile after mile,

near the shore

Tangena shrub [Tanghinia

celebrated

as an ordeal

;

Pandanus,

venenifera), formerly used

a species of fern-palm {Cycas Thouarsii), from

which a kind of sago

obtained

cocoa-nut palm, which, however,

and many

several species of

;

almond {Tenninalia Catappd)\ the

or screw-pine; the Indian

others, including

trees already mentioned.

and besides

;

its

Its soft

the most striking features of the vegetation here are the

fir-like

above

to the capital.

of the journey a very pleasant experience.

this portion

Among tall

since that portion

these,

;

occasional

plantations

not indigenous to the island

;

some of the most beautiful flowering The Orchids have been referred to

among

other noteworthy plants,

species of pitcher-plant {Nepenthes), with pitchers long,

and the curious and beautiful

fenestralis),

which

Central

Region.

gigantic

Arum

is,

however, found also in streams

Bordering the riversides and

{Vihd) from 12 to 15

white spathe more than a foot

and

lace-leaf

4 or 5 inches plant {Ouvirandra

sure to attract attention.

feet in height,

length,

the

marshes, a

with a large

grows by thousands,

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR.

369

As one travels higher up the country, other trees and shrubs become prominent among these is a most elegant species of bamboo, which, with its curving stems and light-green clusters ;

of leaves, gives quite a character to the scenery Traveller's-tree (already described in

mom

the Rofia palm, with

;

feathery fronds

;

With regard

and many to the

Chapter

the celebrated

;

I.)

the Carda-

;

enormously long leaves and

its

others.

upper and forest-covered portion of the

Eastern Region, Mr, Baron says that

"remarkable

for its

great variety of plant forms, there being no single species, genus, or order of plants predominant over the rest, or which influences to

any great degree the general physiognomy of the vegetation." full particulars as to the most characteristic trees and plants

For

the reader must be referred to Mr. Baron's paper

many

say here that there are beautiful timber,

mercially

bark

;

for dyes,

tropical

many

are

becoming important com-

useful products, as indiarubber,

gamboge, pepper, arrowroot, &c.

forests, the

kinds producing valuable and

some of which

others yield

suffice

;

numerous kinds of

liana,

most

from some not

thicker than a stout thread to others as large as a ship's cable

bind the trees together cordage, through which

The

Central

an almost impenetrable tangle of

in it

Region.

most

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; As

difficult to force

already

stated,

a path.

this

second

botanical region occupies the elevated table-land of the interior

of Madagascar.

Taken

as a whole, the greater part of this

region consists of bare, dreary, and desolate moorlands, with little

verdure, except in the hollows between the

hills,

and

those valleys and plains, mostly the beds of ancient lakes dried up, where rice

cultivated

by the

people.

shrubs are few, except where a few patches of forest

and the moorlands and grey-brown

grass.

But

hills

for

are

the

remain

usual bright skies and clear

really

is.

much more many aspects One peculiarity

(For

of this^part of the country, see Chapter IV.)

Trees and still

covered with coarse, wiry,

atmosphere, this part of Madagascar would be dreary and uninteresting than

now

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

370

of this region

that

much more

vegetation consists

its

largely

of herbs and small wiry plants than of trees and shrubs; in

about three-fourths of the plants belong to the former

Another peculiarity of the

flora here

is,

fact,

class.

as might be expected,

more temperate character than that of either of the other two regions. Palms and other tropical forms are rare, while, its

on the other hand, Heaths, Gentians, and plants of the orders Ranunculaceae,

Umbelliferae,

and

Crassulaceae

are

plentiful,

and such mountain forms as the Violet, the Geranium, and the Sundew, as well as the common bracken, the royal fern, and the male

Perhaps the most prominent trees

fern are found.

in the

Central Region are several species of Ficus, especially the Ambntana, with large glossy leaves, and the Avmvy, which are frequently seen in the old towns and villages of the interior

and also the Nonbka, the Vodra, and the Adabo.

provinces,

Mr. Baron gives a

list

of sixty-three plants, only found on the

mass of mountains,

slopes of the Ankaratra

endemic

all

of which are

Madagascar.

The Westej-n Region.

known than

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;This

part of the island

much less With the

those included in the other two regions.

exception of two or three mountain ranges, which appear to run in a

very straight course for several hundred miles, this region

largely consists of extensive level or slightly undulating plains,

covered with coarse grass and encircling belt of

The

heat

much

on the eastern

patches of

wood not many

forest,

beside the

miles from the shore

line.

greater on the western side of the island than

side,

while the rainfall

much

less,

the south-west, where a small extent of country desert from the scanty tation here, therefore,

amount of

much

rain

receives.

less plentiful

especially in is

almost a

The

vege-

and luxuriant than

on the eastern side of the island, and trees and shrubs are more restricted to the

banks of

The most common

Ficus, Hibiscus, Eugenia,

which grows

rivers

trees

and streams. and shrubs here are species of

and Weimnannia, and the Tamarind,

to a large size, as does also the

Mango, while the

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. Rofia palm

of fan-palm

found

numbers.

in large

and

{^HypJice7ie

Three or four species a very distinct

Bisviai'ckid) give

many parts of canoe voyage I made down

character to the scenery in

the district.

journal of a

the Betsiboka river

In the

some years ago, I find the following reference to these trees Here the lovely fan-palms became very numerous. At times we passed close to the banks, a tangled mass of bdrardta (a graceful bamboo-like grass) bending down into the river, and the tall columns of the palms standing up from the very edge

of the water, with their graceful crowns of green fans sharply

Surely of

defined against the blue of the sky.

all

the thousands

of beautiful things in this beautiful world,

palms are among the

most

least in

lovely,

family of

them

and the fan-palm not the

trees.

we swept

was a perpetual delight

rapidly

this glorious

to the eyes to

watch

by the banks with the strong current, by as in a panorama."

as one after another they passed us

Another very noticeable viz.,

the Baobab, which

tree

remarkable

Along the west

for its

Many

trunk and smooth light-brown bark. are found in the forests, from

on the west

plentiful

coast,

enormous bulk of

species of Diospyros

some of which ebony

obtained.

and especially on the shores of the

coast,

of the north-west, the Mangrove is immense numbers while the most abundantly represented Order in the Western Region is the Leguminosae, and

innumerable bays and found

inlets

;

next to that the Euphorbiaceae.

few words

Madagascar there this

be added as to the Relationship of the

Mr.

Flora.

G. Baker, of it

Kew, has shown

and that of

amount of

that of America.

affinity

And

shown

fauna of the island, namely, isolation.

flora of

;

flora

also a

Madagascar and

Further, an examination of this flora as a

whole confirms what

strange to say, there

between the

that

tropical Africa

probably more especially the case as regards the

of the Western Region. slight

a close affinity between

is is

may

About

its

also

by the geology and the

great antiquity and

three-fourths of the

species

its

long

and a sixth

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

3/2 of

its

genera of plants are endemic

Madagascar was joined

;

and

seems probable that

to the African continent during

some

part or parts or the whole of the Miocene (including Oligocene)

and early Pliocene periods," but was cut large

number of

plants,

and shrubs have been

trees,

introduced into Madagascar, including tables in

;

from the mainland

subsequent to the later Pliocene period.

at least not

off

many

but although

incorporated in the native

Section

and vege-

of them have established themselves

and become

the island

fruits, cereals,

naturalised, they can

scarcely be

flora.

Extinct Forms of Animal Life in Madagascar.

III.:

Geology and Palaeontology are very modern sciences Madagascar,

for

^pyornis

except slight and fragmentary notices of

and 1855, and the

in 1821, 1854,

thirty years.

The

its

ancient forms of

travels

to the

physical

life until

first

accurate information

geography of the country, together with

particulars as to the geology of various parts of

added

also to our

within the last

and researches of M. Alfred Grandidier,

however, from 1865 to 1870, gave the as

fossils

discovery of the eggs of

first

hardly anything was known of the geology

in 1851,

of the island or of

knowledge of the fauna.

twenty years a large number of

facts

And

it,

and greatly

during the past

have been obtained by

various travellers, and collections of rock specimens and fossils

have been made.

Although a very great deal yet remains to be done before it can be said that we have a fairly complete elementary acquaintance with Madagascar geology, especially south-western,

and

southern

portions

in the central-western,

of the

island,

certain

general conclusions appear pretty fairly established, and

be very briefly described.

The

may

central portion of the island

(more, however, to the east of the true centre) consists of land elevated from 3,000 feet to between 8,000 and 9,000 feet above

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR.

373

the sea, and extending for about 650 miles north and south, and

about 180 miles at

its

portion of the island

greatest breadth from east to west. is

very mountainous,

hardly any level land except

in the valleys of the rivers,

the dried-up beds of ancient lakes. region, as well as of the

country between

and other

The

This

in fact, there is

and

rocks of this interior

narrow belt of coast plains and

and the sea

here

hilly

to the east, consist of gneiss

crystalline rocks, gneiss very largely predominating.

Besides these ancient rocks there are also more modern ones,

The

of various ages and of volcanic origin.

highest points in

the island are the summits of the mass of Ankaratra, which

wreck of a huge but ancient subaerial volcano."

" the

Beside

these and other ancient signs of subterranean action, there are

many

scores of volcanic cones, probably of

some of them possibly

origin,

human

occupation of the country.

distributed in

These extinct

two principal groups, one

forty-five miles

much more

recent

activity during the earliest

craters are

Mandridrano, about

E.N.E. of the summit of Ankaratra, and the other

in the district of Betafo, at

about the same distance to the south-

west.

In the western half of the island sedimentary rocks appear to

form the greater portion of the comparatively

which

and

it is

shale,

lignite.

composed.

level

country of

These consist of sandstones, beds of clay

and limestones, together with occasional deposits of

The

following

list

metamorphic and sedimentary

given by Mr. Baron of

strata of

Madagascar, so

the

far as

they are at present known, referred to the European standard

But

of geological chronology." this list refers chiefly to the

western

and

south-western

examined by any competent am

must be remembered that

north-west of the island, the centralportions

not

having

been

yet

geologist.^

indebted for the main facts in the preceding paragraph to a paper by and brother missionary, Rev. R. Baron, F.G.S., who is our chief authority on the geology and petrology of Madagascar. This paper, " Notes on the Geology of Madagascar," in Qiicir. Joitrn. Gcol. Soc, May, 1889, together with a later one in the same journal (Feb., 1895), " Geological Notes of a Journey '

friend

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

374

Post-Tertiaky Tertiary ...

Recent.

Eocene. Cretaceous

PP^^-

(.Neocomian rOxfordian.

Secondary X

jurassic

...j

Lower ^^^^

Oolite (Cornbrash, Brad^^^^^^ Fuller's

Earth).

^Lias.

{Silurian

Cambrian

Archaean. I

now proceed

of extinct animal

most interesting forms

to give a sketch of the

life

which have been discovered

Madagascar,

most of them by very recent research. Manivialia.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

has been for a long time

living fauna of the island

characteristic

mammals

numerous

species,

remarkably deficient

quadrupeds, and that the

lemurs

356

indeed

and

their

allies

Africa,

that the

the most

any large are very

and are the most prominent and typical

And

forms of the Malagasy fauna. of this

known

chapter,

bats,

small

shown by the

species

table at

of carnivora, of

and of rodents, with one ungulate animal (a wild compose the hundred and odd species of the living

insectivora,

hog),

mammals

of the country.

About three years ago Mr. J. T. Last, who has been collecting for some time for the Hon. Walter Rothschild, discovered a mammalian skull of strange aspect in a marsh at Ambolisatra, on the south-west coast of Madagascar.

examination by Dr. C.

mined is

Forsyth Major,

to belong to a large extinct

much

After an elaborate this

has been deter-

Lemuroid animal.

The

skull

longer in shape, as well as larger, than that of any of the

living Lemuridae,

and the animal was probably nearly three times

the size of any existing Lemur, approaching to the dimensions

of the Anthropoid Apes.

new family in

Madagascar," gives the

geology.

They

Dr. Major has accordingly formed a

for this aberrant

fullest

form of Lemuroid, which he has

information

j'et

obtainable as to Madagascar

are illustrated by three geological maps.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR.

375

named Megaladapis inadagascarietisis (fam. Megaladapidae).^ From its association with other vertebrate remains still to be noticed, Dr.

Major believes that

a group of animals, part,

man

not

this

all,

Lemuroid

skull belongs to

of which have been seen by

at a relatively recent date.

Dr. Major has recently discovered other remains in

Mada-

gascar of an animal which appears to form a link between the

apes and the lemurs, although partaking more of the character of the former than of the

latter.

account, however, has

yet been published of this discovery. In the year 1868 the bones of a small

species of hippo-

potamus were discovered by M. Grandidier on the south-west and were described under the name of H. Leinerlei.

coast,

Several years later the

remains of other hippopotami were

discovered at Antslrabe, in the central portion of the island,

by the Rev. T. A. Rosaas, and were described by M. G. A. Guldberg under the name of H. madagascariensis. And still more recently, remains of apparently a third species of this animal have been brought

and

has been

this

to light

named H.

on the south-west

leptorhyncus.

coast,

These Madagascar

hippopotami appear to have been about two-thirds the

size

of the African species, and are believed to have been contem-

poraneous with the In the

same

earliest

locality

human

where the

inhabitants of the island.

skull of the gigantic

Lemuroid

was found, Mr. Last has also discovered some bones of a species of swine {Sus\ as well as of a river-hog {Potamochcerus), which may prove to be the same as the one now existing in Madagascar, and also numerous bones of a slender-legged form of zebu {Bos).

From

these facts

appears that the paucity of large

mammals which now

digenous

characterises

the

Madagascar, was not always a marked feature of doubtless light

fuller

remains of '

and more systematic research

many

will

other species.

See Trans. Roy. Soc,

vol. 185, 1894,

B. pp. 15-38,

pi.

5-7.

in-

fauna it

;

and

bring to

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

376 Birds.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Forty-five years ago the

by the discovery gigantic bird, to

The bones showed

given.

scientific

world was startled

Madagascar of the eggs and bones of a which the name of ^pyornis inaximus was in

that

extinct creature was a

this

struthious bird, apparently allied to the ostrich and the recently

exterminated Dinornis of

and leg-bones.

feet

New

The eggs

Zealand, but with more massive

were, however, perhaps the most

interesting relics of this ancient bird, for they largely exceed the size of

any previously known ^^%^ being \2\ inches long by more than six of the largest

9f inches broad, with a capacity of known ostrich eggs.

During M. Grandidier's explorations

Madagascar, already

referred to, he discovered other bones of

^pyornis, which were

eventually described as belonging to two other species besides

inaximus,

viz.,

JE.

inedius

and

modestus.

these

All

remains were, up to a recent date, known only from the coast regions,

south-east,

viz.,

excavations

made by

south,

and south-west.

But

revealed the remains of Hippopotamus just referred

among

jSpyornis were also discovered, and a fourth species, which was recently

still,

the

the Rev. T. A. Rosaas at Antsirabe, which

further

named

excavations

yÂŁ".

bones of

to,

these were

Hildebrandti.

some of More

Antsirabe and

the

south-west and west have brought a large quantity of other material

light,

and from these

Grandidier have been able to

make

MM.

Milne-Edwards and

a more complete study

of the extinct birds of Madagascar, and

they belong to "

many

different species.^

determine that

They say

These various kinds of ^pyornis constitute a family, repre-

sented by very differing forms. a dozen can be distinguished,

moderate dimensions. feet,

At the some of

The former had

present time at least large

size,

others of

a height of about ten

while others hardly exceeded that of a bustard.

anatomical characters justify their being arranged " Observations sur ' January 15, 1894.

les /Epyornis,

de Madagascar

" ;

Coinpks

Their

two genera:

rcndtis,

cxviii.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. with large and massive legs

(i) that oi yEpyornis,

of Mulleroniis, with slenderer legs and

resembled

New

and the apteryx of

The

yS".

ingens,

and which much New Guinea

largest of the species

and greatly exceeds

remains of these birds

conditions under which the

have been

show that they frequented the they did not swim there, the midst of the rushes bordering the lakes and seem

deposited

margins of sheets of water, and they kept

(2) that

uiaximus.

in size yÂŁ". "

The

Zealand."

named

of JEpyornis has been

feet,

and

;

cassowary of

their proportions the

377

the rivers.

fact,

that, if

wherever they have been obtained, their

bones are associated with those of small hippopotami, crocodiles,

and

aquatic

tortoises,

habits.

their

that

The y^pyornis must

also they nested, as

we may

infer

tions of the skeletons of very in

have

usually

and frequently inundated plains

lived in low-lying

found there

with animals altogether

say,

;

and there

from the number of por-

young

birds which have been

abundance."

Besides the remains of the struthious birds just described,

among to

the bones from Antsirabe

a large

recognised

much

rail,

some portions which belonged to

Aphanapteryx, have been

as well as others of a species of wild-goose, but

;

larger

gascar,

nearly related

than those of any kinds

now

inhabiting

Mada-

These remains again show the existence of extinct

birds of aquatic

habits,

belonging to the same period as the

^pyornis, and living under similar conditions.

These

Man,

large

were certainly contemporaneous with

birds

be seen, on some of their bones, some

for there are to

deep and very sharply

distinct notches,

which were made by

cutting instruments, probably in removing the flesh.

femur of a hippopotamus, of the same date,

the

also to be seen

a hollow cut, going through the whole thickness of the bone and evidently produced

by human hands.

These discoveries

more important yet

doubtless give

promise of others

to be made, which will throw

some

still

light

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

378

upon the early history of Madagascar, from the point of view It is impossible not to of physical geography and zoology. be struck with the analogies which the fauna of presents^with that of

New

this island

Zealand, where, at a recent period,

number of gigantic birds, the Dinornithidae, represented by more than twenty species. These resemblances seem to indicate some former connection between these islands there lived a large

as between the islands of the

well

(as

generally),

now

southern hemisphere

separated by an immense extent of ocean

and

made with

appears to agree with observations

this conclusion

;

regard to the ancient fauna of the Madagascar group of islands.^ Reptiles.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

well

known

to students of natural history

that on small islands separated from each other

the circumference of the globe there

still

by nearly half

exist gigantic tortoises.

These islands are the Galapagos, west of Ecuador in South America, and the island of Aldabra, north of Madagascar. On the mainland of the great African Island none of these great

now found living, but recent research has shown, we might have supposed, that they formed part of the ancient

chelonians are as

fauna of the country.

being uninhabited by

have maintained

The Aldabra

It is

man

only owing to the fact of Aldabra

that these

their existence in

tortoises

huge defenceless creatures

one of the outlying

have a carapace

ft.

islands.

long and

in.

9 in. broad, and weigh about 800 lbs. The extinct tortoises of Madagascar appear to have been as large as the ones now living in Aldabra islet, and have been described as of two 5

ft.

Testudo abrupta

species,

and

Grandidieri?'

already

mentioned, their skeletons, carapaces, and plastrons have been

found associated with remains of yEpyornis and hippopotamus.

The and

rivers is

and lakes of Madagascar abound with

have been found

the Quaternary deposits which have yielded

' The preceding paragraphs are translated from Edwards and Grandidier already cited.

crocodiles,

not therefore surprising that remains of this reptile

See Coiiipks-rcndus,

vol. Ixvii.,

1868

;

the paper of

vol. c, 1885.

MM.

Milne-

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. many

of gigantic birds, pachyderms, and chelonians.

relics

M. Grandidier says

The bones

of crocodiles which

now

belong to a different species from that which

for while

;

remarkable for the slenderness and length of

this latter is

and

found

inhabits the

waters of Madagascar {Crocodilus madagascariensis)

snout,

379

common

allied to the

its

crocodile, the fossil species,

which we have given the name of Crocodilus robustus, has hardly any nearer neighbour than the convex-headed crocodile to

of India, or the black crocodile of Senegal.

which

this species,

Madagascar, now Antsihanaka, as this lake

every year.

common

its

only

lives

its

was evidently a lacustrine this island,

not long remain,

will

extent diminishing

crocodile,

extending

the east, and not having been yet overturned eruption,

was covered by enormous lakes

potami, whose remains

were found

in large

;

have discovered

numbers."

curious that

the great lake of Alaotra in

where also up by degrees, and

Madagascar when

It is

on the west coast of

fossil

last refuge,

is filling

have found

which was far

towards

the granitic

and here the hippoin

such abundance,

It will have been noticed that all the extinct animals which have been hitherto described belong to a very recent geological

of them

period,

all

earliest

human

probably having been living during the

occupation of the island.

has shown that

or Mesozoic, pre-eminently the

common

Age

of Reptiles," Madagascar,

with other parts of the world, also had

saurians crawling over

About

But recent research

a very greatly more remote era, the Secondary

its

surface, or

swimming

three years ago Mr. Last obtained from

deposits in

the

its

huge

in its waters.

some

north-west of Madagascar, near the

Jurassic

Bay

Narinda, vertebrae and portions of the limb-bones of an enormous terrestrial Lizard, as large, probably, says Dr.

the Atlantosaurus of Marsh â&#x20AC;˘

See

Atlantosatirus

two genera,

H. Woodward, as if

not three, are

Cotuptcs-rciidits, vol. Ixxv., 1872.

being about eighty

was probably feet long,

the most gigantic of all these huge and having a height of thirty feet

lizards,

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

38o

represented, one being like Ornithopsis or Brontosauriis^

a paper by Mr. R. Lydekker, F.R.S., contributed to the Quart.

Journ. Zool. Soc. (August, 1895), some of these bones have been described as belonging to

a Sauropodous Dinosaur," of the

genus Bothriospondylus, and called by him B. madagascariensis.

These remains belong In

to the Jurassic series of rocks.

89 1 some fragments of the skull of a reptile were dis-

covered by the Rev. R. Baron in the

tenacious shelly limestone

in a

These have been deter-

north-western part of the island.

mined by Mr. R. Bullen Newton, F.G.S., to belong to a reptile possesing crocodilian affinities, and from its narrow and elongate rostrum,

bearing a strong resemblance to the existing Gavial

of the Ganges, though differing very widely from

more important in

time that

characters. find its

congener

among

6".

Baroni.

Mr. Newton regards

form, and from

This genus has hitherto been known only

in British

new

species in

and European

areas, so that the discovery of this

a locality so far south as Madagascar interest

further

them he of the genus Steneosaurus, which he names

these remains as portions of a

founds a new species

other and

the Mesozoic crocodiles

forming the family of the Teleosauridae."

new

we go much

not until

It is

when considering

its

a matter of very high

From

geographical distribution.

the few molluscan shells associated with the

fossil, it

appears to

belong to the Lower Oolite age.

The above-mentioned mammals, six or twenty-seven only in

birds,

and

number) comprise

present

known

gascar.

There are doubtless many others yet

and

few years

will

show

may

made on

field is

touched as

that

life in

Mada-

to be disentombed, fuller investigation

be confidently expected that the next

a great increase in our

knowledge of the

palaeontology of this great island, as well as of the

all

of the ancient vertebrate forms of

fresh discoveries are sure to be

of the country.

reptiles (twenty-

its

geology, for

very wide, and both subjects have only been slightly yet. '

Brontosatints

was about

si.\ty feet in

length.

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR.

complete

list

to the present date

of is

all

the fossils from Madagascar

given by Mr. R. Bullen

Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc. (February, 1895).!

vertebrates already described,

number

Newton

known up in a

paper

These, omitting the

140,

and belong

to the

Quaternary strata, to the Mollusca and Foraminifera in Tertiary (Eocene), to Mollusca, Echinodermata, Actinozoa, Foraminifera, and Plantae in the Secondar}- (Cretaceous and Mollusca

Jurassic).

Let us try to sum up

a few sentences the results of recent

research on the ancient animal

life

of the island.

seems probable that Madagascar, when the

first

represen-

mankind occupied it, was a country much more fully covered by lakes and marshes than it is at present. In these waters, amid vast cane brakes and swamps of papyrus and tatives of

sedge,

wallowed and

tortoises

snorted

herds

hippopotami

huge

;

crawled over the low lands on their margins

ostrich-like birds,

some over

ten feet high,

than bustards, stalked over the marshy valleys

hooted and

croaked

among

tall

;

and others no larger ;

great

rails

and clouds of large geese and other water-fowl flew screaming over its lakes on the

reeds,

;

the sandbanks crocodiles lay

scores

basking

the sun

;

great ape-like lemurs climbed the trees and caught the birds

;

troops of river-hogs the

woods

swam

the streams and

dug up

roots

among

and herds of slender-legged zebu-oxen grazed on These were the animals which the first wild

;

the open downs.

men hunted

with their palm-bark spears, and shot with their

arrows tipped with burnt clay or stone.^

And ages,

when the

look further back through long past geological clays

and sandstones of the

masses of the chalk were being deposited

oolite

and the white

in the

coral-studded

tropic seas and archipelagoes of Europe and other parts of the

And reproduced in Autanhiiaiivo Annual, xix., 1895. The Vazimba, the supposed eariiest inhabitants of the interior, are said not to have known the use of iron, but to have had spears made of the hard, wiry bark of the Anivona palm, and to have employed arrow-heads made of burnt clay. No flint weapons have yet been discovered in Madagascar. '

MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST.

382 world, and

when Madagascar was probably no

island,

but a

peninsula of Eastern Africa, the mist opens for a moment, and

see vast reptile forms dimly through the haze

snouted Gavials

great slender-

the streams and lakes, and huge Dinosaurs,

wooded plains, and down whole trees with their powerful arms. Such are some glimpses of the Madagascar of the past

sixty to eighty feet long, crawling over the tearing

its

rocks and fossils already opens to the

We may

confidently look for further light upon

which the study of mental eye. the

dim and

distant

bygone ages as we

geology of the country.

The

shrouds the old-world time shall

probably, ere

will

many more

draw many more mental the great African island.

learn

more of the

thick curtain which at present

be yet more fully

lifted,

and we

years have passed, be able to

pictures of the extinct animal

life

^be (Bresbam

iprcss

UNWIN BROTHERS, WOKING AND LONDOM.

-07 An9 :

s:.'^i- ?? S

/(^

vrJ

C^'

! i'

r ^^7 603

|CLA ACCBBK\gl« [••Tlfbrary ^><

Loans

951575

'--^arc

000 537 603