line to Structure an accumulative exploration of architectural principles Aaron Hodo
Theoretical Line and Line Transformations Grid 6 Geometry 8
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Proportion and Order in Form Datum 16 Order 18
Relation of Forms Surface 10 Mass 12 Structure 14
Physical
Light Hitting Geometry Light 22 Space 24 Material 26
20 Formal Rhetoric Movement 28 Transformation Hyperbole 32 Defamiliarization Dialogue 36
Analytical
Principles of Analysis Representation 40 Abstraction 42 Decomposition 44 Analysis 46 Concept 48 Context 50
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Analysis of Precedents Program 52 Environment 54 Infrastructure 56 Fabrication 58 Cityscape 60
Architecture is infinitely expansive. Contributions to the field are as wide-reaching and diverse as humanity itself, making it a challenge to begin studying. Where is the ideal place to start? Regardless of whether that question can ever truly be answered, there are many foundational concepts relevant to just about every avenue of architecture. This book seeks to explore select ideas from that range using a logical ordering system that evolves in complexity. Beginning at the theoretical level, basic geometric shapes (especially the line) are examined to reach an understanding of the fundamental sense of order that lies in all buildings. Next, the geometries become more complex, complete structures as they are placed in the real world. The effects of light on structures and complex modes of “formal rhetoric”—literary and artistic devices applied to architecture—are examined. Finally, a process for the development of complete buildings is examined through the observational analysis of the forms and contexts of several existing precedents.
Theoretical At its core, architecture consists of a variety of geometries arranged with an internal sense of order. Organizing systems like grids, massing systems, and other datums are used to create this order. An abstract understanding of the fundamental forms of structures will aid in the interpretation of the complex, contextual architecture encountered in our everyday lives.
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Grid When lines intersect perpendicularly relative to surfaces, they create systems of grids that define and contain spaces. They can also be read as an array of discrete boxes that share sides.
Architect Unknown—Houston Medical Center. Warner Robins, GA, USA. 1957
Grids on the surfaces of buildings give a framework for the repetition of shapes and forms. Such a framework may define the proportions of and give order to a building. 6
Grids, being able to act as formal elements in of themselves, can manifest in any material or even be created by light. The interaction of grids of varying textures, orientations, scales, and compositions creates complex relationships between constituent lines.
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Simple planes can be considered lines that extend along another line. Such a definition relates line and plane, adding an element of ambiguity in the interpretation of a planar form’s multiple views.
Geometry 8
Many basic geometric forms can be created by extending a plane along a line. Thus, plane is to form as line is to plane. This relationship allows many of the edges of the above box to be removed and it still retain its character, as many lines can end on an invisible line, reading as a plane.
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Surface
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Keeping in mind the geometrical examples, a surface can be fundamentally interpreted as a plane with some degree of thickness that usually serves as a visual or physical boundary. Surface planes can be bent, cut, folded, or manipulated in any number of ways to produce a variety of intriguing intersections and connections that can themselves be read as parts of a larger surface plane.
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Taking the geometry analogy f u r t h e r, m a ss e s c a n b e interpreted as planes that have been transformed or as a net of planes folded together.
Mass 12
Massing, the arrangement of masses, is a meaningful operation in the construction of a structure’s basic form. Massing can exhibit balance or tension in a structure, hierarchically organize structural elements, emphasize a specific area of a structure, and more.
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Every element of a building that contributes to its ability to stand freely, withstand forces, and avoid collapsing in on itself is its structure. Among the most significant structural components is the arch. Their ability to distribute vertical loads horizontally allows them to support impressive weights.
Structure 14
Entire complex structural systems may be formed by the intersection and interlocking of various arches and additional structures.
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Datum
A datum is a point of reference that organizes several dissimilar elements. Among the most well-known is the grid, along which any number of objects can be aligned. Besides grids, a datum might consist of the central mass of a structure from which many smaller masses emerge.
SANAA—21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art. Kanazawa, Japan. 2004 The flat cylindrical base organizes the elements on top of it. 16
Moshe Safdie—Habitat 67. MontrÊal, Quebec, Canada. 1967 The units are organized around a unifying grid. 17
Renzo Piano, Richard + Su Rogers, and Gianfranco Franchini—Centre Pompidou. Paris, France. 1971-1977
Order 18
Order is the sense of normalcy, proportion, and hierarchy in architecture. A well-ordered building synthesizes several disparate systems into one cohesive whole. Balance is present in the massing of the building, its structural system grounds it to its site, and uniform datums relate all of its elements to each other. This synthesis of systems is very apparent in the Centre Pompidou in Paris. Because its structural and mechanical systems (plumbing, electricity, circulation) are clearly visible on the outside rather than hidden on the inside, the repetitions in their forms contributes to the order of the building.
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Physical
As the fundamental geometries examined earlier are transported to the real world to become increasingly more complex, a significant number of forces and substances begin to act on them, among the most notable being light. The multiplicity of effects light may give to structures contribute a great deal to the variety of readings they have. Beyond the consideration of light, structures in the world are vastly more complex and inventive in their forms than the mere fundamentals. This complexity can be attributed to what shall be termed “Formal Rhetoric,� devices and techniques that find their home in fine arts or literature, but equally applicable in architecture.
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Light
Light can come in a whole spectrum of colors based on the composition of the light source. When light sources of different colors interact, entirely new colors become apparent, such as the green present when the warm yellow light of a light bulb interacts with the cool blue light of a flashlight.
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Light is one of the most essential substances in the physical world. Our sight is attributable to the reflection of rays of light into our eyes. When observing geometry in the real world, the multiplicity of effects light may produce become clear. Depending on the position of the light source/s, geometry may reflect sharp or soft shadows that can themselves be projected onto other geometries, as in the shadows of muntins shaping the light that enters from a window on a sunny day. 23
Space
When light hits certain boundaries in and around a structure, the shadows it casts may communicate a sense of space that defines the area it takes up.
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Such space framing becomes readily apparent in open constructions with one largely planar surface, such as a pavilion or gazebo. Light will tend to illuminate the space outside the pavilion, while the space inside is shaded, defining it not only aesthetically but also functionally. (In regards to sunlight).
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The reflection of light on a material produces different visual effects depending on the roughness of the material.
Material 26
This principle generates the diversity of textures seen in life. Thus, materials of the same color may appear very differently from one another based on how much light they reflect.
A smooth surface; reflected rays of light are parallel. Surface appears shiny and reflective.
A rough surface; reflected rays of light are not parallel. Surface appears dull and matte. 27
Movement 28
Architecture often possesses a dynamism attributable to any number of formal techniques, though most notably the repetition of particular masses with slight translations between each, giving the form the appearance of frames from a film superimposed on one another.
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Transformation Both conceptually and physically, structures do not have an obligation to remain static. In the theoretical sense, transformation may serve as a design tool that generates forms through any number of means. Physically, transformation can either involve moving components guided by mechanical systems or the experience of movement as one changes their visual perspective.
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Hyperbole 32
In a word, hyperbole is exaggeration. Structures can be exaggerated in a number of ways, including: massively increasing the scale of a usually small element, skewing/stretching forms on the structure to unrecognizable states, adding highly contrasting forms onto a datum, or repeating a basic element a high number of times. In exaggerating specific elements in a structure, emphasis can be drawn to them.
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Defamiliarization takes elements from architectural precedents we are familiar with and recontextualizes them to a high degree, often through distorting their forms or changing the context in which they exist. Considering an obelisk, its pyramidal top could be flattened and cut in section to serve as the pediment of a temple-like faรงade, or its entire length could be adorned with similarly defamiliarized pieces and allow it to read as a steeple.
Defamiliarization 34
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Dialogue—the cross-cultural, historical connection between buildings and their context—can be interpreted as the cultural soul of a building. Every building is influenced by the traditions and needs of the people who constructed it, and also possibly by the traditions of faraway cultures past.
A significant dialogue between buildings and cultures would be the dome. Beginning with the Pantheon in Rome, the dome serves as the ultimate demonstration of Roman architectural ingenuity with the arch. Its oculus also lets sunlight in, augmenting the experience of the temple.
Dialogue 36
Next, the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (then Constantinople) recalls the then centuries old dome in order to culturally connect the Byzantine and Roman Empires.
Finally, the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey recalled the dome once again to display the religious and cultural power of the Ottoman Empire.
Constructed as a church, it served a similar function to the Pantheon of communicating religious power.
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Analytical
Among the most fundamental aspects of architecture is analysis. Being an experiential medium, we observe architecture with our senses. To better understand and appreciate the structures we observe, we conduct measured analyses of their forms, concepts, and contexts. Major tools of analysis include abstraction and decomposition. Through abstracting certain observations, we reach a representation of a structure or concept that argues a certain idea. Through decomposition of a structure as a whole, we understand the way in which its constituent elements combine to form a greater whole.
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Essential to architecture is the visual depiction of a theoretical or built structure in two-dimensional forms. D raw i n g s, s ke t c h e s, diagrams, renderings, and photographs can each represent the same forms very differently.
Representation 40
When choosing which medium to represent a structure with, choosing specific characteristics and relationships of said structure to emphasize improves the communicative power of representations.
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Abstraction
Abstraction is amongst the most decisive tools in moving representation to analysis. The omission of present details or inclusion of improbable details in a real-world representation of a structure abstracts from reality, allowing other details to manifest.
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Kengo Kuma—M2 Building. Tokyo, Japan. 1991
Decomposition 44
Another tool in analysis is decomposition. By observing a real-world structure or an accurate representation of such and visually separating the constituent elements into wholes in of themselves, we may develop an understanding of that structure’s underlying systems and order.
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Analysis A process of observation and logical thinking, analysis elucidates new realities and readings of a structure. Analysis can focus on any number of a building’s internal and external systems, such as its form, its structure, its infrastructure, its context, or more. The analysis on the right is strictly formal. The key to analysis is abstraction. By abstracting a structure—removing what from natural observation is not necessary to a particular understanding of it—its most essential elements and their relations materialize. Through abstraction an argumentative characteristic of analysis emerges. What to remove and what to deemphasize in an analytical drawing/diagram becomes a choice that colors the information to be taken away from an act of analysis.
Right Page: Adolf Loos—Villa Müller. Prague, Czech Republic. 1930 46
Proportional & Geometric Relationships in SW Façade of Villa Müller
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The architectural design process is fundamentally iterative. From a starting point, changes are made and ideas are explored methodically until the most effective solutions to the architectural problem are made. This evolutionary process is the evolution of a structure’s concept. In essence, the concept is the core idea behind a structure, whether it be a relationship between parts, an action, or a set of constraints. Oftentimes the most sublime buildings feature the simplest yet most robust concepts.
Concept 48
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Context
Wang Shu—Wa Shan Guesthouse, China Academy of Art. Xiangshan, China. 2013 Fronting a river and being in close proximity to mountains, this building incorporates the context of its landscape clearly into its sloping roof design.
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No architecture exists in a vacuum. Every architectural site will necessarily draw from its surrounds, whether it be the natural features around it, the elevations on the site, the nearby buildings, the infrastructure system to which it will integrate, etc. Considering the context in the analysis of a building is crucial to understanding certain decisions made on it.
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Frank Lloyd Wright—Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. New York City, USA. 1959
Architecture as a profession is, at a minimum, a two-party affair, the parties being the architect and the client. The client, wishing to hire the architect for their services, typically has a budget, a set of parameters, and a purpose in mind for the building they would like designed and constructed. These prompts taken as a whole form the program of a building. In the case of the Guggenheim, it was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright by the request of Hilla von Rebay to house a growing collection of abstract art. As such, it is novel and open in design with a skylightsporting central atrium through which the gallery space winds like a corkscrew. The scale of its paths of circulation and the addition of specific rooms such as offices and conference rooms contribute to its public function.
Program 52
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Atelier Masomi—Niamey 2000. Niamey, Niger. 2016
The location of a building can prove very influential in its program. A building’s site can determine the available local materials, the nearby flora and fauna to be aware of, the climatic requirements, and much more. A building’s natural environment may impose any number of restrictions on its design. Located in southwest Niger, Niamey 2000 adapts to and integrates into its environment well. Being in a semi-arid area without modern air conditioning, it regulates temperature through the use of local earth brick, shaded patios, courtyards with trees, and evenly-spaced holes in the walls, allowing the circulation of air through each room in the building.
Environment 54
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Eero Saarinen—TWA Flight Center, JFK. New York City, USA. 1959-1962
Infrastructure is an outgrowth of circulation. Encompassed within the category are all structures built to aid in the transportation of people or goods throughout a region. Thus, buildings that incorporate infrastructural function into their programs operate decidedly differently from other buildings with different requirements. The TWA Flight Center at the JFK International Airport exemplifies these differences. Its expansive, low-lying form reserves space for massive influxes of people, who are only aided by clear, efficient systems of circulation inside and outside the building.
Infrastructure 56
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Peter Zumthor—Bruder Klaus Field Chapel. Mechernich, Eifel, Germany. 2007
Techniques of fabrication define the materials, tools, and processes used in the construction of a building. Clues about a building’s construction process will thus always be apparent in its physical form. As fabrication involves both creating and destroying, a certain manipulation of materials will produce wholly unique, intriguing forms. Such is the case with Peter Zumthor’s Feldkapelle. While appearing monolithic from the exterior, its interior walls are textured and feature a repeating half-circle pattern. The walls of the Bruder Klaus Field Chapel are attributed to its unique construction, where a wooden frame was constructed, concrete was poured into the frame, and the wood was burnt after it set, leaving behind the metal fasteners and texture of the interior walls.
Fabrication 58
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Pericles, Mnesicles, Phidias. Acropolis of Athens. Athens, Greece. 5th Century B.C.
In observing and analyzing a large site with multiple buildings, issues of program, environment, infrastructure, etc. emerge just like they would for an individual building. The Acropolis of Athens, as a center of culture and religion for Ancient Greece, exhibits several unique characteristics. It is located on a hill overlooking the rest of Athens, augmenting the importance of its temples (especially the Parthenon and Erechtheion) and adding drama to the processional path. Additionally, the unusual design of the Erechtheion can be attributed to its location next to several sacred spots.
Cityscape 60
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