2. Literature Review 2.1 Climate Adaptation

SLR is different from current coastal change because there is no certainty around the pace of change and magnitude (OECD, 2019), and the time scale of change being long term, it creates low awareness regarding the coastal zone. There will be a long-time gap between when costs are made to reduce risks, and benefits are understood. Good investments for adaptation can prevent SLR (OECD, 2019).

McCulloch, et al (2002) has categorised a few climate adaptation strategies (Boateng, 2008):

1. Prevent the loss- Reduce vulnerability to climate change by adaptation strategies

2. Tolerate the loss- Do nothing to reduce the risks and danger, absorb the losses as they take place

3. Spread and share the loss- spread the costs over different populations.

4. Change the activity getting affected- substitute ongoing activities that can’t cope with climate change with other activities.

5. Considerations of land use- move the land use or activity to a safer location (Boateng, 2008).

Adaptation is a risk management strategy according to Easterling, et al (2004). They aren’t free of cost or fool proof, it is therefore suggested that the benefits of the actions must outweigh the value of costs in reference to adaptation strategies.

Adaptive strategies thus need to be compared and assessed and the best effective strategy can be identified to be implemented. The selection must also be based on the surrounding developments and ecology.

Biljsma et al. (1996) identified three possible coastal response options to sea-level rise, which were adopted by IPCC (2001) comprising: Protection; Accommodation; and Retreat.

2.2 The Protection Strategy

This policy aims to protect the land from the sea so that existing land uses can continue by constructing hard structures and implementing soft technical solutions. The main disadvantage is that they are frequently expensive and have limited or finite long-term performance, requiring regular maintenance to withstand extreme weather conditions. Despite the inadequacies of the protection strategy, it may still be the most appropriate adaptation for sea level rise, and it is dependent on the properties along the coast line, cultural heritage, nature, and society as contributing aspects of the shore line (Boateng 2008).

Protection of developed coasts is required if the cost of protection is less than the value of the properties and land threatened by SLR. If a coastline is undeveloped, it is more cost effective to allow natural SLR processes take over, but protection is required if SLR can lead to significant contamination of the area (Boateng 2008).

2.3 The Accommodation Strategy

This technique assumes that people will continue to live on the site but will alter their properties and activities. The policy includes: structural redesign (e.g., elevating buildings and strengthening foundations) to reduce the impact of flooding; zoning and proper land use policy to encourage only low capital investments on vulnerable lands; soft approaches such as dyke opening, wetland renewal, dune rehabilitation, and beach re-feeding to improve natural resilience; drainage modifications for built-up areas that may become inundated; and growing flood or salt-tolerant crops (Boateng 2008).

Accommodation for developed regions should be agreed upon if soft defences are capable of managing threats and providing the necessary level of protection to life and property. Accommodation as a technique could be excellent for impacted regions including agricultural land or eco-tourism land (Boateng 2008).

2.4 The Retreat Strategy

Retreat implies only a partial, or potentially no, effort to save the land from the sea. In the worstcase scenario, the coastal area is abandoned, allowing coastal landforms and ecosystems to migrate inland. This policy option is recommended for very vulnerable coastlines when the market cost and/ or technical complexity of securing the coast outweigh the benefits. To be effective, vulnerable people and infrastructure must be transferred away from high-risk areas (Boateng 2008).

This should be considered for developed lands only if the expense of protection exceeds the worth of the properties on that property. Retreat may be the best option for undeveloped land unless it is designated as agricultural land or is relatively limited, such as small islands that require conservation or have considerable ecological or commercial significance (Boateng 2008).