INSIDE; MARS A design for a Mars outpost Chan Jia Qi, Audrey Master of Architecture Thesis document
SUTD Masters of Architecture Thesis Document
Contents 0
ABSTRACT
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 1.2 1.3
Plan Z for Earth Inevitable Mars conquest Research Methodology
2
MARS: THE RED PLANET
2.1 2.2
Mars 2050 outpost The Mars environment
3
HUMANS ON MARS
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4
Adapting to the Mars environment Keeping sane in space Earth as a healing property Analysing existing approaches
4
MARTIAN TYPOLOGY
4.1 4.2 4.3
Site establishment Underground Mars lava tubes Martian DNA
6-7 8 - 23
24 - 29
26 - 79
80 - 93
5
VISION FOR MARS
5.1 5.2 5.3
How people live together Programme organisation Massing establishment
6
INSIDE; MARS
6.1 6.2 6.3
How people survive How people move How people interact
7
MAKING MARS A REALITY
7.1 7.2
Equipment and materials Construction process
8
REFERENCES
94 - 103
104 - 127
128 - 137
138 - 142
Abstract Overpopulation, climate change, and the desire for something new has led many to consider the possibility of life on another planet. While mass repopulation of Earth may or may not be a reality, the conquest for space is inevitable. Humans are continuously trying to step foot further into space in pursuit of knowledge of the vast beyond. With the accelerated rate of development and exploration in the space industry, especially that of Mars, dreams of a life on Mars is not as far as we deem it to be. Shelter (or in this case architecture) being a basic human necessity, will thus also be required on Mars. Most of the existing approaches and preconceived designs envisioning architecture on Mars are focused on survival, where the bare minimum are provided to ensure astronauts are able to carry out their missions successfully. While this is important, the intangible factor of ‘happiness’ and psychological well being is just as critical, especially when considering an outpost that houses more than just a handful of people. Interpersonal relationships, isolation, physical and psychological wellbeing, as well as happiness levels are some of the key factors to be considered when designing for a community of people who has travelled across space to live on Mars, 54.6 million kilometers away from Earth. Of course, some of these proposals were also developed based on outdated information and technology, thus a new architectural design is required to challenge the typical ideas of ‘life on Mars’. This thesis aims to approach a design requisite for a Mars outpost that focuses not just on surviving, but thriving on Mars. Aside from understanding the physical aspects that contributes to sustaining life on a foreign planet, the psychological, and social parameters will be a focus considering its contribution to the quality of life for the inhabitants. Through this study, this thesis will also be analysing the traditional earth architecture typology and its relationship to architecture on Mars. In seeking to understand how architecture can play a role in overcoming psychological barriers of living in a foreign planet, the envisioned Mars outpost would be the starting precedent for the future colonisation of Mars.
1
Introduction
1.1
Plan Z for Earth The Earth is dying. As plainly as it sounds, climate change is slowly causing our Earth to become inhabitable if we continue our current way of life. This is nothing new. Politicians and non-governmental organisations have been warning us and emphasising on the detrimental effects of climate change for decades, yet industrial processes have only been on a rise, together with CO2 (carbon dioxide) emission levels that have only grown exponentially since, The heat-trapping nature of CO2 has resulted in global temperatures to rise, affecting weather, climate, and geography. Since the pre-industrial periods, human activities have resulted in a global warming of up to a little over 1 degree celcius 1 (NASA-JPL/Caltech, 2019). According to NASA, when we reach a warming of 2 degrees celcius - 37% of the Earth’s population will experience deadly heatwaves twice every decade; 61 million more people will experience severe drought than at 1.5 degrees; Nearly 50% of the population will face water scarcity at 1.5 degrees celcuis, with 184 to 270 million more people at 2 degrees celcius; There will be increased occasions of extreme rainfall, and reduced biodiversity and ecosystem; Deforestation and wildfires will increase, resulting in reduced rainforest biomass; 70% of Earth’s coastlines will experience a 0.2 m increase in sea level; Oceans warming and acidification, coupled with extreme weather will cause up to a 90% decline in the coral reef ecosystem at 1.5 degrees celcius, and they will become non-existent at 2 degrees, Sea level rises result in shortage of land and soil erosion, displacing people from their
homes. The destruction of biodiversities and ecosystems would affect food supply. Increased temperatures and precipitation increases breeding grounds for vector-borne diseases. Amongst the many results of global warming, it overall leads to an increase in the level of uninhabitable areas, which puts humans at the risk of death. During the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) press conference 2021, the UN (United Nations) general secretary, António Guterres, has warned that the current state of climate change “is a code red for humanity.” and that “billions of people (are) at immediate risk.” Given the current rate of increase in CO2 emission levels, human-induced warming will reach 1.5 degrees celcius around in the near term of 2021 to 2040 2 (IPCC, 2021), and 2 degrees celcius around 2070 3. (NASA-JPL/Caltech, 2019). Although fixing the Earth should be the priority given that it is the only planet that sustains life, the irreversible effects of climate change are also forcing humans to look towards establishing a new habitat for survival. Mars, being the only other planet that has shared similar geography and environment 4 with the Earth in the past, seems to be the best option if life were to be migrated across space. Aside, it is also the closest planet to Earth, making it the most accessible. Coupled with advancements in technology, a living on Mars is not as far fetched as it seems.
1.5°C
2°C
14%
37%
At least 1 every 100 years
At least 1 every 10 years
0.40
0.46
Species loss: Vertebrates
4%
8%
Vertebrates that lose at least half of their range
Species loss: Plants
8%
16%
Plants that lose at least half of their range
Species loss: Insects
6%
18%
Insects that lose at least half of their range
Ecosystems
7%
13%
Amount of Earth’s land area where ecosystems will shift to a new biome
Extreme heat
Sea-ice-free arctic
Sea level rise
Permafrost
Crop yields
Coral reefs
Fisheries
metres
4.8
Global population exposed to severe heat at least once every 5 years
Number of ice-free summers
Amount of sea level rise by 2100
metres
million km2
million km2
6.6
Amount of Arctic permafrost that will thaw
3%
7%
Reduction in maize harvests in the tropics
70-90%
1.5
million tons
“Code red for 99% humanity” Further decline in coral reefs
3
million tons
Decline in marine fisheries
Global temperature increase (°C)
4
3
2 1.5 1.27
1
0 1980
2000
2020
204
40
Pre
d
d icte
rise
2060
2080
2100
Year
California wildfires, 2020 Wildfires in Tempe, Arizona, indicate the seriousness and destruction of climate change. Photo by AFP/Josh Edelson, taken from CNA5
Typhoon Jebi, Japan, 2018 Huge waves caused by Typhhon Jebi resulted in widespread flooding and winds of up to 130 miles an hour. Photo copyrighted by Kyodo, via Reuters, taken from CNA6
India monsoon floods, 2019 Delay of the Indian Monsoon resulted in a dry spell followed weeks of extreme rainfall. This resulted in floods, landslides and swamped coastal regions. Image shows an aerial view of flooded Kuttanad in Kerala, India Photo by Charly K C / AP, taken from The Atlantic7
East Africa drought, 2018-2019 Persistent droughts and lack of water caused death among cattles and people. This is a result of the El Nino weather phenomena casued by the warming of ocean surfaces. They occur periodically and can last between 9 months to 2 years. Photo copyrighted by DW/C, O. Ngereza, taken from Deutsche Welle8
1.2
Inevitable Mars conquest Going to Mars: Coupled with the advancement of technology. developments in the space industry in the recent years has pushed the idea of space tourism and interplanetary travel to be less of a fantasy. With Elon Musk’s plans of colonizing Mars, SpaceX has developed Starship 9, is a fully reusable transportation system that would be the main mode of transport of both materials and people to Mars. Aside from consisting of a reusable rocket booster, Starship is able to carry a payload of more than 100 tonne. This makes space travel more affordable as time and material is saved from having to build new boosters for each trip, and the cost of each space trip is also split among more people. Using methane as fuel 10 (Rincon, 2021) also contributes to this mission as it can be generated using Martian resources, which allows for the spacecraft’s return trip to Earth. Amidst these developments, Elon Musk has suggested over social media that he plans to send 1 million people to Mars by 2050. Although the possibility of reaching this number is extremely low given that space flights can only occur every 26 months when the orbits of Earth and Mars align (which means over 300 trips each day during the 30 day window frame of the Earth-Mars alignment, assuming each trip carries 100 passengers), even 1% of this goal would mean a substansive amount of people to form a city.
1975
VIKING 1 & 2
1973
MARS 5 & 6
1971
1971
MARINER 9
First spacecraft to orbit Mars
MARS 3
Revealed that southern polar ice cap of Mars is made of carbon dioxide
1969
MARINER 6 & 7
1964
2016
EXOMARS TGO
2018
INSIGHT LANDER
Studying Mars’ interior
2024
ESCAPADE
Study of Mars’ moons
2024
2022
ROSALIND FRANKLIN
To search for signs of past and present life on Mars
MARTIAN MOON EXPLORARION
2018
FALCON HEAVY
2020
2020
orbit in space, representing a new era for human and space travel and exploration
2021
transport to space
First launch to orbit of a partially reusable heavy-lift launch vehicle
The first all-civilian mission to
INSPIRATION4
and crew (100 people)
HOPE
Searching for signs of past life on Mars and collecting samples to be returned to Earth for deeper studies
First successful soft landing of the world’s tallest and most powerful rocket ever built. The fully reusable super heavy-lift launch vehicle will reduce cost of space travel while providing high performace of cargo
2021
SPACEX STARHIP
2020
PERSEVERANCE
Searching for water underground that could host life
TIANWEN-1
MARINER 4
First successful spacecraft to flyby Mars
MAR
SpaceX plans for an uncrewed mission to Mars aboard Starship
SpaceX plans to send
first humans to Mars in 2024
human mission to Mars
China plans to send their first
crewed mission to Mars in 2033,
every alternate year that
and in
2005
MARS RECONNAISSANCE
2003
OPPORTUNITY
NASA plans to send their first
2007
2011
CURIOSITY
2013
MANGA-LYAAN
Exploring Mars’ habitability
PHOENIX SCOUT LANDER
2003
MARS EXPRESS
2001
MARS ODYSSEY
1996
PATHFINDER 2013
MAVEN
Elon Musks’ supposed goal of
sending 1 million people to Mars by 2050
Established permanent living settlement for first generation of Martians
[x]
2050
2033
2030s
2024
follows
2024
MARS GLOBER SURVEYOR
1996
Studying Mars’ atmosphere
2024
MANGA-LYAAN 2
Mapped Mars’ topology and studied indications of water in the past
RS EXPLORATION TIMELINE
1.3 Defining the problem + Understanding the importance of extraterrestrial architecture
Understanding the Mars environment + Identifying benefits and limitations of existing approaches and technology
Oxygen
Chapter 4 goes into the establishment of site and the exploration of architectural and programmatic forms, that will be further developed in chapters 5, 6 and 7.
Mars environment: weather, climate, geography
First generation Martians
Radiation Pressure
Psychological
Water
Chapter 3: Humans on Mars
In chapter 3, the thesis then identifies the physical parameters for survival on Mars, and more importantly the social and psychological parameters that enhances quality of life for the inhabitants. In understanding the physical requirements, existing technologies and proposals for a Mars habitat will be analysed, whereas studying of the social and psychological parameters allows for identification of programmes and establishment of approach for a new architectural form suitable for Mars.
Chapter 2: Mars: The red planet
In chapter 2, an understanding of the Mars environment and the professions of its future inhabitants will be the first step in analysing the basic conditions and requirements for a Mars habitat.
Survival
Upon defining the problem and understanding the importance of establishing extraterrestial architecture, this thesis aims to approach a design requisite for a Mars 2050 outpost through a systematic manner of research,
Comfort
Researth methodology
Keeping sane in space
‘Earth’ as a healing property
Gravity
Establishment of site and the relationship between Mars topology and typology
Urban planning and strategies
Proposed design based on identified strategies
How people survive: Structure and life support
Where to build
Understanding movement
Verticality in spaces and circulation
How people live together
How people move: Verticality in movement
How people interact: Nested communities
Chapter 7: Martian Reality
What to build
Chapter 6: Inside ; Mars
Programme and site establishment Chapter 5: Vision for Mars
Chapter 4: Martian Typology
Technical requirements
Architectural and construction strategies
Construction process planning with materials and equipment for the future
2
Mars: The red planet
2.1
Mars 2050 outpost 2050* Outpost: The goal towards achieving a large scale colony of a million people on Mars is still a far reach. In preparation for future developments on Mars, an outpost would be required as a sample test for community living and inhabitation while further exploration is being carried out. While In light of this, we can assume that the first generation of Martians populating this outpost would be professions that contribute to the exploration and development of Mars:
Astronauts
Astronomers
Architects
Biologists
Botanists
Designers
Doctors
Engineers
Geologists
Scientists
Psychologists
* Estimated timeframe, subject to resources put into accelerating developments on Mars and other administative decisions
SpaceX Starship capacity
2020s - 2030s
Alignment of planets every 2 years that allows for launch
100
Exploration First stage of human exploration on Mars. Turnaround visits of 5-10 crew
2030s - 2050s
Sampling of life Increasing and periodic (every 2 years) human missions to Mars. Temparary habitation of a small crew as a sample experiment for future permanent habitation of Mars. 20 people every 2 years = 100 people
2050s - 2080s
Establishing community In preparation for future colonisation of Mars, a permanent community must first be established. This outpost would be the beginning of permanent inhabitation of Mars.
> 2080s
Growing colony Elon Musk’s goal of 1 million people on Mars would see multiple trips made everyday during the timeframe open for transport to Mars.
1 flight every 2 years =
500
2.2
The Mars environment Unlike Earth, the natural habitat of Mars is unable to support human life. Mars’ thin layer of atmosphere results in extreme fluctuating weather temperatures, high radiation exposure, low atmospheric pressure and frequent dust storms amidst other factors. A new architectural form unique to Mars would naturally have to be designed, as architecture present on Earth are not fit for purpose. Understanding the Mars environment 11 (NASA, 2021) is thus a crucial stage in form-finding.
3
Humans on Mars
3.1
Adapting to the Mars environment Given the difference in environments, it is crucial to understand the basic systems and technology in place that would allow for life to sustain on Mars. This gives better control in the design of the outpost, and could also be integrated together with the design. While oxygen, access to water, livable atmospheric pressure and radiation exposure levels are the key factors that affects survival on in Mars, gravity is a factor that has a more direct relationship to architecture. By designing architecture catered specifically for Mars’ gravity and the way people move on Mars, it ensures higher levels of comfort as well.
Atmospheric Pressure Due to the difference in atmospheric pressure on Mars compared to on Earth, a separate enclosed system is required to create a livable environment for the inhabitants. In terms of shape, domes seem to be the most efficient design for Mars architecture 12. Aside from allowing more light into the space, they are also more resilient to both the external forces caused by the frequent dust storms, as well as the stresses caused by the greater internal atmospheric pressure.
Wind and storm resistance
Air flow and ventilation
Uniform temperature
Maximum solar and light gain
Water Aside from the seasonal Martian brines that are found on the surface of Mars, water is also present in the form of polar caps and possibly ice below the surface. To obtain water from the Martian brines via the combination of O2 and H2 obtained from electrolysis, it would require a huge amount of energy, making it an undesirable option. Although this method is currently undesirable, this availability strengthens the potential for the permanent livability of Mars for the far future. While drinkable water is not immediately available on Mars and still has a substantial amount of exploration and research needed, tapping on the polar caps to get fresh drinkable water would be the short term solution while strategies are being developed to extract the salt from the Martian brine.
Oxygen Oxygen (O2) is a key component necessary for human survival that is absent on Mars. To be able to sustain long term life on Mars, oxygen harnessing techniques are required. 1. MOXIE 13 MOXIE (Mars Oxygen In-situ Resource Utilisation Experiment) is a generator that uses electricity to convert CO2 abundant on Mars into O2 through the process of electrolysis. Its is currently being tested on board the Perseverance rover 14 that has just landed on Mars on 18th February 2021.
0.31m
0.24m
2. Electrolysis of Martian Brine 15 Brine is a water component that is present and evident on the surface of Mars. Through the process of electrolysis, the brine will be split, simultaneously creating both O2 and H2 (Hydrogen).
3. Plants Similarly on Earth, plants can convert CO2 to O2 via photosynthesis. SAGA Space Architects has experimented the use of algae 16 as a biological life support system to not only generate oxygen, but also to make use of the water to absorb radiation on Mars.
0.24m
Benefits
Limitations
Potential for future human missions on Mars where oxygen generated not only contributes to breathable air, but also to being a propellant for take off from Mars.
Moxie produces only 10 grams of oxygen per hour. This is only equivalent to 20 minutes worth of breathable oxygen for an astronaut 18. To support future human mission on Mars, MOXIE must be 100 times larger, possessing a spatial and transport constraint.
More efficient as it produces 25 times more oxygen compared to MOXIE, given the same input power 17. This process also harnesses H2, which is needed for water harnessing, another crucial component required for survival on Mars.
Although brine is present on Mars, it is uncertain how much is present and whether it will be sufficient to sustain a long term outpost with a sizable amount of humans.
Plants provide a good source of food as well, and possesses benefits to improve physical and mental health.
Limited production of oxygen in a short time, and is more effective in a forest scale. Light intensity on Mars is also lower compared to Earth, which could hinder the rate of photosynthesis.
Martian Brine Dark streaks on the wall of Juventae Chasma, Mars, which are possibly seasonal seeps of brine. Photo by NASA/JPL/University of Arizona19
Algae as plants Saga Space Architects use of algae for oxygen and radiation absorbtion in a simulated Mars habitat. Photo copyrighted by Edi Cliff Ent20
Radiation Mars having no protective magnetosphere, results in its surface being exposed to high levels of radiation (estimated 20 rads a year) 21 (Williams, 2016), as compared to Earth (0.62 rads per year). If exposed, inhabitants will face increased risks of cancer, central nervous system effects, degenerative tissues, skin injury and even death, among other health effects 22 (NASA, 2018). Architecture on Mars has thus always been designed taking material into account, due to the need to block out these radiations. Inflatable structures with gold coatings, 3d printed structures using Martian materials, as well as use of the natural Mars topology are some of the strategies used, which will be further touched on in chapter 3.4.
Inflatable structures with gold coating
3d printing using Martian rocks as material
Underground habitats: Martian rocks provide natural radiation shielding properties
Ice and water as a material provides natural radiation shielding properties
Lower gravity Movement would be different in a lower gravity setting. Architectural features applied on earth thus would need adaptation when used on Mars. With lower gravity, it means that humans have a larger vertical range when moving. Climbing the stairs will be different, and could even possibly be obsolete in light of the possible ‘jumping’ from one space to another. Via experiments and studies 23 (Cavagna, 1998), researchers have concluded that work done (energy) required to move on Mars is about half that of Earth, yet due to the lower recovery of mechanical energy, the walking speeds on Mars will also be reduced by half. Taking the slow horizontal walking speed and ease of vertical movement into consideration, the proposed site and design of the Mars 2050 outpost will be best suited to take advantage of this verticality in movement and spaces.
On Earth On Mars
3.2
Keeping sane in space As with all space travel, being far from home, living in confined and high stress environments, having limited social interactions and working high risk jobs under intense public scrutiny are bound to take a toll on the Mars inhabitants mentally 24 (Morris, 2017). Aside, major disruptions to human physiology including sleep changes, radiation exposure, and gravity shifts, are potential reasons for change in human behavior. Regardless of the precision of engineering or the success rate of experiments, a mission could still fail due to the human factor. In view of a Mars outpost, inhabitants will be living and working closely with each other for a minimum of 26 months, the time frame between which trips can be made to and fro
Earth due to the Earth-Mars orbit alignment. Any breakdown of an individual places a risk on both the mission and the crew, which potentially disrupts the entire functionality of the community. As the state of one’s mental health is unpredictable, it is important that measures are in place to reduce the risk of mental health issues in space. To understand the potential psychological and sociological effects on the future Mar’s inhabitants, we can study the welfare that is taken into consideration during spaceflights, which includes physical, psychological, interpersonal, and psychiatric issues. Through several studies, the NASA Human Research Program 25 (Mars, 2021) has summarized a list of spaceflight hazard related issues and its potential countermeasures.
Radiation
Isolation
Gravity
Distance
Environment
Risk posed
Degenerative Diseases Cancer Change in nervous system
Behavioral Change Sleep problem Fatigue Change in Mood
Ineffective medications Food storage challenges Lack of medical care Equipment failure
Reduced muscle mass Change in sensorimotor skills
Celestial dust exposure Temperature changes Exposure to contaminants
Exercise Medications Pressure devices Fine motor testing
Routine cleaning & air filter maintenance Air quality monitoring Immunizations Thermal control
Counter-measures
Health monitoring Medicines Healthy diet Radiation shielding
Gardening Journaling Self assessments Virtual Reality Sessions
Food & medicine packaging for preservation Sustainable food systems Virtual assistants Clinical decision support tools
Programmes
Social/shared spaces that provide opportunities for interaction
Working spaces
Gardens/Farm
Fitness: Exercises that acts against gravity
VR/ Hologram rooms for contacting families
Medical facilities
Equipment storage
Private spaces for self reflection
3.3
Earth as a healing property Studies have shown that living in nature or in ‘natural’ buildings, brings positive health benefits both physically and psychologically. The sensory qualities of the natural environment “is an antidote for stress: It can lower blood pressure and stress hormone levels, reduce nervous system arousal, enhance immune system function, increase self-esteem, reduce anxiety, and improve mood.” (Robbins, 2020) 26. Amidst these benefits, being in nature can also reduce feelings of isolation as well as speed up rates of recovery, In light of the psychological strain arising from the high stress environment of working in space, nature is thus an all encompassing solution that could potentially reduce the risk of mental health in the Mars 2050 outpost. Mars with a geography similar to that of old Earth, is already the first step in creating a ‘natural’ environment. In the process of generating an architectural form for Mars, traditional architectural typologies from olden Earth provides potential insights into how we can use the earth (in this case, Martian ground) as a natural healing property.
Troglodyte dwellings Troglodyte (cave) dwellings date as far back to the 6th century, and are likely to be one of the first few forms of architecture, Hand built by man, they are often used as a place to take shelter from the surrounding environment weather,animals, and people included. Generally, these cave dwellings are built from negative spaces, where living spaces are created from digging into the ground or are carved out from a rock surface. Though its primary intensions were to offer protection from predators or seeking hidden shelters in times of war, cave dwellings also serves as a passive energy solution where the large thermal mass helps to regulate the internal temperatures from the fluctuating weather temperatures. This is evident across the 3 types of cave dwellings - underground, cliffcut, as well as the nested form.
In the context of Mars, exposure to high radiation caused by the thin Mars atmosphere poses an important question and discussion as to how architecture would be like there, taking into account the limitations present of bringing majority of the construction materials from Earth. The traditional earth home typology thus provides some insight as to the possibility of what could be on Mars. Given the uninhabitable Mars environment lack of oxygen in the air; hazardous martian dust - the Mars outpost will also need to be enclosed, blocking out any natural environments. The usage of the traditional home typology when coupled with 3d printed materials made of Martian soil thus allows us to have some form of connection back to nature and back to Earth. This connection would also potentially improve the physical and mental health of residents given the high-stress and isolated environment they work in.
Matmama underground houses of Tunisia, Africa Settlement in the underground cave dwellings of Tunisia date back to the 11th century. With no stone, timber, or water in the mountains all year round, the Berbers turned to the ground. They excavated pits and dug through layers of hard and soft earth to create a cavelike dwelling. The soft clay allows for easy excavation, and after contact with air, turns hard and solid enough to provide as a home for many centuries. The typical form of the underground house 27 (Benyoucef, Yassine & Olga, Suslova2019) follows as such: a central sunken courtyard open to sky. Its depth varies between 5m and 10m, and diameter between 7m and 15m. The design of the house was made to be conducive for people meeting their neighbours, where tips on construction methods could be shared between families. Being the main communal area, a well is often featured in the courtyard, providing water for the residing families. Its strength as a social space can also be seen as this courtyard is where laundry is done, where niches are carved out of walls as a resting space, and where a market set-up can sometimes be seen to be set up as well. From the central courtyard, tunnels then branch out radially connecting to private rooms, and in some cases, a second level is formed as well often solely for storage purposes. Access into the courtyard is usually through ladders or a long tunnel that ramps down from a separate entrance further away.
Photo by Zihra Bensemra via Reuters, obtained from The Atlantic28
A seperate entrance point ramps down to the courtyard via a long tunnel. Niches carved into the walls to create resting areas.
Second level usually used as a granary/storage.
Central courtyard branches out radially to form private rooms.
Nooks carved into the wall for ease of climbing to the second level. Usually accompanied with ropes or ladders.
Central courtyard branches out radially to form private rooms. Niches carved into the walls for shelves/storage.
Well is often present in the central courtyard. This aspect contributes to the courtyard being the space where interaction commonly occurs.
Climbing nooks Access to higher levels are commonly using ropes and nooks carved into the wall for foot placement. Photo by David Holt/ CC BY-SA 2.0, obtained from Atlanta Obscura29
Features: - Rather than stairs, access to the second levels are through ropes and ladders that can be seen hanging from or leaning on the walls respectively. Nooks are also carved out from the wall as a placement for the feet to aid climbing. - Niches are commonly found carved into the side of the tunnels, expecially of that connecting the entrance to the courtyard. It is likely that this entrance acts as a wind tunnel, and the niches were created as a resting space to catch the cool winds that pass especially in an arid climate. - Walls of the homes are often whitewashed to maximise capture of sunlight reflection to the otherwise dark underground spaces.
“Fairy Chimneys” in Cappadocia Turkey Cappadocia’s dramatic landscape is constructed from the build-up and erosion of layers of tuff and basalt lava from volcanic eruptions from Erciyes, Melendiz and Hasandag volcanoes across millions of years. Tuff is a porous rock made of 95% ash, thus making it more susceptible to erosion and easier to carve. Once the softer tuff erodes away, it leaves behind the harder layer of basalt that acts as a protective cap, giving rise to the form of the ‘Fairy Chimneys’ which have been ingeniously used by humans for settlement During the rule of the roman empire, persecuted Christians had fled to Cappadocia to take refuge during the 3rd century. Though this cave dwelling system only expanded then due to increased settlement while hiding from the Roman troops, historic explanation had found that these caves have been inhabited as early as the first century AD. The malleable materiality of the landscape made it easy to carve complex tunnels for hiding, as well as build networks of caves that are used as living quarters and churches. Generally, a living space is cut into the slope of a cliff, forming a ‘courtyard’. Private rooms and sub-spaces are then carved into the 3 sides of the courtyard. Due to the unique form of each rock face, the tunneling and formation of sub spaces thus vary from each other. Often these spaces are connected to a larger network of underground caves and tunnels, which connects living spaces to other programmes such as chapels and cathedrals.
Photo by Ingoval via Flickr, obtained from World Heritage Academy30
Higher levels often used as kitchens for smoke to exit through the porous rocks.
Air vents disguised as wells for ventilation into underground caves.
Niches carved into the walls for shelves, usually to place oil lamps/candles for light.
Large boulder usually used to seal the entrance to conceal the living spaces.
Fairy Chimney Common spaces more exposed to light are carved out at the face of the rock before branching into private spaces further in. Photo by Ingoval on Flickr, obtained from Pinterest31
Features: Spaces were ‘free-form’. The nature of the material allows for spaces to be freely carved to any desired form, yet at the same time this complements with the surrounding environmental context. Due to its cone-shaped structure, the ground floors are spacious but lack sufficient natural lighting. They are thus often utilized as barns, and the residents benefit from the heat produced by the animals as well. Porosity of the rocks allow for thermal insulation and good internal air circulation. Inhabitants also make use of this porosity by having kitchens at the higher levels so that the smoke could filter out through the rocks. Whitewashed walls in the internal spaces allow for maximised capture of sunlight through reflection. Light holes can also be drilled to allow for more light to reach the spaces inside. Openings and interior spaces are often kept small to minimize loss of thermal exchange. These openings are also usually set back into the walls to prevent penetration of snow and rain into the living spaces.
3.4
Existing approaches By studying existing architectural concepts and designs that have been pushed by architects and analysed by those specialising in the space industries, it grants us better insight in the design of the Mars outpost. The pros and cons of different precedents will be analysed and taken into consideration for a more critical approach towards how a Mars outpost should be.
MARSHA by AI SpaceFactory 3D-printed, beacon-shaped housing
Mars Ice House by SEArch+ and Clouds AO Housing made of 3D-printed ice
Mars Colonization by ZA Architects Underground housing
Mars Habitat by team Kahn-Yates from Jackson, Mississippi nIcorporating direct use of spacefaring module
Typology beacon bunker cone cliff-cut dome donut organic spiral tower underground others
Construction
3d print expandable modular robot excavation robot weaving
Material
bamboo ice martian rocks pre-fabricated structure EAG L E HOU SE
BU BBL E BASE
SEED HA BITAT
STAYE
REDWORKS HA BITAT
M AR S COLON ISATION
ARG ON AU T M A R S
SIL IC A STIL IO
BELOW F REEZ IN G
OLYM PU S TOW N M AR S COLON Y
OU ROBOROS
OU TP OST OLYM PU S
THE RA D IC L E
HYBRID COM P OS ITES
SPAC E IS M ORE
FERRIC FRAME
M ASS
G AM M A
N3ST 01
WAZZ U D OM E
M OVIN G TO M A R S
NEO N ATIVE
M A R SA PIA
M OL LU SC A L 5
HEM ISPHERIC HABITAT
M AA E
REG OL ITH G EOD ES IC D OM E HA BITAT
M AR S L A B
Z EPHORU S
M ARTIA N VAU LT
ANC IL E HA B
CON ES OF M A R S
M AR S HA B N 1
L ABYRIN TH
D ON U T HOU SE
NU WA
M A R S COLON Y
M A R S C ITY D ES IG N HA BITAT
M A R S X HOU S E V2
SEED OF L IF E
IC E HOU SE
M AR S HA BITAT BY TEA M KA HN YATES
M AR SHA
SOL A R C RA F TIN G
M AR S HA BITAT BY TEA M PEN N STATE
N3ST 00
M AR S X HOU SE V1
MARSHA by AI SpaceFactory As part of NASA’s Centennial Challenge, phase 3 of the competition was held in 2019 which puts a focus on autonomous operation of envisioned design for architecture on Mars. This challenge required participants to design a habitat catering to 4 crew members, making use of 3d-printing technologies. MARSHA 32 was designed by AI Space Factory as an envisioned living and working quarters for astronauts on Mars. Aside from considerations to the form to suit the weather conditions of Mars, more emphasis was placed on the use of 3d printing as a construction method to minimise human intervention prior completion.
Features: Beacon versus dome
3d-printing
Unlike typical dome-shaped concepts that are envisioned as the ‘most suitable’ on Mars, AI Space Factory takes on a different approach by proposing for a beacon shaped form instead. This allows for maximised efficiency by reducing wasted space at unbuildable corners of a dome shape form, while also allowing the build up of multiple levels for the separation of programmes, The beacon also allows for a more perpendicular anchorage to the ground as compared to the dome, as well as unobstructed light and views into the horizon that comes with the levels.
Due to the established beacon shape, the form also aids in the 3d printing process by reducing the diameter of the overall model, allowing the robotic arm system to print in a continuous process. Reducing unnecessary stops allows for better control of the printing as well as a smoother and more uniform facade, and reduces the possibility of cracks or leaks that could be formed upon drying.
Dual shell facade The use of a dual shell separates the internal shell of the habitable spaces from the external protective shell. This reduces structural stresses caused by Mars’ volatile weather conditions on the internal shell. This separation also allows for the living spaces to be more freely designed as it is not restrained by any structure.
Feedstock In collaboration with Techmer PM, AI Space Factory has formulated a ‘bio-polymer’ as a feedstock for 3d-printing. It comprises of an innovative mixture of basalt fiber and renewable bio-plastic (polylactic acid) where basalt fiber can be extracted from Martian rocks, while polylactic acid can be processed from plants that can be grown on Mars (plants must be high in polysacharide).This thus makes the material 100% recyclable as well. Advantages of biopolymer Basalt fiber has super tensile strength (3 times stronger than concrete), are simple to produce, and also prove as effective thermal insulators. Bioplastic on the other hand provides effective shielding for ionizing cosmic radiation, has low thermal expansion, and is non-toxic. It is also recyclable and can be manufactured in-situ to reduce necessary transport from Earth.
Photo obtained from ArchDaily
Benefits:
Limitations:
The double shell structure is an innovative construction method that allows for a more stable structure as it prevents the inner shell and its programmes from being directly impacted by the external forces caused by atmospheric pressure and dust storms.
The verticality of the form was said to be for the following: wider range of views into the landscape; to meet the required range for the 3d printing so that a continuous printing can be achieved.
Being above ground, it allows for views of the landscape. Due to the generally tight space, circulation from ground to the top passes through every level, providing opportunities for interaction and conversation. Center skylight also presents opportunities for visual connection across floors. Aside from being able to construct precisely, 3d-printing also allows for a continuous printing process with minimal pauses, preventing possibilities of leaks or gaps within the structure.
However, the small size and the lack of windows does not seem to support the aim of this form, questioning whether the structure was only done in this manner due to the confinements and limitations posed by the construction strategy.
Skylight opened at the top to bring light into the building.
Top floor receives more light, thus used as a recreational/ exercise space.
Skylights on each level to allow light to reach each level.
Private living Stairs printed together with the inner shell, isolated from stresses on the
quarters where residents contact their loved ones on Earth.
external shell. Windows for light and views.
Dual shell facade to isolate the inner shell from the stresses applied on the outer shell due to atmospheric pressure and dust storms.
First 2 floors catered for working.
Mars Ice House by SEArch+ and Clouds AO Mars Ice House 33 is the winner of phase 1 of NASA’s Centennial Challenge for a 3D-printed Habitat on Mars. This challenge required participants to design a habitat catering to 4 crew members, considering the use of 3d-printing technologies. Land vs Underground Unlike many design proposals, Mars ice house was built on land instead of being buried underground surrounded by hazardous Martian dust. This grants more opportunities for bringing light into the habitat, as well as connections to the surroundings, both aspects of which are the main factors driving the design of Mars Ice House. Ice as a material Local martian ice stood out as a key material in this design, which will be harnessed from the existing ice caps in the northern regions of Mars, and 3d printed into its desired form. As ice aids absorption of radiation, this design reduces inhabitant’s exposure to radiation from the design being built on land. At the same time, the translucent materiality of ice allows the interior to be washed with daylight, improving the quality of life within.
3D printed ice forms a double shell to provide buffer to minimize contamination from hazardous Martian dust
Vertical core provides access to multi levels Vertical green house
Intermediate contamination zone
Benefits:
Limitations:
Daylight is maximised internally.
Structural integrity is lacking as the ice would melt if the house is designed at areas with temperatures above 0 °C.
Being built on land, large windows allow for views towards the Martian landscape which allows inhabitants to contemplate and reflect, improving long term psychological health.
Lack of spaces catered for recreation and relaxation. Unsustainable in the long run due to limited ice from the northern regions of Mars, which could also potentially be used as a drinkable water source for inhabitants.
Mars Habitat by team Kahn-Yates from Jackson, Mississippi As part of phase 3 of NASA’s 3D-printed Habitat Challenge, this design for a Mars habitat was pushed while considering the structural, functional and programmatic aspects. In this project 34, a space-faring module carries a pre-fabricated core to Mars, which will split off from its exterior shell and land safely. Printing arms extend from the roof to begin 3d printing of the foundation. Upon completion of the foundation printing, the pre-fabricated core opens up to reveal and form the programme spaces, while 3d printing continues to form the exterior protective shell as well as define interior spaces. The external shell is formed by a central martian concrete layer, sandwiched between HDPE (High Density Polyethylene) layers. This allows for portions of the central martian concrete to be removed to let light in, while keeping the environment enclosed. Sizes of the light holes are controlled based on the amount of light required for each programme, while highlighting the intricate design of parametric modelling. The shell was also designed to be sleek to minimise impact from the frequent dust storms on Mars.
1. Land
2. Print footings
3. Print mat foundation
4. Unfold first floor plate, printing of shell begins
5. Unfold second floor plate, printing continues
6. Unfold third floor plate, 3d printing continues
7. Complete shell printing
8. Bringing in nature
HDPE windows maximises light catchment Space-faring module used during space flight
3D - printer housing storage
Floor plates unfold to form floor slabs and base for printing
Benefits:
Limitations:
HDPE provides radiation shielding while allowing light in, maximising daylight internally.
HDPE is unable to block out all the radiation, and still serves as a weak point in radiation shielding if it is used in the majority of the shell.
Making use of a prefabricated core allows for services and equipment to be fixed onto the structure on Earth. This reduces time, efforts, and human intervention required to install and shift them in prior to printing. The garden provides a natural space for recreation and relaxation, ensuring long term psychological well-being.
3d printer is concealed within the shell permanently after printing. This prevents ability for reuse in printing of other modules, as well as takes up space which could otherwise be used for planning of other recreational activities
Mars Colonisation by ZA Architects Mars Colonisation 35 is a conceptual project envisioning permanent settlements on Mars underground. Rockets carrying digging robots are first sent to Mars, where they will be dropped off on the surface for analysis of ground conditions. After analysing the strength value of the underground basalt columns, weaker pillars equidistant from each other will be selected as the start point for drilling to commence. Caves will be formed underground with strong basalt pillars left untouched for support, and the holes formed from the beginning stages of digging acts as a skylight. A network of rampants will be built to protect the skylight from wind and dust.
Caves excavated with the help of robots, leaving strong basalt columns for support
Through a second trip from Earth, astronauts are required to finish construction by setting up the addition of technical facilities and living pods. Robots will finally weave a spider-like web from generated basalt roving which can be used in construction to hold the multiple facilities and living pods together, while also acting as a spatial connector between them.
Benefits:
Limitations:
Underground typology makes use of the natural martian ground to block out a substancial amount of radiation on Mars.
Usage of small robots to excavate an underground cave is impractical. Aside from being time consuming, considerations have to be taken as well for the removal of debris which will require more equipment to be transported over.
Usage of chaffs as a rampant to protect the skylight reduces accumulation of dirt and blockage of light
The proposal looks into creating an environment for locating the facilities and living pods, but lacks integration of the programme, living spaces, and site. Web-like structures for holding of facilities together may be unfeasible considering the weight of the equipment needed to support a community of people, especially in that of a Mars outpost. Exposure to hazardous Mars regolith found in dust increases potential contamination of living spaces.
Web-like structure to provide structural support
Living pods to be situated in excavated ground
Overall analysis Amidst the various concepts, the overall form of the proposals can be generally classified into 3 groups - built on land; built as bunkers in pit craters; or built as underground bunkers via excavation. These forms however are not entirely effective as humans are still at risk of extremely high exposure to radiation. While the underground habitats would resolve this, large scale ground excavation would be timely, costly, and energy consuming.
MARSHA
ra d i a t i o n
by AI SpaceFactory
3D-printed, beacon-shaped housing
Mars Ice House by SEArch+ and Clouds AO Housing made of 3D-printed ice
i a t i oColonization n ra dMars by ZA Architects Underground housing
Mars Habitat by team Kahn-Yates from Jackson, Mississippi nIcorporating direct use of spacefaring module
exc a v a t i o n
4
Mar tian Typology
Cave skylight, Pavonis Mons Collapsed pit crater on Pavonis Mons,a large volcano in Mars’ Tharsis Region. Photo by NASA/JPL/University of Arizona, obtained from National Geographic36
Cave skylight, Pavonis Mons Cave skylight on the southeastern flank of Pavonis Mons, a large volcano in Mars’ Tharsis Region. The pit is about 180 meters wide. Photo by NASA/JPL/University of Arizona, obtained from Space.com37
4.1
Site establishment Hellas Planitia Hellas Planitia 38 is “an impact basin blasted into the Red Planet’s surface by ancient meteor impacts” (Letzter,2020). Located closer to the equator, it is the most low-lying impact basin on Mars, at about 7152 meters deep, thus its surface receives around 50% less radiation compared to other areas on Mars. Underground lava tubes located on Hellas Planitia thus provide as a viable location for building a habitat on Mars. Dao Vallis region Dao Vallis 39 is a canyon on Mars, northeast of Hellas Planitia (southwest of volcano Hadriacus Mons). They are formed by the collapse of plateaus, and are accompanied by zones of pit chains and collapsed debris masses, indicating potential underground lava tubes.
Average radiation dose recieved in the US: ~ 6.2 mSv/year Radiation on higher elevated regions of Mars: ~ 240 - 300 mSv/year
HELLAS PLANITA 42° 42’ S, 70° 00’ E Diameter: ~ 2200 km Depth: ~ 7152 m Radiation: ~ 125 µSv/year Atmosphere pressure: 12.4mbar
HADRIACUS MONS Low relief volcanic mountain Proximity to volcanoes results in the occurence of underground lava tubes
DAO VALLIS -36.870° , 89.498 ° E Inferred radiation within the lava tube: ~ 22.24 mSv/year
4.2
Underground Mars lava tubes The discovery of the presence of lava tubes on Mars presents a great opportunity for its use as a habitat for humans. Its underground nature not only provides a natural protection from the harsh conditions of Mars, but also contributes to the physical and psychological well being of inhabitants. Thus, it is a potential location that allows inhabitants not just to survive, but thrive. Physical benefits Being underground and surrounded by rocks, the thermal mass of the ground helps reduce the temperature fluctuations experienced within the lava tubes as compared to being above ground, allowing the days to be
cooler and the nights to be warmer. It also offers protection from wind storms carrying hazardous regolith dust, reducing external pressure applied to the external shell and chances of contamination. The characteristics of lava tubes on Mars are also comparable to those on Earth - Giant Ice Cave in El Mapais, New Mexico. In an experiment 40 conducted by the Center for Planetary Science, researchers were able to infer that the radiation exposure in the interior of the lava tube on Mars would be decreased by ~82%, reducing the crew’s exposure from ~342.46 µSv/day to ~61.64 µSv/day.
Collapsed crater Forms skylight, diameter ranges from ~ 5m to > 900m
Lava tube Depth can range from ~25m to > 4500m
Breakdown debris Can be collected for use as 3d printing feed, reducing need for
Access to lava tube Direct and easy access for deeper study and exploration of Mars
further excavation while at the same time freeing up the area
Psychological benefits The geography of Mars is often compared to that of olden Earth. Likewise, the natural form of these caves formed by the underground lava tubes on Mars shares similarities to that of the troglodyte dwellings on Earth. This allows us to utilise the natural properties and form of the caves as a healing property to improve the physical and mental well being of inhabitants. Despite the benefits that an underground bunker brings, proposals for them are often criticised for 2 reasons; the ground is too time consuming and difficult to excavate; underground habitats do not receive
sufficient daylight. In this case however, the space is already present and readily available on Mars, without need for large scale excavation. Furthermore, several proposals for a habitat above ground end up having to compensate between radiation and light - where walls are built to block radiation, windows for light are minimal, and where light is optimised within the space, there is insufficient protection against radiation. Given the importance of protection against radiation, the underground lava tubes thus becomes a viable location for a habitat on Mars, where light becomes a factor that can designed and catered for in the later stages of the project.
Regolith & Basalt Natural radiation shielding properties, reduces temperature fluctuations, and reduce impact from wind storms
Collapsed trench
Skylights on Mars Identification of skylights and partially collapsed pit crater chains indicate potential connection of an underground lava tube on Mars. Similarities can be made to underground lava tubes on Mars. Photo by NASA/ARO/CTX/APARIS, obtained from Center of Planetary Science41
Big Skylight Cave, El Mapais, New Mexico Lava tube on Mars is analagous to the Big Skylight cave in El Mapais, NM. Photo copyrighted by Stavros Basis, obtained from Stavislost42
4.3
Martian DNA With the unique site conditions offered on Mars, a unique architectural typology is required. This typology with its unique and distinct characteristics can be thus seen as the Martian DNA.
Verticality The verticality of movement caused by the lower gravity yields possibilities of vertical spaces and circulation. By using ladders and climbing walls as a base typology, a spiral/ helix geometry is envisioned for the Mars 2050 outpost Exploration of this spiral/helix geometry is done by varying parameters of diameter, number of turns, number of spines, and overall curvature. These parameters will be further defined in chapter 5 and 6, when the programmes are fixed.
Hybrid spaces Making use of spaces both above and under ground
3d print ice For printing of transparent/translucent material under direct radiation exposure
3d print using Martian materials In-situ printing to seal off hazardous Martian regolith and to bring
3d print HDPE For printing of windows not under direct radiation exposure
‘earth’ into the building
Spiral geometry Exploration of spiral geometry to cater for verticality in movement
5
Vision for Mars
5.1
How people live together Vision With the prior investigation, research, and analysis done with regards to the habitability of Mars and its corresponding fields in social and psychological well-being, in establishing the vision for the Mars outpost, we need to consider the following: 1. How people survive Establishing a site that physically allows people to survive. 2. How people interact The social and psychological aspects of living that is especially required within a larger community. 3. How people move Leveraging on new ways of mobility and spatial configurations to suit the unique martian environment. In considering how people survive, how people interact, and how people move, it would allow a system to be developed for how people will live together on the Mars outpost.
life support How people survive
how people live together
social
mobility
How people in teract
How people move
5.2
Programme organisation Future of automation Considering that this is planned to be an outpost where exploration and research work will be mainly carried out, the residents are likely to have job scopes in the related field. With common facilities, practices, and relationship between some of these job scopes, we can streamline the programmes into 3 main categories - the life support requirements; the exploration and research facility requirements; and the living necessities.
Astronauts
Astronomers
Architects
Biologists
Botanists
Designers
Doctors
Engineers
Geologists
Scientists
Psychologists
Life support requirements This includes the systems required to get the outpost running, to allow for smooth operations and to create a safe, habitable space for the inhabitants. It would thus include the necessary water, air, and waste systems, solar cells for power generation, as well as transport systems considering the scale of the underground lava tubes.
WATER
AIR
Exploration and research facility The exploration and research facility requirements includes the working labs, fabrication and collaboration spaces, greenhouses for farming on Mars, and equipment needed for spacewalks and explorative work such as a space suit hatch and a sample drop off-area.
Living necessities Lastly, the living necessities. This includes both private and social spaces - private being the individual living pods, and social being communal spaces such as communal kitchens and public spaces for recreational or social activities. Another important space is also the gym as fitness is an important trait that astronauts need to maintain their muscle mass in a low gravity setting.
5.3
Massing establishment
Established site as an underground lava tube of Mars
Collapsed crater acts as a skylight that brings light into the tunnel.
Green house and recreational spaces take up the central core, for maximum exposure to sunlight.
Living clusters where the individual bedroom pods are in would surround the central greenhouse as part of a nested community.
Connecting the clusters for circulation, and creating an organic and fluid structure to aid 3d printing.
Bringing the circulation above ground, allowing views towards the Mars landscape, and creating access for rovers and astronauts above ground.
Final massing established
Future of automation Considering the rise in automation and ease of remote working as can already be seen in the present, living spaces can be zoned seperately from the exploration and research laboratories. These programmes are then plugged into the massing depending on its relationship to the topology of the underground lava tube. Recreational spaces will be placed directly underneath the skylight due to the abundance of light received that brings life into the public spaces. Restorative and private quarters (individual living spaces) will be situated away from the area directly beneath the skylight and nearer the wall face of the lava tube. This seclusion gives privacy, and its closer proximity to the Martians rocks boosts physical and mental wellbeing. Lastly, placing all work facilities on the lower levels grants easy access to the tunnels for exploration of the Martian geography. At the same time, with the laboratories being in closer proximity to the tunnel access, it smoothens the operational procedures of sending crew or rovers in and out of the outpost, sample drop off and collection, isolation and sterilisation of crew and samples upon entry, as well as radiation protection of laboratories and facilities etc.
6
Inside ; Mars
solar cells
skywalk
hyperloop transport system
access into the living clusters
structural frames and housing for pipes and cables
planter pockets
water storage working cluster that houses lab equipments and facilities etc.
stargazing hammock
oxygen a ge
nd water enerators
recreation deck
3d-printed ice space suit hatch and sample drop off area
hologram / VR room discussion / coworking space individual living pod fitness pod
collaboration zone
trampoline
breakout space
planter pockets
hyperloop system connecting to deep tunnels and other future outposts
Overview Looking back at the vision of the outpost and how people live together, the outpost can be split into its components of: [How people survive} The structure and life support systems; [How people move] Mobility and transport systems; [How people interact] Social spaces and nested communities
6.1
How people survive Structure Food, air, water, and shelter. These are the basic necessities human beings need to survive. The central spine thus acts the heart of the outpost as it is the provider of all the above necessities. Highlighted in red in the section, steel frames run vertically throughout the outpost from the center to the circumference, contributing structurally to hold the trampoline and metal mesh platforms in place. At the same time, it houses pipes and cables that transports air, water, oxygen, power, and waste throughout the outpost. These are the life support systems, covered in the next section. The central spine also acts as the greenhouse where crops are planted and experimented to ensure a continuous and independent food supply is available to sustain the inhabitants in the long term. Planters are integrated into the wall through the use of textured facades, and is printed concurrently with the 3d printed structure.
Life support systems Power Electricity is harnessed from solar cells on the roof to power the systems, generators, lab and living spaces etc. Given the generally lower amount of light on mars and especially underground. the electricity harnessed is also critical for powering lights that are needed for daily activities and plant growth,
Water Water and oxygen can be generated from the electrolysis of martian brine, which can be found seasonally in the martian ground. Rovers would collect and transport the brine to the outpost for deposition, which would then be processed into water and oxygen. Oxygen will be circulated throughout the outpost, while water will be stored in a storage tank at the base, and pumped up along the pipes when required for watering the greenhouse planters or for daily consumption.
Waste Waste from the living clusters will be collected and processed, then recirculated to the greenhouse planters as fertilisers.
power circulation diagram
solar cells
water circulation diagram
waste circulation diagram
martian brine drop-off for processing
planter pockets (distribution of water and waste)
6.2
How people move Verticality in movement Trampoline Core
Climbing wall & Breakout spaces
The trampoline core is envisioned as the main mode of transportation situated at the center of the outpost, connecting the bottom to the top. It is an integration of recreation and fitness into everyday circulation, which makes movement and the time spent while moving less stagnant.
Wall climbing is done with the use of textured wall facades and are catered for activities that require lower rates of movement, such as work or meditation. Planter pockets integrated with the printing of the wall double up as a nook that allows residents to grip and step on, similar to rock climbing.
Not only does this make moving more fun which would boost the mood and mental well being of the residents, the trampoline also allows them to stay active while moving. This is critical to ensure that residents are maintaining their muscle mass in a low gravity environment, which could otherwise result in an unhealthy physique.
Platforms of varying sizes offering varying degrees of privacy are also placed along the walls as breakout spaces. Smaller platforms would suit individuals looking for a place of meditation among the greenery, while larger platforms could be used as a temporary discussion space or even possibly a space for exhibitions
This is also only possible due to the lower gravity on Mars, which allows humans to jump higher than they normally can back on Earth.
Hyperloop transport system The hyperloop system is a high speed transportation system that directly connects each clusters. They are housed within the 3d printed organic structure, and are targeted for immediate transport between clusters for ease of mobility for injured residents, as well as for heavy load transfer across the outpost. It is also the only mode of access to the sky-walk that is situated at the very top of the outpost. In the long run, the hyperloop transport system could also connect multiple outpost within the tunnel.
trampoline
climbing wall & breakout spaces
hyperloop transport system
6.3
How people interact Nested communities With the high stress nature of the inhabitant’s job scope, the sensitive nature of the psychological well being of the inhabitants drives the importance of the private spaces aside from the public spaces. While each resident gets their own individual living pods, these pods will be part of a larger network of nested communities that allows for a gradual integration into and interaction with the larger community within the outpost - while maintaining the flexibility of retreating back into their smaller social circle or even to their individual pods. As in the diagram on the right, the first level of nesting consists of the individual pods which form a community via proximity with the neighbouring pods, common kitchens, group discussion spaces, fitness pods, and VR/hologram rooms that spot the area.
Individual living pods
Nesting 1: Cluster by proximity and shared spaces
Nesting 2: Inter-cluster interaction
A collaboration zone would be the next level of nesting that allows for inter-cluster interaction, and lastly the central green spine would foster cross cluster interaction across the outpost. Nesting 3: Cross-cluster interaction Individual living pods
Communal kitchen
Fitness pod
Hologram/VR room
Discussion space
7
Making Mars a reality
Overview In situ 3d printing will be generally used for construction of the outpost as it allows for precise construction and continuous printing that prevents any leaks in the structure. As most materials for feedstock can be found on Mars, it has minimal need for human intervention. Inhabitants can arrive on Mars to a complete habitat.
3d printing with Martian ice
3d printing with Martian rock
HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene) can be used for printing of materials which requires high transparency. This allows for maximised light penetration while having radiation shielding benefits. However, HDPE alone is not sufficient to shield against the high radiation on Mars, thus it is more suitable for use underground, without direct exposure to radiation. Furthermore, it can be made from bio-polyethylene obtained from plants which can be grown on Mars.
Used generally for walls to seal off the hazardous martian regolith found in the environment. Using natural rocks for construction also recreates the idea of using ‘earth’ in homes, which could help with feelings of isolation and act as a form of nature to improve well being of inhabitants.
If enclosure is under direct exposure to radiation, using ice as a material would allows light in while providing sufficient protection from radiation. 3d printing with HDPE
7.1
Equipment & Materials Several modules will be required to kick start the construction of the Mars habitat. While these modules are imagined and do not all currently exist, the technology behind each part does and construction of a Mars habitat with limited human intervention in the near future is more than possible.
1. Inflatable filament mixer For on site preparation of filament required for 3d printing; using martians rocks and bio-polyethylene from plants grown on Mars on prior trips. 2. Excavation rover Breaks down martian rocks and clears the site in preparation for printing. Broken down rocks to be used for the filament preparation as well. 3. Solar powered drone Comes with 4 attachments; 3d scanner to analyse site conditions; excavation bowl to collect debris martian rocks; claw carrier for transport and positioning of construction materials; and a printing nozzle for 3d printing.
inflatable filament mixer
solar powered drone
excavation rover
attachment components
3d scanner
excavation bowl
claw carrier
printing nozzle
7.2
Construction process
Drones carrying all necessary equipments are flown into the underground lava tube
Filament mixers are inflated in the cave
Excavation rovers are deployed to breakdown site debris. Drones attached to excavation bowls transport the debris to be input into the filament mixers.
Drones attached to 3d scanners scans and analyses the cleared site to establish base printing point
Drones attached to claw carriers transport and insert the foundations into the holes dug out by excavation rovers. These claw carriers also act as hands that can be remotely controlled when required. Base printing begins.
Drones attached to printing nozzles begin the printing of the outpost from bottom to top, with the help of the claw carriers to insert necessary structures between printing. Filament top up will be done at the filament mixers.
After completion of printing, Filament printers and drones can be used for other exploration work of the outpost, or transported to other areas for construction of additional outposts.
drones attached to claw carriers can be remotely controlled to bring in and align steel structure where necessary in between 3d printing
Input of materials (martian rocks and bio-polyethene from plants) for preparation of 3d printing filament
top up of filament tank
drones attached to 3d scanner scans and analyzes the printing site before establishing base point for printing. Also used for remote monitoring of the construction process
multiple drones attached to printing nozzle conduct printing simultaneously and continuously, with minimal human intervention
drones attached to excavation bowl help clear and transport broken down debris to the filament mixer
excavation rovers break down debris
8
References
Biblography 1 NASA & JPL. (2020, October 12). A Degree of Concern: Why Global Temperatures Matter. Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2865/a-degree-of-concern-whyglobal-temperatures-matter/ 2 IPCC, 2021: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [MassonDelmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M.Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu and B. Zhou (eds.)]. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/ IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf Cambridge University Press. In Press. 3 NASA, JPL, & Caltech. (2019, June 19). A Degree of Concern: Why Global Temperatures Matter. Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. https://climate.nasa.gov/ news/2878/a-degree-of-concern-why-global-temperatures-matter/ 4 Siegel, E. (2019, May 14). This Is Why Mars Is Red And Dead While Earth Is Blue And Alive. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2019/05/14/this-is-why-mars-is-red-and-deadwhile-earth-is-blue-and-alive/?sh=1f5df30395bb 5 Pyne, S. (2020, September 12). Commentary: California wildfires signal arrival of a planetary fire age. CNA. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/commentary/us-california-west-fire-orange-sky-forestpictures-san-francisco-698231 6 Rich, M., & Inoue, M. (2018, September 5). Japan Copes With Aftermath of Jebi, Strongest Typhoon in 25 Years. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/04/world/asia/typhoonjebi-japan-evacuations.html 7 Taylor, A. (2018, August 22). Devastating Monsoon Floods in Kerala, India. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2018/08/devastating-monsoon-floods-in-kerala-india/568171/ 8 Deutsche Welle. (2017, February 16). Up to 20 million threatened by drought in eastern Africa. DW.COM. https://www.dw.com/en/up-to-20-million-threatened-by-drought-in-eastern-africa/a-37580220 9 SpaceX. (n.d.). Starship SN15. https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/ 10 Rincon, B. P. (2021, August 7). What is Elon Musk’s Starship? BBC News. https://www.bbc. com/news/science-environment-55564448 NASA. (n.d.-b). Mars Facts. NASA’s Mars Exploration Program. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from https://mars.nasa.gov/all-about-mars/facts/ NASA. (n.d.-b). Mars Facts. NASA’s Mars Exploration Program. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from https://mars.nasa.gov/all-about-mars/facts/ NASA. (n.d.-b). Mars Facts. NASA’s Mars Exploration Program. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from https://mars.nasa.gov/all-about-mars/facts/ Rothery, D. (2020, November 30). Mars colony: how to make breathable air and fuel from brine – new research. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/mars-colony-how-to-make-breathable-air-andfuel-from-brine-new-research-151053 SAGA Space Architects. (2019, April 24). Mars Lab. https://saga.dk/projects/mars-lab https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/matmata-underground-houses https://www.pinterest.co.kr/pin/29977153755394018/ https://www.pinterest.co.kr/pin/29977153755394018/ http://wha.com.tr/en/world_heritages_of_turkey_1.php 11 NASA. (2021, July 8). In depth. NASA. Retrieved April 1, 2022, from https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ planets/mars/in-depth/ 12 Biodomes. (n.d.). Dome Homes - Biodome Glass Geodesic Domes - Eco Dome House. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from https://www.biodomes.eu/ 13 NASA. (2019). Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment (MOXIE). NASA Mars. https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/spacecraft/instruments/moxie/
14 NASA. (n.d.). Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover. NASA Mars. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/ 15 Rothery, D. (2020, November 30). Mars colony: how to make breathable air and fuel from brine – new research. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/mars-colony-how-to-make-breathable-airand-fuel-from-brine-new-research-151053 16 SAGA Space Architects. (2019, April 24). Mars Lab. https://saga.dk/projects/mars-lab 17 Gayen, P. (2020, December 15). Fuel and oxygen harvesting from Martian regolithic brine. PNAS. https://www.pnas.org/content/117/50/31685 18 Potter, S. (2021, April 23). NASA’s Perseverance Mars Rover Extracts First Oxygen from Red Planet. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-perseverance-mars-rover-extracts-first-oxygen-fromred-planet/ 19 https://theconversation.com/mars-colony-how-to-make-breathable-air-and-fuel-from-brinenew-research-151053 20 https://www.archdaily.com/919709/saga-space-architects-design-simulated-mars-habitat-in-israeli-desert/5d11935b284dd19ebb0001ab-saga-space-architects-design-simulated-mars-habitat-in-israeli-desert-photo 21 Williams, M. (2016, November 21). How bad is the radiation on Mars? Science X Network. https:// phys.org/news/2016-11-bad-mars.html 22 NASA. (2018, June 8). Space Radiation Risks. https://www.nasa.gov/hrp/elements/radiation/ risks/ 23 Cavagna, G. A. (1998, June 18). Walking on Mars. Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/31374?error=cookies_not_supported&code=1362f776-2c5d-4325-9250-fa241a9453a3 24 Morris, N. P. (2017, March 14). Mental Health in Outer Space. Scientific American Blog Network. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/mental-health-in-outer-space/ 25 Mars, K. (2021, June 9). What Happens to the Human Body in Space? NASA. https://www.nasa. gov/hrp/bodyinspace/ 26 Robbins, J. Y. E. (2020, January 13). How immersing yourself in nature benefits your health. PBS NewsHour. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/how-immersing-yourself-in-nature-benefits-yourhealth 27 Benyoucef, Yassine & Olga, Suslova. (2019). TYPOLOGY AND ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF TRADITIONAL DWELLINGS IN THE GREAT SAHARA (CASE OF PATIO AND UNDERGROUND HOUSES). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337819751_TYPOLOGY_AND_ARCHITECTURAL_FEATURES_OF_TRADITIONAL_DWELLINGS_IN_THE_GREAT_SAHARA_CASE_OF_PATIO_ AND_UNDERGROUND_HOUSES 28 https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2018/02/the-last-families-living-in-tunisias-underground-houses/554426/ 29 https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/matmata-underground-houses 30 http://wha.com.tr/en/world_heritages_of_turkey_1.php 31 https://www.pinterest.co.kr/pin/29977153755394018/ 32 AI SpaceFactory. (n.d.). MARSHA by AI SpaceFactory. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from https:// www.aispacefactory.com/marsha 33 SEArch+ & Clouds AO. (n.d.). Mars Ice House. SEArch+. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from http:// www.spacexarch.com/mars-ice-house 34 Team Kahn-Yates. (2018, July 23). Kahn Yates - Phase 3: Level 1 of NASA’s 3D-Printed Habitat Challenge. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a_BN_xJZMOk 35 ZA Architects. (2013). mars colonization. http://www.zaarchitects.com/en/other/103-mars-colonization.html 36 https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/110825-best-space-pictures-aurora-mars-galaxy-mars-asteroid-meteor-158-science
37 https://www.space.com/18519-mars-caves-lava-tubes-photos.html 38 Letzter, R. (2020, May 11). These lava tubes could be the safest place for explorers to live on Mars. LiveScience. https://www.livescience.com/radiation-mars-safe-lava-tubes.html 39 Planetary Science Institute. (2019, October 3). Stop 6 at Hellas. https://www.psi.edu/epo/explorecraters/hellasstop6.htm 40 CENTER FOR PLANETARY SCIENCE. (2019). PROSPECTIVE LAVA TUBES AT HELLAS PLANITIA. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 41 http://planetary-science.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Prospected-Lava-Tubes-at-HellasPlanitia-Paris-et-al-1.pdf 42 https://www.stavislost.com/hikes/trail/big-skylight-cave-four-windows-cave-giant-ice-cave