The principles of islamic doctrines and theology by Abdulmajeed Hassan Bello

The Principles of Islamic Doctrines and Theology

Dr. Abdulmajeed Hassan Bello Department of Religious and Cultural Studies, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

Postal address: P. O. Box 2489, Uniuyo. Post Office â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 520003, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.

Email address: abdulmajeedhassan@uniuyo.edu.ng /abdumajeedbello@gmail.com

Contents Preface 1. The religion of Islam 1.1 Unique features of Islam 1.2 Objects of Religion 1.2 Significance of Religion 1.3 Theoretical and Practical of Islam 1.4 Islamic Ethics 1.5 Islam and violence 1.6 Islamic social agenda 1.7 ‫جهاد‬Jihad in Islam 2. The Shari’ah 2.1 Fiqh or Shari’ah (Islamic Law) 2.2 The Qur’an 2.3 The Sunnah 2.4 ijtihad or individual reasoning 2.5 School of law or al madhahib‫المذاهب‬ 2.6 Sunni Schools of law 3 Islamic Theology 3.1 Islamic School of Theology 3.2 Kharijites or Khawarij 3.3 Muriji’ah 3.4 Ash’arites 3.5 Mu’tazilites 3.6 Ahmadiyya movement in Islam 4. The Islamic Principles 4.1 Belief in Allah 4.2 Belief in the angels 4.3 Belief in the Revealed Books 4.4 Belief in the Prophets 4.5 Belief in the life after death 4.6 Doctrine of Predestination ‫قدر و تفدير‬ 5. The Islamic Practices 5.1 Shahadah ‫شهادة‬ 5.2 Ritual Prayers in Islam 5.2. 1 Significance of physical posture in prayer 5.2. 2 Five obligatory prayers 5.2. 3 Ritual purity 5.2. 4 Performing the Prayers

4 5 5 7 9 11 12 16 18 20 23 23 25 28 30 34 36 44 44 46 50 51 54 60 69 69 75 78 79 82 84 90 90 92 92 97 100 103

5.2.5 Facing the Qiblah

105

5.2.6 Mosque and its role 5.2.7 Supererogatory Prayers (Nawafil) 5.2.8 Other important Prayers

115 121 123 2

5.3. Fasting (Saum or Siyam) ‫صوم أو صيام‬ 5.3.1 Significance of Fasting 5.3.2 The month of Ramadan 5.3.3 True purpose of Ramadan 5.3.4 Social Significance of Ramadan 5.3.5 Programmes in the Ramadan 5.4. Zakat 5.4.1 Definition of Zakat 5.4.1 Legal -threshold for Zakat (nisab) ‫نصاب‬

131 131 132 134 136 139 141 141 143

5.4.2 Beneficiaries of Zakat

145

5.4.3 Zakat and poverty eradication 5.4.4 Zakat and economic prosperity 5.4.5 Reestablishing the institution of Zakat

148 149 151

5.5. Hajj in Islam

152

5.5.1 Pilgrimage experiences

152

5.5.2 Method of performing Hajj 5.5.3 Obligations of Hajj 5.5.4 The Hajj proper 5.5.5 Visiting the prophet’s mosque 5.5.6 Eid al- Adha sacrifice

153 156 158 162 164

Bibliography

175

Preface Islam is not a new religion. The Qur'an refers to Islam as the religion of Abraham, Jacob, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. Today, wherever the word ‘Islam’ is mentioned it refers to the religion propagated and established by the prophet Muhammad (peace be on him) and is today professed by over seven hundred thousand Muslims the world over. Its message is contained in the Holy Qur’an which is a verbal revelation vouchsafed to Muhammad in small portions from time to time during the twenty three years of his ministry. It contains the whole of the law, doctrine, philosophy, moral precepts and other teachings of Islam. Islam means “submission to the will of God” and peace. It is not named after Muhammad. All followers of Islam, including the prophet himself, are called Muslims i.e., those who submit themselves to the will of God and exert themselves in establishing universal peace. The Qur’an states that those who submit themselves to God and are the doers of good shall have no fear nor shall they grieve. The general perception of Islam in the world stems from mainstream media: news, movies, and TV. Nearly every story related to Islam on broadcast news centers on Islamic extremism and terrorism. Westerners, accustomed by their history books to believe that Muslims were barbarous infidels, find it difficult to comprehend how profoundly their intellectual life has been influenced by Muslim scholars in the field of science, medicine, mathematics, geography and philosophy. Crusaders returned to Europe with new ideas of love, poetry, chivalry, warfare and government. The Europeans concept of what a university should be was deeply modified by Muslim scholars, who perfected the writing of history and who brought to Europe much Greek learnings. In everyday life, there appears to be a rise in poverty, crimes war and hatred, both within a community or society, and between societies and cultures. Often, religion has been misused as a vehicle to instigate such events even though the issues at hand have had nothing whatsoever to do with religious ideology. Religion is not the subject of the dispute or even of the grievance. Unfortunately, even in the developed world, this is not as easy as one might hope. Although, there has been great progress in the dissemination of information, the information that is made available is not always that helpful or as unpolluted as one is led to believe. However, we believe that through critical study of Islam, it is possible to get an insight into religious philosophy related to social order and the means to maintain stability in our society. It is obvious that judging an entire religion based on eye-catching news and entertainment about a minuscule percentage of its adherents is wrong. This book examines the basic principles of Islam, the sources of Islamic thought, the development of Islamic theology, the basic principles and its pillars. This book is developed out of my lectures delivered to the students of the Department of Religious and Cultural Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Uyo. It is my belief that this book will be of great benefit not only to the students of religious studies but also, to the law students and those who seek to know about Islam as well. However, I admit that the work of interpretation of Islam is not an easy task but I have tried my best to be objective in dealing with the various topics contained in this work. The views expressed here may not all be unanimously agreed upon, but I have tried my best to present those views, which I thought are far better to be harmonious with the spirit of Islam. I pray for Allah’s forgiveness for my shortcomings in undertaking this work. I thank our students, my friends and other scholars whose comments and suggestions have helped me in the preparation of this book. I owe a special gratitude to my colleagues who 4

have given their valuable contribution in the preparation of this book. I pray to Allah the almighty to reward each and every one of them abundantly. Our last word is all praise is due to Allah, the Sustainer of the universe. 29th, September 2017. Abdulmajeed Hassan Bello (Ph.D) Department of Religious and Cultural Studies University of Uyo Uyo, Nigeria

Chapter 1 The religion of Islam 1.1 Unique Features of Islam The Arabic word for religion is Din ‫دين‬or millah ‫مللة‬, the root-meaning of the former being obedience and requital, and that of the latter to dictate.1 The Creator has periodically chosen human beings to reveal His messages to humankind. Indeed, the Qur'an refers to many Prophets such as Abraham, Noah, David, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and Jesus. These messages and revelations culminated in Islam and in Muhammed as the last Prophet. The historical evolution and incorporation of prior messages into Islam are clearly stated in the Qur'an. Thus Islam is not a new religion. The Qur'an refers to Islam as the religion of Abraham, Jacob, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.2 It is simply the last of the divine messages to reach humankind through Prophet Muhammad, who was chosen by the Creator as the bearer of his last and allencompassing revelation. This explains why there exists a strong link between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Christians and Jews are referred to in the Qur'an as the "People of the Book" because they are the recipients of the messages of the Creator through Moses and the Old Testament prophets and through Jesus, who is believed in Islam to be the fruit of a miracle birth by the Blessed Virgin Mary.3 Islam not just a "religion" in the traditional sense, because it is not just confined to acts of worship, morality and other aspects of personal piety. The teachings of Islam, even though they do cover religious rituals and morality, also encompass all other aspects of life. The Prophet Muhammad's mission encompassed not only spiritual and religious teachings, but also included guidance for such things as social reform, economics, politics, warfare and family life. Thus due to the diversity and success of Muhammad's mission, Muslims have clear guidance from God and His Prophet on all aspects of life. This goes hand-in-hand with the Islamic belief that Almighty God does not leave human beings without guidance in their daily lives. Thus His guidance is all-encompassing.4 The name for the religion of Islam is much more than just a name because it expresses a deep spiritual meaning as well as an overall outlook on life and concept of worship. Islam is an Arabic word which denotes submission, surrender and obedience. As a religion, Islam stands for complete submission and obedience to Allah - that is why it is called Islam. The other literal meaning of the word Islam is “peace” and this signifies that one can achieve real peace of body and mind only through submission and obedience to Allah. Such a life of obedience brings peace of the heart and establishes real peace in society.5 As Allah Says (what means):

Al- Bustani, Karam: Al-munjid, ‫(المنجد‬Beirut: Dar El- Mashriq Publishers, 1975), 231. Qur’an says: say ye, we believe in Allah and what has been revealed to us, and what was revealed to Abraham and Ishmael, and Isaac, and Jacob and his children, and what was given to Moses and Jesus, and was given to all other Prophet from their Lord (Qur’an, 2: 136). 3 Bassiouni, M. Cherif: “The religion of Islam”, available at: www.mei.edu/content/religion-islam (10/04/2016). 4 Abu Yusuf Daniel Masters, Abu Maryam Isma'il Kaka and Abu Iman Robert Squires, “Unique Features of Islam”, Available at: www.islamkorea.com/english/islamuniquefeatures.html (05/04/2016). 5 Islam: basic principles characteristics, Available at: www.islamweb.net/en/article/113425 (05/04/2016). 1 2

Those who believe, and whose hearts find comfort in the remembrance of Allah. Aye! It is in the remembrance of Allah, verily, in the remembrance of Allah that hearts can find comfort. Those who believe and do good works â&#x20AC;&#x201C; happiness is decreed for them, and excellent place of return.6 Other religions are named after their founders, such as Christianity and Buddhism; after a tribe or ethnic group, such as Judaism; or after a specific geographical region, such as Hinduism. Islam, however, is unique because its name represents its outlook on life and reflects its universal nature. Additionally, the name "Islam" was not thought up by its followers or applied by other people, as is the case with the names of other religions, but was revealed by Almighty God. This name expressed nothing new, because submission to the will of God, i.e. "Islam", has always been the true religion of God. Due to this fact, and since the teachings of Islam are straightforward, profound and logical, Islam is the "Natural Religion" of all human beings.7 1.2 Objects of Religion The command to worship none other than Almighty God and to submit to His will has been revealed by God to all of His prophets throughout mankind's long history. The pure essence of the beliefs and teachings that were revealed by God to the Prophet Muhammad are the same as God taught to Abraham, who was one of the earliest and greatest prophets. So actually, Muhammad is the final prophet of Islam -- not the first. Additionally, Islam is the true "religion of Abraham", because Abraham completely submitted himself to the revealed will of Almighty God. Islam is truly unique among the religions of the world because it is addressed to all of mankind. The scripture of Islam, called the Qur'an, repeatedly addresses all human beings by saying: "O mankind!" Additionally, in the Qur'an, Almighty God is never addressed as the God of a particular people or nation. From the very beginning of the mission of Prophet Muhammad, his followers came from a wide spectrum of individuals, there was Bilal Bin Rabah, the African; Suhaib ibn Sinan, the Byzantine Roman; Ibn Sailam, the Jewish Rabbi; and Salman, the Persian.8 Since religious truth is eternal and unchanging, and mankind is one universal brotherhood, God's revelations to man have always been consistent and universal. Submission to the will of God, and worshipping Him alone without intermediaries, has always been the only religion acceptable to Almighty God.9 Thus, man is not in a position to appoint the purpose of his own life, for he does not come into the world of his own accord, nor will he depart from this world of his own will. He is a creature of God and the one who created him and invested him with better and higher faculties than those of all other animals has also appointed a purpose for his life. According to Islam the objects of religion are four fold:(a) To acquaint man with God Almighty, his maker; (b) To provide individuals with a code of conduct and morals; (c) To give communities rules for social, economic and political guidance, and Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an, 13: 28-29. Masters, et al. www.islamkorea.com/english/ 8 Bello, Abdulmajeed Hassan: Islam and the conception of Islamic state, (Verlag: Lap Lambert Academic Publishing), 61 9 Masters, et al. www.islamkorea.com/english/ 6 7

(d) To teach man about life after death.10 In the Qur’an, Allah outlines the object of man’s creation in the following words: “And I have not created the jinn and the men but that they may worship me.”11 The primary signification of the word Ibadah ‘(‫ )عبادة‬worship12 is to subject oneself to a rigorous spiritual discipline, working with all one’s inherent powers and capacities to their fullest scope, in perfect harmony with and in obedience to divine commandments, so as to receive God’s’ impress and thus to be able to assimilate and manifest in oneself His attributes. This is, as stated in the verse, the greatest and noble aim and object of man’s creation and this is exactly what worship of God means.13 The origins of man are lost in the dawn of time and we know that our remote ancestors of the Paleolithic age raised little above the animal level. The real start of man’s history came six thousand years ago when God first revealed Himself to Adam and appointed him and his descendants, to be his vice-gerents on earth. Thus, the first step in human progress was knowledge of God and the start of civilization was religious belief.14 Primitive communities were scattered and isolated and their needs were purely local. This explains why God first inspired national rather than universal prophets to warn men when they became steeped in idolatry and sins. The holy Qur’an tells us that every tribe or nation was sent divine messengers15 who, in the face of opposition and persecution, reminded men of God and the hereafter and exhorted them to practice well and shun evil. Some of these apostles also brought codes of laws suitable to their particular society. Civilization advanced considerably from the time of Adam to the time of Noah. This advanced human society naturally required a more advanced divine teaching in view of the changed circumstances and growing needs of society. However, we find in the Qur’an that the people of Noah were guilty of all kind of aggression and digression from the right path, and are dubbed therein as a thoroughly sinful society. From this, it can be safely inferred that the concept of sin had been made cleared, because without a law the concept of sin cannot be entertained. It is the violation of divine law, which in religious terminology is referred to as sin.16 The central theme of religion is referred to as worship of God with total dedication, and to abide by the practices of Abraham and the teachings, which he brought. The word Mullah (‫ )ملة‬which means in Arabic language religious community; religion, creed, faith, confession and denomination,17 is used which covers this meaning. However, the details of the teachings are not described. One guiding principle mentioned in the Qur’an is invariably applicable to all divine law revealed before the Qur’an, and that is that God always burdened people only with what they could take. He burdened them to such practices as were in accordance with their requirements and their socio-economic moral environments.18 10

Sheikh Mubarak Ahmad: why Islam? (London: London Mosque publication, 1985), 1 Qur’an, 51:57. 12 The word Ibadah in Arabic means, worship and devotional service. 13 Malik Ghulam Fari’d: Ed. The Holy Qur’an with English Translation & Commentary, (Tilford: Islam International Publications Ltd, 2009), 1123. 14 Ahmad, (1985), 1. 15 The Holy Qur’an says: “And there is no people to whom a warmer has not been sent.” Qur’an, 35:25. 16 Hadhrat Mirza Tahir Ahmad: Absolute Justice, Kindness and Kinship, Tilford: Islam International Publications Ltd., 1996), 118-119. 17 Cowan, J. M.: Ed. The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern writing Arabic, (New Delhi: Modern language service, 1960), 918. 18 Ahmad, (1996), 119. 11

1.3 Significance of Religion Religion helps to achieve the objective of life. Religion guides man into communion with maker, and through such communion, puts him in beneficent accord with his fellow beings, all of the creatures and servants of the same creator, the one, without associate. It is the function of religion to furnish guidance on this behalf. How shall man know his Creator? How shall he form a concept of His attributes? What means shall he adopt to put himself in communion with him? The Qur’an sets forth complete and perfect guidance on these and other cognate questions.19 God Almighty says in the Qur’an: “Surely, it is for us to guide”.20 Religion is the way of life that should enable each individual to attain to the highest possible development in the spiritual, moral and physical spheres. Its function is to establish and maintain the most harmonious relationship between man and his Maker on the one hand, and between man and man on the other.21 Among the great religions of the world, Islam enjoys the distinction of bearing a significant name, a name that point to its very essence. The root meaning of the word Islam (‫ )اسالم‬is to enter into peace, and a Muslim is one who makes his peace with God and man. Peace with God implies complete submission to his will, and peace with man is not only to refrain from evil or injury to another but also do good to him; and both these ideas find expression in the Qur’an as true essence of the religion of Islam.22 Islam is also unique in other several respects. First, Islam is the only religion that does not rely on any myth or mystery. It is based on upon the certainty of proved and acknowledged fact. Muhammad, the prophet of

Karimullah Zirvi, Welcome to Ahmadiyyat, the true Islam, (Silver Spring: Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam, 2002), 28. 20 Qur’an, 92:13. 21 Zirvi, (2002),28 22 Ali, Maulana Muhammad: The Religion of Islam, (Lahaore: The Ahmadiyya Anjuman Isha'at Islam, 1973), 2. Allah says:”Nay, whoever submits himself completely to Allah and he is the doer of good, shall have his reward from his Lord. No fear shall come upon such, neither shall they grieve.” Qur’an, 2: 113

Islam,23 was a historical figure, and lived his life in the full light day.24 Second, The revelation vouchsafed to him, over a period of twenty-two, or twenty-three years, has been fully safeguarded, in the Holy Qur’an, according to the divine promise set out in the Qur’an itself: “Verily, we ourselves have sent down this exhortation, and most surely we will be its Guardian.”25 This promise comprises several aspects: First, the text of the revelation should have been preserved in its purity and entirety for all time. Considering that the revelation contained in the Qur’an was vouchsafed to the prophet over a period of twenty-two or twenty-three years. The revelation started first in Mecca, then in Medina. that this period was marked by persecution, disturbance, and fighting; that the prophet himself was not literate; and that there was no sure method of preserving a record of the revelation except through human memory; it is a truly miraculous fact that the text of the Qur’an has been preserved intact, down to the last vowel point. Even Western scholars, who do not accept the Qur’an as divine revelation, affirm that it is word for word that which Muhammad gave out to the world as divine revelation.26

Prophet Muhammad was born around the year 570 or 571 and was orphaned at an early age. He was eventually raised by his uncle, who had religious prominence within the main Quraysh tribe of Mecca but was of modest financial means. At age 25, Muhammad married Khadija, a well-to-do, 40-year-old woman. At age 40, during a retreat in the hills outside Mecca, Muhammad had his first experience of Islam. The angel Gabriel appeared to a fearful Muhammad and informed him that he was God's chosen messenger. Gabriel also communicated to Muhammad the first revelation from God. Terrified and shaken, Muhammad went to his home. His wife became the first person to accept his message and convert to Islam. After receiving a series of additional revelations, Muhammad started preaching the new religion, initially to a small circle of relatives and friends, and then to the general public. The Meccans first ignored Muhammad, then ridiculed him. As more people accepted Muhammad's call, the Meccans became more aggressive. After failing to sway Muhammad away from the new religion they started to persecute his less prominent followers. When this approach did not work, the opposing Meccans decided to persecute Muhammad himself. By this time, two main tribes from the city of Yathrib, about 300 km (200 mi) north of Mecca, had invited Muhammad to live there. The clan leaders invited Muhammad to Yathrib as an impartial religious authority to arbitrate disputes. In return, the leaders pledged to accept Muhammad as a prophet and thus support the new religion of Islam. In the year 622, Muhammad immigrated to Yathrib, and the name of the city was changed to Medina, meaning city of the Prophet. This date was designated by later Muslims as the beginning of the Muslim calendar, year one of hegira (Arabic hijra, "immigration"). Only two years after Muhammad's arrival in Medina, the core community of Muslims started to expand. At Medina, in addition to preaching the religious and moral message of Islam, Muhammad organized an Islamic society and served as head of state, diplomat, military leader, and chief legislator for the growing Muslim community. Hostilities soon broke out between the Muslims in Medina and the powerful Meccans. In 630, after a series of military confrontations and diplomatic maneuvers, the Muslims in Medina extended their authority over Mecca, the most important city of Arabia at the time. Before Muhammad died in 632, the whole Arabian Peninsula was united for the first time in its history, under the banner of Islam. Like all prophets before him, Muhammad was a mortal man, commissioned by God to deliver a message to his people and to humanity. Like other prophets, Muhammad was distinguished from ordinary people by certain powers and faculties. For example, Muslims believe that the distinction of being sinless was granted to Muhammad by God to support his career as a prophet. Thus Muhammad is portrayed in the Qur'an as a person who makes mistakes but who does not sin against God. However, God corrected Muhammad's mistakes or errors in judgment, so that his life serves as an example for future Muslims to follow. This emphasis on Muhammad's humanity serves as a reminder that other humans can reasonably aspire to lead a good life as he did. 24 Muhammad Zafrullah Khan: The Message of Islam, (London: The Ludo Press Ltd, 1980), 3. 25 Qur’an, 15: 10. 26 Khan, (1980), 3.

Second, the language in which the revelation was sent should have continued to be in use as a living language. Classical Arabic, the language of the Qur’an is today, understood and used as a means of communication over much vaster areas of the earth. In addition, by many hundred times more people than was the case in the time of the prophet. 27 The prophet could not have assured these two factors, so essential for the safeguarding of the guidance contained in the revelation, in advance. 1. 4 Theoretical and practical of Islam In this book, we hold that the religion of Islam may be broadly divided into two parts: the theoretical, or what may be called its articles of faith or its doctrines, and the practical, which includes all that a Muslim is required to do, that is to say, the practical course to which he must conform his life.28 The first are called usul ‫أصول‬plural of asl ,‫أصل‬meaning a root or a principles.29 And the second are called furu ‫ فرع‬plural of fara’a, ‫فروع‬which means a branch, ‫علم الفروع‬ilmu al-fruu, which means the doctrine of the branches, i.e., applied fiqh, apply ethics consisting in the systematical elaboration of canonical law in Islam. The first part is also called ‫ ;عقائد‬aqaid plural of aqidah ‫ عقيدة‬literally means what one is bound to or believes. The second are called ahkam ‫أحكام‬plural of hukm ‫حكم‬, that literally connotes an order or the ordinances and regulations of Islam. 30 Other scholars of Islam divide Islamic teachings into three parts they are, (1) Doctrines (‫'عقائد‬aqa'id): such as, the Unity of God, the Divine Attributes, universal and restricted prophethood, etc. However, there are certain differences between Muslim sects as to what constitutes the basic articles of faith (‫أُصول الدين‬usul al-Din) in which belief is necessary. ( 2) Morals (‫أَخالق‬akhlaq): These relate to the commands and teachings relating to the spiritual and moral characteristics of human beings, such as, justice, God-fearing (taqwa), courage, chastity, wisdom, endurance, loyalty, truthfulness, trustworthiness, etc., and prescribe 'how' a human being should be. (3) The Law (‫أحكام‬ahkam). Here the issues relating to practice and the correct manner of performing acts of worships, such as, prayers (‫صلوات‬salawat) fasting (‫صوم‬sawm), (‫حج‬hajj), and ( ‫جهاد‬jihad). The science, which deals with the first of the abovementioned, is 'ilm al-kalam ‫علم الكالم‬. The study of the second is 'ilm al-'akhlaq ‫علم األخالق‬ (ethics). The study of the third is called ‫‘علم الفقه‬ilm al-fiqh (the science of jurisprudence).31 In the Qur’an, the two broad divisions are repeatedly referred to as iman ‫إيمان‬i.e., faith or belief and amal ‫عمل‬i.e., deed or action and the two describe a believers; those who believe and do well is oft recurring description of true believers. The relation of faith with deeds must be constantly borne in mind in order to understand the true meaning of Islam. 32 The word iman, (‫ )إيمان‬is generally translated as faith or belief it is derived from a’mana, ‫آمن‬ordinarily rendered, as he believed which means, when used intransitively, he came into peace or security. Hence, a believer is called al-mu’min ‫المؤمن‬meaning one who has come into peace 27

Khan, (1980), 3. Ali: (1973), 100. 29 Cowan, (1960), 19. 30 Cowan, (1960), 196. 31 Murtada Mutahiri: “An Introduction to the Islamic Sciences,” available at: http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?%20Id=78%20 (22/11/2012). 32 Ali, (1973), 100. 28

or security because he has accepted the principles, which bring about peace of mind or security from fear. 33 1.5 Islamic Ethics Every religion lays great emphasis on ethical aspects of human conduct in its own unique way. Generally there is great commonality between different religions as far as moral and ethical questions are concerned. In fact to mould a moral character is the most fundamental function of religion. All other functions are subsidiary to it. But it is also true that each religion has unique way of doing it and every religion puts differing emphasis on different aspects of human morality. Islam is also unique in this respect. It has its own ethical values and moral concepts, which are universal as well as specific to Islam.34 Islamic ethics is being defined as al-akhlaq, or adab ,‫أخالق أو آدآب‬which means character, nature, and disposition. The term khuluq appears in the Qur’anic verse “And verily, you (O Muhammad) are on an exalted standard of character.”35 Khuluq (akhlaq) or character has been referred as the state of the soul that determines human actions. It is neither the soul nor the action. Such character could be acquired through training and practice. In addition, to differentiate between the words character and action, character is the internal and hidden state of the soul, while action is its outward manifestation. Character or akhlaq is the inward cause while action is its outward consequences. A good character hence begets good action whereas a bad character yields bad actions.36 Islam has unique morality of its own. It puts great deal of emphasis, for example, on equality, justice and dignity of all human beings.37 However, there are also universal moral values, which Islam lays emphasis on. The Qur’an gives us the concept of what it calls amal salih (‫ )عمل صالح‬which, translated to English, would mean good deeds. But this translation does not adequately convey the meaning. The key word here is salih. The root of the word is salaha (‫ )صلح‬from which are derived many words with the meaning to be good, to repair, to mend, to improve, to be righteous, to be efficient, to be suitable, peace and friendliness, reconciliation etc.38 In Islam, morality and ethics historically took shape gradually from the 7th century and was finally established by the 11th century. It was eventually shaped as a successful amalgamation of the Qur’anic teachings, the teachings of the prophet (Sunnah), the precedence of Islamic jurists.39 Therefore, the two primary sources of Islamic ethics are the Qur’an and Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad. It will be seen that amal salih (‫ )عمل صالح‬leads to a society which is reformed, good, efficient, suitable (to humanity), improved and above all which is peaceful and friendly to all human beings. The Qur’an uses the word amal salih (‫ )عمل صالح‬repeatedly. For a moral conduct, according to the Qur’an, amal salih (‫ )عمل صالح‬is very necessary.40 The Qur’an says: “By the time! Surely, man is ever in a state of loss, except those who believe and do righteous 33

Ali, (1973), 100. Engineer, Asghar, Ali: “Islamic Ethics”. Available at: http://andromedia.rutgers.edu/ accessed, 3/10/2015. 35 Qur’an, 68:4. 36 Adibah Bint Abdul Rahim. “Understanding Islamic Ethics and Its Significance on the Character Building”. Available at: www.ijssh.org/papers. Accessed 01/10/2015. 37 Engineer. http://andromedia.rutgers.edu/ 38 Cowan, (1960), 521-522. 39 Islamic ethics. Available at: http://en.m.wikipedia.org. Accessed 01/10/2015. 40 Engineer. http://andromedia.rutgers.edu/ 34

deeds amal salih (‫)عمل صالح‬, and exhort one another to preach Truth, and exhort one another to steadfast”.41 Thus the key ethical concepts here in this chapter are: 1) amal salih (‫ )عمل صالح‬or virtuous deeds; 2) to be truthful and 3) to observe patience. One can say that these are key elements of Islamic ethic. Man surely is lost but those who perform good deeds are truthful and patient would not be. Thus, gratitude in prosperity, patience in adversity, and the courage to uphold the truth, even when inconvenient to oneself, are just some of the qualities that Islam encouraged to cultivate.42 ‫ شريعة‬Shari’ah or Islamic law is the command of God revealed to the Prophet, and it is a law that controls the state and society. It means that state and society have to conform to the dictates of Shari’ah. Shari’ah is different from the human law due to its divine origin which is based on divine revelations. It is very much different from the views of Plato who said that law belongs to the class of convention; if all parties or people agreed upon one issue then it could be the law, and if they did not agree then it could not be the law. Therefore, Islamic law or Shari’ah differs from human law since human law is the product of reason and outcome of customary rules. It can never produce a perfect uniformity of conduct. The good for one group of people is not necessarily so for another group, thus, the practice of moral conduct would be different from one another. Meanwhile, Islamic law or Shari’ah is able to produce perfect standard rules of conduct within all aspects of man’s life. It lies down the specific norms of good and bad, virtue and vice.43 The objective of Islamic law or Shari’ah is seen to be similar with Islamic ethics, that is, to construct human life on the basis of virtues ( ‫معروفات‬ma’rufat), and to cleanse it from vices ( ‫منكرات‬munkarat). Virtues or ma’rufat, in general, are in harmony with human nature and its requirements, and vices or munkarat are just opposite to virtues. Through Shari’ah, we can get clear view of what are the virtues and the vices, and these are to the norms to which the individual and societal behavior should conform. Islamic law or Shari’ah covers all aspects of man’s life from religious rituals up to social, economic, judicial system and so on. As a matter of fact, Shari’ah has much wider scope and purpose as compared to a Western legal system. Like Islamic ethics, Shari’ah aims at regulating the relationship of man with God, and man with man. Therefore, both Shari’ah and Islamic ethics cannot be separated from each other.44 In Shari’ah, there are certain limits prescribed by Allah ( ‫حدود هللا‬huddullah) which are imposed on man in order to prevent him from following his own wishes and desires. Allah has clearly mentioned about lawful ( ‫حالل‬halal) and unlawful ( ‫حرام‬haram), virtues and vices. These are limits ( ‫حدود‬hudud) which every Muslim must respect and obey, and if he transgressed any of these limits, he is doing wrong or committing a crime. These limits (hudud) are to be sanctions of Islamic law or Shari’ah, and that is why it is called as hudud law. Apart from giving man a sense of responsibility to Allah as well as to entire mankind, these limits (hudud) will safeguard the rights of man in all aspects of life. Therefore, Islamic law or Shari’ah will ensure and safeguard the wellbeing of people ( ‫مصالح العباد‬masalih alibad). For example, to safeguard the lineage of people, Islamic law provides clearly the punishment for adultery (zina). Adultery or zina means a sexual intercourse between man and Qur’an, 103, 1-3 Morality & Ethics in Islam. http://www.whyislam.org. 43 Abdul Rahim. (2015). 44 Abdul Rahim. (2015). 41 42

a woman not married to each other. Islam considers it not only as a great sin but also as an act which opens the gate to many other shameful acts. The Qur’an mentions, “Do not come nearer to adultery or zina for it is shameful deed and an evil, opening the road to other evils”.45 It is no doubt that adultery is a great sin, and if allowed it to happen, it may disrupt the social fabric of the nation (‫ )أُمة‬Ummah). For this reason, severe punishment is reserved for adultery. If it is punished softly or not punished at all, it might give bad impact on man’s life. It will destroy the basis of family structure, spread numerous diseases both physical as well as spiritual, and lead to broken family. Therefore, Islamic law punishes adultery heavily in order to penalize offenders, and at the same time other people in the same community are warned not to commit similar crimes. Islamic criminal law of adultery is mostly concern to safeguard man’s descendent, honor, and lineage as well as to preserve the ethical values. Another example of Islamic law to safeguard the wellbeing of people is the punishment for theft or armed rubbery (al-sariqah and al-hirabah (‫)السرقة و الحرابة‬. Islam emphasizes the individual’s safety with regard to his life, property, and honour, thus, any threat to these three entities is severely punished by Islamic law. A person who kills or robs another is severely punished because this is the only way to guarantee safety or security for every individual. Concerning theft, Islamic law legislates cutting off the thief’s hand as a maximum punishment and it must be done under certain conditions. When a person knows that he will lose hand for stealing, this makes stealing a rare possibility. The implication of this punishment would remind man to use each organ of the body honorably and legally. The function of hand is not for stealing. If the hand is used to threaten other people, it is a dangerous hand, thus, deserved to be punished. The punishment of cutting hand off is to give the thief and other people reminder not to deal with it again. If the punishment is imprisonment, the thief might steal again after being released from the prison. As such, all the penal code of Islamic laws will reflect to protect or safeguard the entire humanity and all bring the ethical values behind their punishment.46 With Western countries at the top of those considered most ethical, it is tempting to generalise and claim that the best political and economic practices prevail in places that are affluent, secure and free from conflict. A state in constant war, suffering from extreme poverty, military dictatorship and lack of social and economic development will obviously curtail ethical values in the public domain, and may begin to erode them even in the home.47 The principles of ethics are often discussed with respect to gains and benefits to society at large. What is good or bad is supposedly determined by the rule of the majority, with little attention given to the principles of morality. Islamic ethics differ from the Western concept as these are derived from God, directly from the Quran, and from the practices of the Holy Prophet. It is therefore a set of beliefs and actions that is divine and transcends the limitations of time, place and tradition.48 Unlike the commonly held belief that man is evil by nature, Islam holds that man is born with a morally good nature that responds to faith and ethical values. Over time, it may get corrupted due to temptations and man’s inability to exercise control over his desires. Qur’an 17: 32. Abdul Rahim. (2015). 47 Nikhat Sattar. “Ethics in Islam” available at: http://www.dawn.com/news/1108018. (8/3/2016) 48 Sattar. http://www.dawn.com 45 46

According to Islam, there is universal equality among mankind, with the single exception of moral goodness and strength of character or ‫تقوى‬taqwa. For man’s conduct to be ethical as per Islam, there are two conditions which must be fulfilled: his intention must be good and his action must be according to what God has instructed. If either is corrupt, his behaviour is unlikely to meet ethical standards. For example, if a wrong deed was done with good intentions that ultimately produced a good outcome, it cannot be termed ethical. If the intentions were wrong to begin with, and the outcome was accidentally good, there is no question of ethical behaviour. Good intentions and good deeds must go hand in hand.49 There are three very important and interrelated ways in which ethical principles in Islam differ from those that are understood and practised in the West: i) The first is the concept of individual freedom and independence. In Islam, one’s freedom ends where another’s physical and moral space begins. Indeed, alongside freedom of expression and liberty for individuals, society also has moral rights. Thus, how one individual behaves morally must be guided by how that behaviour impinges upon and influences the behaviour of those around him. ii) Secondly, Islamic teachings expand outwards with the family as the unit of society, not the individual. Islam believes in collectivism, not individualism. There is, therefore, no concept of being responsible for the self alone. iii) And thirdly, ethical principles, by virtue of their divine source, are not determined by the vote of the majority. If the majority in a society votes that speculation on the stock market is ethical, Islamic ethics will not accept this decision.50 Corruption and bribery may very well be the order of the day, and so could the consumption of drugs, and they may be declared legal. But they could never be morally right in Islam. Obviously, this also points to the fact that what may be the law in a country may not be necessarily ethical. The Quran is replete with clear messages pertaining to ethics ( ‫أخالق‬ akhlaq), the standards of behaviour that God expects mankind to adopt because He has sent him to this world as His vicegerent. These cover all aspects of truthfulness, honesty, kindness, integrity (that includes being consistent in word and deed), meeting commitments and sincerity. The best example of ethics is in the life of the Prophet himself. When Aisha the beloved wife of the Prophet was once asked about the personality of her husband, she had replied: “he was a reflection of the Quran itself”. 51 Thus, Islamic ethics is a code of conduct that calls for mankind to undertake a continuous process of self-purification, in thought, feelings and emotions ( ‫تزكية النفس‬tazkya nafs); in social interactions through intentions and deeds that benefit other human beings as well as other creations of God; in using the resources that God has given him in a wise manner;

Sattar. http://www.dawn.com Sattar. http://www.dawn.com 51 ‫ ( كان خلقه القرآن) صحيح مسلم‬: ‫ قالت‬، ‫قالت عائشة لما سئلت رضي هللا عنها عن خلق النبي عليه الصالة والسالم‬available at: http://www.saaid.net/mohamed/19.htm. (7/3/2016). 50

and in bringing him closer to the ideal as described by the Prophet: “the best amongst you are those who have the most excellent moral.”52 Therefore, Muslims should not be telling lies to others, spread false news, backbiting, slandering, and other unethical deeds. If every individual abide by the prescribed codes of ethics, people can live peacefully and there would be no cases of crime such as, murder, rape, theft, embezzlement of public funds, incest, and prostitution and so on. Therefore, Islamic ethics is vividly vital because it is a basic pillar for a healthy society. It aims at establishing life’s order and giving it regulation, dignity and serenity as desired by the teachings of Islam. Why is the Muslim world, then, among the most corrupt and depraved, demonstrating all the sins that the Quran has warned against? The answer lies perhaps in its collective failure to use intellect and reasoning, learn from mistakes, ponder over the message of the Quran and abstain from living in the fantasies of past glory.53 1.6 Islam and violence There is much misunderstanding about inter-connection between Islam and violence which needs to be clarified here since we are dealing with the question of Islamic ethic. Islam does not approve of violence except in certain extra-ordinary circumstances. The word Islam has been derived from the root ‫ سلم‬s.l.m. Which means to escape danger, to be free from fault, to deliver or hand over, to commit oneself to the will of God, to lay down arms, to establish peace. Thus the best meaning of the word Islam will be to establish or promote peace in harmony with the Will of Allah. Thus a Muslim is not a true Muslim if he commits acts of violence either for spread of Islam or for purposes of achieving power be it in the name of Islam. His primary duty is to establish peace so that justice prevails and humanity prospers. The Prophet has also said that the best form of jihad is to say truth in the face of a tyrant ruler. Tyranny could be both physical and psychological.54 The Qur'an says that no human life can be taken except in keeping with law. Thus we find in the Qur'an that "whoever kills a person, unless it be for manslaughter or for mischief in the land, it is as though he had killed entire humanity. And whoever saves a life, it is as though he had saved lives of all men."55 The Qur'an, it will be seen is against violence against humanity. It could be resorted to only for a just cause that too after great deliberation and if all other doors are closed. It is true the Qur'an has permitted retaliatory violence (for qisas). But the Qur'anic statements should also be seen at various levels. At the level of the Arabian society, with its customs, norms and traditions, permitting qisas (retaliatory violence) was necessary. The Qur'an had to deal with a given society. But at the higher moral level retaliation is not a good moral practice. It may be necessary in a society which is not highly morally developed. But in a morally developed society the virtue of pardon is the highest virtue. There is great moral worth in the act of pardon. One of Allah's attributes is that He pardons. He is Ghaffar i.e. He is forgiver. Forgiving is the great moral virtue. Retaliation may be human but Ali, Maulana Muhammad: A Manual of Hadith, (Lahore: The Ahmadiyyah Anjuman Isha’at Islam, 1975), 373 Sattar. http://www.dawn.com 54 Engineer. http://andromedia.rutgers.edu/ 55 Qur’an, 5:32. 52 53

forgiving is divine. Retaliation amounts to giving vent to one’s anger but forgiving amounts to suppressing ones rage and suppressing ones anger or rage is described as great virtue by the Qur'an. Those who suppress their anger are called ‫كاظمين الغيظ‬kazim al-ghayz. On moral level the Qur'an deals with this issue in the verse that reads, "Those who spend in ease as well as in adversity and those who restrain (their) anger and pardon men. And Allah loves doers of good (to others).56 This verse (3:133) deals with the moral aspect whereas the verse dealing with the question of qisas deals with the prevailing practice. The Qur'an's intention is not to perpetuate the practice of retaliation but to build a human character on the basis of restraining anger and forgiving. To absolutise the verse on retaliation and to maintain that it is the ultimate divine will is to do injury to the spirit of the Qur'an which is to cultivate higher mortality among human beings. It is the verse 3:133 which represents this higher morality. This is further reinforced by Allah's own attributes of being Merciful and Compassionate on the one hand, and repeated assertion by the Qur'an of the concept of ihsan (doing good to others). Thus it will be seen that the Islamic scripture does not morally approve even retaliatory violence which has at least some justification.57 Thus the question of violence has to be dealt with great caution as far as the Islamic tradition is concerned. At the level of the value Qur'an upholds non-violence and exhorts Muslims to use wisdom and benevolence ( ‫حكمة‬hikmah and ihsan ‫ ) إحسان‬while dealing with others. Whatever violence has taken place in the Islamic history it is Muslims and the then Arab society and their norms that could be held responsible than the teachings of the Qur'an. It is highly necessary to make this distinction in order to properly understand the essence of the Islamic ethic. Certain concessions to the situation should not be mixed up with the transcendental ethical norms given by the Qur'an. In this connection it should also be borne in mind that the Qur'an's repeated advocacy to fight ( ‫قتل‬qatilu) is not to give permanence to violence or the glorify it but in the situation the Qur'an was dealing with, there was absolutely no other alternative but to fight. Inter-tribal wars went on for years. Violence, in other words, was very much in the air. Also, there were powerful vested interests who were out to destroy Islam in its infancy and to eliminate the Prophet physically. Any moral discourse would not have influenced such people. The only alternative was to first defeat or subdue such elements and then to build new moral human from out of the believers. It was very difficult task indeed.58 If there has been bloodshed, and there has been, in the history of Islam the problem lies with the type of the society rather than the quality of the religious teachings. Most of us read into religion what suits our interests. In other words we often instrumentalise religion for our own purposes. There is abundant proof in history if we care to examine it carefully. Buddhism, Jainism and Christianity laid great deal of stress on compassion, non-violence and love and yet these religions put together could not build a society based on these values. Society still is full of violence, conflict and clash of interests. However, there is one more aspect we have to deal with to clear Islam of the charge that it promotes violence. It can be said that the Buddhist, Qur’an, 3:134. Engineer. http://andromedia.rutgers.edu/ 58 Engineer. http://andromedia.rutgers.edu/ 56 57

Jain or the Christian scriptures do not permit or talk of violence whereas the Islamic scripture does. But here one has to keep in mind the historical and social situation those scriptures were dealing with and the Islamic scripture was called upon to deal with.59 Here one has to refer to the Meccan context also. In Meccan verses there is absolutely no mention of meeting violence with violence. Therefore some of the religious thinkers like Mahmoud Muhammad Taha of Sudan have laid emphasis on the Meccan Islam. The Muslims were a persecuted minority in Mecca and they bore with great patience all the persecution let loose on them. Islam in Mecca was a great spiritual force. Those who lay emphasis on Meccan Islam would argue that had Muslims not migrated to Medina Islam would have remained a passive spiritual force like Buddhism or Christianity. 60 There is great deal of truth in this argument. But there are some problems, if not flaws, in it. Firstly, even in Meccan stage Islam was not a religion of individual salvation. Right from beginning Islam laid great emphasis on building community. The concept of Ummah was a collective concept. The concept of the community was always at the heart of the Islamic movement. In tribal society in which Islam arose in Mecca, individual is always subordinate to the collectivity. If Islam had laid emphasis on individual spiritual salvation the Meccan tribal lords would have hardly bothered to oppose it.61 1.7 Islamic social agenda Islam had a social agenda. It aimed at reforming not only the individual but also the whole society. It knew that the roots of exploitation and oppression lay in social structure, not only in individual avarice. So it aimed at transforming the society along with the individual. If the Meccan verses are examined carefully the transformation agenda of Islam becomes very clear. It forcefully attacks accumulation of wealth and exhorts the believers to spend their wealth on the poor, needy and orphans and widows. The rich of Mecca were neglecting them. This the Islamic agenda even at the Meccan stage was to set up a society which was based on socioeconomic justice. The powerful denunciation of accumulation of wealth is in one of the Meccan chapters: “Woe to every slanderer and backbiter. Who has gathered wealth and counted it. He thinks that his wealth will make him last forever! Nay! Verily, he will be thrown into the crushing fire.” 62 More such chapters and verses could be cited from the Meccan verses. Thus it becomes clear that Islam was attacking the very roots of social and economic exploitation and trying to lay foundation for a just society. The Meccan lords were, therefore, determined to throw out such a movement lock, stock and barrel. They, therefore, severely persecuted Muslims and forced them to migrate. When the Prophet migrated to Medina he seriously busied himself in laying the foundation of a just society. In doing so he became threat not only to the Jews of Medina whom he had given full religious freedom in his covenant with them (known as Mithaq-e-Madina ‫ )ميثاق المدينة‬but also continued to remain a threat for the Meccan vested 59

Engineer. http://andromedia.rutgers.edu/ Gerhard Lichtenthaler: Mahmud Muhammad Taha: “A Muslim reformer who dared to die for his convictions,” available at: http://www.iqri.org. (02/04/2016). 61 Engineer. http://andromedia.rutgers.edu/ 62 Qur’an, 104:1-4. 60

interests. The Meccan vested interests were determined to thwart any attempt to set up a just society even in Medina as successful experiment in Medina could pose serious challenge to their own interests. They were lording over an exploitative system. Thus they went in full force and attacked Medina. The Prophet was again faced with a violent situation and had to defend himself and urge his followers to fight for defence of Medina and for defence of Islam.63 The Jews and hypocrites betrayed him and thus he had to face internal strife also. He had to mobilise forces to fight the Jews with whom he had no religious quarrel. The Jews, who otherwise free to practice their own religion, felt threatened that they could no longer dominate the Madinese market. The migrants from Mecca too were expert traders and were now posing challenge to the dominance of the Jews.64 The Prophet of Islam had hardly any choice. In an attempt to set up a just society based on high ethical standards, integrity of character and spiritual values he had to take on most powerful vested interests out to rack his movement. Thus violence appears in the history of Islam not out of choice but out of compulsion. It is certainly not prescriptive violence but imposed one. That is to say, wars have been forced upon Muslims.65 Now as for the instances of Meccan model of Islam we do come across them in history, particularly in Sufi Islam. Sufi Islam is essentially build around the theory of individual salvation. A Sufi saint is engaged more in individual character building and spiritual practices and hence his whole emphasis on 'ibadat (prayers). The Prophet of Islam, it is interesting to note, was a perfect synthesis of a Sufi and an activist engaged in building a just society.66 That is why the Sufis consider the Holy Prophet as their Master from whom they derive their spiritual practices. But in later history of Islam we find either the Sufis or the activists or the 'Ulama (theologians) who theorised on the basis of the Qur'an and available reports of the Prophet's sayings and practices. The problem with the 'Ulama was that they froze Islam in its first century and lost track of its fundamental vision. Thus they could not keep pace with the changing society or new challenges emerging from different historical situations. The Prophet combined in himself both the Meccan and the Medinese Islam and thus he became a perfect model to follow. However, for those who came after him the Meccan Islam lost all relevance and they became more involved with building up a political community. The overemphasis in history of Islam on building up a political community created several problems and Islam became politicised rather than spiritualised. Hence its critics usually maintain that Islam is integrally associated with power.67 However, it would be a serious mistake to associate Islam with power. Islam, like any other religion, has strong spiritual and ethical base. Its basic emphasis on ethical foundations of individual action cannot be ignored. The 'ibadat (which include praying, fasting, giving alms and performing hajj – pilgrimage -) are very central to Islam. It is these 'ibadat which, according to the Qur'an, lead to inner peace ( ‫سكينة القلب‬sakinat al-qalb). Thus the Qur'an says "He it is who sent down inner peace into the hearts of the believers that they might add faith Ahmad, Hadrat Mirza Bashir Ud-din Mahmud: Introduction to the study of the Holy Qur’an, (Rabwah: the Oriental and Religious Publishing Corporation Ltd, 1969), 109-110. 64 Ahmad, (1969), 111. 65 Ahmad, (1969), 141. 66 Engineer. http://andromedia.rutgers.edu/ 67 Engineer. http://andromedia.rutgers.edu/ 63

to their faith."68 Inner peace and spiritual solace are the very foundation stones of an ethical conduct. Here we would like to point out that compassion like in the Christianity is very central to Islam also. The key word for this is ‫رحمة‬rehmah. This word has been derived from its root r.h.m. which in its root meaning means womb of the mother. And one of the ethical concept of Islam is ‫صلة الرحم‬sila-i-rahmi i.e. maintaining close relationship with those connected with ones mother's womb i.e. close relatives. Since mother nurtures and sustains life, she is more compassionate than man. Thus compassion and mother's womb are derived from the same root in Arabic. God is most compassionate ( ‫الراحمين‬ َّ ‫أرحم‬arham al-rahimin) as he is the creator and sustainer of all life. His Mercy and Compassion envelop everything in this universe Allah says in the Qur’an: “My mercy embraces all things”.69 Thus a Muslim who worships Allah has to display compassion by all his actions. True worship does not mean merely physically bowing down before Allah. It means bowing down to His attributes and to imbibe these attributes in one’s life. Thus a true Muslim is compassionate to all forms of life and he is committed to remove suffering from this earth. In other words a Muslim is quite sensitive to sufferings of all living beings and he should never be a cause of suffering of others. The Prophet is reported to have said that a good Muslim is one at whose hands others are safe.70 1.8 ‫الجهاد‬Jihad in Islam Jihad is one of the most misunderstood and abused aspects of Islam. Some extremist Muslims exploit the concept of Jihad for their own political objectives. Many non-Muslims misinterpret it to discredit Islam and Muslims. Every religion goes through tough time because of its extremist followers. Islam is not a violent religion some of its followers are doing violent acts.71 The word Jihad is commonly translated into English as ‘the holy war’ and for a long while now the word has been interpreted so that it has become synonymous with a mania of religion.72 However, the word Jihad does not mean ‘holy war.’ The concept of ‘holy war’ does not occur in the term Jihād, which in Arabic would be al-ħarb al-muqaddasah ‫الحرب المقدسة‬. Throughout the entire Qur’ān, one cannot find a term that expresses the meaning “holy war.”73 Jihad means effort or endeavors against man’s own self. Jihad is to work hard to do right things. Islam ask his followers to recognize their duty towards themselves, and that duty is Jihad, striving for good against evil, beginning with the conquest of a man’s own lusts. His training for Jihad is not only military training; it is the whole structure of Islamic discipline. Without the wider human aim, there can be no Jihad. In the religious sense, it probably applies to the whole effort of the Muslim to assert and establish the sovereignty of God in men’s mind,

Qur’an, 48:4. Qur’an, 7:156. 70 Ali, (1975), 27. 71 http://www.mediamonitors.net/shaziamirza2.html. 72 Maududi, S. Abul A’la: Jihad in Islam, (Damascus: The Holy Koran Publishing House, 1977), 1. 73 http://islamicsupremecouncil.org/understandin-islam . Shaykh Muhammad Hashim Kabbani, Insurgents (15/10/2012). 68 69

by performing his religious duty as laid down in the Quran, an effort, which should last through all his life. It should govern every action of his life, or he is no true Muslim.74 Thus the Arabic word ‘Jihad' has neither the connotation of ''holy'' nor that of ''war''. The translation of the word ‘Jihad'’ with ''holy war'' is arbitrary, tendentious and absurd.75 The word simply applies to any activity or job which is accomplished with great effort and which calls for striving hard. Maximum effort applied to a task is 'Jihad'. Great sacrifice of one's time, of one's personal honour for a noble cause is 'Jihad'’.76 Sheikh Nasir Ahmad states: The proclamation and preaching of truth under circumstances involving great risk to one's life is 'Jihad'. To rise against a tyrant in defense of the victims of oppression is 'Jihad'. The struggle against one's weakness, one's egoism, against the moral decay of the society, against oppression and wrong, against an enemy who attacks one's country, against compulsion in matters of and against the persecution of the innocent-all comes under the category of 'Jihad''77 Therefore, Jihad is a duty in Islam, but this duty may be summarized as the fight for good against evil in every connection and in every field, beginning with a man’s own heart and mind. Thus today it can be used to describe the personal struggle to keep the fast of Ramadan, to lead a good life, to fulfill family responsibilities, popularly it is used to describe the struggle for educational or social reform-to establish good schools, to clean up a neighborhood, to fight drugs, or work for social justice.78 Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said: "The greatest Jihad is that against a man’s own lust;"79 Suyuti said, al-Khatib alBaghdadi relates in his "History" on the authority of Jabir: The Prophet came back from one of his campaigns saying: You have come forth in the best way of coming forth: you have come from the smaller jihad to the greater jihad." They said: "And what is the greater jihad?" He replied, "The striving mujahadat (‫ ) ُم َجا َهدَة‬of Allah's servants against their idle desires.80 This means that the best way of recommending the belief in Allah’s universal sovereignty and extending the new realm of peace and goodwill is by the example of righteous conduct. The term “Al-Jihad-ul-Akbar "The greatest ‘Jihad’, is also applied by the Holy prophet (peace be upon him) to the effort of the student to become learned and the effort of

http://islamicsupremecouncil.org/understandin-islam. Sheikh Nasir Ahmad, “the Militant Islam”, the Review of Religions, Lxxxi, no. 3, (1986): 18. 76 Ahmad, (1996), 18 77 Ahmad, (1996), 18. 78 Esposito, John L. et al.: world religions today, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006, 223. 79 Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani said in Tasdid al-qaws: "This saying is widespread and it is a saying by Ibrahim ibn Ablah according to Nisa'i in al-Kuna. 80 The Prophet said in the Farewell Pilgrimage: "... The mujahid is he who makes jihad against himself for the sake of obeying Allah." (‫ )المجاهد من جاهد نفسه في سبيل هللا‬Imam At-Tirmidhi, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Tabarani and Ibn Majah. 75

the learned to spread knowledge.” The superiority of the learned man over a mere worshiper is like my superiority over the least of you.” 81 Jihad thus means serious and sincere struggle on the personal as well as on the social level. It is a struggle to do well and to remove injustice, oppression and evil from the society. This struggle should be spiritual as well as social, economic and political. In the Quran, this word is used in its different forms 33 times. It often comes with other Qur’anic concepts such as faith, repentance, righteous deeds and migration.82 It is therefore incorrect to limit the meaning of the term to warfare of the fanatical religious kind that brought blemish, shame and worldwide condemnation to the Muslim world and the religion of Islam itself. Allah says: “and fight them until there is no persecution, and religion is professed only for Allah. But if they desist, then remember that no hostility is allowed except against the wrongdoers.”83 This is to say that Jihad is not supposed to include aggressive warfare, but this tactic has been invoked by early extremists like Kharijites, by rulers to justify their wars of conquest and expansion, and by contemporary extremists such as Osama bin Laden and his Jihad against America as well as Jihad organization in Lebanon, the Persian Gulf, and Indonesia.84 Today there are many individuals who study Islam from a superficial point of view and emerge with their own ideas and imaginary interpretations, which often diverge greatly from the established legislation in the area of study. Because of such studies lacking a true basis in Islamic jurisprudence, many non-Muslims are given a bad understanding about Islam. Therefore, we are of the opinion that the best is to return to the original source texts bringing up the issue of Jihad in order to explain its various different facets and clarify its understanding finally.

Reported by Imam At-Tirmidhi in his collection, on the authority of Abu Umamah al-Bahili. http://islamicsupremecouncil.org/understandin-islam. (3/3/2016). 83 Qur’an, 2:194. 84 Esposito, (2006), 223. 82

Chapter 2 The Shari’ah

2.1 Fiqh or Shari'ah (Islamic Law) If there is anything, which is characteristics of and fundamental to Islam and Muslims, it is ‫الشريعة‬Shari'ah. Islamic Shari'ah or law as it is today, did not grow over night, but has been the result of historical developments over the centuries following the death of the prophet Muhammad who during his lifetime supplied additional details to enable some of its provisions become operative. It is reasonable to assume that the Lawgiver never intend the Shari’ah to cover in detail all conceivable exigencies of live. he intended no more and no less than to stake out, as it were, the legal boundaries within which the community ought to develop, leaving the enormous multitude of possible legal situations to be decided from the case to case in accordance with the time and changing social conditions. Thus, the true Shari’ah is far more concise and very much smaller in volume than the legal structure evolved through the ‫ الفقه‬fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) of various school of Islamic thought. The emergence of the schools of law affected the Shari’ah. Divergence from the direct adherence to the Shari’ah was something that none of the classical jurists had intended. Their intention was in fact to help every Muslim to maintain, in every new issue, a living relation with the basic texts of the Shari’ah. Theirs was the role of interpreting, implementing and giving an opinion on the applicability of a particular text and giving individual opinions. To every Muslim, such authority is dependent, or should be dependent on its compliance with the Qur’anic and prophetic texts and on the fulfillment of their objectives. Thus, the diversity of juristic opinion should be considered as an active sign of the flexibility of the Shar’ah, and not as a dogmatic seal on its applicability. However, such flexibility can be conceived only if the study of the Shari’ah precedes the endless journey amidst the extensive works of the jurists. Even that is not enough. All through this endless journey, we should not lose sight of the simple fact that the Qur’an and the Sunnah defined Islam, in the sense of binding law, forever, and any claim to binding authority in the name of Islam has to be authenticated by them. Therefore, a sharp line has to be drawn between Islamic law as introduced by its prophet (the Shari’ah), and all juristic achievements that came later, however rich and indispensable the latter may be. Their indispensability, however, goes only so far as it helps to verify the authenticity and applicability of the texts of the Shari’ah, the latter being always the basic and the sole source of legal authority. This is the burden of chapter two of the book. The aim is to examine the true nature of Shari'ah and its main sources. Thus, the chapter is divided into six sub-headings: definition of ‫ الفقه‬fiqh and ‫الشريعة‬Shari’ah, the Qur’an, the critical study of the Sunnah, Ijtihad, the aspect of flexibility of the Shari'ah and the emergence of the schools of Law or al-madhahib. (‫)المذاهب‬ The term ‫ الفقه‬fiqh is used in the literal sense to means understanding, comprehension and knowledge.85 In this sense, the word fiqh and ‫ الفهم‬fham are synonymous. It implies and understanding of Islam in general way or what a prudent person is likely to conclude from

Cowan, (1960),” 723

obvious evidences.86 The word fiqh has been used in the Qur'an on several occasions: "What has happen to these people that they come not near understanding anything?”87; "They have hearts but they understand not therewith."88 The same meaning is reflected in the words of the prophet Muhammad: "He for whom Allah wills His blessings is granted the understanding of religion".89 The scholars of the Shari'ah have used the word fiqh in a sense close to the literal meaning. They applied it to the knowledge of the rules of Shari'ah. Whether, these rules relate to the beliefs or deeds that issue from the people. The knowledge of Allah's existence and that He is one is fiqh according to this application, as the knowledge of the fact that murder is forbidden and entails retaliation is also fiqh. Later on, the meaning of this word developed and came to be applied to a specific kind of the rules of the Shari'ah. They are practical rules derived by the independent legal thinkers from particular sources or proofs. 90 The practical rules, means about actions (conduct and behavior) of the people and whose valuation as obligation, recommendation, prohibition, disapproval and permission has been classified, whether they are words or action. Legal value will be either prohibition, (‫حرمة‬hurmah) such as murder and theft. Or disapproval ( ‫كراهة‬ kharahah) such as engagement in selling at the time of call to Friday prayer, or obligation ( ‫وجوب‬wujub) such as observing prayer and paying Zakat, or recommendation ( ‫ندب‬nabd) such as congregational prayer and visiting the sick, or permission (‫عبادة‬Ibahah) such as eating drinking, and walking on the road. Thus, the laws about actions are called fiqh, and beliefs are not included in it because they are dealt with in an independent science known as ilm al-kalam or the science of divine unity.91 Fiqh does not consist of all practical rules (about conduct and behavior of man), but it is devoted to particular part of these rules: the rules that are derived by independent thinkers (mujtahidun) based on the proofs such as the verses of the Qur'an and the Sunnah. Accordingly, the prophet's knowledge of the practical rules of the Shari'ah is not called fiqh, because this knowledge has not been derived from the particular sources, but received directly through the divine revelation. Similarly, the rules provided by the explicit text of the Qur'an or the Sunnah is not called fiqh, because their knowledge is not acquired by means of research, reasoning and speculation, for the text indicate them in positive manner, although the word fiqh comprise this last kind of rules in our day.92 As the term fiqh is applied to the knowledge of the practical rules of the Shari'ah, it also stands for these rules themselves. Therefore, the rules of Shari'ah relating to conduct are also named fiqh according to the scholar of Shari'ah. He who has the ability to exercise ijtihad (independent reasoning) to gain the knowledge of the rule of Shari'ah and the ability to derive their source is called faqih or jurist. This ability is found in a person who fulfils the condition of ijtihad (independent reasoning).93 86

Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee: Theories of Islamic law, (Kaula Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust, 2002), 20 Qur'an, 4:79. 88 Qur'an, 7:180. 89 An-Nawawi, Muhyyi-ddin bin Zakariya: The Gardens of Righteous, translated by Muhammad Zafrullah Khan,(Tilford: Islam International, 2009), 232 90 H. H. Hassan, an Introduction to the study of Islamic law, (New Delhi: Adam Publishers and Distributors, 2005), 1 91 Hassan, (2005), 2 92 Hassan, (2005), 2 93 Hassan, (2005), 2 87

The literal meaning of the word Shari'ah is water hole, drinking place; approach to water hole; laws; the Shari'ah, the revealed, or canonical, law of Islam.94 Some research scholars of the history of Islamic law prefer to use the expression ''Shari'ah'' for Islamic law instead of the use of expression 'fiqh' and define the Shari'ah as the commands given by Allah to His servants through any of the prophets. Therefore, the Islamic Shari'ah, according to this definition, Shari'ah is a body of law which Allah prescribed for his servants through Prophet Muhammad.95 It is evident that the expression Shari'ah in this sense is synonymous with the expression fiqh in the sense used by the scholars in the beginning. Fiqh in this sense is absolutely the knowledge of rules of the Shari'ah, or it is these rules themselves. There is no distinction between the rules relating to acts and those concerning beliefs. After the use of the expression fiqh in the special sense of knowledge of the rules, which relates to the acts of the people alone, to the exclusion of those which relates to beliefs, the expression Shari'ah becomes more general than fiqh, because it comprises the rules relating to beliefs as well as to act together.96 Obviously, the word fiqh was used in the early days in a comprehensive way to include the tenets of Islam, its ethics, Islamic law, and the questions relating to the spiritual aspects of things for which the term 'tasawwuf' subsequently came into use. In this technical sense, however, it was restricted to Islamic law alone.97 2.2.

The Qur'an

The original sources from which all principles and ordinances of Islam are drawn is the Holy Book called al-Qur'an.98 The word Qur'an is an infinitive noun from the root ‫قرأ‬qara’ which signifies primarily he collected together things. If also signifies he read or recited, because in reading or reciting, letters and words are joined to each other in a certain order. 99 The Qur'an in the belief of all Muslims is the very word of God, it clearly states, “Your companion has neither erred, nor has he gone astray. Nor does he speak out of his own desire. It is nothing but pure revelation, revealed by God.”100 It was revealed in fragment, through the angel Gabriel, during the prophetic career of Muhammad, which lasted for about twenty-three years. The present form of the Qur'an is the same in every part of the Muslim world and it has been so for all through the centuries. 101 This, Muslims believe, is because the prophet himself completed the compilation and arrangement of the chapters - under Divine instructions –. During his lifetime, every revealed portion used to be recorded in writing by many companions; some of them even memorized the whole of the Qur'an. Memorization of the whole Book has been common in all Muslim

Cowan, (1960), 466. Zaidan, AbdulKarim: Al-Madkhal li-Dira'asa’t al-Shari'ah al-Isalamiyya, ‫المدخل للدراسات الشريعة اإلسالمية‬ (Alexandria: Da'ar Umar bin Khatab, 1979), 38-39. 96 Hassan, (2005), 3 97 Nyazee, (2002), 22. 98 Ali, (1973), 15. 99 Cowan, (1960), 75 100 Qur'an, 53: 3-5. 101 Ramadan, Said: Islamic Law Its Scope and Equity. Kuala Lumpur: A.S. Noorudeen, 1970,41 95

countries. Even today, there are many schools specialized therein and every graduate of a religious institute is supposed to have committed to memory every word of the Qur'an.102 The Qur'an was not only transmitted orally by many Muslims who had learned parts or the whole of it, but that it was also, written down during the lifetime of the prophet. The wellknown report about Umar's conversion shows that large passages of the revelation had already been written down even at a very early time, in Mecca, long before the hijra, when the prophet was still in the house of Arqam.103 For Umar could read and write, on his request his sister gave him the page in which was Chapter 20 of the Qur'an and when he had read the beginning he said how fine and noble is this speech. The expression- the collection of the Qur'an- is often misunderstood. It signifies no more than that all those manuscripts, which during the lifetime of the prophet had been dictated to amanuenses from time to time, as the verses, were revealed, were brought together into one volume in order in which the prophet had personally dictated them to be inserted. The practice with the prophet was that whenever a verse or a chapter was revealed, a double process was employed to preserve it. There were amanuenses always at hand who committed it to writing; there were also those who committed it to memory. 104 Now it must be noted that the revelation of certain chapters extended over many years, as they were revealed piecemeal. Thus, whenever a fresh revelation came which was to form part of a previous revealed chapter, the prophet, while dictating its commitment to writing and memory, would there and then also point out in what chapter and in what context of that chapter it was to be inserted. Thus, the whole of the Qur'an was arranged and recited in the very order in which we find it in our hands. In this very order, the prophet recited the various chapters in his daily prayers. In this, very order and arrangement were done under the prophet's own directions. The only thing left undone was that various manuscripts were not put into one volume. Nor could they be so put during the lifetime of the prophet, when at any time a fresh piece might be revealed and a rearrangement of the written pieces accordingly become necessary. These pieces were taken down on palm leaves, on paper, or on leather.105 The work of collection could only be done after the prophet's death when the Qur'an had been revealed in its entirety. Consequently, when in the battle of Yamama (11/633), many of those Muslims, who had the Qur'an by heart, met martyrdom. Umar reminded Abu Bakr that the time for such collection had come, so that if even all those who had committed the Qur'an to memory should fall in battle, the Qur'an might still remain intact and in the same order. This important work was at once taken in hand and entrusted to Zaid bin Thabit, the scribe who had taken down most of the Medina chapters, and he collected all the material bearing these manuscripts and made them into one volume.106 He applied a twofold method of verification, comparing the original manuscripts with the texts memorized by the prophet's companions; this method provided a double testimony for the accuracy of every injunction. This is all what the term ''collection of the Qur'an'' implies and this is what was done in the reign of Abu Bakr.

102

Ahmad Von Denffer, An Introduction to the Science of the Qur'an, (Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 1989),

34 103

Denffer, (1989), 34 Maulana Muhammad Ali: Early Caliphate, (Lahore: Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam, 1951),73-74 105 Ali, (1951), 75 106 Denffer, (1989), 52-53. 104

During the time of Uthman, the third caliph, difference in reading the Qur'an become obvious, and after consultation with the companions, Uthman had a standard copy prepared from the suhuf of Abu Bakr that were kept with Hafsah at that time. It was Hudhifah that alarmed at the variation in the models of reading of the people of Syria, Iraq and Azarbijan. Therefore, Uthman sent word to Hafsah the widow of the prophet asking her to send him the Qur'an copy in her possession so that they might make other copies of it and then sent the original copy back to her. Thereupon Hafsah sent her copy to Uthman, and he ordered Zaid Ibn Thabit and Abdullah Jubair and Said al-As and Abdul-Rahman ibn Hisham and they made copies from the original copy. Uthman also said to the three men who belong to the, Quraish (Zaid only being from Medinah): "when you differ with Zaid in anything concerning the pronunciation of the Qur'an, then write it in the language of Quriash for it is in their language that it was revealed.107 They obeyed these instructions, and when they had made the requires number of copies from the original copy, Uthman returned the original copy to Hafsah and sent to every quarter one of the copies thus made, and ordered all other copies or leaves on which the Qur'an was written to be burned. Thus, the door was elaborately locked against the possibility of corruption.108 Muslims, however, have received this established authenticity, more as an axiom of faith; and they often quote the following Qur'anic injunction: “Falsehood shall not approach this book from what has passed or from what lies ahead. It is a revelation from the wise the praiseworthy.”109 To Muslims, the Qur'an being the very word of God, it is the absolute authority wherefrom springs the very conception of legality and every legal obligation. It is also to them, the first and everlasting miracle of Muhammad's prophethood. It has to be admitted, however, that the Qur'an, being a book of religious guidance, is not an easy reference for legal studies. It is more particularly and appeals to faith and the human soul rather than a classification of legal prescriptions. Such prescriptions are comparatively limited and view. Regarding family law, they are laid in seventy injunctions; civil law in another seventy; penal law in thirty; jurisdiction and procedure in thirteen; constitutional law in ten; international relations in twenty-five; and economic and financial order in ten. Such an enumeration, however, can only be approximate. The legal bearing of some injunctions is disputable, whereas in some others it simultaneously applies to more than one sphere of law. The major portion of the Qur'an is, as with every Holy Books, a code of Divine exhortation and moral principles.110 The Qur’an is divided into 114 chapters, each of which is called surah. All chapters, with exception of the last thirty-five, are divided into sections called ruku, each section dealing generally with one subject, and the different section being interrelated to each other. Each section contains a number of verses (a’yah), the total number of verses is 6,240, or including the 113 verses “in the name of Allah” (Bismillah) with which the chapter opens, 6353 verses.111 The chapters vary in length and are arranged, not in chronological order but in the

107

Denffer, (1989), 52-53. Ramadan, (1970), 42 109 Qur'an, 41:43. 110 Abd al-Wahhab Khalaf: Ilm al-Fiqh, ‫(علم الفقه‬Cairo: Matba'at al-nasr, 1957), 34-35. 111 Ali, (1973), 41-42. 108

sequence laid down by the prophet for recitation.112 However, we assert with confidence that the place occupied by the Qur’an has not been attained at any time by any book anywhere. 113 2.3 The Sunnah and Hadith Sunnah or Hadith (the practice and the saying of Prophet Muhammad) is the second and, undoubtedly, secondary source from which the teaching of Islam are drawn. Sunnah literally means a way or rule or manner of acting or mode of life, and Hadith a saying conveyed to man either through hearing or through revelation. In its original sense Sunnah indications the doing and hadith the sayings of the prophet; but in effect both cover the same ground and are applicable to his actions, practices, and sayings, hadith being the narration and record of the Sunnah but containing, in addition, various prophetical and historical elements. There are three kinds of Sunnah. It may be a saying of the prophet (qaul) which has bearing on religious question, an action or practice of his (fi’l), or his silent approval of the action or practice of another (taqrir).114 However Sunnah and Hadith are not the same thing. For instance the details of Rak’ats which constitute in combinations, the five daily prayers, are not laid down in the Quran. How many in the early morning, how many at other times of prayer and so on? These details we find in the Sunnah, the practical example of the prophet. Hadith or corpus of orally received traditions was recorded about hundred or hundred to hundred and fifty years later, while the Sunnah came side by side with the revelation of the Quran. Sunnah derived its authority from the prophethood of Muhammad, as expressed and defined in the Qur'an. His mission is thus stated in the Qur'an: O ye who believe! Obey Allah and his Messenger, and do not turn away from him while you hear him speak;115 Whoso obeys the Messenger obeys Allah indeed; and whoso turns away, then we have not sent thee as a keeper over them.116 The best-known collections are those of Bukhari, Muslim, Ibn Majah, Abu Daud, Trimidhi, and Al-Nisai, which are popularly called “Shihah sitta”, the six authentic.117 Sunnah of the prophet was not, as generally supposed, a thing where of the need have been felt only after his death, for it was as much needed in his lifetime.118The two most important religious institutions of Islam, for instance, are prayer and the compulsory charity of Zakat; yet when the inactions relation to these were delivered- and they are repeatedly met with both in Mecca and Medinah revelations- no details were supplied. "Keep up prayer in the Qur'anic injunction and it was the prophet himself who by his own actions gave the details of the services. ”Pay Zakat" is again an injunction frequently repeated in the Qur'an, yet it was the prophet who gave the rules and regulations for its payment and collection. These are but two examples; but since Islam cover the whole sphere of human activity, hundreds of points had to be explained

112

Ahmad, (1980), 9. Ali, (1973), 43. 114 Ali, (1973), 50. 115 Qur’an, 8:20. 116 Qur’an,4:80 117 Ahmad, (1980), 11. 118 Ali, (1973), 50. 113

by the prophet by his example in action and word, while on the moral side, his was the pattern which every Muslim was requires to follow.119 The man who embraces Islam stood in immediate need of both the Qur'an and the Sunnah. The prophet, however, in order to avoid a possible confusion of his saying with Qur'anic text, did not encourage his companions to write down what he said. But this did not affect the status of Sunnah; it only rendered more difficult its later recording.120 This difficult was the price Muslim had to pay for keeping their Holy Book unquestionable authentic and unique. Such a difficult, indeed, is a result of the basic separation between the Qur'an, which is the letter and spirit of God's will, and the Sunnah, which is the human, though prophetic, clarification of the Qur'an by Muhammad. The latter, by virtue of its very nature, was meant to make the Revelation, through a man, clear to men. Therefore, it was no great risk to leave the recording of the Sunnah for a later authentication by the faithful Muhammad's formidable influence and authority, not only on individual Muslims but also on the actual shaping of their entire society, were strong enough to enable later generations of Muslims to verify what Muhammad had said or done. One of the means of verification was the faculty of memory â&#x20AC;&#x201C; noteworthy characteristics of the Arabs- particularly strong when whetted by the urge of faith and spiritual love.121 Thus, for an early Muslim there was no problem in keeping to the Traditions of his prophet. Actual adherence, devotion and memory had been strong guarantees for the authority and authenticity of the Sunnah. But gradually the strong hold of Islam became attenuated and pre-Islamic schism began to breathe again after a long period of suppression- sometime in the name of Islam itself. Political maneuvers and intrigues became active in Muslim society. A seemingly easy instrument for playing on religious sentiments as well as for destroying the very framework of Islam was the Sunnah. Deliberate forgeries were instituted and many false sayings were ascribed to the prophet.122 The counter-balance against such forgeries, however, was twofold: a) In the first place, there were the recorded compilations of the Sunnah by early Muslims, some of which were written down in the presence of the prophet himself. Some examples are: i) The important sermon of Prophet Muhammad on the day of the conquest of Mecca, which he ordered to be recorded in response to the request of a Muslim from Yaman. ii) The private record of Abdullah Ibn Amr Ibn al-As, a companion of the prophet. He called this record Al-Sadiqah, which means "The Truthful". It was later incorporated in the authoritative books of Hadith. He said written here is only what I did hear with my own ears from the prophet. iii) Anas Ibn Malik, the devoted servant who lived with the prophet all through has stay in Medina, and who dies late as the year 93 A.H., said: Every now and then I took down in notes interesting points from what the prophet said in his discourses and other occasion of conversation; and I used to read this notes over to the Prophet whenever I found him having

119

Ramadan, (1970), 44 Ramadan, (1970), 44. 121 Ramadan, (1970), 48 122 Ali, (1973), 52. 120

leisure, and after he had corrected them, and I made a fair copy of them for my own record.123 iv) In reliable reference books of Sunnah, written documents dictated by the prophet are frequently mentioned and authenticated. These limited examples may serve to present the often ignored fact the late famous complications of Hadith were by no means the first written documents relating to the Sunnah. b) Next to these written documents, as a counter-balance to forgery, were the great works of Muslim scholars in the field of compilations and authentication of the Sunnah. A chain of authorities (sand) going back to the original narrator and the process was called “isnad” or backing thus prefaced each Hadith: in the course of time a separate. Science of Hadith was build up, where by not only the chains of authorities could be traced back to the Prophet himself, but also the biographical data about the narrators who investigated and classified.124 Says Gibb: The specific application of this biographical material the purposes of hadith-criticism was the object of a special branch of study called the ‘science of impugnment and justification.’ This investigated the bona fides of the guarantors of tradition, their moral character, truthfulness, and powers of memory.125 Again he say: “the history of Islamic science the discipline of hadith-criticism became more and more meticulous.”126 The outcome of all this effort is the classification of every recorded item of the Sunnah according to its status of authenticity. There upon stands its authority as a text of a text of Islamic law. The existence of the science of Hadith makes it impossible for any bona fide Muslim scholar to accept the manner in which most Western writers have been treating the Sunnah.127 2.4 Ijtihad or Individual reasoning Ijtihad is translated as individual reasoning or exercise judgment. It is the third source from which the laws of Islam are drawn. The Qur'an does recognize revelation as a source of knowledge higher than reason, but at same time admits that the truth of the principles established by revelation may be judge by reason, and hence it is that it repeatedly appeals to reason and denounces those who do not use their reasoning faculty.128 The first time ijtihad was used with a direct legal import was during the lifetime of the prophet in an authentic Tradition of Mu'adh Ibn Jabal. The latter was appointed by the prophet as a judge in Yaman on the eve of his departure to assume his office there, the prophet asked him: "According to what shall you judge? He replied: I will judge according to the Book of God," the prophet said and if you find nothing therein what will you do? He said according to the Sunnah of the prophet of God, the prophet asked and if you find nothing therein. Muadh replied, and then I will exert myself to form my own judgment. And there upon the prophet

123

Ramadan, (1970), 49. Ramadan, (1970), 49. 125 Sir Hamilton a. R. Gibb, Mohammedanism, New York: New American Library, 1955, 64 126 Gibb, (1955), 66. 127 Ramadan, (1970), 50 128 Ali, (1973), 82 124

said:" praise is to God who has guided the messenger of His prophet to that which pleases His prophet.129 The words" and then I will exert myself to form my judgment" according to the whole context of the Tradition is of a creative nature which functions in the absence of Qur'anic and prophetic texts. But there can be no exertion of own judgment without given scope of a free thought and independent opinion.130 This conception of individual opinion was clear aspect of the intellectual life of the earliest Muslim society. The four jurists, who are accepted by the entire Sunni world of Islam, are thus agreed in giving an important place in legislation to ijtihad. In fact, the sphere of ijtihad is a very wide one, since it seeks to fulfill all the requirements of the Muslim community, which are not met with expressly in the Qur'an and the Tradition.131 Raihan Sherif states: When we talk of Islamic laws based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah, we must remember the role the dynamic principle of ijtihad should play in reconstructing Islamic society. The prophet was also equally conscious of the fact that no rigid code, however comprehensive, could be expected to cover all situations of human life.132 The great jurists of Islam have endeavored to meet these demands by various methods, technically known as Qiyas, (analogical reasoning), Ijma (consensus) istihsa'an (equity), istislah (Public good), and istidlal (inference), Urf (custom), Shara’i’ man qablana, (laws revealed previous to Islam), Sadd al-dhara’i‘(blocking the means). a) Qiyas: The most important of ijtihad methods, and the one which has almost a universal sanction, is Qiyas, which may be describes as reasoning based on analogy. In the classical legal theory, Qiyas comes last. It is recognized as the fourth principle, basis or source of law, like other sources. In fact, it is a mode of legal reasoning (ijtihad) and not a source of law as the classical quaternion theory depicts. It is neither a source of law, nor an authority by itself. It is a process of systematic reasoning to reveal the rule of law. It is dependent entirely on an authority which may be the Qur'an or the Sunnah. Sometimes it is based on ijma which also takes it sanction from either of these two sources. Thus these sources are interlinked and ultimately return to the Qur'an.133 Therefore, Qiyas is an extension of the law as met with in the Qur'an and Tradition, but it is not of equal authority with them, for no jurists has ever claimed infallibility for analogical deductions, or for decisions and laws which are based on Qiyas; and it is a recognized principle of ijtihad that the jurists may err in his judgement.134 b) Ijma: Another method of ijtihad though is on a wider basis is ijma. Ijma played a vital role in the integration of the Muslim community. In its early phase it manifested itself as a general average opinion, a common feeling of the community, and as a binding force of the Yusuf bin Ummar Ibn Abd al-Barr: Jam'i Baya’n al-Ilm wa-fadlih, ‫(جامع بيان العلم وفضله‬Cairo: Tabu Munir alDamashqi, 1965), 58. 130 Ramadan, (1970), 74-75 131 Ali, (1973), 87 132 M. Raihan Sherif, Islamic Social Framework, Lahore: Ashraf Press, 1979, 142. 133 Ahmad Hassan: Analogical Reasoning in Islamic Jurisprudence, (New Delhi: Adam Publishers & Distributors, 2007), 1. 134 Ali, (1973), 87. 129

body of law against unsuccessful and stray opinions. In the classical period, it developed with its complex theory and ramifications. It became decisive authority in religious affairs.135 Ijma in its early stages was parochial, i.e., the ijma of Medina, Kufa, Basra, and Syria. Al-Shafi'i almost rejected the ijma of the scholars because of its parochial nature and because it involved personal opinion. He recognized only the ijma of the community on the essentials of religion. He substantiated his standpoint based on some traditions that were adopted later by the jurists.136 It would thus be seen that it is a mistake to call ijma an independent source of the laws of Islam. It is essentially reasoning or exercise of judgment (ijtihad), with this distinction that is ijtihad on which all or the majority of the jurists of a certain generation are agreed.137 It may be added here that the sense in which the word ijma is commonly used nowadays is quite erroneous, for it is taken to mean the opinion of the majority and it is generally thought that it is a sin on the part of a Muslim to differ with the views of the majority. Nevertheless, honest difference of opinion, instead of being a sin, is called a mercy by the prophet, who is reported to have said, "The differences of my people are a mercy". Differences of opinion are called a mercy because it is only through encouraging it that the reasoning faculty is developed, and the truth ultimately discovered. There were many differences of opinion among the companions, and there were matters on which a single man used to express boldly his dissent from all the rest.138 c) Istihsa'an (equity) (‫ )استحسان‬Istihsa’an literally, considering a thing to be good or preferring a thing. In the terminology of the jurists, it means the exercise of private judgment, not on the basis of analogy but on that of public good or interest of justice. According to the Hanafi school, when a deduction based on analogy is not acceptable, either because it is against the broader rules of justice or because it is not in the interests of the public good, and is likely to cause undue inconvenience to those to whom it is applied, the jurist is at liberty to reject the same, and to adopt instead a rule which is conducive to public good, or is in consonance with the broader rules of justice. This method is peculiar to the Hanafi system, but owing to strong opposition from the other schools of thought, it has not, even in that system, been developed to its full extent. The principle underlying it is, however, a very sound one and is quite in accordance with the spirit of the Qur’an. There is, moreover, less liability to error in this method than in far-fetched analogy, which often leads to narrow results opposed to the broad spirit of the Qur’an.139 Thus, Istihsan refers to when a "hidden" qiyas (qiyas khafi) is given preference to a "clear" qiyas (qiyas jali), or when a partial exception is made to an otherwise general rule because of some indication elsewhere in the Shari‘ah. An example of this would be the validity of certain types of bequest made by a minor whose money is being held in trust for him (wasiyyat al-mahjur). Under normal circumstances, he is not allowed to use this money as he wants. If, however, he dies having made a bequest regarding his money (i.e. the third that is allowed for bequests), such a bequest is considered valid. Ordinary, "clear" qiyas would suggest that he is not allowed to use any of his money for any purpose. By istihsan, though, 135

Ahmad Hasan: The Doctrine of Ijma' in Islam, (New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 2003), 1 Hasan, (2003), 91. 137 Ali, (1973), 91 138 Ali, (1973), 92. Abu Dharr was alone in holding that to have wealth in one’s possession was a sin’ all the other companions were opposed to this view, yet the authority of the majority was never quoted against him. 139 Ali, (1973), 88. 136

his bequest is considered valid, because the point of his being made mahjur is to protect his money and guard him against poverty while he is alive; when he is dead such concerns no longer apply. For this reason it is permissible for a young boy, for example, to make a bequest regarding money of his that is being held in trust for him, assuming this is for a good cause, such as for a mosque, or for the benefit of some of his relatives, etc. 140 d) Istislah (public good or public interest) (‫ )استصالح‬In the Malik School, a similar rule to Istihsan is adopted under the name of istislah which means “a deduction of law based on considerations of public good.” Or al-Masalih al-mursala Masalih (‫ )المصالح المرسلة‬is the plural of maslaha, which means "something of benefit". Mursala in this context means, literally, "set free", "unrestricted", i.e. that there is no text either expressly allowing or forbidding the particular matter. In other words, the principle of al-masalih al-mursala refers to matters about which there is no definitive judgement or precedent in the Shari’ah but which are allowed because of their general benefit to the community, as long as they do not go against an existing judgement. It is well-known that Malik favours this principle. However, as al-Qarafi notes, one in fact finds it acted upon in all the schools of law. Indeed, this principle was used extensively by the Companions, particularly the first caliphs.141 e) Istidlal (inference). ‫ استدالل‬Istidlal literally signifies the inferring of one thing from another, and the two chief sources recognized for such inferences are customs and usages, and the laws of religions revealed before Islam. It is admitted that customs and usages which prevailed in Arabia at the advent of Islam, and which were not abrogated by Islam, have the force of law. On the same principle, customs and usages prevailing anywhere, when not opposed to the spirit of the teachings of the Qur’an or not forbidden by it, would be admissible, because, according to a well-known maxim of the jurists, “permissibility is the original principle, and therefore what has not been declared unlawful is permissible.142 f) Urf (custom) (‫ )عرف‬is applied to what is common or customary among the people and to which they have become habituated, whether it is a word or deed which is not contrary to the Qur’an or the Sunnah.143 Thus, this principle applies to things such as use of language, food, clothing, etc. One example would be understanding the word dabba ("riding-beast") as used in certain areas to refer to a donkey rather than any other type of animal. In other words, certain words are understood in a certain way in certain areas, which might be different from the "dictionary" definition. In cases involving the interpretation of such words, their customary meaning is taken into account.144 In fact, as a custom is recognized by a vast majority of the people, it is looked upon as having the force of Ijma, and hence, it has precedence over a rule of law derived from analogy. The only condition required is that it Dutton, Yasin. “The Sources of Islamic Law an Overview,” available at: http://www.muhajabah.com/docstorage/dutton.htm (25/03/2016) 141 One example is writing down the Qur'an and vocalising the written text. After many of those who knew the Qur'an by heart had been killed during the Wars of the Ridda, Abu Bakr had the Qur'an collected together in a written form. This is considered a maslaha mursala because, in the time of the Prophet, the Qur'an was not collected together in a written form. http://www.muhajabah.com/docstorage/dutton.htm 142 Ali, (1973), 88. 143 Hassan, (2005), 224 144 http://www.muhajabah.com/docstorage/dutton.htm 140

must not be opposed to a clear text of the Qur’an or a reliable tradition of the prophet. The Hanafi law lays special stress on the value of customs and usages. g) Shara’i’ man qablana, (laws revealed previous to Islam) (‫ )شرائع من قبلنا‬Shari’ah of Islam was preceded by other revealed laws that have been mentioned in the Qur’an, such as the law of Abraham, Moses, and Jesus these laws comprised a collection of practical rules to which we applied the term fiqh, and some of them have been mentioned in the Qur’an and the Sunnah. Is it necessary to consult these revealed laws, search for rules in them, and considered them a source of Islamic law?145 As regards laws revealed previous to Islam, opinion is divided. Some jurists hold that all such laws as have not been expressly abrogated have not. According to Hanafi School, those laws of the previous religious are binding which have been mentioned in the Qur’an without being abrogated.146 h) Sadd al-dhara’i‘(blocking the means) (‫ )سد الذرائع‬Sadd al-dhara’i, literally means, "Blocking the means", i.e. to undesirable ends, in other words, forbidding what is likely to lead to the prohibited. This is thus an extension of the general principle that what leads to the prohibited is prohibited, just as what leads to the obligatory is obligatory, and what leads to the permitted is permitted. The use of the principle of blocking the means by the Malik School of law is so much known about the school, though the rule is used by all the Sunni schools, the dispute is only on its conditions, scope and some points of detail.147 Al-Qarafi says that all the Muslims are agreed that such dhara’i‘(means) fall into three sub-categories: (i) Those whose prohibition is agreed upon, e.g. digging wells in the paths of the Muslims or swearing at idols (i.e. something that is highly likely to cause harm, although in itself permitted). (ii) those whose permissibility is agreed upon, e.g. cultivating grapes (i.e. something that could lead to what is haram, since grapes are of course essential for the production of wine, but which is more normally used for permitted purposes, i.e., in this case, the production of food). (iii) those about which there is a difference of opinion, such as certain transactions coming under the category of buyu‘ al-ajal ("deferred sales"), which Malik and the Madinans forbade, although others allowed them.148 2.5 Schools of Law or al-madhahib ‫المذاهب‬ Schools of Law are the usual translation of al-madhahib, which literally means the ways of going. In most works on Islam, the term al-madhab has become identical with Islamic Law. This identification, itself a basic misconception, seems in addition to overlook two facts about these schools:

145

Hassan, (2005), 234 Ali, (1973), 88. 147 Hassan, (2005), 186-187 148 http://www.muhajabah.com/docstorage/dutton.htm 146

1) The four famous schools- the Hanafite, by Imam Abu Hanifah (died 150 H), the Malikite, by Imam Malik bin Anas (died 179 H), the Shafiite by Imam Shafi'i (died 204 H) and the Hanbalite by Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal (died 214 H) are by no means the only schools in the history of Muslim jurisprudence, nor are they even fully representative of sunnite jurisprudence. From about the middle of the first century up to the beginning of the fourth, not less than nineteen schools of law and legal opinion appeared in Islam. This fact alone is sufficient to show how incessantly the early doctors of law worked in order to meet the necessities of a growing civilization.149 Most of these schools, it is true, were overwhelmed by the stronger influence of the famous four, but their disappearance as influential schools does not imply their ineffectiveness, whether in the real setting-up of Muslim jurisprudence or in setting its trends.150 Muslim libraries still cherish the outstanding works of Ibn Abi Laila (died, 148H), Al-Awzai (died 157 H), Sufian Al-Thawri (died 161 H), Al-Layth Ibn sa'd (died 175H), Dawud Al Zahiri (died 270H), and many others, all of whom had contributed in almost every sphere of legal speculation, and all of whom have been quoted either in praise or criticism by other school of law. Dawud Al-Zahiri's work was, in fact, a kind of reaction to what he considered to be mere speculative innovations fabricated upon juristic rules without any authority of the shari'ah. More than three centuries after his death at Baghdad, the famous Ibn Hazm in Spain became the staunchest representative of this way of thinking and contributed some of the most brilliant books in Muslim literature.151 There are still several schools of thought within the Shiites, the most important of which are the Ithna Asharis and the Ismailis. The Zaydis, who concentrated in the Yemen, combine Shi'i and Sunni doctrines.152 (2) The second fact, which is often overlooked about al-madhahib, or schools of law, is that none of them was really established during the lifetime of the jurist with whose name it later became identified. This reveals yet another fact, namely, that the early jurists did not mean to establish schools they only meant to exert all their means of knowledge whether in historical authentication, linguistic implications, or in comprehension of new occurrences, having the common purpose of contributing to a healthy relation between the Muslims and their shari'ah153. After the four schools of law were crystallized, ijtihad (independent reasoning) came to be classified into i) Absolute reasoning and ii) limited reasoning. The right of absolute reasoning was confined to the great four jurists after whom there was left little scope for its application. In the final phase of the development of law, however, the application of limited reasoning remained in vogue. The doors of reasoning were closed. The period of limited reasoning began. The closing of the doors of absolute reasoning signified the climax of legal thinking and it implied that the ummah (Muslim nation) had attained maturity. We noticed that the basic concept of the Qur'an, namely the ummah and the Shari'ah attained perfection more or less simultaneously. It is natural, therefore, that as the laws are 149

Ramadan, (1970), 89. Ramadan, (1970), 89. 151 Ramadan, (1970), 89. 152 Zaidan, (1979), 175. 153 Ramadan, (1970), 91. 150

made, and they are to be observed, hence the concept of limited reasoning. In a sociological sense, limited reasoning is essential. Too much adherence to limited reasoning sometimes causes stagnation in the society. The continuing process of social changes always necessitates adjustments of the existing legal codes with new conditions. This is possible only if the society continues to apply ijtihad (independent reasoning) as mechanisms of social adjustments.154 We can make a special note of the following in this regard: For centuries, independent thinking and exercise of judgement have been discouraged and the reason has been denied and except a minimal role in religious matters contrary to what is actually required.155 In the name of commitment to Allah, the actual emphasis has been on following the example of certain group of human beings and accepting their opinions on all matters requiring deliberation and judgement. Cultural limitation of the “pious” among the ancestors has become the highest value in religious matters, depriving man of the freedom he actually enjoys in these matters within the framework of the Shari’ah.156 As a result, empiricism and the use of the faculties of observation, inference and reasoning generally have hardly any place in the mind of the contemporary Muslim. Creativity has hardly any role and knowledge is reduced to the learning what is already known. Religious behavior has become synonymous with behavior regulated by authority.157 The consequences of all the above are many. Economic backwardness, political disintegration, social chaos, moral degeneration, intellectual stagnation and spiritual decay, all these are the result of the distorted religion that prevails in the name of Islam. While Islam is not the list of “do’s” and “do not’s” to which one is nowadays urged to conform. Islam is not a static system of rules and rituals. It is rather a dynamic process in which man himself actively participates. It involves knowing, thinking and creating. It involves learning, inventing and constructing.158 2.6 Sunni Schools of law i) HanafĪ School One of the geographical centers of legal thought was Kufa in Iraq. The servant and companion of the Prophet, ʿAbd Allāh ibn Masʿūd (d. 653), had been sent there by the caliph ʿUmar as a teacher and jurist. His students and theirs in turn achieved prominence as jurists; notable among them were ʿAlqamah al-Nakhaʿī, Masrūq al-Hamadānī, al-Qāḍī alShurayḥ, Ibrāhīm al-Nakhaʿī, ʿĀmir al-Shaʿbī, and Ḥammād ibn Abī Sulaymān (d. 738), who was the teacher of Abū Ḥanīfah, the eponym of the school.159 Abū Ḥanīfah (699–767) is the agnomen of Nuʿmān ibn Thābit, of Persian extraction and Kufa. He first studied scholastics and then concentrated on the jurisprudence of the Kufa School while earning his living as a textile merchant. His training in scholastics coupled with his experience as a merchant imparted to him the unusual ability to use reason and logic in the application of rules to the practical questions of life, and to broaden those rules by the use of 154

Manzooruddin Ahmad: Islamic Political System in the Modern Age, (New Delhi: Adam Publishers & Distributors, 2006), 105. 155 Sididiqi, Muhammad Nejatullah: “Tawheed: The Concept and the Process, in Agil, Syed Omar ed. Reading in the Concept and Methodology of Islamic Economics, (Kuala Lumpur: Cert Publications, 2005), 16. 156 Nejatullah, (2005), 16. 157 Nejatullah, (2005), 17. 158 Nejatullah, (2005), 17. 159 Kéchichian , Joseph A. “Sunni School of law”, available at: http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473 (/02/2016).

analogy (qiyās) and preference (istiḥsān). His liberal use of opinion in the formulation of analogy and preference caused his school to be dubbed the People of Opinion, as distinguished from the People of Traditions who depend on traditions in the formulation of rules—even though his school was not less knowledgeable about traditions. He was reported to have said, “This knowledge of ours is opinion; it is the best we have been able to achieve. He who is able to arrive at different conclusions is entitled to his opinion as we are entitled to our own.”160 On the whole, the legal doctrines of Abū Ḥanīfah evidence a liberality and a respect for personal freedom that are not that pronounced among other jurists. He was the first to formulate rules concerning contracts, which reflect his attachment to the principle of freedom of contract as exemplified in the contracts of ‫ سلم‬Salam and ‫ مرابحة‬murābaḥah. The former allows the immediate payment of the price of goods for future delivery, although the contract of sale stipulates the immediate exchange of an object and its price; the latter allows a merchant to sell what he had bought at the original price plus a stipulated profit, provided that usury is not involved. In the field of personal law, Abū Ḥanīfah allows a free girl who had reached her majority to marry without the intercession of a marriage guardian, although later Ḥanafī doctrine restricted that right to a woman who had previously been married. Also contrary to all other jurists, including the dominant opinion in his own school, he would not interdict the spendthrift, contending that a person who has reached majority is independent and can do as he wishes with his property.161 The legal thought of Abū Ḥanīfah was transmitted by his students, four of whom achieved fame—Abū Yūsuf, Zufar ibn al-Hudhayl, Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Shaybānī, and al-Ḥasan ibn Ziyād. In particular, Abū Yūsuf and Muḥammad were able to spread the influence of the school through their writings and their high positions in the ʿAbbāsid state; they were often referred to as al-Ṣāḥibān (the Two Companions). Abū Yūsuf, whose name was Yaʿqūb ibn Ibrāhīm al-Anṣārī (731–798), was appointed a judge in Baghdad and later became the first qāḍī al-quḍāt, or chief justice, with authority to appoint judges in the empire. On various occasions he differed with the opinions of his teacher, basing his decisions on traditions that may not have been available earlier. His book Kitāb al-kharāj is in the form of a treatise he prepared for Caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd on taxation and the fiscal problems of the state. To Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Shaybānī (749–804) goes the credit for writing down the legal thought of the Ḥanafī School. He was trained in the jurisprudence of the Iraqi school as well as in that of Medina, for he traveled to Medina and studied under the scholar Mālik ibn Anas, a version of whose book al-Muwaṭṭaʿ was transmitted by him. Caliph al-Rashīd appointed him qāḍī (judge) of Raqqah and later removed him, but he accompanied the caliph to Khurasan and died at Rayy. 162 The books he compiled contain many of the detailed rules he extracted, particularly on the laws of inheritance, as well as the doctrine of his school. Often the dominant opinion of the school reflected his opinion on a disputed topic. His books have been classified into two categories: Ẓāhir al-Riwāyah, whose transmission from him has been authenticated, and al-Nawādir, books transmitted by less reliable authorities. The first category consists of the six books al-Mabsūt, al-Jāmiʿ al-kabīr, al-Jāmiʿ al-ṣaghīr, al-Siyar al-kabīr, al-Siyar al-ṣaghīr, and al-Ziyādāt. 160

Kéchichian , (2016). Kéchichian , (2016). 162 Kéchichian , (2016). 161

These books were collected in one volume known as al-Kāfī by Abū al-Fadl alMarwazī, better known as al-Ḥākim al-Shahīd (d. 955). This collection was later annotated in a thirty-volume work, al-Mabsūt, by the distinguished scholar Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad alSarakhsī (d. 1090). This work was the basis of the Ottoman civil code of 1869, the Mecelle (Ar., Majallah), part of the legal reforms of the Tanzimat period. The second category, al-Nawādir, consists of Amālī Muḥammad or al-Kaysānīyāt reported by Shuʿayb al-Kaysānī, al-Raqqīyāt (cases submitted to al-Shaybānī while he was a judge in Raqqah), alMakhārij fī al-hiyal on legal fictions and devices, and five other lesser-known collections. Famous scholars of the next two generations include Hilāl al-Raʿy (d. 859); Aḥmad ibn ʿAmr al-Khaṣṣāf (d. 874), author of al-Ḥiyal on legal fictions and devices, al-Waqf on religious foundations, and Adab al-qāḍī on procedure and evidence (commented on by Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī al-Jaṣṣāṣ (d. 980), author of Aḥkām al-Qurʿān; and Abū Jaʿfar al-Ṭaḥāwī (d. 933), author of al-Jāmiʿ al-kabīr fī al-shurūṭ on legal formularies. Still later generations produced Abū al-Ḥasan al-Karkhī (d. 951); al-Sarakhsī, mentioned earlier; ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad al-Bazdawī (d. 1089), author of al-Uṣūl on jurisprudence; Abū Bakr al-Kāsānī (d. 1191), author of Badāʿiʿ al-ṣanāʿiʿ fī tartīb al-sharāʿiʿ; and Burhān al-Dīn ʿAlī alMarghīnānī (d. 1196), author of the famous and authoritative al-Hidāyah, which has been the subject of many commentaries. There followed a period of stagnation and imitation of earlier jurists in which existing works were abridged and annotated. An abridgement that received wide recognition was alMukhtaṣar by Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad al-Qudūrī (d. 1036). Also compiled were some fatwās, collections presenting actual or theoretical questions and answers. Chief among these were alFatāwā al-khānīyah by Qāḍīkhān Ḥasan ibn Manṣūr (d. 1195), al-Fatāwā al-khayrīyah by Khayr al-Dīn al-Ramlī (d. 1670), al-fatāwā al-Hindīyah—compiled in India by order of the Mughal emperor Awrangzīb ʿĀlamgīr(d. 1707) and consisting of extracts from the authoritative works of the school—and al-Fatāwā al-mahdīyah by the Egyptian muftīMuḥammad al-ʿAbbāsī al-Mahdī (d. 1897). In addition, Ḥanafī works achieved prominence in the Ottoman Empire, chief among which wereMultaqā al-abḥur by Ibrāhīm alḤalabī (d. 1549) and Radd al-muḥtār by Muḥammad Amīn ibn ʿĀbidīn (d. 1836).163 The Ḥanafī School is the most widespread of the existing schools in Islamic countries. The fact that it was the dominant school during the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate, owing to the efforts of Abū Yūsuf and other early Ḥanafīs, gave it an advantage over the others. Moreover, it was the official school of the Ottoman Empire, with its far-flung dominions, and in 1869 its doctrines were enshrined in the Mecelle, or civil code, to be applied in the newly created secular (niẓāmīyah) courts. Ḥanafī law, therefore, continued to be applied to Muslim personalstatus matters. It is still the official school for issuing fatwās and for application to the personal-status matters of Sunnī Muslims in the successor states of the Ottoman Empire, including Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, and Israel-Palestine. In Turkey, which is officially secular, Ḥanafī law governs religious observances. It continues to be the dominant school for application to personal-status matters and/or for religious observances among the Muslims of the Balkans, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, the Central Asian republics, and China. It is estimated that its adherents constitute more than one-third of the world’s Muslims.164 163 164

Kéchichian , (2016). Kéchichian , (2016).

ii) Mālikī School. This school developed in the Arabian Peninsula, the original home of Islam. It was originally referred to as the School of Hejaz or the School of Medina, and its doctrines are often attributed to such early Muslims as ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿUmar, Zayd ibn Thābit, ʿAbbās (the Prophet 's uncle), and ʿĀ ’ishah (the Prophet 's wife). Of the early jurists of the school who achieved fame, mention may be made of Saʿīd ibn alMusayyab, ʿUrwah ibn al-Zubayr, and Abū Bakr ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān. A later generation of jurists and traditionists were the teachers of Mālik, the eponym of the school. These included Rabīʿah ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān (d. c.748–753), known as Rabīʿah al-Raʿy or Rabīʿah of Opinion (or of Good Judgment, as suggested by Amīn al-Khawlī); Nāfiʿ (d. 735 or 737), the freedman of Ibn ʿUmar; Ibn Shihāb al-Zuhrī (d. c.740–742); Ibn Hurmuz (d. 765); and Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 765), the revered Shīʿī imam and eponym of the Jaʿfarī Shīʿī school of law.165 Mālik ibn Anas al-Aṣbaḥī, of Yemenite descent, was born in Medina in 713 and lived there until his death in 795, having left it only to perform the pilgrimage at Mecca. He thus epitomized the learning of the people of Medina. In his book al-Muwaṭṭaʿ, a collection of traditions from the Prophet, companions, and followers arranged according to the subjects of jurisprudence, he often would confirm a legal point by saying, “And this is the rule with us,” or “And this the rule agreed upon by consensus here.” It was said that al-Muwaṭṭaʿ was transmitted in several versions, but only two have reached us: the version transmitted by the Ḥanafī al-Shaybānī, mentioned earlier, and the version transmitted by Yaḥyā al-Laythī (d. 848) and commented upon by al-Zarqānī, al-Suyūṭī, and others. Fragments of a third version transmitted by the Tunisian ʿAlī ibn Ziyād (d. c.800) have also survived.166 Mālik was undoubtedly tradition-bound in his legal doctrines. He would often emphasize that he would not deviate from what he had received from his teachers or from the consensus of the scholars of Medina. Sometimes, however, he utilized a form of thinking similar to analogy, which has prompted Abū Zahrah to assert that Mālik used raʿy (personal opinion) as well as qiyās (analogy) in arriving at a rule. Actually, he himself said, “As for those matters that I did not receive from [my predecessors] I exercised my reasoning and reflection (ijtahadtu wa-nazartu) according to the course of those I have met … so that I would not deviate from the course of the people of Medina and their opinions ( ‫آرائهم‬ārāʿihim). If I did not hear anything specifically about a matter I attributed the opinion (raʿy) to me.” Amīn al-Khūlī explains that the word raʿy at that time did not bear its later technical meaning of opinion vis-à-vis analogy, but meant rather “understanding” and “good judgment.” He also considers the attribution by some authors of the technical concepts of preference (istiḥsān) and public interest (maṣāliḥ mursalah) to Mālik as rather anachronistic, because the science of uṣūl al-fiqh was still in its infancy at that time.167 In the field of law proper, the Mālikī School, compared to the Ḥanafī School, evidences some conservative attitudes, particularly with regard to women. Perhaps this reflects the conservative milieu of Medina at the time of Mālik compared to that in Abū Ḥanīfah’s time. The Mālikī ruling states that no woman can be married without the consent and participation of her marriage guardian; whereas in Ḥanafī law, a guardian is necessary only for a virgin below the age of puberty, and she can repudiate the marriage upon attaining puberty. Also in Mālikī law, the father or paternal grandfather has the right to give in marriage his virgin

165

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daughter or granddaughter without her consent and even, within some limits, against her wishes; in Ḥanafī law such susceptibility to compulsion (jabr) terminates at puberty.168 Mālik’s students included Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Shaybānī, mentioned above, and Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī, the founder of the school that carries his name. His followers included Yaḥyā al-Laythī, mentioned earlier as a transmitter of Mālik’s al-Muwaṭṭa; the Tunisian Asad ibn al-Furāt (d. 828); and ʿAbd al-Salām al-Tanūkhī, known as Saḥnūn from Kairouan (d. 854). Andalusian jurists who gained fame included Abū al-Walīd al-Bājī (d. 1081), Ibn Rushd (d. 1126), Ibn Rushd the grandson (d. 1198), and Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-ʿArabī (d. 1148). Later generations of jurists included Abū al-Qāsim ibn Juzayy (d. 1340), author of alQawānīn al-fiqhīyah fī talkhīṣ madhhab al-Mālikīyah; Sīdī Khalīl (d. 1365), author of the authoritative al-Mukhtaṣar; and Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-Khirshī (d. 1690), a rector of al-Azhar and author of a commentary on Khalīl 's work. Al-Mudawwanah, compiled by Asad ibn al-Furāt and later edited and arranged by Saḥnūn under the title of al-Mudawwanah alkubrā, has become the major reference book for the school. A concise work on law that has received some attention from Orientalists is al-Risālah by Ibn Abī Zayd al-Qayrawānī (d. 996). Mālikī jurists who attained fame in specific fields include the Egyptian Shihāb al-Dīn al-Qarāfī (d. 1285) and the Andalusian Abū Isḥāq al-Shāṭibī (d. 1388) in questions of jurisprudence, Ibn Farḥūn (d. 1396) in legal procedure, and Aḥmad al-Wansharīsī (d. 1508) and Muḥammad Aḥmad ʿUlaysh (d. 1882) in fatāwā works.169 Since the birthplace of the Mālikī School was Medina, it was natural that the school should spread in the Hejaz. Because of the contacts that the scholars of North Africa and Andalusia established with the scholars of Medina during the yearly pilgrimage, the Mālikī school spread to those parts and displaced the Ẓāhirī school in Andalusia where the latter, now extinct, had held sway. It continues to be the predominant school among the people of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. It has also spread to Upper Egypt and Sudan as well as to Bahrain, the Emirates, and Kuwait. A number of other countries also have some Mālikī adherents.170 iii) Shāfiʿī School. This School was not so much the product of a geographical area as it was the result of a synthesis conducted by a single jurist who was thoroughly familiar with the doctrines of the two other schools. That jurist was Muḥammad ibn Idrīs ibn al-ʿAbbās ibn ʿUthmān ibn Shāfiʾ (hence thenisbah or attribution Shāfiʿī), whose great-grandfather Shāfiʿ was a companion of the Prophet and a descendant of al-Muṭṭalib, brother of the Prophet’s ancestor Hāshim. Thus he was closely enough related to the Prophet to qualify for a stipend from the fifth of the spoils of war assigned to kinsmen, among others. Shāfiʿī was born in Gaza, Palestine, in 767 and died in Egypt in 820.171 When he was two years old, his father died, so his mother took him to Mecca to be among his kin and to preserve his noble heritage. After memorizing the Qurʿān and studying ḥadīth, he was sent to the desert where he accompanied the Hudhayl tribe, which was famous for its eloquent speech and poetic tradition. Later he traveled to Medina to study fiqh under Mālik, whose reputation had by then spread far and wide.

168

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When Mālik died, Shāfiʿī worked with the governor of Yemen and later was taken to Iraq on the orders of Caliph al-Rashīd to answer charges that he was an ʿAlīd sympathizer. His eloquent defense, added to a word in his favor from Qāḍī Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan alShaybānī, saved his life. He then applied himself to the study of Iraqi fiqh under al-Shaybānī and read the latter’s books. This opportunity to combine the knowledge of Iraqi fiqh with that of the Hejaz, added to the experience gained in his extensive travels, placed Shāfiʿī in a good position to formulate the theoretical bases for law in his famous al-Risālah. Al-Risālah was written in Baghdad during a second visit to that city and refined when the author moved to Egypt in 814–815.172 In the field of law, Shāfiʿī continued to regard himself as a member of the school of Medina even though he had adopted the essential thesis of the traditionists that the traditions were superior in the formulation of laws to the customary doctrines of the earlier schools. Through vigorous polemics he tried to convert the adherents of the other schools to his doctrine, but they were not willing to abandon their own doctrines. However, they did accept the validity of his legal theory, which is traditionist by inspiration. Those legal specialists of both schools who accepted Shāfiʿī’s thesis completely became his followers, and thus a new school arose with a doctrine formulated by an individual founder. The doctrine was first formulated in Iraq, but when Shāfiʿī moved to Egypt he retracted some of his earlier pronouncements; the resulting doctrine has come to be known as the Egyptian, or new, version of the school.173 Shāfiʿī authored or dictated to his pupil al-Rabī ibn Sulaymān (d. 884) the book known as al-Umm, a truly seminal work that defines not only the doctrine of Shāfiʿī but also many of the differences among the other schools. The seven-volume work deals with the various topics of law including transactions, religious observances, penal matters, and matters of personal status. It also includes such topics as the differences between ʿAlī and Ibn Masʿūd, the disagreement between Shāfiʿī and Mālik, the refutation by al-Shaybānī of some doctrines of Medina, the dispute between Abū Yūsuf and Ibn Abī Laylā, and the reply of Abū Yūsuf to the work on siyar, or the law of war and peace, by al-Awzāʿī. Al-Umm above all treats Shāfiʿī 's favorite topic, an attack on those who do not accept the entire body of traditions in the formulation of rules, and the invalidation of preference (istiḥsān) as a source of law. On the page margins of volume seven of al-Umm as printed in Cairo (1968) is another work by Shāfiʿī entitled Ikhtilāf al-ḥadīth, also reported by al-Rabī.174 Certain students of Shāfiʿī in Iraq founded their own schools; these were Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, Dāwūd al-Ẓāhirī, Abū Thawr al-Baghdādī, and Abū Jaʿfar ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī. All but the school of Ibn Ḥanbal have become extinct. In Egypt Shāfiʿī’s students included Abū Yaʿqūb al-Buwayṭī (d. 845), Ismāʿīl al-Muzanī (d. 877), the author of al-Mukhtaṣar on Shāfiʿī jurisprudence, and al-Rabī.175 Some famous jurists who later propagated the Shāfiʿī school included Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn ʿAlī al-Shīrāzī (d. 1083), the author of al-Muhadhdhab and the scholar for whom the vizier Nizām al-Mulk built the Nizāmīyah school in Baghdad; the philosopher and jurist Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 1111), who authored al-Mustasfā and al-Wajīz in jurisprudence and law; ʿIzz al-Dīn ibn ʿAbd al-Salām (d. 1261), the author of Qawāʿid al-aḥkām fī maṣāliḥ 172

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al-anām, a magnificent treatment of detailed principles and maxims of jurisprudence; Muḥyī al-Dīn al-Nawawī (d. 1277), the author of the famous Minhāj al-ṭālibīn; Taqī al-Dīn al-Subkī (d. 1355), the author of Fatāwā al-Subkī; and the encyclopedic author Jalāl al-Dīn al-Suyūṭī (d. 1505), who wrote al-Ashbāh wa-al-nazāʿir on Shāfiʿī law. The new school of Shāfiʿī struck deep roots in its birthplace, Egypt. It was the official school during the Ayyūbid dynasty (1169–1252) and occupied a prime position during the Mamlūk regime that followed. Only when the Ottomans occupied Egypt in 1517 did the Ḥanafī School displace it. Today, although the Ḥanafī School is officially enforced by the courts in matters of personal status, many Egyptians, particularly in the rural areas, follow the Shāfiʿī School in their religious observances. So do the great majority of Muslims in Palestine and Jordan, many adherents in Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, the Hejaz, Pakistan, India, and Indonesia, and the Sunnī inhabitants of Iran and Yemen.176 iv) Hanbalī School. This is also a personal school in that it represented in the main the legal opinions, sayings, and fatwās of a single person, Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal. Ibn Ḥanbal was born in Baghdad in 780 and died there in 855. He traveled widely to Syria, the Hejaz, and Yemen as well as to Kufa and Basra in Iraq in pursuit of the traditions later collected in his monumental six-volume work Musnad al-Imām Aḥmad, which contains more than forty thousand items. This, added to the fact that he never authored a work on fiqh at a time when many others were writing on the subject, made many Muslim biographers consider him a traditionist rather than a jurist. His students, however, collected his legal opinions and fatwās, and the result was a body of juristic principles and laws worthy of being designated a school.177 The attachment of this school to traditions is reflected in its departure from the other schools concerning the sources of law. According to Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzīyah (d. 1350), a late Ḥanbalī jurist, the sources are five: the texts of the Qurʿān and sunnah; the fatwās of the companions when not contradicted by the former sources; the sayings of single companions when in conformity with the Qurʿān and sunnah; traditions that have a weak chain of transmission or lack a name of a transmitter in the chain; and finally, reasoning by analogy when absolutely necessary.178 Ibn Ḥanbal became famous in Islamic history for his rigorous attachment to his faith and his principled stand against the doctrine of the createdness of the Qurʿān during the Inquisition in Baghdad, even though he was beaten and imprisoned. This tenacious attachment to principle was later reflected in two followers who rejuvenated his school—Ibn Qayyim, mentioned above, and his teacher Taqī al-Dīn ibn Taymīyah (d. 1327), both of whom were imprisoned in the citadel of Damascus. It was also apparent in the career of Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (d. 1792), the famous Ḥanbalī reformer of Nejd.179 Followers of this school include Muwaffaq al-Dīn ibn Qudāmah (d. 1223), the author of the colossal twelve-volume al-Mughnī as well as al-ʿUmdah; Taqī al-Dīn ibn Taymīyah, author of the famous Fatāwā and al-Siyāsah al-sharʿīyah; and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzīyah, author of Iʿlām al-muwaqqiʿīn and other works. The rejuvenated school, which had not enjoyed many followers before Ibn Taymīyah, was further strengthened in the eighteenth century by Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb and his reform movement in Arabia, which aimed at taking Islam back to its simple and pristine beginnings, depending on the Qurʿān and 176

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the Sunnah instead of later scholars. The success of the Wahhābīyah and the return of the Saudi family to power early this century established the Ḥanbalī School as the official school of Saudi Arabia. It is also the official school of Qatar and has many adherents in Palestine, Syria, Iraq, and elsewhere.180

180

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Chapter 3 Islamic Theology

3.1

Islamic School of Theology

Islamic theology (Arabic: ‫عقيدة‬, ʿAqīdah, plural Arabic: ‫عقائد‬, ʿaqāʾid)181 is a branch of Islamic studies describing the beliefs of the Islamic faith. The term "Islamic dogmatism" is considered preferable by many scholars of comparative theology, because "Dogma is the established belief or doctrine held by a religion, or a particular group or organization,"182 and "dogmatism" consists of the description of such beliefs. The enumeration, description, comparison and historical discussion of beliefs of any religious system are only a subset of the much larger field called "theology". Scholars of the traditional four "Islamic Sciences" are accustomed to viewing those as collectively encompassing "Islamic theology". This chapter concerns the traditional Islamic conceptions of 'Aqidah, no matter by what name it is called in the West. Any religious belief system, or creed, can be considered an example of ʿaqi’dah. However, this term has taken a significant technical usage in Islamic history and theology, denoting those matters over which Muslims hold conviction. Literally, the word ʿaqi’dah is derived from the triconsonantal root ʿaqd (ʿaqada), which means, "to tie" or "knot."183 No religion has been spared sectarianism and Islam is no exception to this common fate of all religions. The Muslims at the time of Prophet Muhammad’s death were of one mind and one faith. Medina, which was the centre of Islamic religion, the nucleus whence Islam had spread at the home of earliest religious development of Islam, had exercised a lot of influence on Islam. Undoubtedly, one of the outstanding successes of Islam at Medina has been its creation of a great community or brotherhood from many races which had previously nothing in common. This notwithstanding, Islam came out of Medina with a coherent doctrine but its theological formation was still in fluid state. Soon in theological formation of certain doctrines gave rise to serious differences.184 Further, more the spread of Islam outside Arabia brought with it more problems. Many people with quite differing cultures were brought within the Islamic fold. Islam gradually began to assume more or less distinctive features according to the degree of influence, which was exerted on it by the local environment and culture. This gave rise to serious difference in the interpretation and teaching of the Qur’an. In some areas it was influenced by Hellenistic Christian thought, in others it was affected by the various Gnostic doctrines, in others it adopted the nomadic philosophy of love of plunder, which consequently produced fanatical sects.185 The rise of sect in Islam was also motivated by politics. Sometimes some leaders wanted to gain political advantage and supremacy and so they formed political groupings, and these political groupings were occasionally changed into theological sects. These sects in turn had people who were opposed to them and so these people broke away and formed sub-sects. In

181

Means: Article of faith, tenet, doctrine; dogma; creed, belief; conviction and ideology. Cowan, 628. http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogma (11/09/2011). 183 Cowan, 627. 184 Muhammad, Ali: “Khilaft in Islam,” the Review of Religions, LXV, no. 4, (1971): 126. 185 Muhammad, (1971), 126. 182

this way, Islamic sects multiplied. According to a tradition credited to Abdullah ibn Amarra, the prophet has said: “Verily the Israelites were divided into 72 sects but my people will be divided into 73 sects.”186 Nevertheless, eventually the number of sects in Islam exceeded this number. The Muslims differed with one another in matters of the Law (fiqh) as we have explained in the chapter one, following differing paths and dividing into various schools, such as Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki, Hanbali, Ja'fari and Zaydi, each of which has a fiqh of its own. Similarly, from the viewpoint of the doctrine, they divided into various schools, each with its own set of principal doctrines. The most important of these schools are the Sunni, Shi'ah, the Mu'tazilah, the Murjiah and the 'Asha'irah. Here it is possible that the question will arise as to the reason behind such regretful division of the Muslims into sects in matters dealing with theology and law, and why they could not maintain their unity in these spheres. 187 The difference in matters of theology causes disunity in their Islamic outlook, and the disagreement in the matter of law deprives them of the unity of action. Both this question and the regret are justified. However, it is necessary to pay attention to the two following points: i) The disagreement in issues of fiqh among the Muslims is not so great as to shatter the foundations of the unity of doctrinal outlook and mode of practice. There is so much common in their doctrinal and practical matters that the points of difference can hardly inflict any serious blow. ii) Theoretical differences and divergence of views is inevitable in societies in spite of their unity and agreement in principles, and as long as the roots of the differences lie in methods of inference, and not in stake, they are even beneficial; because they cause mobility, dynamism, discussion, curiosity, and progress.188 Only when the differences are accompanied by prejudices and emotional and illogical alignments, and lead individuals to slander, defame, and treat one another with contempt, instead of motivating them to endeavour towards reforming themselves, that they are a cause of misfortune. In the Shi'ite faith, the people are obliged to imitate a living mujtahid, and the mujtahidun are obliged to independently ponder the issues and form their independent opinions and not to be content with what has been handed down by the ancestors. Ijtihad and independence of thought inherently lead to difference of views; but this divergence of opinions has given life and dynamism to the Shi'ite law.189 Therefore, difference in itself cannot be condemned. What is condemnable is the difference which originates in evil intentions and selfish interests, or when it centers around issues which drive Muslims on separate paths. Sunni Muslims are the largest denomination of Islam and are known as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jama‘h (‫ )أهل السنة والجماعة‬or simply as Ahl as-Sunnah (‫)أهل السنة‬. The word Sunni comes from the word Sunnah (‫)سنة‬, which means the teachings and actions or examples of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. Therefore, the term "Sunni" refers to those who follow or maintain the Sunnah of the prophet Muhammad. The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not specifically appoint a successor to lead the Muslim Ummah (community) before his death, and after an initial period of confusion, a group of his most prominent companions gathered and elected Trimidhi, Kitabul – Iman, http://www.imamreza.net/eng/list.php?id=ilm al-kalam. (11/09/2011). 188 http://www.imamreza.net/eng/list.php?id=ilm al-kalam. (11/09/2011). 189 http://www.imamreza.net/eng/list.php?id=ilm al-kalam. (11/09/2011). 186 187

Abu Bakr Siddique, Muhammad's close friend and a father-in-law, as the first caliph of Islam. Sunni Muslims regard the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, `Umar ibn al-Khattāb, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abu Talib) as "al-Khulafa’ur-Rashidun” (‫ )خلفاء الراشدون‬or "The Rightly Guided Caliphs." Sunnis also believe that the position of caliph may be attained democratically, on gaining majority votes, but after the Rashidun, the position turned into a hereditary dynastic rule because of the divisions that started by the Shias and others. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1924,190 there has never been another caliph as widely recognized in the Muslim world. Shia Islam ( ‫شيعة‬Shi‘ah, sometimes Shi'a or Shi'ite), is the second-largest denomination of Islam, comprising anywhere between 19 to 24% of the total Muslim population in the world. Shia Muslims—though a minority in the Muslim world—constitute the majority of the populations in Azerbijan, Bahrain, Iran and Iraq, as well as a plurality in Lebanon and Yemen. In addition to believing in the authority of the Qur’an and teachings of Muhammad, Shias believe that his family, including his descendants known as imams, have special spiritual and political rule over the community. In addition, they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams and was the rightful successor to Muhammad, and thus reject the legitimacy of the first three Rashidun caliphs.191 3.2

Kharijites or Khawārij

Kharijites (Arabic: ‫ خوارج‬Khawārij literally "those who went out"; dissenters, dissidents and rebels192 singular, Khariji) is a general term embracing various Muslims who, while initially supporting the authority of the final Rashidun Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the son-in-law and cousin of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, then later rejected his leadership. They first emerged in the late 7th century AD, concentrated in today's southern Iraq, and are distinct from Sunni Muslims and Shiʿa Muslims.193 Thus, a Khariji is anyone who walks out against (seeking to overthrow) the true appointed Imam (leader) upon whose leadership the majority agrees is called a Khariji. This is the case, despite whether the walking out (against the Imam) occurred in the days of the Rightly Guided caliphs or other than them from the Tabiʿeen. Some of the Salaf used to call all those who practiced Islam based upon their desires as Kharijite.194 From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that further set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shiʿa Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to Takfir, whereby they declared other Muslims to be unbelievers and therefore deemed them worthy of death. The Kharijites were ُ ‫)ال‬, literally meaning "the buyers" and also known historically as the Shurah (Arabic: ‫شراة‬ understood within the context of Islamic scripture and philosophy to mean "those who have traded the mortal life (al-Dunya) for the other life (with God) (al-Aakhirah)", which, unlike

190

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). 192 Cowan, (1960), 233 193 Muhammad, (1971), 68. 194 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=kharijites. (10/10/ 2012). 191

the term Kharijite, was one that many Kharijites used to describe themselves. 195 The differences between the Sunni, Shiʿa, and the Kharijites are the following: a) Sunni Muslims believe that as a rightly guided Caliph, Ali's decisions did not justify any form of sedition. b) Shi'a Muslims believe that the imamate (leadership) was the right of Ali, and the rule of the first three Rashidun caliphs (Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, Umar bin al-Khattab, and Uthman ibn Affan) was invalid. c) Kharijites insist that any Muslim could be a leader of the Muslim community and on the right to revolt against any ruler who deviated from their interpretation of Islam. One of the early Kharijite groups was the Haruriyya; it was notable for many reasons, among which was its ruling on the permissibility of women Imams and that a Haruri, Abd-alRahman ibn Muljam, was the assassin of Caliph Ali. Kharijites considered the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar to be rightly guided but believed that Uthman ibn Affan had deviated from the path of justice and truth in the last days of his caliphate, and hence was liable to be killed or displaced. They also believed that Ali ibn Abi Talib committed a grave sin when he agreed on the arbitration. In the Battle of Siffin, Ali acceded to Mua’wiyah's suggestion to stop the fighting and refuge to negotiation. A large portion of Ali's troops (who later became the first Kharijites) refused to concede to that agreement, and they considered that Ali has breached a Qur'anic verse which states that: “The decision rests with none but Allah,”196 and hence the Kharijites thought that the outcome of a conflict can only be decided in battle (by God) and not in negotiations (by human beings).197 The Kharijites thus deemed the arbitrators (Abu Musa al-Ashʿari and Amr Ibn Al-As), the leaders who appointed these arbitrators (Ali and Muʿāwiyah) and all those who agreed on the arbitration (all companions of Ali and Muʿawiyah) as Kuffār (disbelievers), having breached the rules of the Qur'an. They believed that all participants in the Battle of Jamal, including Talha, Zubair (both being companions of Muhammad, and Aisha had committed a Kabira (major sin in Islam).198 The Kharijites believed that the act of sinning is analogous to Kufr (disbelief) and that every grave sinner was regarded as a Ka’fir (disbeliever) unless he repents. With this argument, they denounced all the above-mentioned Saha’bah and even cursed and used abusive language against them. Ordinary Muslims were also declared disbelievers because first, they were not free of sin; secondly, they regarded the above-mentioned Saha’bah as believers and considered them as religious leaders, even inferring Islamic jurisprudence from the Hadith narrated by them.199 They believed that it is not necessary for the caliph to be from the Quraysh. Any pious Muslim nominated by other Muslims could be an eligible caliph. They believed that obedience to the caliph is binding as long as he is managing the affairs with justice and consultation, but if he deviates, then it becomes obligatory to confront him, demote him and even kill him. They considered the Qur'an as the source for Islamic jurisprudence but

195

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?= kharijites. (10/10/ 2012). Qur’an 6:58. 197 Hassan Ibrahim Hassan: Tarikhu li-Islam, ‫(تاريخ اإلسالم‬Cairo: Maktabah al-Nahadah al-Masriyyah, 2001), 1, 304 198 Hassan, (2001), 1/ 306. 199 Hassan, (2001), 1/ 306. 196

regarding the other two sources (Hadith and ijma) their concepts were different from ordinary Muslims.200 The Ibadis, a group who stemmed from the same mother group as the Kharijites, have survived into the present day, though they do not directly descend from the Kharijites. They form a significant part of the population of Oman (where they first settled in 686), and there are smaller concentrations of them in the M'zab of Algeria, Jerba in Tunisia, Jebel Nafusa in Libya, and Zanzibar.201 While a number of writers - both past and present - are of the opinion that this sect is extinct, others are of the view that it’s not. I share the latter view. The influences of this sect have always been present, in different guises and in varying degrees, throughout the history of Islam. However, it appears to have gained a renewed momentum with the emergence of Muhammad Abdul Wahhab during the latter part of the 18th century. 202 There can be little doubt that one of the chief architects of modern day Kharajism is Muhammad Qutb of "Islam the Misunderstood Religion" fame. One of his later works "Waqiuna al-Mu'asir' ‫(واقعنا المعاصر‬Our Contemporary Realities) is a clear expression of this tendency. In this work - which reads more like a detective novel - he makes the astonishing claim that the majority of Muslims today may be compared to an Islamic sect called the "Murjiah". The Murjiah - in brief- held the view that it was sufficient for the remission of sins to merely express one's belief in Allah and His Prophet. In cruder terms: you may do as you please as long as you believe. The Murjiah, it appears, emerged in response to the blighting severities of the Kharajite movement.203 In contrast to this alleged state of the majority of contemporary Muslims Muhammad Qutb advances his own views as those that represent the position of Sunni Islam. One simple - or miserably oversimplified - view of his is that in our present state of global jahiliyya (ignorance) - of which all the Murji'ite Muslims form a part - one becomes a kafir by participating in any of these governmental structures.204 According to Salim al-Bahnasawi in his seminal work "Shubahat Hawla l-Fikr al-Islami al-Mu’asir" ‫(شبهات حول الفكر اإلسالمي المعاصر‬Apprehensions Surrounding Contemporary Islamic Thought) matters came to a head during the arrests of many of the Ikhwan al-Muslimin (of which al-Bahnasawi was a leading member) in Egypt in 1969. After these arrests, the decision by Muhammad Qutb and his supporters to declare all members of the Egyptian government and its tributaries kafir resulted in a massive split in the ranks of the Ikhwan alMuslimin. To make things worse the charge of kufr was extended to include the immediate family members of the Ikhwanis who refused to declare the Egyptian government kafir.205 This resulted in a furious debate surrounding the ridiculous question of the legitimacy of a marriage between an Ikhwani and a spouse who refused to declare a Muslim Egyptian Member of parliament kafir. The then Murshid (spiritual guide) of the Ikhwanis, Shaikh Hasan al-Hudaibi, was enraged by what he considered to be the recklessness of their takfir. In a meeting called by 200

Hassan, (2001), 1/ 306. Nu’man Abd-Razzaq al-Samara’i: Attakfir, ‫(التكفير‬Jeddah: Maktabah al-Mana’r, 1992), 32. 202 Shaykh Seraj Hendricks, The Kharijites and their impact on Contemporary Islam, available at: http://www.sunnah.org/aqida/kharijites/htm. (02/11/2012). 203 Hendricks, “The Kharijites”. 204 Hendricks, “The Kharijites”. 205 Hendricks, “The Kharijites”. 201

himself between the opposing parties within the Ikhwan al-Muslimin he reminded Muhammad Qutb that the views they expressed were identical to those of the Kharajites. In Islamic history it was the Kharijites alone who declared an individual kafir based on his/her deeds.206 In the "book" of the Kharajites one who drinks wine or who fornicates is a kafir. This is in stark contrast to the majority Muslim view - supported by authentic hadiths - that it is beliefs and not acts that render one outside the fold of Islam. The following hadith cited in Sahih Bukhari aptly demonstrates this position: The Prophet said to Abu Dharr: "There is not a servant of Allah's who does not fail to recite La ilaha illallah (There is no deity other than Allah) and then dies with those words on his tongue that will not be granted Paradise. Abu Dharr then asked, "even if he fornicates and steals?" The Prophet replied, "even if he fornicates and steals." Abu Dharr (in apparent disbelief) then repeated his question numerous times to the Prophet, to which the Prophet finally replied: "Even if he fornicates and even if he steals despite your personal wishes Abu Dharr!207 The implication of this hadith is obvious: that the perpetrator of a particular misdeed must be judged by the intention or the belief associated with that act. If a fornicator believes that fornication is permissible then it is that belief that renders him/her out of the fold of Islam and not the act per se. This is consistent with a well-known hadith that is considered an Islamic principle in its own right: "Deeds are to be judged by the intentions informing them..."208 Adopting the general Kharajite principle of takfir on the basis of deeds alone, it was an easy matter for Muhammad Qutb to extend this ruling of kufr to those who were participating in an illegitimate - and hence haraam - Egyptian government. Nonetheless, this apparent confusion of deeds and beliefs is nothing other than a symptom of the promethean selfrighteousness that defines the Kharajite perspective - a self-righteousness that accords to them the right to correctly read, without enquiry, any individual’s intentions. An individual, for example, who performs tawassul at the grave of the Prophet or any of the awliya (saints) of Allahu Ta'ala is simply judged to be a grave-worshipper. They appear to have an extraordinary gift for correctly guessing at intentions…and sincerity too, we might add. Realizing the sheer recklessness of their position, al-Hudaibi gave them the choice of either adhering to the spirit of the Ahli Sunnah position or seceding from the Ikhwan alMuslimin. Muhammad Qutb, however, remained intractable and stuck to his views – views that are clearly enunciated in his above-mentioned work "Waqi'una al-Mu'asir"‫واقعنا المعاصر‬. With the definitive establishment of this takfir tendency, numerous groupings subsequently emerged from the Ikhwan al-Muslimin. Amongst the more belligerent of these groupings may be counted the Qutubiyin (named after Muhammad Qutb but which he denied), al-Jihad, alJama'at al-Islamiyya, and the al-Hijra wa al-Takfir. These blatantly Kharajite movements differed in little else except the extent of their condemnation of and violence against others especially Muslims who differed with them. The above were amongst the particularly violent Hendricks, “The Kharijites”. Reported by Bukhari in his book sahih Al- Bukhari. 208 Reported by Bukhari in his book sahih Al- Bukhari. 206 207

tendencies that emerged from fundamentally "Wahhabite" inspired principles. Mirza Tahir Ahmad observes that the narrow, non-tolerant attitude is certainly becoming more popular with the Muslim ‘clergy’ in almost all Muslim countries. He is of the opinion that the responsibility for this mainly lies on the shoulders of Saudi rulers, in their attempt to capture the imagination of the completely Muslim world and seem to resolve to spread its political influence under a religious guise. He states: The religious philosophy of the Saudi emanates from wahhabism, which draws its inspiration from the non-tolerant world of medieval Islam rather than from the more understanding and being Islam of the time of the holy Prophet. The spread of Saudi influence is aided by Saudi petro-dollars and colossal size of Saudi bank balances in major banks throughout the world. It is the credit of Saudi Arabia that part of the interest occurring from these colossal investments is being used to form channels of aid from Saudi Arabian coffers to the poorer Muslim nations with sizable Muslim populations. More often than not, this aid is provided not to boost ailing economies, but to build mosques, training schools and institutions producing scholars of a Saudi brand.209 We agree with this view, as Saudi Arabia enjoys the unique advantage of being the custodian of the holiest cities in Islam, Mecca and Medina, it is certainly in a position to exploit this situation to their advantage. Ruling over the Mecca and medina for a period – the followers of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab were able to rule over Mecca in the years 1217 – 1226 A. H. This gave them an excellent opportunity to meet and influence Muslims from all over the world. They took full advantage of this great opportunity by giving lectures, holding debates and distributing literature. Thus, many people throughout the Muslim world were able to come into direct contact with this call and be directly influenced or convinced by its scholars.210 3.3 Murji'ah Murji'ah (Arabic ‫ )المرجئة‬is an early Islamic school, whose followers are known in English language as Murjites or Murji'ites (Arabic ‫)المرجئون‬. During the early centuries of Islam, Muslim thought encountered a multitude of influences from various ethnic and philosophical groups that it absorbed. Murji'ah emerged as a theological school that was opposed to the Kharijites on questions related to early controversies regarding sin and definitions of what is a true Muslim.211 The Murji’ah flourished during the turbulent period of Islamic history that began with the murder of ‘Uthman (third caliph) in AD 656, and ended with the assassination of ʿAlī (fourth caliph) in AD 661 and the subsequent establishment of the Umayyad dynasty (ruled until AD 750). During that period the Muslim community was divided into hostile factions, divided on the issue of the relationship of Islam and īmān, or works and faith. The most militant were the Khawārij (Kharijites), who held the extreme view that serious sinners should be ousted from the community and that jihād (“holy war”) should be declared on them. This

209

Mirza Tahir Ahmad: Murder in the Name of Allah, (Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 1990), 114. Jamaal Al-Din M. Zarabozo: The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab, (Riyadh: Ministry of Islamic Affairs & Endowments, 2006), 188. 211 Hassan, (2001) 2/ 9. 210

led the adherents of the sect to revolt against the Umayyads, whom they regarded as corrupt and unlawful rulers. As opposed to the Kharijites, Murjites advocated the idea of deferred judgement of peoples’ belief. Murjite doctrine held that only God has the authority to judge who is a true Muslim and who is not, and that Muslims should consider all other Muslims as part of the community. This theology promoted tolerance of Ummayads and converts to Islam who appeared half-hearted in their obedience.212 In another contrast to the Kharijites, who believed that committing a grave sin would render a person non-Muslim, Murjites considered genuine belief in and submission to God to be more important than acts of piety and good works? They believed Muslims committing grave sins would remain Muslim and be eligible for paradise if they remained faithful.213 The Murjite opinion on the issue of whether one committing a grave sin remains a believer was adapted with modifications by later theological schools – Maturidi, Ash’ari and Mu’tazili.214 The Murjites departed from the viewpoint of the Sunnis when they declared that no Muslim would enter the hellfire, no matter what their sins. This contradicts the traditional Sunni belief which states that some Muslims will enter the fire of hell temporarily. Therefore the Murjites are classified as "Ahlul Bid'ah" or "People of Innovation" by traditional Sunni Muslims. Thus, The Murjiʾah were the moderates and liberals of Islam, who emphasized the love and goodness of God and labelled themselves ahl al-waʿd (the adherents of promise). To them external actions and utterances did not necessarily reflect an individual’s inner beliefs. Some of their extremists, such as Jahm ibn Ṣafwān (d. AD 746), regarded faith as purely an inward conviction, thus allowing a Muslim outwardly to profess other religions and remain a Muslim, since only God could determine the true nature of his faith.215 3.4.

Ash'arites

Ashʿarites theology (Arabic ‫األشعرية‬al-Asha`riyya or ‫األشاعرة‬al-Ashā`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theory founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari (d. 324 AH / 936 AD). The disciples of the school are known as Ash'arites, and the school is also referred to as Ash'arite school. It was instrumental in drastically changing the direction of Islamic theology, separating its development radically from that of theology in the Christian world.216 The Asharite School holds that complete comprehension of the Unique Nature and Attributes of God is beyond the capacity of human reasoning and sense experience. Although humans possess free will (or more accurately, freedom of intention), they have no power to create anything in the material world as this is entirely the province of God. This doctrine is now known in Western philosophy as occasionalism. Knowledge of moral truths must be taught by means of Revelation, and is not known a priori or by deduction from a priori propositions or by sheer observation of the world. It is permissible for a Muslim to

212

Hassan, (2001), 2/ 9. Hassan, (2001), 2/ 9. 214 Hassan, (2001), 2/ 9. 215 Murji’ah Islamic sect. http://www.britanical.com/topic/murjiah. (6/06/2016). 216 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). 213

believe and accept that a proposition is a moral truth based solely on the authority of a consensus of authorised scholars (ulama). This is known as taqlid (imitation in religion).217 The school holds that human reason in and by itself was not capable of establishing with absolute certainty any truth-claim with respect to morality, the physical world, or metaphysical ideas. Contrary to popular opinion, the Asharites were neither completely traditionalist nor anti-rationalist, nor were their historical foes, the Mutazilites, completely rationalist and anti-traditionalist, as the Asharites did depend on rationality and the Mutazilites did depend on tradition. Their goals were the same, to affirm the transcendence and unity of God, but their doctrines were different, with the Asharites supporting an Islamic occasionalist doctrine and the Mutazilites supporting an Islamic metaphysic influenced by Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. For Asharites, taqlid only applied to the Islamic tradition and not to any other, whereas for Mutazilites, taqlid applied equally to both the Islamic and AristotelianNeoplatonic traditions.218 Promoting figures are: i) Al-Ash'ari Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari ‫أبو الحسن أألشعري‬was noted for his teachings on atomism, among the earliest Islamic philosophies, and for al-Ash'ari this was the basis for propagating the view that Allah created every moment in time and every particle of matter. He nonetheless believed in free will, elaborating the thoughts of Dirar ibn Amr' and Abu Hanifa into a "dual agent" or "acquisition" (iktisab) account of free will.219 While al-Ash'ari was opposed to the views of the Mu'tazili school for its over-emphasis on reason, he was also opposed to the views of certain schools such as the Zahiri (literalist), Mujassimite (anthropomorphist) and Muhaddithin (traditionalist) schools for their overemphasis on taqlid (imitation) in his Istihsan al-Khaud. "A section of the people (i.e., the Zahirites and others) made capital out of their own ignorance; discussions and rational thinking about matters of faith became a heavy burden for them, and, therefore, they became inclined to blind faith and blind following (taqlid).220 They condemned those who tried to rationalize the principles of religion as innovators.' They considered discussion about motion, rest, body, accident, colour, space, atom, the leaping of atoms, and Attributes of God, to be an innovation and a sin. They said that had such discussions been the right thing, the Prophet and his Companions would have definitely done so; they further pointed out that the Prophet, before his death, discussed and fully explained all those matters, which were necessary from the religious point of view, leaving none of them to be discussed by his followers. In addition, since the prophet did not discuss the problems mentioned above, it was evident that to discuss them must be regarded as an innovation.221 ii) Al-Ghazali ‫الغزالي‬The most influential work of the Asharite thought became the treatise The Incoherence of the Philosophers, by the Persian polymath al-Ghazali (d. 1111). He was a pioneer of the methods of doubt and skepticism, and he changed the course of early Islamic philosophy, shifting it away from an Islamic metaphysics influenced by ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophy, and towards an Islamic philosophy based on causeand-effect that were determined by God or intermediate angels, a theory now known

217

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). 219 Sherif, M. M., (Ed). A History of Muslim Philosophy, (Kempten: Allgauer Heimatverlag, 1963), 221- 222. 220 Sherif, (1963), 223. 221 Sherif, (1963), 223. 218

as occasionalism.222 He is famous for defending the theory of occasionalism using logic. AlGhazali famously claimed that when fire and cotton are placed in contact, the cotton is burned directly by God rather than by the fire, a claim which he defended using logic. He argued that because God is usually seen as rational, rather than arbitrary, his behaviour in normally causing events in the same sequence (i.e., what appears to us to be efficient causation) can be understood as a natural outworking of that principle of reason, which he then describes as the laws of nature.223 Al-Ghazali nevertheless expresses support for a scientific methodology based on demonstration and mathematics, while discussing astronomy. After describing the scientific facts of the solar eclipse resulting from the Moon coming between the Sun and Earth and the lunar eclipse from the Earth coming between the Sun and Moon, he writes: Whosoever thinks that to engage in a disputation for refuting such a theory is a religious duty harms religion and weakens it. For these matters rest on demonstrations, geometrical and arithmetical, that leaves no room for doubt.224 iii) Ibn Rushd ‫(ابن الرشد‬Averroes), a philosopher, famously responded, "to say that philosophers are incoherent is itself to make an incoherent statement." Ibn Rushd's book, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, attempted to refute Al-Ghazali's views. Though the work was not well received in the Muslim community, Averroism went on to have a profound influence in European thought. Al-Ghazali also wrote The Revival of the Religious Sciences in Islam, a cornerstone of the Ashari School’s thinking. It combined theology, skepticism, mysticism, Islam and other conceptions, discussed in depth in the article on Islamic philosophy.nom225 iv) Fakhr al-Din Razi ‫(فخر الدين الرازي‬d.1209) was a Persian mathematician, physicist, physician, philosopher, and a master of kalam. He wrote an encyclopedia of science, which was influential, and a later referent for such modern efforts as the Islamization of knowledge, which have similar intention. He was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic.226 The influence of the Asharites is still hotly debated today. It was commonly believed that the Asharites put an end to philosophy as such in the Muslim world, with the death of Averroesat the end of the 12th century. While philosophy did indeed decline in the western Islamic world (Al-Andalus and the Maghreb), recent research has shown that philosophy continued long after in the eastern Islamic world (Persia and India), where the Avicennian, Illuminationist and Sufi schools predominated, until Islamic philosophy reached its zenith with Mulla Sadra's existentialist school of transcendent theosophy in the 17th century.227 The 12th to 14th centuries marked the peak of innovation by Muslims and non-Muslims in Islamic conquered lands, and this continued through to the 16th century. During this period, the ulema began to generate a fiqh based on taqlid ("imitation based on authority") rather than on the old ijtihad. Eventually, however, modern historians think that lack of improvements in Tajddin Abdulwahab Subki: Tabaka’t al-Safiiyah, ‫( طبقات الشافعية‬Cairo: Matba’a Isa al-Babi al-Halabi, 1965), 1/190 223 Sharif, (1963), 581. 224 Sharif, (1963), 581. 225 Sharif, (1963), 581. 226 Al-Subki, (1965), 5/33. 227 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). 222

basic processes and confusion with theology and law degraded methods. The rigorous means by which the Asharites had reached their conclusions were largely forgotten by Muslims before the Renaissance, due in large part to the success of their effort to subordinate inquiry to a prior ethics - and assume ignorance was the norm for humankind. Modern commentators blame the Asharites for not allowing the Islamic world's innovation in sciences and technology, then leading the world. The Asharites did not reject these, amongst the ulema or learned, but they stifled these in the mosque and discouraged their application by the lay public.228 The Asharites may have succeeded in laying the groundwork for a stable empire, and for subordinating philosophy as a process to fixed notions of ethics derived directly from Islam - perhaps this even improved the quality of life of average citizens. However, it seems the historical impact was to yield the initiative of Western civilization to Christians in Europe.229 Others, however, argue that the Asharites not only did not reject scientific methods, but also indeed promoted them. Ziauddin Sardar points out that some of the greatest Muslim scientists, such as Ibn al-Haytham and Abu Rayhan al-Biruni who were pioneers of scientific method, were themselves followers of the orthodox Ash'ari school of Islamic theology. Like other Asharites who believed that faith or taqlid should only apply to Islam and not to any ancient Hellenistic authorities. Ibn al-Haytham's view that taqlid should only apply to prophet of Islam and not to any other authorities formed the basis for much of his scientific skepticism and criticism against Ptolemy and other ancient authorities in his Doubts Concerning Ptolemy and Book of Optics.230 3.5 Mu’tazilites Muʿtazilah (Arabic: ‫ )المعتزلة‬is an Islamic school of speculative theology that flourished in the cities of Basra and Baghdad, both in present-day Iraq, during the 8th–10th centuries. The adherents of the Mu'tazili school are best known for their having asserted that, because of the perfect unity and eternal nature of Allah; the Qur'an must therefore have been created, as it could not be co-eternal with God. From this premise, the Mu'tazili school of Kalam proceeded to posit that the injunctions of God are accessible to rational thought and inquiry: because knowledge is derived from reason, reason is the "final arbiter" in distinguishing right from wrong. It follows, in Mu'tazili reasoning; that "sacred precedent" is not an effective means of determining what is just, as what is obligatory in religion is only obligatory "by virtue of reason."231 The movement emerged in the Umayyad Era, and reached its height in the Abassid period. Scholarship on the movement stagnated for centuries owing to an absence of sympathetic accounts of the movement (and an abundance of hostile accounts) until the latter 20th century, when the 11th century texts of Abd al-Jabbar al-Qadi were unearthed in Yemen. It is still adopted by some Muslim scholars and intellectuals today. The name Mu'tazili is thought to originate from the reflexive Stem ( ‫افتعل‬ifta`ala) of the Arabic triconsonantal root ‫عزل‬dealing with isolation or separation, i.e. the word ‫اعتزل‬ 228

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). 230 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). 231 Hassan, (2001), 1/ 341. 229

(iʿtazala) meaning "to separate (oneself)", "to withdraw". The term is rooted in a disagreement over how to classify a person who has committed a major sin.232 As he sat in a circle in a mosque with al-Hasan al-Basri, Wasil ibn 'Ata inquired as to the place of a sinning Muslim, if he was to be considered a believer or an unbeliever. Upon the response that the individual was nonetheless a Muslim, Wasil dissented, suggesting that the sinner was neither a believer nor an unbeliever. With that, Wasil withdrew from the circle of al-Hasan al-Basri, and was followed by 'Amr ibn 'Ubayd and others. Al-Hasan's remark, "Wasil has withdrawn from us", is believed to be the origin of the movement's name. Mu'tazili theology originated in the 8th century in Basra (Iraq) when Wasil ibn Ata (d. 131 AH/748 AD) left the teaching lessons of Hasan al-Basri after a theological dispute regarding the issue of Al-Manzilah bayna al-Manzilatayn (described below); thus he, and his followers, including Amr ibn Ubayd (d. 144 AH/ 761 AD), were labeled Mu'tazili. Later, Mu'tazilis called themselves Ahl al-Tawhid wa al-'Adl ("People of Divine Unity and Justice") based on the theology they advocated, which sought to ground Islamic creedal system in reason.233 Though Mu'tazilis later relied on logic and different aspects of early Islamic philosophy, Greek philosophy, and Hellenistic philosophy, the truths of Islam were their starting point and ultimate reference. The accusations leveled against them by rival schools of theology that they gave absolute authority to extra-Islamic paradigms reflect more the fierce polemics between various schools of theology than any objective reality. For instance, Mu'tazilis adopted unanimously the doctrine of creation ex nihilo, contrary to certain Muslim philosophers who, with the exception of al-Kindi, believed in the eternity of the world in some form or another. It was usually Muslim philosophers, not the Muslim theologians, who took Greek and Hellenistic philosophy as a starting point and master conceptual framework for analyzing and investigating reality. From early days of Islamic civilization, and because of internal factors including, intraMuslim conflicts. In addition, external factors including, interfaith debates. Several questions were being debated by Muslim theologians, such as whether the Qur'an was created or eternal, whether evil was created by God, the issue of predestination versus free will, whether God's attributes in the Qur'an were to be interpreted allegorically or literally, etc. Mu'tazili thought attempted to address all these issues.234 In order to understand the origin of the Mu'tazili, it is necessary to know the historical background, the social, religious and political conditions of that time. Prophet Muhammad and his early companions, always insisted on the concept of the Sovereignty of Allah, and the freedom of human will, based on the doctrine that man would be judged by his actions. These teachings were uppermost in the subsequent early Islamic empire.235 However, according to one view, due to public hatred after the tragedy of Battle of Karbala, the sack of Medina, and many political blunders committed by the Umayyad Caliphate, they were in need of a theory of Predestination (see Predestination in Islam ), fatalism (jabr), that "a man is not responsible for his actions which proceed from God". So with their help a school of thought was emerged and was called ’jabria’. The founder 232

Cowan, (1960), 611. Hassan, (2001), 1/342 234 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). 235 Hassan, (2001), 1/344. 233

of this school of thought was Jahm bin Safwan. He maintained “that man is not responsible for any of his actions, which proceed entirely from God" According to Al-Shahrastani, the Jabarias were divided into three sects, 1, the Jahmia, 2, the Najjaria, and 3, the Zirdria. The Arabs of pre Islamic days also believed in this concept, so it was easy for them to accept these ideas.236 This concept was challenged by Ma'bad al-Juhani, Eunas al-Aswari, and Gilan Dimishki, and there emerged a school of thought known in the history of Muslim philosophy, as "Qadria" who believed in "Qadar", i.e., Fate - the theory of freedom of human will, based on the doctrine that man would be judged by his actions. The Umayyad Caliphate for heresy put these persons to death. After them, there were many followers of them. It is also said that this school emerged as a reaction against the Kharijites on the one hand, and the Shias on the other hand. According to Encyclopedia Britannica, "The name first appears in early Islamic history in the dispute over ʿAli’s leadership of the Muslim community after the murder of the third caliph, Hazrat ʿUthmān [ibn 'Affan] (656). Those who would neither condemn nor sanction Hazrat ʿAlī or his opponents (Muawiyah I) but took a middle position were termed the Muʿtazilah.”237 It is also maintained that Mu'taziltes descend from the followers of some of the Companions; Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, `Abd Allah ibn `Umar, etc. who were neutral in the dispute between Hazrat ʿAli and his opponents (Muawiyah I). 238 This school of thought emerged as a reaction to political tyranny; it brought answers to political questions, or questions raised by current political circumstances. The philosophical and metaphysical elements and influence of the Greek philosophy were added afterward during the Abbasid Caliphate. The founders of the Abbasid dynasty strategically supported this school to bring political revolution against Umayyad Caliphate. Once their authority established, they also turned against this school of thought.239 Like all other schools, Mu'tazilism developed over an extensive period. Abu al-Hudhayl al-'Allaf (d. 235 AH/849 AD), who came a couple of generations after Wasil ibn 'Ata' and 'Amr ibn 'Ubayd, is considered the theologian who systematized and formalized Mu'tazilism in Basra (Martin et al., 1997). Another branch of the school found a home in Baghdad under the direction of Bishr ibn al-Mu'tamir (d. 210 AH/825 AD).240 As the number of Muslims increased throughout the Muslim empire, and in reaction to the excesses of so-called rationalism, theologians began to lose ground. The problem was exacerbated by the Mihna, the inquisition launched under the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun (d. 218 AH/833 AD). Mu'tazilis have been accused of being the instigators though it was the Caliph's own scheme. The persecution campaign, regardless, cost them and theology in general the sympathy of the Muslim masses.241 By the end of the fifteenth century, Mu'tazilis were subjected to vehement attacks from the traditionalists on one hand, and from the atheists, deists, philosophers, non-Muslim thinkers, etc. on the other. It is important to note that the traditionalists, as opposed to Mu'tazili

236

Hassan, (2001), 1/ 345 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). 238 Hassan, (2001), 1/ 346. 239 Hassan, (2001), 1/343. 240 Hassan, (2001), 1/343. 241 Hassan, (2001), 1/343 237

rationalists, were not irrationalists. Both groups operated based on some synthesis between reason and revelation.242 In response to the attacks, Mu'tazili theologians refined and made more coherent and systematic their idea system. In Basra, this task was accomplished by the father and son team, Abu 'Ali al-Jubba'i (d. 303 AH/915 AD) and Abu Hashim al-Jubba'i (d. 321 AH/933 AD). The two differed on several issues and it was Abu Hashim who was to have the greatest influence on later scholars in Basra, including the prominent Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmed who became the most celebrated proponent of Mu'tazilism in the late tenth and early eleventh century.243 Mu'tazilism did not disappear from the Islamic intellectual life after the demise of 'Abd al-Jabbar, but it declined steadily and significantly. Many of the Mu'tazili doctrines and methodologies, nonetheless, survived in the other Islamic schools.244 Mu'tazili tenets focus on the Five Principles: (1) Al-Tawhid ‫ –التوحيد‬Divine Unity. Mu'tazilis believed in the absolute unity and oneness of God. In this regard, they are no different from the overwhelming majority of Muslims. Nevertheless, the different Muslim schools of theology have differed as to how to uphold Divine unity in a way that is consistent with the dictates of both scripture and sound reasoning — a task that is extremely sophisticated given that God is ontologically different and categorically distinct from nature, humans, and material causality. All attempts to talk about the Divine face the severe, insurmountable, barrier of using limited human language to conceptualize the Transcendent.245 One example: All Muslim schools of theology faced the dilemma of affirming Divine transcendence and Divine attributes, without falling into anthropomorphism on the one hand, or emptying Divine attributes, mentioned in scripture, of any concrete meaning on the other. The Mu'tazili way of doing this was to deny the existence of attributes distinct from Divine essence. In other words, God is, for instance, omniscient, but He knows through His essence rather than by having separate knowledge apart from Him. This assertion was to avoid the multiplicity of co-eternals — something that may impugn the absolute unity and oneness of God, according to Mu'tazilis. In addition, they resorted to metaphorical interpretations of Qur'anic verses or Prophetic reports with seemingly anthropomorphic content. Many other Muslim theologians did likewise. Others opted for either abstaining from making judgments concerning these texts, or to affirm them "without knowing how."246 The doctrine of Tawhid according to the Mu’tazili is the knowledge that God, being unique, has attributes that no creature shares with Him. This is explained by the fact that you know that the world has a creator (sani`) who created it and that: He existed eternally in the past and He cannot perish (fana'), while we exist after being non-existent, and we can perish. In addition, you know that He was and is eternally all-powerful (qadir) and that impotence (al`ajz) is not possible for Him. In addition, that He is omniscient of the past and present and that ignorance (jahl) is not possible for Him. Moreover, that He knows everything that was, everything that is, and how things that are not would be if they were. In addition, that He is eternally in the past and future living (hayy), and that calamities and pain are not possible for Him. Moreover, that He sees visible things (mar'iyat), and perceives perceptible, and that He 242

Hassan, (2001), 1/343. Hassan, (2001), 1/342. 244 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). 245 Hassan, (2001), 1/342. 246 Hassan, (2001), 1/342. 243

does not have need of sense organs. In addition, that He is eternally past and in future, sufficient (ghani) and it is not possible for Him to be in need. Moreover, that He is not like physical bodies, and that it is not possible for Him to get up or down, move about, change, be composite, and have a form, limbs and body members. And that He is not like the accidents of motion, rest, color, food or smells. And that He is One throughout eternity and there is no second beside Him, and that everything other than He is contingent, made, dependent (muhtaj), structured (mudabbar), and governed by someone/thing else. Thus, if one knows all of these then he knows God's oneness.247 (2) Al-'Adl ‫ –العدل‬Divine Justice. Facing the problem of existence of evil in the world, the Mu'tazilis pointed at the free will of human beings, so that evil was defined as something that stems from the errors in human acts. God does no evil, and He demands not from any human to perform any evil act. If man's evil acts had been from the will of God, then punishment would have been meaningless, as man performed God's will no matter what he did. Mu'tazilis did not deny the existence of suffering that goes beyond human abuse and misuse of their free will granted to them by God.248 In order to explain this type of "apparent" evil, Mu'tazilis relied on the Islamic doctrine of taklif — that life is a test for beings possessing free will, i.e., the capacity for choice.249 Humans are required to have belief, iman, faith and conviction in and about God, and do good works, amal saleh, to have iman reflected in their moral choices, deeds, and relationship with God, fellow humans, and all creatures in this world. If everyone is healthy and wealthy, then there, will be no meaning for the obligations imposed on humans to, for example, be generous, help the needy, and have compassion for the deprived and trivialized. The inequalities in human fortunes and the calamities that befell them are, thus, an integral part of the test of life. Everyone is being tested. The powerful, the rich, and the healthy are required to use all their powers and privileges to help those who suffer and to alleviate their suffering. In the Qiyamah (Judgment Day), they will be questioned about their response to Divine blessings and bounties they enjoyed in their lives.250 The less fortunate are required to patiently persevere and are promised a compensation for their suffering that, as the Qur'an puts it in this words: “There is good for those who do good in this life. And Allah’s earth is spacious. Verily, the steadfast will have their reward without measure.”251 The test of life is specifically for adults in full possession of their mental faculties. Children may suffer, and are observed to suffer, given the nature of life but they are believed to be completely free from sin and liability. Divine justice is affirmed through the theory of compensation. All sufferers will be compensated. This includes non-believers and, more importantly, children who are destined to go to Paradise.252 The doctrine of 'Adl in the words of 'Abd al-Jabbar: It is the knowledge that God is removed from all that is morally wrong (qabih) and that all His acts are morally good (hasana). This is explained by the fact that you know that all human acts of injustice (dhulm), transgression (jawr), and the like cannot be of His creation (min khalqihi). Whoever attributes 247

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). Muhammad Kama’l Imam: Al-Masu’liyyah al-Jinai’yah, ‫( المسؤولية الجنائية‬Beirut: Al-Muassah al-Jami’iyah Lil-Diras’at wa Nashr wa tawzi’I, 1991), 252. 249 Imam, (1991), 257. 250 Imam, (1991), 256. 251 Qur’an, 39:11. 252 Imam, (1991), 257. 248

that to Him has ascribed to Him injustice and insolence (safah) and thus strays from the doctrine of justice. And you know that God does not impose faith upon the unbeliever without giving him the power (al-qudra) for it, nor does He impose upon a human what he is unable to do, but He only gives to the unbeliever to choose unbelief on his own part, not on the part of God. In addition, you know that God does not will, desire or want disobedience. Rather, He loathes and despises it and only wills obedience, which He wants and chooses and loves. Moreover, you know that He does not punish the children of polytheists (al-mushrikin) in Hellfire because of their fathers' sin, for He has said, “and no soul acts but only against itself; nor does any bearer of burden bear the burden of another.”253 This verse contains a forceful repudiation of the doctrine of Atonement and emphatically draws attention to the fact that everyone has to carry his own cross and to account for his own actions. Nobody’s vicarious sacrifice can do one any good; in other words, he does not punish anyone for someone else's sin because that would be morally wrong (qabih ‫)قبيح‬, and God is far removed from such. In addition, that He does not transgress His rule (hukm ‫ )حكم‬and that He only causes sickness and illness in order to turn them to advantage. Whoever says otherwise has allowed that God is iniquitous and has imputed insolence to Him. And you know that, for their sakes, He does the best for all of His creatures, upon whom He imposes moral and religious obligations (yukallifuhum‫يكلفهم‬ ِّ ). In addition, that He has indicated to them what He has imposed upon them and clarified the path of truth so that we could pursue it, and He has clarified the path of falsehood (tariq lbatil) so that we could avoid it.254 Therefore, whoever perishes does so only after all this has been made clear. Moreover, you know that every benefit we have is from God; as He has said, “And whatever blessing you have, it is from Allah. And when affliction befalls you, it is unto Him that you cry for help.”255 This is to say that no good thing that is not from Allah”; it comes to us either from Him or from elsewhere. Thus, when you know all of this you become knowledgeable about God's justice. (3) Al-Wa'd wa al-Wa'id ‫ –الوعد و الوعيد‬Promise and Threat. This comprised questions on the Last day and the Qiyamah (Islamic Day of Judgment). The doctrine of irreversible Divine promises and threats is the knowledge that God promises recompense (al-thawab) to those who obey Him and He threatens punishment to those who disobey Him. He will not go back on His word, nor can He act contrary to His promise and threat nor lie in what He reports, in contrast to what the Postponers (Murjites) hold.256 (4) Al-Manzilah bayna al-Manzilatayn ‫ –المنزلة بين المنزلتين‬the intermediate position. That is, Muslims who commit grave sins and die without repentance are not considered as mu'minin (believers), nor are they considered kafirun (non-believers), but in an intermediate position between the two. The reason behind this is that a mu'min is, by definition, a person who has faith and conviction in and about God, and who has his/her faith reflected in his/her deeds and moral choices. Any shortcoming on any of these two fronts makes one, by definition, not a mu'min. On the other hand, one does not become a non-believer, for this entails, inter alia, denying the Creator — something not necessarily done by a committer of a grave sin.257 253

Qur'an 6:165. Imam, (1991), 254. 255 Qur'an 16:54. 256 Hassan, (2001), 1/342. 257 Imam, (1991), 25 254

The fate of those who commit grave sins and die without repentance is Hell. Hell is not considered a monolithic state of affairs but as encompassing many degrees to accommodate the wide spectrum of human works and choices. Consequently, those in the intermediate position, though in Hell, would have a lesser punishment because of their belief and other good deeds. Mu'tazilites adopted this position as a middle ground between Kharijites and Murjites. In the words of 'Abd al-Jabbar, the doctrine of the intermediate position is the knowledge that whoever murders, or fornicates (zana), or commits serious sins is a grave sinner (fasiq) and not a believer, nor is his case the same that of believers with respect to praise and attributing greatness, since he is to be cursed and disregarded. Nonetheless, he is not an unbeliever who cannot be buried in our Muslim cemetery, or be prayed for, or marry a Muslim. Rather, he has an intermediate position, in contrast to the Seceders (Kharijites) who say that he is an unbeliever, or the Murjites who say that he is a believer.258 (5) Al-amr bil ma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al munkar ‫األمر بالمعروف و النهي عن المنكر‬ – advocating the good and forbidding the evil. 'Abd al-Jabbar said: Commanding the good is of two types. One of them is obligatory, which is commanding religious duties (al-fara'id) when someone neglects them (dayya`aha), and the other is supererogatory (al-nafila), which is commanding supererogatory acts of devotion when someone omits to do them (tarakaha). As for prohibiting evil, all of it is obligatory because all evil is ethically wrong (qabih). It is necessary; if possible, to reach a point where evil (al-munkar) does not occur in the easiest of circumstances or lead to something worse, for the goal is for evil simply not to happen. And, if it is possible to reach the point where good (al-ma`ruf) occurs in the easiest of circumstances, then preferring the difficult circumstances would be impermissible.259 Similarly, God has said: And if two parties of believers fight each other, make peace between them; then if after that one of them transgresses against the other, fight the party that transgresses until it returns to the command of Allah. Then if it returns, make peace between them with equity, and act justly. Verily, Allah loves the just.260 Thus, prohibiting evil is obligatory only if the view does not prevail that prohibiting a particular evil would lead to an increase in disobedience, and if a preference for what was harmful were not predominant. If such a view does prevail, prohibiting evil would not be obligatory, and avoiding it would be more appropriate. 3.6 Ahmadiyya movement in Islam The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community (Arabic: ‫ ;الجماعة اإلسالمية األحمدية‬transliterated: alJamā'ah al-Islāmīyyah al-Ahmadīyyah) is the larger of two communities that arose from the Ahmadiyya movement founded in 1889 in India by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian (1835–1908). The name Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama’at (Community) was given to the community by its funder Mirza Ghulam Ahmad to commemorate the name of the prophet who has the two names, Muhammad and Ahmad as the promised Messiah and Mahdi’s mission was to carry on the work of Prophet Muhammad under his second name Ahmad. The names 258

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?=schools. (12/10/2012). 260 Qur'an 49:10. 259

Ahmad, Ahmadiyya, Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama’at (Community) are merely to distinguish Ahmadi Muslims from other Muslims, and Ahmadi interpretation from other interpretations of Islam.261 Ahmadiyya Doctrines do not conflict those of Islam in general, including belief in the prophethood of Muhammad, reverence for historical prophets, belief in a single creator God (strong monotheism). They accept the Qur'an as their holy text, face the Kaaba during prayer, accept the authority of Hadith (reported sayings of and stories about Muhammad) and practice the Sunnah. Muslims and Ahmadis share the central values of Islam (prayer, charity, fasting, etc.) and the six articles of belief.262 However, distinct Ahmadiyya beliefs include the fact that the saying of the prophet that says: ‫تكون النبوة فيكم ما شاء هللا أن تكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء أن يرفعها ثم تكون خالفة على منهاج‬ ‫النبوة فتكون ما شاء هللا أن تكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء هللا أن يرفعها ثم تكون ملكا عاضا ً فيكون ما‬ ‫شاء هللا أن يكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء أن يرفعها ثم تكون ملكا جبرية فتكون ما شاء هللا أن تكون ثم‬ ‫كتاب الفتن‬,‫ سنن الترمذي‬.‫يرفعها إذا شاء أن يرفعها ثم تكون خالفة على منهاج النبوة ثم سكت‬ .‫باب ما جاء في الخالفة‬ The prophetic dispensation will continue to function as long as God wills it. Then will he discontinue it. There will then, follow caliphate period, which would continue as long as God wills it. (According to another saying of the Holy prophet, it will be for 30 years). Then there will be a stop to it. Then will follow a period or absolute monarchy, which will continue as long as God wills it. Then will it end. Again, there will be caliphate answering the pattern of the prophethood. Then he kept silent.263 Ahmadis believe that this Hadith is a grand prophecy, which foretells the establishment of the institution of caliphate after the end of the prophetic period; then of the establishment of absolute monarchy and lastly of the revival of Islam at the hand of ‫(اإلمام المهدي‬Imam Mahdi) and promised Messiah in the latter days. In addition to this, Ahmadis believe that Jesus has already died like other mortals. Therefore, the question of return is irrelevant. They interpret the second advent of Jesus as a spiritual event, similar to that of second coming of Elijah, as explained by Jesus himself. Just as John, the Baptist had come fulfilling the prophecy the prophecy of the second coming of Elijah, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad has come fulfilling the prophecy of the second advent of Jesus. Ahmadi believe Mahdi and Messiah is the same person, and that person is Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian. He came for the renaissance of Islam and his sword is his pen, with which he indicated the true and superiority of Islam. 264 Some of the traditions of the Prophet regarding the advent of Messiah and Mahdi, which clearly state that Messiah and Mahdi is the same person is as follows: َ ‫ي اِّالَّ ِّعي‬ ُّ ‫ الَ اْل َم ْه ِّد‬There is no Mahdi except Isa son of Mary. َ َ ْ َ َ‫سى بْن‬

265.‫مريم‬

261

Zirvi, (2002), 224. www.alislam.org/introduction/ahmadiyya.html. (29/04/2013). 263 http://library.islamweb.net/newlibrary. (1/05/2013). 2226 264 Zirvi, (2002), 277- 278. 265 www.islamweb.net. Accessed (30/09/2013). 262

.‫ير‬ ِّ ْ‫يب َويَ ْقت ُ ُل ا‬ َّ ‫سى بْنَ َم ْريَ َم اِّ َما ًما َم ْه ِّديًّا َو َح َك ًما َعدْالً يَ ْكس ُِّر ال‬ َ ‫ص ِّل‬ َ ‫اش ِّم ْن ُك ْم أ َ ْن ي َّْلقَى ِّعي‬ َ ‫لخ ْن ِّز‬ َ ‫ي ُْوشَكُ َم ْن َع‬ 266 It is just possible that he who lives of you might meet Jesus the son of Mary who is the Imam Mahdi and a just judge. He will break the cross and kill the swine. The pondering over the above traditions one is bound to come to the veritable conclusion that the Mahdi is no other than the messiah promised to Muslims as is cleared form the above traditions.lim. To think that the messiah and the Mahdi are different persons is wrong.267 The promised Messiah and Mahdi was called “Jesus son of Mary” because of many similarities between the mission of the promised messiah and Isa (Jesus the son of Mary). Neither of them was a law-bearing prophet; Jesus who appeared 1300 years after Moses, came to rejuvenate Judaism, while Ghulam Ahmad’s mission was to re-establish the true teachings of the prophet after 1300 years.268 According to Ahmadiyya, the first article of faith is to firmly believe in the absolute Oneness of God or Unity of God (Tawhid) Acknowledgment of the Oneness of God is the most important and the cardinal principle of Islam as interpreted by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. The belief in the Unity of God influences man's life in all its aspects. All other Islamic beliefs spring from this belief. The denying of God’s Oneness, and the associating of any other with Him (a doctrine termed Shirk, from an Arabic root for "sharing"), is the gravest sin in Islam.269 The second article relates to the belief in angels (Mala’ikah). They are spiritual beings created by God to obey him and implement his commandments. Unlike human beings, angels have no free will and cannot act independently. Under God's command, they bring revelations to the Prophets, bring punishment on the Prophet's enemies, glorify God with his praise, and keep records of human beings' deeds. Angels are not visible to the physical eye. Yet, according to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, they do sometimes appear to man in one form or another. This appearance, however, is not physical but a spiritual manifestation.270 Ahmadiyya regards angels as celestial beings who have their own entity as persons. The major role they play is the transmission of messages from God to human beings. According to the Qur’an, the entire material universe as well as the religious universe is governed by some spiritual powers, which are referred to as angels. Whatever they do is in complete submission to the Will of God and the design that he created for things. According to Ahmadiyyat, they cannot deviate from the set course or functions allocated to them, or from the overall plan of things made by God.271 The third article relates to the belief in all Divine Scriptures given to their respective Prophets (Kutub). These include the Books believed in by Orthodox Muslims as well, namely: 266

www.alukah.net. Accessed (30/09/2013). Zirvi, (2002), 281. 268 Zirvi, (2002), 282. 269 Ahmad, Hadhrat Mirza Bashir-ud-Din Mahmud: Invitation to Ahmadiyya, Tilford: Islam International Publications Ltd., 1997, 6. 270 Ahmad, (1997), 6. 271 Ahmad, Hadrat Mirza Ghulam: The Essence of Islam, Tilford: Islam International Publications, Ltd., 2004, 180. 267

The Torah of Moses comprises the first five books of the Hebrew Bible or the Old Testament, known as the Pentateuch, which are: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The Gospel of Jesus means the revelations revealed to Jesus, which were never recorded in his lifetime and not the New Testament. Howe ever, the first four books of the New Testament of the Bible, which are: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John are understood to be based on truth although written hundreds of years after Jesus and interpolated overtime, therefore unreliable. Yahya is also known as John the Baptist, and is revered by the Mandaeans and Sabians (who are mentioned in the Qur'an as people who 'shall have their reward with God' - just like Jews and Christians).272 Their Holy Books include the Ginza Rba and the Book of John. Asides from these Books, the Ahmadiyya Community views books outside the Abrahamic traditions such as the Avesta of Zoroastrianism and the Vedas and Bhagavad Gita of Hinduism as having divine origin but having been corrupted by humans with the passage of time.273 The fourth article of faith is the belief in all divine prophets sent by God (Nabūwwah). According to Ahmadiyya belief, the Islamic technical terms "Warner" (natheer), “prophet” (nabi), “messenger” (rasul) and “envoy” (mursal) are synonymous in meaning. There are two kinds of prophethood understood by Ahmadiyya, law-bearing prophets, who bring a new law and dispensation such as Moses and Muhammad; and non-law-bearing who appear within a given dispensation such as Jeremiah, Jesus and Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. Adam is regarded as the first human with whom God spoke with and revealed to him his divine will and thus the first prophet but is not regarded as the first human on earth by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, contrary to mainstream Islamic, Jewish and Christian beliefs. This view is based on the Qur’an itself, according to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.274 Aside from the belief in all prophets in the Old Testament of the Bible, in Jesus, John the Baptist and in Muhammad, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community also regards Zoroaster, Krishna, Buddha, Confucius and Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as prophets. Ahmadis believe Muhammad to be the final law-bearing prophet but teach the continuity of prophethood.275 The view on the Prophets of God (Arabic: ‫ )نبي‬in Ahmadiyya Islam differs with that of Christianity, Orthodox Islam, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Baha’i Faith. Unlike Orthodox Islam, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community considers the term Messenger (rasul) and Prophet (nabi) as being different aspects of the same office of a Khalifatullah Representative of God on earth]. According to Ahmadiyya belief, the terms encountered in the Qur’an to signify divinely appointed individuals, namely, Warner (Nazir), Prophet (Nabi), Messenger (‫رسول‬Rasul), are generally synonymous.276 Ahmadis however categorize prophets as law-bearing ones and non-law bearing ones. Ahmadis believe that when the world is filled with unrighteousness and immorality, or rather, when a specific part of the world displays these attributes, or when the followers of a certain law (religion) become corrupt or incorporate innovative and corrupted teachings into the faith 272

Ahmad, (1997), 7. Ahmad, (1997), 6. 274 Ahmad, (1997), 9 275 Ahmad, (1997), 43. 276 http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/ahmadiyya_muslim_community. (26/04/2013) 273

(Bid’ah), thus making the faith obsolete or in need of a Divine Sustainer, then a Prophet of God is sent to Earth by God to re-establish His Divine Will, that is, for humans to worship Him and to observe the rights of his creation.277 Prophets, and the true followers of Prophets, according to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community have always faced severe opposition and often persecution, especially so in the country/society in which they brought forth their Divine Message. This is in accordance with the history of the Prophets and also with the principle laid out in the Qur’an and parts of the Bible to this effect. The Prophets, according to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, inspire humans to such an extent that faith (eiman) translates into practical application of the faith (a’maal). The Prophets ‘magnetize’ and draw humans towards them and as a result, of this, true faith – that is, (‫ )ايمان وعمل‬iman with a’maal (practical application) – is established amongst their followers. It is written, however, that the ‘magnetism’ which draws forth people that a Prophet displays is for a limited time because, within a somewhat long period after they die, the magnetism that the Prophet brought becomes less and less until it is non-existent.278 Thus, either God immediately appoints a Successor to the Prophet (who may be a Prophet himself) that has died or, after hundreds of years, when the magnetism is virtually non-existent, God sends forth another new Messenger to display that magnetism once more. It is for this reason that, according to Ahmadiyya belief, followers of all faiths are not drawn to the magnetism of their founding Prophets because that has become non-existent over time. This also applies, according to Ahmadiyya belief, to Orthodox Islam, because it has been centuries since the founding Prophet Muhammad has died and centuries still since Muhammad’s original Caliphate had ceased to exist.279 Thus, according to Ahmadiyya belief, the Promised Messiah was sent by God as a Prophet to bring back that magnetism that draws forth humans. After he died in 1908, his first successor was elected and up till the year 2008, this Ahmadiyya Caliphate, has spanned over a century, seen 5 Caliphs and is continuing, in the manner of the first 4 Caliphs of the pious Caliphate of the Prophet Muhammad. However, the Ahmadiyya Caliphate is seen as a re-establishment and continuation of the first Islamic Caliphate of the Prophet Muhammad and the Ahmadiyya Caliphs as Successors to the Promised Messiah as well as to the Prophet Muhammad. The Rightly-Guided Caliphs of Islam (Pious Caliphs and Ahmadiyya Caliphs) are thought to be chosen by God through the agency of pious believers. The Rightly-Guided Caliphs are considered to be guided by God after their election to this office.280 Thus, the present Ahmadiyya caliph, Mirza Masroor Ahmad and also all other Ahmadiyya caliphs are seen as Successors of both the Promised Messiah and Prophet Muhammad, though human and in no way incarnations of God or any other status which ‫ المالحم – ما يذكر‬-‫عن رسول هللا صلى هللا عليه وسلم قال ( إن هللا يبعث لهذه األمة على رأس كل مائة سنة من يجدد لها دينها ) أبوداود‬ ‫في قرن المائة‬http://www.ahlalhadeeth.com. (27/04/2013). 278 http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/ahmadiyya_muslim_community. (26/04/2013) 279 http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/ahmadiyya_muslim_community. (26/04/2013) 280 http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/ahmadiyya_muslim_community. (26/04/2013) 277

would jeopardize the concept of the Unity of God). Nor are Ahmadiyya Caliphs thought to be infallible, for Caliphs are lesser than Prophets are, and Prophets may make human errors in judgement. However, in no way does the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community deem the Ahmadiyya Caliphate to be better than the Pious Caliphate of the Prophet Muhammad because it has spanned a longer time or seen more Caliphs, however.281 The fifth article of faith relates to the Day of Judgment (Yawm al-Qiyāmah). According to the Ahmadis, after belief in one God, belief in the Day of Judgement is the most emphasized doctrine mentioned in the Qur’an. According to Ahmadiyya, the entire universe will end on the Day of Judgment, a position also taken by all other Islamic sects and schools of thought. The dead will be resurrected and accounts will be taken of their deeds. People with good records will enter into Heaven while those with bad records will be thrown into Hell. Hell is understood by Ahmadiyya as a temporary abode lasting an extremely long time and not everlasting, much like in mainstream Judaism and the views taken by Islamic scholars of antiquity such as Ibn Tymiyyah and Ibn Arabi. It is thought to be like a hospital, where souls are cleansed of their sins, and this view based on the Qur’an and Hadith.282 The Divine decree ‫(قدر وتقدير‬Qadar Taqdir) though not an article of faith .The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes that divine decree controls the eventual outcome of all actions in this universe. Within the boundaries of divine decree, man is given free will to choose the course. Ahmadis believe that they will be judged based on their intentions and deeds on the Day of Judgment. Ahmadis believe that science is the study of the acts of God and religion is the study of the word of God and the two cannot possibly contradict each other.283 Ahmadiyya beliefs do not conflict those of Islam in general, including belief in the prophethood of Muhammad, reverence for historical prophets, belief in a single creator God (strong monotheism). They accept the Qur'an as their holy text, face the Kaaba during prayer, accept the authority of Hadiths (reported sayings of and stories about Muhammad) and practice the Sunnah. However, Mainstream Islam rejects the claim of the Ahmadiyya Community that Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was a Messiah. Many reject the doctrine of the continuity of prophethood and all reject the claims of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. Some consider Ahmadis to be non-Muslims. The main reason given for regarding Ahmadis as heretics is the claim by their founder to be a prophet, which is said by other Muslims to be incompatible with accepting the finality of the prophethood of the prophet Muhammad.284 In 1974, Pakistan's parliament amended the country's constitution to legally define Ahmadis as non-Muslims. This added Ahmadis to the list of religious minorities for whom additional seats were to be reserved in the provincial assemblies (art. 106, 3) and included the following declaration in Article 260 (Declaration): A person who does not believe in the absolute and unqualified finality of the Prophethood of Muhammad (peace be upon him), the last of the prophets or claims to be a Prophet in any sense of the word or of any 281

http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/ahmadiyya_muslim_community. (26/04/2013) Muhammad Zafrullah Khan,” Life after Death”, the Review of Religions, 90, no. 9, (1995): .5. 283 Khalid Safiullah, “Predetermination”, the Review of Religions, 90, no. 9, (1995): 37. 284 Judge Gustaf Petren et al, Pakistan Human Rights After Martial Law, Geneva: international Commission of Jurists (ICJ), 1987, 103 282

description whatsoever, after Muhammad (peace be upon him), or recognizes such a claimant as a Prophet or a religious reformer is not a Muslim for the purposes of the Constitution or law.285 Ahmadis, however, deny that they are calling this finality into question as their founder was a prophet without a new law and was therefore, only claiming to be the inspired interpreter of the Qur’anic message and to be bringing the message of rebirth and renewal of the one true religion. Thus, Ahmadiyya is not a separate religion. Muhammad Ali, argues that, many are the misconceptions prevailing among people about the Ahmadiyya movement. The greatest of all is that it is a religion quite separate from Islam like Babism or Bahaism. The basis of this false idea is that Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement, has laid a claim to prophethood, however, this allegation is refuted by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad himself in one of his book he says: َّ ‫سو ُل‬ The gist of my faith is ِّ‫اّلل‬ ُ ‫الَ إلَهَ إِّالَّ هللاُ مـ ُ َح َّمد ُ َر‬there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His prophet. Our belief to which we are committed in this life and to which we will stick by the Grace and mercy of Allah to the last moment of our sojourn on this earth, is that our chief and master, the holy prophet, on whom be peace and blessing of Allah, is the Khatamun Nabiyyen and khairul Mursaleenthe best of prophets. At his hands was the law of Shari’ah perfected this perfect blessing is today the only guide to the right.286 Ahmadis further explain that, had Ahmadiyya been a separate religion, like Babi or Bahai faith, its activities obviously should not have been confined to the spread of Islam. Whatever work has been done in this age about the propagation of Islam, in Europe, America and other countries of the world, the greater part of it is due to the efforts of the followers of the Ahmadiyya movement. In this connection the literature produced by Muslims is either the result of the activities of this movement or has been done under its influence. Had Ahmadiyya been something different from or hostile to Islam, it should not have laid so much emphasis on establishing Muslim missions and spreading the Islamic literature all over the world.287 It is true that, every religion in the world is divided into sects, which generally differ in their fundamentals with one another. However all the sects in Islam agree on the fundamentals of religion. All believe in one God, in the finality of the prophethood of Muhammad. All take the Qur’an as the last revealed Book of God, which has not suffered any change in text. All face towards the same Qiblah when praying. But with this uniformity of opinion that all believe in one God, one Messenger, one Qiblah and one Book there have been difference on minor points and details of religion.288 In addition, the history of Ahmadiyya Movement bears testimony to the fact that when Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded the movement and made declaration for an oath of allegiance, he did not differ with other Muslims on any religious doctrine.289 285

Petren, (1987), 104 Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, Izala-l- Auham, (Lahore: Pakistan Printing Works, 1962), 137. 287 Ali, Maulana Muhammad, the Ahmadiyyah movement, (Lahore: Ahmadiyyah Anjuman Isha’at Islam, 1973), 251. 288 Ali, (1973), 255. 289 Ali, (1973), 255. 286

The object of the movement was only the protection and propagation of Islam. Clearly, He described his spiritual status and mission in both messianic and prophetic terminology. His claim to be a reformer of Islam, ‫مجدد‬a mujadid, fell within the boundaries of official Islam or orthodoxy. As a no legislative prophet he could affirm the finality of the prophet hood of Muhammad while maintaining that God continued to send religious reformers to provide prophetic guidance to the Islamic community.290 In some countries, it is an offence for the Ahmadiyya Movement to preach their religion as Islam. In Pakistan, parliament has declared Ahmadis to be non-Muslims. In Bangladesh, fundamentalist Islamic groups have demanded that Ahmadiyya be declared “officially” as kufar (non-believers). In Indonesia, many conservative Islamic groups called for an outright ban on Ahmadiyya. Nevertheless, Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is still the leading Islamic organization to categorically reject terrorism in any form. Over a century ago, Ahmad emphatically declared that an aggressive “jihad by the sword” has no place in Islam. In its place, he taught his followers to wage a bloodless, intellectual “jihad of the pen” to defend Islam.291 To this end, Ahmad penned over 80 books and tens of thousands of letters, delivered hundreds of lectures, and engaged in scores of public debates. His rigorous and rational defenses of Islam unsettled conventional Muslim thinking. As part of its effort to revive Islam, Ahmadiyya Muslim Community continues to spread Ahmad’s teachings of moderation and restraint in the face of bitter opposition from parts of the Muslim world.292 Similarly, it is the only Islamic organization to endorse a separation of mosque and state. Over a century ago, Ahmad taught his followers to protect the sanctity of both religion and government by becoming righteous souls as well as loyal citizens. He cautioned against irrational interpretations of Qur’anic pronouncements and misapplications of Islamic law. He continually voiced his concerns over protecting the rights of God’s creatures. Today, it continues to be an advocate for universal human rights and protections for religious and other minorities. It champions the empowerment and education of women. Its members are among the most law-abiding, educated, and engaged Muslims in the world.293 Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is the foremost Islamic organization with a central spiritual leader. Over a century ago, Ahmad reminded his followers of God’s promise to safeguard the message of Islam through Caliphate (the spiritual institution of successorship to prophethood). It believes that only spiritual successorship can uphold the true values of Islam and unite humanity. Five spiritual leaders have succeeded Ahmad since his demise in 1908. Its fifth and current spiritual head, Mirza Masroor Ahmad, resides in the United Kingdom.294 From its inception in 1899 in British India, it has been one of the most active, progressive, and controversial movement in Islam rejected by many Muslims as heretical. But the fact still remains that Ahmadiyya are great suporters of modern education and Islamic reform. As a

290

Esposito et al. (2006), 501. http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/ahmadiyya_muslim_community. (26/04/2013) 292 http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/ahmadiyya_muslim_community. (26/04/2013) 293 http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/ahmadiyya_muslim_community. (26/04/2013) 294 http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/ahmadiyya_muslim_community. (26/04/2013) 291

global missionary movement they have established a large network of mosques and centers and peacefully propagated their faith in Asia, Africa,295 Europe, Australia, and America.296

295

When Ahmadiyya was introduced into Nigeria in 1916, it met a Muslim community that was largely illiterate, highly superstitious and grossly ignorant about Islamic precepts and practices. Ahmadiyya started first by tackling the problem of ignorance; ignorance of both what we called western education and Islamic scholarship by establishing the first Muslim school with Islamic orientation; that is, western-styled school, where Islamic religious knowledge and Arabic were taught. This culminated in the founding of the Taalimul Islam Ahmadiyya School, Lagos in 1921. And by successful experiment, Ahmadiyya convinced the Muslim community that it was not impossible to give western scholarship to Muslim children without losing them to Christianity at schools run by Christian proprietors. In this way, Ahmadiyya arrested the general belief then prevalent in Nigeria that Muslims were the dregs of the society since they were previously to be found in menial jobs. Ahmadiyya crowned this pioneering role in Muslim education by founding the first Muslim Secondary School, Ahmadiyya College in Lagos in 1947. Besides extoling the beauty of offering children sound western education to its members, Ahmadiyya has a proud heritage that their children first blazed the trail of western scholarship among the Muslims of Nigeria. Such that among Ahmadis were the first Muslim professionals, Dr. Hameed S. Tinubu, the first Muslim medical doctor, who returned to the shore of Nigeria in 1927, was not only an Ahmadi, but the son of Ahmadi, the late Saka Tinubu. So also was the first Muslim lawyer, L. B. Agusto, who returned to Nigeria in 1922 was himself first an Ahmadi. In this connection, it is pertinent to say that the first Nigerian lady to acquire a doctorate degree in any discipline in 1965 is the daughter of an Ahmadi, the late M. O. Anibaba, Dr. Saida Mabadeje. Ahmadiyya also recorded a first in the appointment of Mr. Justice Atanda Fatai-Williams, son of an Ahmadi, the late Isa Williams, in 1965 as first Muslim judge. If one looks round the Nigerian society today one finds a host of religious organisations. This is also a blessing of Ahmadiyya. At its advent in Nigeria, the Muslims were in disarray, lacking any sense of direction. The idea of organisating a body of Muslim men and women in to a virile and cohesive organization spreading all over the country was borrowed from Ahmadiyya. As a matter of fact some of the early leaders of these organisations were once members of Ahmadiyya, who withdrew for one reason or the other. For example, the first General Secretary of the Ansar-Ud-Deen Society of Nigeria, the late Mr. Boonjamin Gbajabiamila and the late Alhaj M. K. Ekemade, enlisted as ahmadis when they left high school in 1922 only to bolt away a few months later to form Ansar-Ud-Deen Society in December, 1922 because the former failed to wrest the post of manager, Talimul Islam Ahmadiyya School from the general secretary of the mission. The Nawair-Ud-Deen society was founded in 1922, the Jamaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;tul Islamiyya society in 1924, Ijebu Muslim Mission in October, 1927, Ibadan Islamic society followed afterwards and a host of others. What this societies have been able to do for Islam is at least visible in the realm of providing primary and secondary schools for the Muslim children; though the wind of change set in motion by Nigeria oil wealth had spelt doom for the continuation of their role as it is now a declared policy of the states and Federal governments to take over schools from voluntary agencies. It is also to the credit of Ahmadiyya that they pioneered the establishment of Muslim-run clinics and hospitals in Nigeria. Thus, Ahmadiyya set a pace for others to follow, it has assumed the role of a pace-setter since its arrival among the Muslims of Nigeria. Elias, Alhaji Zafrullah: The role of Ahmadiyya in Nigeria, in The Muslim Herald, 15, no., 11 (1975): 5-7. 296 Esposito et al. (2006), 501.

Chapter 4 The Islamic Principles Islam consists of submission and obedience to Allah, the lord of the universe. Since the only authentic source of knowing Him and his will and law is the teachings of the true prophet, we may define Islam, as that religion which, stands for complete faith in the teachings of the prophet and steadfast obedience to his ways of life. Consequently, one who ignores the medium of the prophet and claims to follow God directly cannot be identify as a Muslim. This brings us to the question: what has Muhammad asked Muslims to believe in? On the other hand, what are the articles of Islamic faith? The articles of faith in Islam are only five, though some considered predestination as the sixth article of faith, but it is our belief that the Qur’an mentioned predestination, but not as an article of faith. Thus the agreed upon articles of faith are: (1) belief in Allah (2) belief in Angels, (3) belief in the revealed books, (4) belief in the prophets and (5) belief in the life after death. The evidence from the Qur’an for these five articles of faith is: “It is not righteousness that you turn your faces to the east or to the west, but truly righteous is he who believes in Allah and the last day and the angels and the book and the prophets.” This verse gives the basic Islamic beliefs and doctrines as, belief in God, in the last day, in angels, revealed books and divine prophets. 4. 1. Belief in Allah The fundamental teaching of Islam is belief in the existence of God and the unity of God. Unity of God means that God with his unlimited powers and attributes is one and unique, without any partners or associates. He has no equal.297 The Islamic creed is summed up in the words: “There is no god but one Allah”. ‫ الإهلل إال هللا‬It means God exists and there is no one worthy of adoration, worship but Him, Him whom is called Allah. The Qur’an is full of descriptions of God and of proofs of His existence. The proofs are of many different kinds. One kind of proofs is based on the attributes of God. Proofs of God are proofs of His existence. The attributes serve as evidence of His existence.298 It is a distinction of Islam that, it teaches that God has a personal name Allah; Allah is a name by itself. It is a primitive name or noun, noun in its own right, not compounded out of other words or derived from any of them. It applies only to God, a being possessed of all the perfect attributes. In Islam, attributes of God are of two kinds: absolute and relative. Absolute attributes are absolute, intrinsic, and independent. They manifest themselves whether there are creatures or not.299 Examples are His oneness, his uniqueness, his knowledge and his holiness. Relative attributes are attributes which do not come to expression unless there are creatures to serve as an occasion for their expression, their manifestation.300 Mentioned in the Qur’an are many. However, the four attributes mentioned in the first chapter of the Qur’an, viz. Rabb ُّ‫(رب‬Lord), Rhaman ‫(ال َّرحمن‬the most Gracious), Rahim ‫الرحيم‬ َّ Chaudhry, Aziz A. “unity of God (God is one) Fundamental teaching of Islam”, The Review of Religions, 93, no, 7, (1998): 48. 298 Abdul Malik Khan, “Attributes of God- as proofs of God”, the Review of Religions, LXXII, no. 11, (1977): 297. 299 Khan, (1977), 299. 300 Khan, (1977), 299. 297

(the most merciful), Malik yaum al-din ‫(مالك يوم الدِّين‬Master of the Day of Judgement), are basic, fundamental from which may be derived His attributes.301 These four attributes constitute the Beauty and Power of the Divines Personality. They are evidence of His existence and presence. Of all the doctrines and beliefs that have been subjected to in this age of materialism, the greatest is the belief in the existence of God. The idolater sets up other gods with God, but he believes at least in the existence of God. The atheist, however, denies the very existence of the Supreme Being. As in the present day science everything is based on observation, hence the demand of the Atheist is: If there is a God, show Him to us. How can we believe in Him without seeing Him? 302 God according to Islam is hidden from the view veil after veil surrounds him. Human sense and human understanding are incapable of contacting or understand God. Those human senses are incapable of reaching and contacting God is pointed out in the accent on the attribute ‫ اللَّطيف‬al-latif, the most subtle. In Arabic, ‫ لطيف‬latif is anything without colours, without dimensions, without surface, and the human eyes can observe only colours, only length and breadth and only surfaces.303 God is above all these, therefore, human sense cannot perceive him, and they cannot reach him. That God himself reaches human understanding is pointed out in the attribute ‫ الخبير‬al-khabir, the Most Aware.304 How unjust is it then to say that we cannot believe in the existence of God unless He is shown to us.305 Has anybody ever seen electricity? However, can we then deny the transmission of messages and signals to long distances, lighting and the working of machinery by means of electricity? The discovery of either has brought about a revolution in the domain of physical science, but has any scientist been able to find it by means of seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling or touching? Nevertheless, if we deny its existence, we find ourselves unable to explain how the rays of the sun reach the Earth. How unjust is then the demand that in order to believe in God must be visible to the eye, while there are so many things, which are believed in, but they are not visible to the eye or perceptible by any other of the five senses. God is visible but only to the eyes that are capable of seeing Him. But if anybody is desirous of seeing Him, He is before the whole world through His powers and in spite of His being hidden; He is the most apparent of all. This fact has been briefly "Eyes cannot reach Him but He reaches the eyes. And He is the Incomprehensible, the All-Aware."306 In this verse, God draws the attention of man to the fact that this eye is not capable of seeing Him, for He is subtle and the eyes cannot perceive subtle things. What then is the way of knowing God? He answers this question by saying; "but He reaches the eyes", i.e., though the eye of man is not capable of seeing Him, yet He reveals Himself to man by a display of His powers and by a manifestation of His attributes. Manifold are the ways in which He reveals Himself to man. He displays His unlimited power sometimes by terror-striking signs, sometimes through prophets, sometimes by signs of mercy and sometimes by accepting prayer. Having shown that if God is to be believed in only if He be perceptible by the eye, the 301

Khan, (1977), 299. Ahmad, Mirza Bashiruddin Mahmud: “Existence of God” the Review of Religions,” LXXXI, no. 2, (1986):6. 303 Khan, (1977), 298. 304 Khan, (1977), p. 298. 305 Ahmad, (1986), 7. 306 Qur’an. 6:104. 302

we shall have to deny the existence of all things if we accept as true the view of certain philosophers that nobody can see the substance of anything in the world and that it is only the form that we see. We now turn to the evidences, which establish the existence of God and show that man has a Creator and is not his own Creator. Believing as we do that the Holy Quran has pointed out all the ways of attaining to spiritual perfection, we will draw all our arguments from the Holy Qur'an. As the first knowledge of which a man obtains after he comes into the world is obtained through the ear, therefore, we too will begin with an argument, which relates to the ear. The Holy Quran says: Verily, he truly prospers who purifies himself, and remembers the name of his Lord and offers Prayers. But you prefer the life of this world, whereas the Hereafter is better and more lasting. This, indeed, is what is taught in the former Scriptures - The scriptures of Abraham and Moses.307 In these verses felicity and prosperity is promised to those who become pure, and who not only make a verbal admission of the existence of God. Also give a proof of their belief in Him by worshipping Him, but men give a preference to the life of the present world while the final welfare is a real and enduring one. The verses further add that this truth is found not only in the Holy Quran but also in all the previous Scriptures, e.g., in the Books of Abraham and Moses. In these verses, we were told that those who purify themselves and not only believe in God but also obey Him enjoy true felicity, and in proof of this statement, attention is drawn to the fact that this teaching is common to all the religions of the world.308 The chief people with whom the Holy Prophet had to deal were the Jews, the Christians and the people of Mecca. The former two peoples both believe in Moses, while all the Three believed in Abraham and therefore to bring the truth home to them they were told that Moses and Abraham gave the same teaching and therefore they were bound to accept it as true.309 Thus, we see that one of the chief arguments of the existence of God given by the Holy Quran is this that all the religions of the world concur in holding that there is a Supreme Being, who created the whole universe. Changes do occur in the beliefs and doctrines of a people owing to changed circumstances and conditions, yet notwithstanding this, all historical religions of the world agree in believing in the existence of God,310 though there may be some difference of opinion to His attributes. The religions those are extant, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. All believe in God, who is known as Allah in Islam. And as regards to the religions that have now become extinct whether they appeared in the isolated land of America, or in Rome, or the deserts of Africa, or England, Japan, or China, the traces that we still find of these religions all point to a belief in the Supreme Being.311 The question is how did this agreement of religions come about and who it was who informed the natives of China of the belief of the Negroes of the Sahara of Africa, and the natives of America of the beliefs of the Indian people? In ancient times, the people of the world did not possess these means of communication, which they possess now, and the intercourse that the inhabitants of distant lands now have with one another was non-existent Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an, 87:15-20. Ahmad, (1986), 9. 309 Ahmad, (1986), 9. 310 Ahmad, (1986), 9. 311 Ahmad, (1986), 9. 307 308

in days gone by. There were large tracts of land that were unexplored and large continents that were yet undiscovered. Then how did it come to pass that people that were so wide apart from one another, and were so different in their habits, customs and tastes, all agreed on this belief? It is difficult even for two men to agree on a self-invented fiction.312 Furthermore, is not then the occurrence of so many different peoples who had no means of communicating their thoughts to one another on the belief in the Supreme Being a conclusive evidence of the existence of God being a fact? All historians agree in holding that a question on which all the historians of different nations occur must be taken as a fact. Now when thousands of people are of one mind as to the existence of God, why should we not conclude that the existence of God is a fact?313 All the basic principles of Islam are fully dealt with in the Qur’an, and so is the doctrine of faith in God, of which the corner stone is belief in the unity of God (‫توحيد‬tauhid). The bestknown expression of Divine unity is that contained in the declaration of la ilaha ill Allah. It is made up of four words, ‫ال‬la (no), ‫إال‬illa (that which is worshipped), illa (except) and Allah (the proper name of the Divine Being). Thus, these words, which are commonly rendered into English as meaning “there is no god but Allah,” convey the significance that there is nothing, which deserves to be worshipped except Allah. It is this confession which when combined with the confession of the prophethood of Muhammad - Muhammad-ur Rasulu-llah-, admits a man into the fold of Islam. The unity of God, according to the Qur’an, implies that God is one in his person (‫ذات‬dhat), one in his attributes ( ‫صفات‬sifat), and one in his works (‫أفعال‬af’al). His oneness in his person means that there is neither plurality of gods nor plurality of persons in the Godhead; his oneness in attributes implies that no other being possesses one or more of the Divine attributes in perfection; his oneness in works implies that none can do that which God has done, or which God may do.314 The doctrine of unity is beautifully summed up in one of the shortest and earliest chapters of Qur’an: “Say: He, Allah, is one; Allah is He on whom all depend; he begets not, nor is He begotten; and none is like Him”.315 The opposite of unity ( ‫توحيد‬Tawhid) is Shirk, implying partnership. In the Qur’an, shirk is used to signify the associating of gods with God, whether such association be with respect to the person of God or his attributes or his works, or with respect to the obedience which is due to him alone. Qur’an says: “Surely, ascribing partner to him is a grievous iniquity;”316 “Allah forgives not that a partner should be set up with him and forgives all besides that to whom he pleases.”317 This is not due to a feeling of jealousy on the part of God, in fact jealousy, according to the Qur’an, is quite unthinkable as an attribute of the Divine unity brings about his moral elevation. According to the Qur’an, man is God’s vicegerent (‫خالفة‬khalifa) on earth, and this shows that he is gifted with the power of controlling the rest of the earthly creation. We are told expressly that he has been made to rule the world: Allah is he who made subservient to you the sea that the ships may glide therein by his command, and that you may seek of his grace and that you may give thanks. And he that made subservient to you whatever is in the 312

Ahmad, (1986), 9. Ahmad, (1986), 9. 314 Ali, (1973), 121. 315 Qur’an, 112: 1-5. 316 Qur’an, 31:13. 317 Qur’an, 4:48. 313

heavens and whatever is in the earth, all from himself; surely there are signs in this for a people who reflect.318 Man is thus placed above the whole of creation. He is placed even above the angels who are spoken of as making obedience to him. If, then, man has been created to rule the universe and is gifted with the power to subdue everything and to turn it to his use, does he not degrade himself by taking other things for gods, by bowing before the very things which he has been created to conquer and rule? This is an argument which Qur’an has itself advanced against shirk (partnership with God).319 Thus the words, “shall I seek a lord other than Allah, while he is the Lord of all things,”320are followed in the next verse by “And he it is who has made you successors in the land.” And again: shall I seek for you a god other than Allah, while he has made you excel all created things?321 Shirk is, therefore, of all sins the most serious because it degrades man and renders him unfit for attaining the high position destined for him in the Divine scheme.322 The various form of Shirk mentioned in the Qur’an are summed up in the verses: “That we shall worship none but Allah and that we shall not associate aught with him and that some of us shall not take others for lords besides Allah.323 There are really three forms of Shirk. The most palpable form of Shirk is that in which anything besides God is worshipped, such as stones, idols, trees, animals, tombs, and heavenly bodies, forces of nature, or human beings who are supposed to be demi-gods or incarnations of God or sons or daughters of God.324 The second kind of Shirk, which is less palpable, is the associating of other things with God, that is, to suppose that other things and beings possess the same attributes as the Divine Being. The beliefs that there are three persons in the Godhead, and that the son and the Holy Ghost are eternal, omnipotent and omniscient like God himself, as in Christianity, or that there is a Creator of evil along with a creator of good, as in Zoroastrianism, or that matter and soul are co-eternal with God and self-existing like himself, as in Hinduism. All come under this head. The last kind of Shirk is that in which some men take others for their lords.325 Of the different forms of Shirk, idolatry is cited more frequently than all the others and is denounced in the most scathing terms in the Qur’an. This is because idolatry is the most heinous form of Shirk and also was the most rampant throughout the world at the advent of Islam. Not only is idolatry condemned in its gross form, which takes it for granted that an idol can cause benefit or do harm, but the idea is also controverted that there is any meaning underlying this gross form of worship: “And those who choose protectors besides him, say: we serve them only that they may bring us nearer to Allah. Surely Allah will judge between them in that in which they differ”.326 A similar excuse is put forward today by some of the idolaters. It is said that an idol is used only to enable a worshipper to concentrate his attention, and become more deeply engrossed in Divine contemplation. This idea is controverted in the verse quoted above, ‘that Qur’an, 45:12-13. Ali, (1973), 122. 320 Qur’an, 6:164. 321 Qur’an, 7:140. 322 Ali, (1973), 122. 323 Qur’an, 3:64. 324 Ali, (1973), 123. 325 Ali, (1973), 123. 326 Qur’an, 39:3. 318 319

they may bring us nearer to Allah.’ But even in this case the worshipper must believe that the idol on which he centres his attention is a symbol of the Divine Being, which is a grossly false notion; and, moreover, it is the idol on which the worshipper’s attention is centred, not the divine Being.327 Another form of prevailing Shirk denounce in the Qur’an is the worship of the sun, the moon, the stars, in fact of everything which might appear to control the destinies of man. This is expressly forbidden: “And of his signs are the night and the day and the sun and the moon. Adore not the sun or the moon, but adore Allah who created them”.328 The argument advanced against the worship of the sun and the moon not only applies to all heavenly bodies but also, and equally well, to all the forces of nature, which are in fact again and again mentioned as being made subservient to man.329 The trinity is also denounced as a form of Shirk: “So believe in Allah and his messenger and say not, Three. Desist, it is better for you Allah is only one God”.330 It is sometimes alleged that the Qur’anic conception of the Trinity is a mistaken one, because it speaks of Jesus and Mary as having been taken for two gods: “O Jesus, son of Mary! Didst thou say to men, Take me and my mother for two gods, besides Allah?331 The reference here is to Mariolatry. That Mary was worshipped is a fact, and the Qur’an’s reference to it is significant,332 but it should be noted that neither the Qur’an nor the prophet has anywhere said 327

Ali, (1973), 124. Qur’an, 41: 37. 329 Ali, (1973), 124-125. 330 Qur’an, 4: 171. 331 Qur’an, 5:116. 332 The doctrine and practice of Mariolatry, as it is called by the protestant controversialists, is too well-known. Mariolatry is defined as “excessive veneration or worship of Mary, the mother of Jesus.” The word literally means “Mary-worship.” Protestants often accuse Catholics of Mariolatry, and Catholics deny the charge, insisting that they venerate Mary but stop short of giving her divine worship. The official teaching of the Roman Catholic Church is that God alone deserves “adoration,” also called latria; however, saints are worthy of a lesser honor called “veneration” or dulia. Catholic doctrine goes on to say that God has exalted the Virgin Mary above all other saints, and she should thus receive the highest form of dulia, called hyperdulia. But, Catholics are careful to say, hyperdulia is inferior to latria. Catholics claim that, since they do not give Mary the adoration that only the Creator can receive, they are not guilty of Mariolatry. The Eastern Orthodox Church also venerates Mary as the foremost saint, calling her the “Most Holy Virgin Mary,” singing hymns to her, praying to her, and kissing her icon. https://gotquestions.org/Mariolatry.html 10/01/2017. As a form of idolatry, Mariolatry is sinful. Mariolatry holds Jesus’ mother up as an object of trust, veneration, and deification. There are biblical warnings against worshiping anyone other than God. Mary was a natural woman. She has no power to connect us to God, heal us, or hear our prayers. Do the Catholic and Orthodox Churches promote Mariology? They deny they do; however, the difference between “adoration” and “highest veneration” is difficult to see. Elevating Mary with titles such as Mediatrix, Co-redemptrix, Cause of Our Salvation, Most Holy Mother of God, Our Immaculate Lady, and Queen of Heaven cannot help but foster Mariolatry. Singing hymns to Mary, praying to her, kissing her picture, parading her image through the streets, and bowing down before her statue reflect a degree of reverence that certainly imitates idolatry and might as well be called Mariolatry. https://gotquestions.org/Mariolatry.html 10/01/2017. In the catechism of the roman church the following doctrines are to be found: ‘that she is truly the mother of God…; that she is the mother of pity and very specially our advocate; that her images are of the utmost utility.” It is also stated that her intercessions are directly appeared to in the litany. And further that there were women in Thrace, Scythia and Arabia who were in the habit of worshipping the virgin as a goddess, the offer of a cake being one of the features of their worship.” From the time of the Council of Ephesus to exhibit figures of virgin and child became the approved expression of orthodoxy…of the growth of the Marian cultus, alike in the East and the West, after the decision at Ephesus, it would be impossible to trace the history… Justinian in one of his 328

that Mary was the third person of the Trinity. Where the Qur’an denounces the Trinity, it speaks of the doctrine of sonship but does not speak of the worship of Mary at all; and where it speaks of the worship of Mary, it does not refer to the Trinity.333 Another form of shirk, refuted in the Qur’an, is the doctrine that God has sons or daughters. The pagan Arabs ascribed daughters to God while the Christians hold that God has a son. Though the doctrine of ascribing daughters to God is mentioned in the Qur’an several times, yet it is against the Christian doctrine that the Holy Book speaks with gravest emphasis: And they say: The Beneficent God has taken to Himself a son. Certainly, you have made an abominable assertion! The heaven may almost be rent threat, and the earth cleave asunder, and the mountains fall down in pieces, that they ascribe a son to the Beneficent God!334 The doctrine is denounced repeatedly, even in the earliest revelations, which shows that from the very first the Qur’an set before itself the correction of the great error. It will be observed that a mention of the doctrine of sonship is often followed by the word ‫ سبحانه‬subhana-hu, which word is used to indicate the purity of God from all defects.335 The reason for this is that the doctrine of sonship is due to supposition that God cannot forgive sins unless He receives some satisfaction therefor, and this satisfaction is supposed to have been afforded by the crucifixion of the son of God, who alone is said to be sinless.336 The doctrine of sonship is thus practically a denial of the quality of forgiveness in god, and this amounts to attributing a defect to him. It is for this reason also that a most forcible denunciation of the doctrine of sonship is followed by the words: “it is not worthy of the Beneficent God (Rahman) that He should take to himself a son”.337 The word Rahman signifies originally the Lord of immeasurable mercy who requires no satisfaction or compensation for a display of the quality of mercy, which is inherent in Him, and the attribute of being Rahman negatives the doctrine of sonship.338 4.2

Belief in the angels

According to the Qur’an medium of revelation is the spirit or archangel Gabriel that is bringing down revelation on man.339 In orthodox theology, Gabriel is bringing the prophetic revelation. Yursila rusulan” according to Arabic language means He sends an angel as for instance Gabriel, and the angel reveals to the one sent to, I.e., the angel speaks to him by the leave of Allah.340 From this we know that the discussing revelation means in essence, discussing the laws bespeaks her advocacy for the empire…Narses looks to her for directions on the field of battle. The empire Heraclius bears her image on his banner. John of Damascus speaks of her as the sovereign lady to whom the whole creation has been made subject by her son. Peter Damian recognizes her as the most exalted of all creatures, and apostrophizes her as deified and endowed with all power in heaven and in earth.” See Exposing the Idolatry of Mary Worship: An Overview Available at: http://www.gty.org/resources/sermons/90314/exposing-the-idolatry-of-mary-worship-an-overview 10/01/2017 333 Ali, (1973), 124-125. 334 Qur’an, 19: 88-91. 335 Ali, (1973), 126. 336 Ali, (1973), 127. 337 Qur’an, 19:92. 338 Ali, (1973), 127. 339 M. G. Ahmad, “the Qur’anic Concept of Revelation with reference to the Biblical Concepts”, the Review of Religions, LXXII, no.1-2, (1978): 11 340 Ahmad, (1978), 11

angel, the revealed books and the prophets themselves. Thus in this chapter we will discuss these three points one after the other. The Arabic word for angel is malak (‫)ملك‬, of which the plural is malaika (‫)مالئكة‬. The root from which the word is derived is alk or aluka meaning risala or the bearing of message.341 The Qur’an speaks of the creation of man from dust and of the creation of jinn from fire, but it does not speak of the origin of angels. This shows that the angels are immaterial beings, and that it is a mistake to consider them as belonging to one class. In the Qur’an, angels are spoken of as messengers flying on wings such as: “All praise belongs to Allah, the Maker of the heavens and the earth, who employs the angels as messengers, having wings, two, three and four.”342 Their description as messengers has reference to their spiritual function of being divine messengers.343 Sacred history, indeed, represent angels as possessing wings, but as far as the Qur’an is concerned, it would be a grievous mistake to confuse the janah (‫ )جنحة‬wing of an angel with the forelimb of a bird, which fits it for flight. The wing is a symbol of the power, which enables those immaterial beings to execute their function with all speed; and in Arabic, the word Janah (‫ )جنحة‬is used in a variety of sense. In bird, it is the wing. The two sides of a thing are called its janahain; and in man, his hand is spoken of as his; the word has further been used metaphorically in the Qur’an in several places, as in these words: “...and lower thy wing of mercy for the believers;344 and “And lower thy wing of mercy to the believers who follow thee.345 Here the lowing of the janah’ stands for being kind.346 The proverb, huwa maqsus aljanah, (literal he has his janah-wing-clipped), really means, he lacks the power to do a thing.347 Which also shows that janah (‫ )جنحة‬is also used for power in Arabic. In the immaterial beings called angels who are created from light, and in whom therefore a material janah (‫)جنحة‬ cannot be thought of, it is simply the symbol of a power, which is speedily brought into action.348 It is commonly thought that the immaterial beings, whom we call angels, can assume any shape they like,349 but the Qur’an gives no countenance to this idea. On the contrary, it is repeatedly stated in answer to the demands of the prophet’s opponents, who desires to see an angel or to have an angel as messenger, that angel could not be seen and that an angel would have been sent as a messenger had angels, and not human beings lived on earth350. Allah says: And nothing has prevented men from believing when the guidance comes to them save that they said, Has Allah sent a man as a messenger? Say, had there been in the earth angels walking about in peace and quiet, we should have certainly sent down to them from the heaven an angel as a messenger.351

341

Al- Bustani , (1975), 16 Qur’an, 35: 2. 343 Ali, (1973), 142. 344 Qur’an, 15:89. 345 Qur’an, 26:216. 346 Ali, (1973), p. 143. 347 Al-Bustani, (1975), 103. 348 Ali, (1973), 143. 349 Doi, (1992), 40. 350 Ali, (1973), 143. 351 Qur’an, 17:95-96. 342

Though angels are spoken of as beings, they are not endowed with powers of discrimination like those of human beings: in this respect, indeed, they must be said to partake more the attributes of the power of nature than of man.352 Their function is to obey and they cannot disobey. The Qur’an says plainly: ‘’ they do not disobey Allah that which He commands them, but (they) do so as they are commanded.”353 There exists a hierarchy of angels. Prominent among them are Jibrail (Gabriel), Mikail (Michael), Israfil and Izrail, these four are the archangels.354 Function of the angels. The most important and, at all same time, the most prominent function of the angel, in the spiritual realm is the bringing down of divine revelation or the communication of divine messages to the prophets. The prophet not only sees the angel but also hears his voice, and the angel is to him, therefore, a reality.355 This has been the universal experience of humanity in all ages. As the angel is an immaterial being, the prophet sees him sometimes in the shape of a human being and sometimes in other forms.356 The second function of the angels, as reveal in the Qur’an, is to strengthen the righteous servants of God, prophets as well as others, and to give them comfort in trials and affliction. Jesus Christ is specially mentioned in this connection because of the serious allegations of the Jews against him. Allah say, “We gave Jesus, son of Mary, clear proofs and strengthened him with the spirit of holiness.”357 In addition, the believers generally are said to be strengthened with the spirit. Allah says, “These are they in whose hearts Allah has inscribed true faith and whom He has strengthened with inspiration from Himself.”358 These angelic hosts were sent when the Muslims had to fight in defence against heavy odds, 313 against a thousand, 700 against three thousand and 1,500 against 15,000. In addition, on all three fields, the Muslims were victorious and unbelievers had to go back without attaining their objective.359 The strengthening of hearth through the angels is, therefore, a solid fact of history. Another very important function of the angels, on which special stress is laid in the Qur’an, is the recording of the good and evil deeds of man. These angels are called honourable recorders, the words being taken from the verse of the Qur’an: ‘‘but there are guardians over you, honourable recorders, who know all that you do. ‘’360 And elsewhere we have: ‘’when the two receivers receive, sitting on the right and on the left. He utters not a world but there is by him a guardian angel ready to record it.”361 The different functions of angels in the spiritual world are thus connected, in one way or another with the awakening of the spiritual life in man or its advancement and progress. Herein lays the reason why faith in angels is required along with a faith in God.362 Allah says: “...the believers: all of them believe in Allah, and in his angels and in his Books and in his

352

Ali, (1973), 145. Qur’an: 66, 7. 354 Doi, (1992), 41. 355 Ali, (1973), 149. 356 Ali, (1973), 149. 357 Qur’an, 2:254. 358 Qur’an, 58:23. 359 Ali, (1973), 150. 360 Qur’an, 82:11-13. 361 Qur’an 50:18-19. 362 Ali, (1973), 156. 353

messengers.’’363 This means that it is the righteous ones that believe in Allah, in his angels, his revealed books and in the messengers of God. Faith or belief in any doctrine, according to the Qur’an is essentially the acceptance of a proposition as a basic for action. Faith in angels, therefore, means that there is a spiritual life by working in accordance with the promptings of the angel and by bringing into play the faculties, which God has given him.364 And that is why-thought the existence of the devil, who makes the evil suggestions, is as much a fact as the existence of the angel who makes the good suggestions- the Qur’an requires a belief in angels and disbelief in devils. Allah says, “so whosoever refuses to be led by those who transgress and believes in Allah, has surely grasped a strong handle which knows no breaking. ‘’365 This of course, is not to say that one must deny the existence of the devil.366 The significance is clear enough: one must obey the commandments of God and refuse to follow the suggestions of the devil. Faith in the angels, therefore, only means that every good suggestion-and such in the suggestion of the angel must be accepted, because it leads to the spiritual development of man. 4.3

Belief in the Revealed Books

Reveled books are mention in the Qur’an under three names. The first name is kitab (‫ )كتاب‬the plural of which is kutab (‫) ُكتُب‬, meaning a Book. In the Qur’an chapter 2 verses 285 and in other places, the prophet and believers are spoken of as believing in kutubi-hi (‫ ) ُكت ُ ِّبه‬or His book. Allah says: “This messenger of ours believes in that which has been revealed to him from his Lord and so do the believers; all of them believe in Allah, and in His angels, and in His Books.”367 The word ‫كتب‬kutub is plural of ‫كتاب‬kitab, which is derived from the root kataba (‫َب‬ َ ‫) َكت‬, meaning he wrote or he brought together, and kitab (Book) is writing, which is complete in itself. Thus, a letter may be called kitab, in which sense368 the word occurs in the Qur’an regarding Solomon’s letter to the queen of Sheba. “Go thou with this letter of mine, and lay it before them; then withdraw from them and see what answer they return. The Queen said, ye chiefs, there has been delivered to me a noble letter.”369 The word kitab has, however, been used to speak of the revelation of God to prophets whether written or not, while it is also freely used regarding the Divine decrease or ordinance.370. The word al-kitab has been used for the Qur’an itself, for its chapters we read: “therein are lasting commandments.”371 For any previous revelation, for all previous revelation taken together Allah says: “... and so is he who possesses knowledge of the Book.”372 In addition, for all revealed books including the Qur’an, Allah says: “And you believe in all the Books.”373 Qur’an, 2:286. Ali, (1973), 156. 365 Qur’an, 2:257. 366 Ali, (1973), 157. 367 Qur’an, 2:286. 368 Cowan, (1960), p. 812 369 Qur’an, 27: 29-30. 370 Ali, (1973), 168. 371 Qur’an, 98:4. 372 Qur’an, 13:44. 373 Qur’an, 3:120. 363 364

Revealed books are also spoken of as suhuf (‫ص ُحف‬ ُ ) plural of sahifa (‫ص ِّحيفَة‬ َ ) Allah says:” This is indeed is what is taught in the former Scripture, the Scripture of Abraham and Moses.”374 Also the Qur’an itself is spoken of as suhuf: “On honoured sheets;”375 “A messenger from Allah, reciting unto them pure scriptures.”376 The third name under which revealed books are mentioned is Zubur plural of Zabur, “And it is surely mentioned in the scriptures of the former peoples.”377 The singular form, Zabar, occurs only three times in the Qur’an, twice in connection with the book of David: ‘’and we gave David a Book (Zabur)378; and on one occasion a quotation is given from al-zabur:’’ and already have we written in the Book of David, (al-Zabur).379 Belief in all sacred scriptures is an article of faith in Islam, the religion of Islam, therefore, requires a belief, not in the Qur’an alone but in all the books of God, granted to all the nations of the world.380 At its very commencement it lays down in clear words: “And who believe in that which has been revealed to thee;”381 ‘’the messenger believes in what has been revealed to him from his Lord and so do the believers; they all believe in Allah and His angels and His Books and His messengers.’’382 A Book was granted to every prophet of God:’’ Mankind were one community, then they differed among themselves, so Allah raised prophets as bearers of good tidings and as warners and sent down with them the book containing the truth.’’383 Only two Books are mentioned by their special names, the Taurat (Torah, or Book of Moses) and the injil (Gospel or book of Jesus). The giving of a scripture (Zabur) to David is also mentioned384 and the scriptures (suhuf) of Abraham and Moses are mentioned together in the Qur’an. Allah says: “Has he not been informed of what is in the scriptures of Moses and of Abraham who fulfilled the divine commandments?385 However, as stated above, a Muslim is required to believe not only in the particular books names but also in all the books of all the prophets of God, in other words, in the sacred scriptures of every nation, because every nation had a prophet and every prophet had a book.386 4.4

Belief in the Prophets

A glance at the history of world religions conclusively proves that whenever irreligious and agnosticism prevailed in a particular region of the word, God raised prophets for the guidance of human beings. The work of redemption and reformation has invariably been executed through the agency of these good people of God in the beginning when the means of communications and mutual intercourse were rare and international intercourse was almost Qur’an, 87:19, 20. Qur’an, 80:14. 376 Qur’an, 98: 3. 377 Qur’an, 26:197 378 Qur’an, 4:164; 17:56) 379 Qur’an, 21:106. 380 Ali, (1973), 174. 381 Qur’an, 2:5. 382 Qur’an, 2:286. 383 Qur’an, 2:214. 384 Doi, (1992), 43. 385 Qur’an, 53:37-38. 386 Ali, (1973), 175. 374 375

non-existent and every tribe or every nation formed a unit in itself, prophets appeared among every tribe and every nation. The Holy Qur’an says: “And there is no people to whom a Warner has not been sent.”387 Just as Prophets appeared in Syria, Egypt and Iraq similarly Prophets appeared in Persia, Indian, China and other parts of the World. However, when tribalism gave rise to nationalism and nationalism developed in to internationalism, God out of His mercy raised a universal Prophets for the guidance of whole humanity and sent down a comprehensive and complete book of guidance for all ages to come. This universal Prophets was Muhammad (peace and blessings of God be on him) who appeared in Mecca, Arabia, and the Book he brought down, was the Holy Qur’an revealed to him during the course of 23 years of his Prophets career. The Arabic word for prophet is nabi, ‫نبي‬that is derived from naba, ‫ نبأ‬meaning an announcement of great utility; imparting knowledge of a thing. 388 Thus, the word nabi, ‫نبي‬a Prophets literally means one who foretells future events. Technically a Prophets is a person who foretells future events or disclose hidden secret as revealed to him by God.389 A nabi ‫نبي‬ is also called a rasul, ‫ رسول‬that means an apostle or messenger.390 The two words nabi ‫نبي‬ and rasul ‫ رسول‬are used interchangeable in the Qur’an, the same person being sometimes called nabi ‫نبي‬and sometimes rasul; ‫ رسول‬while occasionally both names are combined. The reason seems to be that the prophet has two capacities, viz., he receives information from God, and he imparts the message to mankind.391 He is called a nabi ‫نبي‬in his first and a rasul ‫رسول‬ in his second capacity, but there is one difference. The word rasul ‫ رسول‬has a wider significance, being applicable to every messenger in literal sense; and the angels are called divine messengers, because they are also bearers of divine messages when complying with His will.392 Concerning the choice of a Prophets God says in the Holy Qur’an, “Allah knows best where to place his message.”393 Every human being is created in the best make but those who have a natural aptitude for goodness and piety and always feel inclined towards God, their Creator, are a suitable choice for Prophet Ship. Personal nobility and strength of character count to a great extent but social status and dynastic lineage are equally essential in view of the fact, that the Prophets is destined to become the leader of all men, high and low. In case, a Prophets belongs to a low class of men, then those who belong to a higher status of society will hesitate to render him willing obedience and allegiance.394 God, therefore, chooses His Prophets from noble families who are possessors of the best traits of character. One may ask when and why Prophets are raised. God created man upon earth so that he may lead a godly life on this planet but, on the contrary, when people forget and forsake their creator and fall into evil habits, God sends Prophets who try their best to reclaim their fellow men and bring them back to the right path. The work of redemption is a difficult task. It cannot

Qur’an, 35:25. Cowan, (1960), 937. 389 Al-Bustani, (1975), 784. 390 Cowan, (1960), 338. 391 Ali, (1973), 183. 392 Ali, (1973), 183. 393 Qur’an, 6:125. 394 Muhammad, (1971), 128. 387 388

be accomplished by ordinary social workers or by the ‘laws of parliament’.395 When evil prevails on a gigantic scale, then only a Prophets is requires bringing about genuine reform. The kind of reformation God requires to be brought about on the earth is not only of the physical aspects of life but concerns the soul as well. Worldly reformers are least fitted to deal with spiritual matters. God invariably brings about true development of body and soul through the agency of His Prophets who directly receives guidance from Him and, by their example and precept, creates communities of people who mould their lives after the model of their Prophets and serve as model of guidance for the following generations. Prophets are raised to bring about a revolution in the world, a change in the existing system, an ushering in of a new era. This process naturally entails the destruction of the old order and the construction of a new one. Prophets are trumpets through which God’s clarion call is sounded to the people. God’s intention to establish faith on the earth and bring about an era of peace and progress finds fulfillment through His Messengers. After the advent of a Prophet, a new earth and a new heaven come into being and a new model of society sees the light of day.396 This has happen every now and then. Adam, the vicegerent of God upon earth, was the first harbinger of peace who proclaimed the message of God to his people. Before him, there was no Law for the people who led individual lives in the caves of mountains or the recesses of forests.397 Adam gave them a simple Law based on a set of social rules. After Noah, Abraham is the next Prophets who commands our attention. He is rightfully called the father of Prophets because God placed the gift of Prophet Hood and the Book in the line of his descendants. Abraham’s younger son Isaac became the head of a long line of Prophets among the Israelites, and Ishmael, the elder son was himself a Prophets among his descendants was raised Muhammad, the World- Prophet for all generations of men. Since Abraham was most submissive to God, had to face extraordinary hardships, and called upon to make immense sacrifices he was appointed the Leader of men. God says in the Holy Qur’an: “And remember when his Lord tries Abraham with certain commands which he fulfilled. He, said, ‘I make thee a Leader of men.” 398 Abraham settled his wife Hagar and her son Ishmael in the arid and unproductive valley of Mecca. Both father and son raised the foundation of the House for the worship of God praying: Our Lord, accept this from us, for Thou art All Hearing and All-knowing. Our Lord, make us submissive to Thee and make of our children a people submissive to Thee. And show us our ways of worship and turn to us with mercy; for Thou art of-returning with compassion and Merciful. And our Lord, raise up among them a Messenger from among themselves who may recite to thy sings and Wisdom and may purify them; surely Thou art the Mighty, the wise!399 Because of this prayer of Abraham, the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessing of God be on him) was raised among the Mecca’s, the descendants of Ishmael. Before the advent of the Holy Prophet Muhammad, the Greatest of Prophets, Moses was raised as the Prophet of God who brought a code of Laws for the Israelites. He was the greatest of Israelite 395

Muhammad, (1971), 128. Muhammad, (1971), 129. 397 Muhammad, (1971), 129. 398 Qur’an, 2:125. 399 Qur’an, 2:128-130. 396

Prophets and his book, the Torah, was a source of light and guidance for them for some 1300 years. Jesus, a son of Mary, was the last of the Prophets who came to redeem the Israelites.400 Prophets, as raised by God for human guidance, fall under two categories, (1) the Lawbearing Prophets and the non-Law bearing Prophets. Moses and Muhammad (peace is on both) were law bearing Prophets but Jesus Christ who did not bring any law was a non-Lawbearing Prophets. He acted upon the Torah, which was revealed to Moses. But the most perfect and of dazzling light was the Law brought by Master- Prophets Muhammad, the Holy Prophets of Arabia (Peace and blessing be on him) the Law which is meant to stay till the Doomsday for all generations of men and for all times to come. 401 With the perfection of human faculties both spiritual as well as meal, the Law or the Word of God as revealed to the Holy Prophets (peace and blessings of God be on him), was complete and perfect in all respects. No new Law will now come for the guidance of humanity because the Holy Qur’an is the last perfect Book of God revealed for the guidance of men. On a moral plane, there was no respect for human life. Feuds and murders were common; slavery was the order of the day. The “haves” had full control over the “have-nots”. Women were no better than chattels. Infanticide was practiced in Arabia as well as Indian. Education was the privilege of only a few. Human soul yearned for a change-a change for the better. The God of mercy look with compassion upon his creatures and He sent His servant as a mercy for all His Prophets. The sun of spiritually rose high and illumined the whole world. The mercy for the Nations made his appearance in due time and emancipated humanity from the shackles of ignorance, superstitions and corruption. Former Prophets strove to unite individuals in to communities but Islam, the Religion of peace and order, came to amalgamate nationalities into one vast unity and cemented heterogeneous human society into one universal Fraternity. While other Prophets came to teach the secret of national unity and progress, the great Prophets of Arabia expounded the grand truth of the fundamental oneness of the whole of the human race and chalked out all the higher ways along which lies the secret of prosperity of the entire race of men. A belief in all the prophets of the world is thus an essential principle of the religion of Islam. And though the faith of Islam is summed up in two brief sentences: “there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is His apostle, yet the man who confesses belief in Muhammad, is so doing, accepts all the prophets of the world, whether their names are mentioned in the Qur’an or not. Islam claims a universality to which no other religion can aspire, and lays the foundation of a brotherhood as vast as humanity itself.402 4.5 Belief in the Life after Death A faith in a life after death is the last of the basic principles of Islam. The word generally used in the Qur’an to indicate this life is al-akhirah (‫)اآلخرة‬. Akhi’r (‫ )آخر‬is the opposite of awwal (‫ )أول‬which means the first, and thus signifies that which comes after or the future, or the last. Al-yaum al-akhir or the last day is used instead of al-akhirah; sometimes al-dar al-akhirah (‫)الداراآلخرة‬, the next or the future or the last abode is used.403 This is to say that death,

400

Muhammad, (1971), 130. Muhammad, (1971), 131. 402 Ali, (1973), 187. 403 Ali, (1973), 241. 401

according to the Qur’an, is not the end of man’s life; it only opens the door to another, a higher, form of life. The Qur’an accords to the faith in the future life an importance, which is next to faith in the existence of God and His unity. Very often all the doctrines of faith are summed up as amounting to belief in God and the future life.404 Thus, the Qur’an lays the greatest emphasis on belief in life after death. Although belief in God alone covers every aspect of faith, yet the Qur’an invariably links it with belief in the day of Judgement. It is clear therefore that one cannot have belief in God unless he has faith in the life after death. Man cannot comprehend, still less achieves, the object of his life on earth, unless he has faith in life after death.405 Life after death is a subject on which sure knowledge can be gained only through revelation. The Prophet has said: "The conditions of the life after death are such that the eye has not seen them, nor has the ear heard of them, nor can the mind of man conceive of their true reality." Even through revelation, man can acquire knowledge of the life after death only in the language of symbol and metaphor. All illustration of the conditions of that life can be by way of similitude only.406 Man's life on earth is not in itself a perfect whole: it is incomplete: it lacks fulfillment. Too often, it seems to end like a snapped ribbon, leaving loose ends flapping idly. If there were nothing to follow, the coordination of values in this life would have little meaning and, indeed, would become almost impossible. There would be no accountability and consequently no responsibility. More than that, there would be no consummation of the deepest yearnings of the human soul. Such realisation as is possible is this life is only a twilight experience.407 Islam insists on belief in the life after death. There are several matters of belief, which Islam regards as essential, but belief in the life after death is concomitant with belief in the existence of God. Allah says: “Surely, those who have believed, and the Jews, and the Christians whoso believes in Allah and the last day and does good deeds, on them shall come no fear, nor shall they grieve.”408 Failing belief in the life after death there is no faith at all. The absence of such behalf is almost a negotiation of, and inconsistence with belief in a Wise Creator. Too often has man been apt to say: "There is no life other than our present life. We were without life and now we live; but we shall not be raised up again;"409 "And says Man 'What! When I am dead shall I be brought forth alive? Does not man remember that we created him before, when he was naught?" 410 Man, and indeed the whole universe, has been brought into being from a state of nothingness. It is idle to contend that inasmuch as our observation merely confirms that man dies and his body disintegrates, therefore his personality and his existence come to a final end with death. Man's very coming into existence is proof that there is the possibility of continuation. When the fact of man's having been brought into existence through a long process is viewed against the existence of a Wise and All-Powerful Creator,

404

Ali, (1973), 241. Muhammad Zafrullah Khan,” Life after Death”, the Review of Religions, 90, no. 9, (1995): .5. 406 Khan, (1995), 5. 407 Khan, (1995), 5. 408 Qur’an, 5:70. 409 Qur’an, 23:38. 410 Qur’an 19:67-68. 405

the conclusion is inevitable that man was created for a purpose, and the fulfillment of that purpose demands a continuation of life.411 And they say, when we shall have become bones and broken particles shall we be really raised up as a new creation?’ say: Be ye stone or iron or some created thing which appears hardest in your minds, even then shall you be raised up.’ Then will they ask: who shall restore us to life?’ Say: ‘He who created you the first time. They will then shake their heads at thee and say: ‘When will it be?’ Say: ‘May be it is night. It will be at the time when He will call you.’ And then you will respond praising Him, and you will think that you have tarried but a little while.412 It is a misconception that a continuation of life beyond this life must involve the assembly of a dead body's bones and particles after everything has disintegrated and decomposed, so as to reconstitute the body. The body, which is developed for terrestrial existence, is fashioned for the conditions of this life. Life after death cannot and does not mean that the dead will be reassembled and reconstituted upon the earth.413 Even if that were possible, the earth could not hold a billionth fraction of them. Consequently, the decomposition and disintegration of the human body is completely irrelevant to the possibility of life after death. 4.6 Doctrine of Predestination ‫قدر و تفدير‬ A great deal of misunderstanding prevails about the doctrine of predestination or predetermination and the absolute decree of good and evil by God. It is necessary first to understand the correct meaning of the Arabic words qadar or taqdir. Because the ideas commonly associated with their meaning were unknown both to the Qur’an and to Arabic language. According to Arabic language, qadar and taqdir mean the making manifest of the measure of a thing, or simply measure.414 Thus, God’s taqdir of things is in two ways, by granting qudra, i.e., power, or by making them in a particular measure and in a particular manner, as wisdom require. God’s Taqdeer has been the subject of discussion among all the faiths and has given rise to varying opinions, philosophies and schools of thought.415 The word Taqdeer appears in the Holy Qur’an where God says: “He to whom belongs the Kingdom of the heaven and the earth. And He has taken unto Himself no son, and has no partner in the kingdom, and has created everything, and has ordained its proper measure”.416 According to this verse God is the creator of the heavens and the heart and the undisputed master of everything that is in between them. His word must be, and in fact is, in perfect harmony with the laws of nature and therefore its rejection or acceptance constitutes not only denial or acceptance of a revealed Law, but amounts also to flouting or submitting to the laws of nature.417 411

Khan, (1995), 6. Qur’an, 17:50-53. 413 Khan, (1995), 6. 414 Al-Bustani, (1975), 612. 415 Safiullah, Khalid, “predetermination”, the Review of Religions, 90,no,9, (1995):37 416 Qur’an, 25:3. 417 Ahmad, (1988), 4/1880 412

Therefore, there can be no conflict between religion and science or between the operation of spiritual laws and the physical laws. Man comprises o body and soul and is subject to both the physical and spiritual laws. Both the laws operate in their respective spheres, but also influence each other, as body and soul also affect each other. Human effort falls in the sphere of physical laws (or the laws of nature), while prayers, alms giving and every action that is done purely to earn the pleasure of God fall in the purview of spiritual laws. Since both of them freely interact, virtuous acts and prayer attract God’s mercy to bring into play the ways and means necessary to accomplish a task.418 Likewise, human efforts also attract the mercy of God because of complying with the physical laws, which are also set in place by God, and therefore act as prayer. Thus, Taqdeer (setting of measure) signifies the net result of a complex action and interaction of these laws, and the interchange of effort and prayer to each other (conversation of matter to energy and vice versa may be found analogous to this process).419 However, it may be noted that the operation of these laws is only possible if God is believed to be the sole creator and master of matter and soul. In fact the word appearing in this verse ‘who has created everything’ signify that God is the creator of both the matter and the soul. Matter and soul are not uncreated or co-existent with God, as is mistakenly held by those who believe in theory of transmigration of souls. The clause, ’and has given it its proper proportion’ means that everything does its allotted task regularly, punctually and without fail and that there is a limit to the powers and functions or development of everything which it cannot defy or go beyond. These limitations point to one law that operates in the whole universe, hence to one Designer and creator whose power is limitless, and who has imposed these limits on all other things.420 Under these laws, God has set innumerable chains of clause and effect. Everything that happens has a cause that cause was the effect of a previous cause. The causation law is, therefore a manifestation of the above-mentioned physical and spiritual laws. However, the ultimate cause the first and the last one in any chain of cause and effects is God Himself. God Almighty is, therefore, the causa causens and ascribes all consequences to Himself, which is the true sense of Taqdeer (predetermination).421 Every human action, however small it may be, produces a result whether manifest or hidden, and since it happens under the law of God, it is ascribed to God. We find its example in temporal matters also when an executive action taken under the law of a country is ascribed to the head of the government.422 Thus, it is the way of Allah that when an action proceeds from man, God Almighty duly manifests its effect. For instance, when we close all the doors of a room, this is our action and the result it entails, namely that our room becomes dark is the effect of our action manifested by God Almighty. This is God’s eternal law.423 In the same way, if we were to swallow poison in a fatal dose, this would doubtless be our action; our death following this action would be God’s action in accord with His eternal law. Thus, every action of ours is followed by a divine action that is manifested and in that which is hidden.

418

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad: the Essence of Islam, (Tilford: Islam International Publications Ltd, 2004), 2, 336. Safiullah, (1995), 39. 420 Ahmad, (1988), 4/1881 421 Safiullah, (1995), 39. 422 Safiullah, (1995), 39. 423 Safiullah, (1995), 39. 419

Every good or bad action of ours creates an effect, which is manifested after our action. 424 The meaning of the verse of the Holy Qur’an, “Allah has set a seal on their hearts.”425 Is that when a person does evil, its effect is manifested by God Almighty on his heart and his countenance.426 However, it should be remembered that though everything has been determined by Divine decree, yet this does not exclude science and knowledge, as everyone has to acknowledge, that the use of appropriate medicines, through the Grace and Mercy of God almighty, benefits a patient. In the same way, everyone who is bestowed comprehension of the Divine has to acknowledge as the result of experience, that prayer has a relationship with acceptance. This is a mystery which has been demonstrated through the experience of millions of righteous and their experiences demonstrated the hidden reality that the prayers have a magnetic quality which attracts the Grace and Mercy of God, though they may not be able to convince others of this verity through logical reasoning. Prayer and Divine determination are juxtaposed to each other and God has appointed time for both. His providence has directed427: “pray unto me; I will answer your prayer.”428 Those who believe in the doctrine of compulsion (i.e. man is compelled to work according to his fate or predetermination) have deviated from the right path due to confusing the eternal knowledge of God and Predetermination. There are two distinct matters. One of God’s attribute is Aleem ‫العليم‬i.e. He possesses absolute and eternal knowledge encompassing all the worlds and all the times (past, present and future). Therefore, He knows what would eventually happen as a calculated result of the operation and interaction of the complex laws of nature and spiritual laws.429 Another attribute is Qadeer ‫القدير‬i.e. He that has set these laws in operation, adjudges the human actions and produces their results. Both these attributes operate in separate spheres and the eternal and absolute knowledge of God does not force one in any way to act according to His knowledge. If he does so, no one can hold responsible for his actions. A thief does not commit theft because God new that he would commit theft, because the thief has to do it. Let us take an analogy. Some students are taking an examination in a hall and an invigilator is watching them. He observes that one student is attempting a question wrongly and he would fail. In this case, would the student fail because of the knowledge of the invigilator? Alternatively, should the invigilator point out the mistake to the student? If he does, would the student deserve to be rewarded?430 Taqdeer or Predestination is the final calculated result of innumerable factors and operators that are both manifest and hidden, physical and spiritual. It is a complex process mostly beyond human comprehension and as the operating factors change, the results will be different. This is called the suspended Taqdeer and it is up to man himself that type of Taqdeer he would strive for.431 It is therefore incumbent on us to employ all the means at our disposal to achieve the physical and spiritual aims and objectives. Then our efforts should be supported by prayers and by placing full trust in God with a firm belief that He will create the results that are most 424

Ahmad, (2004), 2/335. Qur’an, 2:8 426 Ahmad, (2004), 2/335. 427 Ahmad, (2004), 2/337. 428 Qur’an, 40: 61. 429 Safiullah, (1995), 44. 430 Safiullah, (1995), 44. 431 Safiullah, (1995), 45 425

appropriate and favorable to us. One should also believe that the Grace, Mercy, and mercy of God would cover our weakness. ‘It should always be remembered in connection with prayer that sometimes God Almighty requires obedience to His own will, and at other times He grants the supplication of servant of His. In other words, He deals with His servants like a friend’. Man should therefore do his best, trust in God, then keep bowing to the will of God, and accept it cheerfully in whatever form it appears before him.432 According to a tradition of Holy prophet Muhammad (peace and blessing be on him), even the fever which sometimes a believer gets is a share of his other world’s hell. This principle can be applied to all the human sufferings and afflictions, which befall one either because of his own actions or because of sins, or come to cleanse him and raise his spiritual station by bringing hen near to his loving creator. There is a great system of debits and credits working between this life and that of the hereafter. As compared to the other world, the present one is too naïve to withstand the worst of full justice. The life after death is a far more advanced from of life just as the present one is more advanced as compare to our pre-birth life in different phases. Each successive form or phase was more advanced than the previous one. The present world lacks the dimensions necessary to manifest full justice.433 According to the Holy Qur’an, even the shade of the next world will be three dimensioned which we cannot imagine in this world. God in his infinite wisdom, therefore, ordained for full justice to be administered on the Day of Judgment alone. It will be on that day that our true intentions and actions, virtues and vices, discharged of obligation towards the creator and creation and our interrelationship and conduct will be judge and fully recompensed. The best thing for us would therefore, be to keep treading on the straight path and leave the matter of Taqdir, predestination, fate or destiny too Divine decree-whatever we might call it-to The creator Himself whose prerogative it indeed is.434 However, faith in qadar or Predestination as an article of faith finds no place in the Qur’an and Bukhari. If this is cleared, the issue may be deal with in this way, firstly, that though the Qur’an speaks of qadar or taqdeer , these words by no means carry the significance of predestination or of a decree of good and evil for man; secondly, that the qadar or taqdeer of which the Qur’an speaks is of a general nature, a law of prevailing in the whole of the universe, a limitation under which the whole of creation is moving onward, and that therefore qadar or taqdeer has nothing to do with the good and evil deeds which are special to man; thirdly, that there is in the Qur’an or in the most reliable traditions, no mention at all of the necessity of faith in qadar or taqdeer; and fourthly, that it is never mentioned as one of the fundamentals of religion like faith in God, His angels, His books, His apostle and a life after death.435 Qadar or taqdeer is spoken of simply as a Divine law prevailing in the universe, like many other laws, and no question concerning faith in them arise. There is indeed one tradition that shows that faith in qadar is of later growth. In his second book, the book of faith, Bukhari relates: The prophet was one day sitting outside a number of people when there came to him a man and said, what is faith? The prophet replied, faith is

432

Safiullah, (1995), 45 Safiullah, (1995), 45-46. 434 Safiullah, (1995), 46. 435 Ali, (1973), 284-285. 433

this that thou believe in Allah and His angels and the meeting with Him, and His messengers, and that thou believe in life after death.436 The report is a lengthy one and only the first portion relating to the subject of discussion has been quoted. This same report is also related to Muslim though three different channels. In the first channel, the four narrators are the same as in Bukhai, and the words are almost the same. Muslim reported: The prophet was one day sitting outside a number of people when there came to him a man and said, what is faith? The prophet replied, faith is this that thou believe in Allah and His angels and the meeting with Him, and His messengers, and that thou believe in life after death.437 In the second channel, the first three narrators are again the same as in Bukhari and the report is narrated in the words quoted above. In the third channel, only the first two narrators are the same, the rest being different, and a change is introduced into the words, the portion relating to the prophet’s reply now assuming the following form: That thou believe in Allah and His angels and His Books and the meeting with Him, and His Messengers, and that thou believe in the life after death and that thou believe in qadar, in the whole of it.438 It will be noticed that when the narrators are the same as in Bukhari (with the exception of the last narrator from whom Muslim took his words), the words of the tradition are almost the same, there being only an addition of the words “and His Book”. Either one of Muslim’s narrators has added these words as the natural result of faith in messengers of God, or they have been left out by one of Bukhari’s narrators as being included in faith in the Divine messengers.439 Otherwise, the fundamentals of faith are the same and so even the words in both narrations. Even when Muslim has only Bukhari’s three top narrators, the words of the report are still the same. Nevertheless, in the third channel, when only two top narrators of Bukhari, Abu Hurairah and Abu Zar’a are retained, the words are changed, and quite a new element is introduced into it by the addition of faith in qadar,440 which the original does not contain. This shows beyond the shadow of a doubt that, the words “faith in qadar” were added by the third narrator. In addition to that, these words were not spoken either by Abu Huraira or even by the next narrator, Abu Zar’a, and thus there remains not the least doubt that the inclusion of faith in qadar among the fundamentals of faith is an addition of about the end of the first century of Hijrah. Thus, the belief in qadr is evidently a doctrine of later growth and it is perhaps on account of this flaw that Bukhari does not accept the version attributed to Umar.441This conclusion is not an innovation it is the same stand of many scholars.442

436

Ali, (1975), 22 Ali, (1975), 22. 438 Ali, (1975), 22. 439 Ali, (1975), 286 440 Ali, (1975), 286 441 Ali, (1975), 22. 442 Maududi, Sheykh Abu A’la: Towards understanding Islam, (Salamiah: international Islamic Federation of Student organization, 1982), 119. 437

It must be clearly understood that the fundamentals of religion are all fully explained in the Qur’an itself; and a thing cannot be accepted as fundamental of Islam of which there is no mention in the Qur’an. Tradition is only a secondary source of the religion of Islam and, actually, it deals only with secondary matters of religion or its details.443 The great principles, the basic doctrines, must be sought from the Qur’an, which neither mentions qadar among the fundamental of Islam, nor even speaks of a faith in it. It is only in one of the traditions that we find mention of qadar, and even here the most reliable of all collections, the Bukhari, did not contain, any report mentioning faith in qadar as an article of faith in Islam.444 Thus to both the Qur’an and the Bukhari, faith in qadar is unknown, and therefore to speak of it as a fundamental of faith in Islam is a mistake.445

443

Ali, (1973), 285. Ali, (1973), 285. 445 Ali, (1973), 285. 444

Chapter 5 The Islamic Practices 5.1 Shahada‫شهادة‬ The Shahada is the Muslim profession of faith and the first of the ‘Five Pillars’ of Islam. The word Shahada in Arabic means ‘testimony.’ The First Pillar of Muslim Profession of Faith is shahada (‫)شهادة‬. No buildings have ever stood high and straight unless; it is based on a concrete foundation and supported by strong pillars, which protect it from falling apart. Islam is that strongly based edifice and true faith which God has prescribed and chosen as a religion His worshippers, and perfected for humanity at large. This is clearly indicated in this verse: (‫ضيتُ لَ ُك ْم اإل ْسالَ َم دِّينًا‬ ِّ ‫“ )ا َ ْليَ ْو َم أ َ ْك َم ْلتُ لَ ُك ْم دِّينَ ُك ْم َوأَتْ َم ْمتُ َعلَ ْي ُك ْم ِّن ْع َمتِّي َو َر‬This day I perfected your religion for you and completed my favour upon you and have chosen for you Islam as religion.”446 The Shahada is the Muslim profession of faith and the first of the ‘Five Pillars’ of Islam. The word shahada in Arabic means ‘testimony.’447 The shahada is to testify to two things: (a) Nothing deserves worship except God (Allah).448 (b) Muhammad is the Messenger of God (Allah).449 A Muslim is simply one who bears witness and testifies, “Nothing deserves worship except God and Muhammad is the messenger of God.” One becomes a Muslim by making this simple declaration. Every Muslim must recite it at least once in a lifetime with a full understanding of its meaning and with an ascent of the heart. Muslims say this when they wake up in the morning, and before they go to sleep at night. It is repeated five times in the call to prayer in every mosque. A person who utters the shahada as their last words in this life has been promised Paradise. This means that all kinds of worship should be devoted entirely to Allah alone with utmost sincerity.450 It is also an earnest confirmation of the message by solemn belief that Muhammad is His Messenger for humanity at large as َّ ‫سو ُل‬ prescribed in the Qur’an: (‫اّلل إلي ُك ْم َجميعًا‬ ُ ‫)قُ ْل ياأي َها النَّاس إنِّي َر‬: “say, O mankind! Truly I am a 451 messenger to you all.” Many people ignorant of Islam have misconceived notions about the Allah, used by Muslims to denote God. Allah ‫ هللا‬is the name of the Supreme Being Who is the sole possessor of all perfect attribute and is free from all defects. In the Arabic language, this word is never used for any other thing. No other language has distinctive name for the Supreme Being. The names found in other languages are attributive or descriptive. ‫ هللا‬is always used in the

Qur’an, 5:3. Cowan, (1960), 489. 448 Qur’an, 47: 19. 449 Qur’an, 48: 29. 450 At-Taya’ar, Abdullah bin Muhammad Ahmad: Khulasatul kala’am fi arkanil Islam‫خالصة الكالم في أركان اإلسالم‬. (Riyadh: Ministry of Islamic Affairs, 2007), 52. 451 Qur’an, 7: 159. 446 447

singular. It is a simple substantive, not derived.452 Some say it is from َ‫ا َ ِّله‬, either because minds are confounded or perplexed by the greatness or majesty of God or because He is the object ُ‫الَهَ يَ ِّله‬that signifies of recourse for protection or aid. Some are of the opinion that it is from ُ َ height, others think that it is from ُ‫الهَ يَلوه‬which signifies brightness, yet others are of the view that it is from the Syriac ‫الَهَا‬. but all these are mere speculations in fact. The word ‫ هللا‬is derived from no other word nor is any other word derived from it.453 In Arabic Allah denotes the aspect of being “The One True Deity worthy of all worship”.454 Arabic speaking Jews and Christians also refer to the Supreme Being as Allah. The first part of this testimony states that God has the exclusive right to be worshipped inwardly and outwardly, by one’s heart and limbs. In Islamic doctrine, not only can no one be worshipped apart from Him, absolutely no one else can be worshipped along with Him. He has no partners or associates in worship. Worship, in its comprehensive sense and all its aspects, is for Him alone. God’s right to be worshipped is the essential meaning of Islam’s testimony of faith: Lā ‘ilāha ‘illā llāh. A person becomes Muslim by testifying to the divine right to worship. It is the crux of Islamic belief in God, even all of Islam. It is considered the central message of all prophets and messengers sent by God - the message of Abraham, Isaac, Ishmael, Moses, the Hebrew prophets, Jesus, and Muhammad, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon them. For instance, Moses declared, “Hear, O Israel the Lord our God is one Lord.”455 Jesus repeated the same message 1500 years later when he said: “The first of all the commandments is, “Hear, O Israel; the Lord our God is one Lord”456, and reminded Satan: “Away from me, Satan! For it is written: Worship the Lord your God, and serve Him only.457” The call of Muhammad, some 600 years after Jesus, reverberated across the hills of Mecca, ‘and your God is One God: there is no god but Him.’458 They all declared clearly: We sent Nohah to his people and he said, O my people, Worship Allah, You have no other god but Him;” 459 and to Thmud we sent their brother Salihi. He said, O my people, worship Allah; you have no other deity but Him;460 and to A’d we sent their brother Hud. He said, O my people, worship Allah alone you have no God beside Him;461 and to midian we sent their brother Shu’aib. He said, O my people, worship Allah; you have no God other than Him;462 and we sent among them a messenger from among themselves who said, serve Allah you have no God other than Him.463 However, by a mere verbal profession alone, one does not become a complete Muslim. To become a complete Muslim one has to fully carry out in practice the Malik Ghulam Farid: Dictionary of the Holy Qur’an, (Amritsar: Print well, 2009), 28. Farid, (2009), 28. 454 Cowan, (1960), 24. 455 Deuteronomy 6:4. 456 Mark 12:29. 457 Matthew 4:10. 458 Quran, 2:164. 459 Quran, 7:60. 460 Qur’an, 7:74. 461 Qur’an, 11:51 462 Qur’an, 11:85. 463 Qur’an, 23:3. 452 453

instruction given by Prophet Muhammad as ordained by God. This brings us to the second part of the testimony. The second part of the confession of faith asserts that Muhammad is not only a prophet but also a messenger of God, a higher role also played by Moses and Jesus before him. Like all prophets before him, he was a human being, but chosen by God to convey His message to all humanity rather than one tribe or nation from among the many that exist. For Muslims, Muhammad brought the last and final revelation. In accepting Muhammad as the “last of the prophets,” they believe that his prophecy confirms and completes all of the revealed messages, beginning with that of Adam. In addition, Muhammad serves as the preeminent role model through his life example. The believer’s effort to follow Muhammad’s example reflects the emphasis of Islam on practice and action. 5.2 Ritual prayers in Islam 5.2.1 Significance of Physical Postures in Prayer As far as worship is concerned, it is nothing new to Islam. After all, every Prophet who had ever appeared in any part of the world, before the prophet Muhammad, had been urging his addressees to worship God. Nevertheless, we do not find in any religious scripture, other than the Qur’an, worship being described as the object of creation of man. Perhaps that is why that despite the fact that the followers of other religions were also told to worship God, their form of worship was not fixed, whereas, in Islam not only the form is fixed, even the wording has not been left to the fancy of the worshippers. The form of worship that Islam has prescribed for its followers is called Salat or Salah. Like every commandment of God contained in the Qur’an, the advantages of the prayer are also clearly and understandably mentioned at various places. The very fact that prayer is worship and worship is the object of man’s life on this earth, should have been quite enough to convince us that worshipping God is a useful duty that must be performed in all the circumstances of human life. But God has enumerated some other advantages also which are very helpful to the betterment of human life here and hereafter. It seems very likely that there exists a very intimate relationship between the performance of prayer and Divine favours. Presumably, the physical postures and movements of prayer have a deep significance and important function in revitalizing and reigniting the potential of enlightenment and energy inherent in every man. Prayer is composed of four main postures or movements of the body, i.e., qiy'am ‫قيام‬, ruku ‫ركوع‬, sajdah ‫سجدة‬and qaadah ‫قعدة‬. It is very important that these four movements in the prayer are performed exactly in the same manner as taught by the Messenger of God. We offer our prayer to God because the Holy Prophet told us to do so. It is, therefore, essential that it must be performed in its every detail in the way it was performed by the Messenger of God himself.464

Afzalur Rahman, “Significance of Physical Postures in Prayer, the Review of Religions, LXXXI, no. 6, (1986): 25. 464

Prayer is an obligatory duty and mere performance of it will no doubt absolve a believer of his duty to God, but if he wants to nourish and develop his self and soul, he must perform it in the way it was performed by the Messenger of God himself. The Holy Prophet laid great emphasis on the right performance of every act of prayer. Qiy'am must be performed properly; one must not bend forward, backward or lean side wards but stand straight with eyes fixed at the place of sajdah and not looking around. Ruku must be moderate, neither too low nor too high but in line with the body as taught by the Holy Prophet. There must be a reasonable gap between ruku and sajdah and between the two sajdahs, as advised by the Holy Prophet.465 The importance of the proper performance of each part of prayer is emphasised by the Holy Prophet. Anas reported God's Messenger as saying, "Perform the bowing and the prostration properly, for I swear by God that I can see you behind me". According to Abu Masud Al Ansari the Messenger of God said, "A man's prayer does not avail him unless he keeps his back steady when bowing and prostrating himself."466 Abu Qatada reported the Messenger of God as saying, "The one who commits the worst theft is he who steals from his prayer." When asked how one could steal from his prayer, he replied, "By not performing his bowing and prostration perfectly."467 There are details of qiy'am, ruku and sajdah in the hadith to help the believers to offer their prayer perfectly. According to A'isha, "God's Messenger used to begin prayer with takbir ‫تكبير‬and the recitation of Surah Fatiha (‫)سورة الفاتحة‬. When he bowed, he neither kept his head up nor bent it down, but kept it between these extremes; when he raised his head after bowing he did not prostrate himself until he had stood erect; when he raised his head after prostration he did not prostrate himself again until he was in the proper sitting position. If there is any slackness on the part of a believer in performance of any part of prayer, his prayer becomes void and he does not gain anything from it. Abu Hurairah narrated: A man entered the mosque when the messenger of God sitting in it and offered his prayer. He then came and said, “Peace be upon you” and God’s Messenger replied, “peace be upon you. Go back and offer your prayer, for you have not prayed. He returned and prayed, then came and said, “Peace be upon you.” The Messenger of God replied, “And peace be upon you. Go back and pray again, for you have not prayed. “On the third or fourth occasion he said occasion he said, “Teach me, Messenger of God. “So he said, “When you turn to the qibla and say, ‘Allahu Akbar,’ then recite a convenient portion of the Qur’an: then bow and remain quietly in that position; then raise yourself and stand erect; then prostrate yourself and remain quietly in that position; then raise yourself and sit quietly.468 This hadith confirms our assumption that performance of each part of prayer properly and perfectly as taught by the Holy Prophet is essential.

465

Rahman, (1986), 25 Al-Shawkani, Muhammad bin Ali: Nayl al-Awtar, (Cairo: Maktabah Dar Turath, 1965), 2/252. 467 Malik bin Anas: Al-muata, (Cairo: Dar Al-Fikr, 1981), 1/342. 468 Al-Shaowkani, (1965), 2/264. 466

This great emphasis on the proper performance of prayer, even in minute details, is a testimony to the fact that there is a close relationship between the various postures and movements in prayer and the acquisition of Divine favours and enlightenment. The Holy Prophet emphasised repeatedly the deep significance of the actual performance of the different parts of prayer. It must therefore be performed exactly in the way it was taught by the Holy Prophet, otherwise it will not be a prayer but an exercise of the body performed to please yourself or just a habitual act.469 There seems to be an intimate relationship between the movements of prayer and Divine blessings. If it is offered perfectly, then it helps man to benefit from his inner potential energy in the development of his self and his soul. In daily prayer, God has given man the shortest and the quickest method of obtaining His Grace and Blessings. Thus, Prayer is a wonderful gift of God. There is no need in Islam to go to the mountains or jungles to kill your physical self in order to obtain dhyan (unbroken concentration) and through these forms of selfannihilation to reach for salvation. Prayer provides all the essential requisites for preparing the mind and transforming it into an extraordinary state capable of receiving Divine Light. It provides physical as well as mental exercise in such a balanced way that neither is ignored or over-emphasised.470 This harmonious functioning of body and mind at the correct level and in the most balanced way is achieved only through prayer. All the movements of the body from the standing position to the prostrating position are the expression of the extreme humility of the body before the Supreme Being. It is, in fact, total submission of the physical self before the Supreme Authority. Recitation of Divine words and praises of God in prayer have a cumulative effect on the mental powers of man. And in this process of submission of the body and the mind to the Divine Will through the synchronisation of movements and recitation of the Qur'anic verses in prayer, the spiritual power of man becomes stronger and gains full control over the physical self and gradually lifts it up to the Supreme Being.471 This process of the total submission of the body and the mind before the Ultimate Authority is explained in the words of the Holy Qur'an: "and thou threwest not when thou َّ ُ‫سجْ دَة ً ا َِّّال َرفَعَه‬ didst throw, but it was Allah who threw."472 The Prophet said: ُ‫اّلل‬ َ ِّ‫َما ِّم ْن ُم ْس ِّل ٍم يَ ْس ُجد ُ ِّ َّّلل‬ 473.ً‫ط ع ْنهُ بها خَطيئَة‬ َّ ً َ ‫ح‬ ‫و‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ة‬ ‫ج‬ ‫ر‬ ‫د‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ب‬ “There is no Muslim who prostrates himself but he will be ِّ َ َ ِّ َ َ ْ َ َ َ ِّ raised one degree by Allah or one sin is taken from him.” This hadith shows that all the powers of man’s body and mind come under the Guidance of God and man attains very close relationship with his Lord. This harmonious working of the body and the mind helps in concentrating and thereby activating the latent energies of the physical self. This process gradually transforms the centrifugal (out-going) forces operating in mind and body into centripetal (inward-going) and unifying forces which lift man from the world of matter into the world of spirit and show him glimpses of the boundless spiritual world. In the course of the transformation of the concealed energies of the physical self into active unifying forces, the mind is slowly but surely released from the limitations of the

469

Rahman, (1986), 26. Mirza Ghulam, Ahmad, “The Significance of Prayer,”, the Review of Religions, LXXXI, no. 4, (1986), 11 471 Rahman, (1986), 27. 472 Qura’n, 8:18. 473 Al-Shaowkani, (1965), 3/ 76. 470

physical self and is then able to conceive and grasp the meaning of the manifestations of the Supreme Being.474 At this stage, man is fully prepared and ready, provided he maintains the standard of performance of his prayer, to receive the blessings and favours of the Supreme Power. In other words, he has reached the stage where he is in a position to establish close communion with God. After all, man represents the two important aspects of God's Creation, as stated by the Holy Qur'an in these words: “what I had created with my two hands."475 "Both hands" refers to the two aspects of God's Creation. He has a physical body, which makes him one of the animals, and he has a soul, which makes him supreme over all other creation, including angels. When he is at his best in prayer, he leaps towards his spiritual world and establishes close contact with his Lord. And this is confirmed by a hadith, according to which a Muslim achieves audience with God hudhur (‫ ) ُحضُور‬in prayer. The prophet says: 476 َ‫صالَة ُ ِّم ْع َرا ُج اْل ُمؤْ ِّمنِّين‬ َّ ‫ال‬ i.e., “The prayer is ascension of the believers.” Muslim jurists have taken this hudhur to mean the presence of angels in prayer. This may be explained in another way. The harmonious working of body and mind helps to awaken the spiritual or super-sensory powers in man. The greater the harmony between the former two forces of man, the stronger the awakening of the super-sensory power in man. The proper balance between the triangular forces of body, mind and spirit acts like an electrical wire, which transfers the necessary electrical current from the main generating station to the electrical lamp. Just as it is unthinkable to transfer electricity direct from the main powerhouse to a small electric lamp, similarly it is inconceivable to receive Divine light or communion with God without proper harmony between the previously mentioned forces.477 It may, therefore, be said that a harmonious functioning of the triangular forces in man is necessary before any progress can be made in this direction. Unless body, mind and the soul are properly functioning in harmony, it is not possible for man to rekindle his soul from the light of the Power of God or to achieve any sort of close communion with Him. People have in the past adopted various methods to achieve this harmonious functioning of the triangular forces within the self but have often taken years for very little or partial success.478 Islam has given man a very short but effective recipe in the form of prayer to achieve the required harmony between the triangular forces within him. Just study the form and the words of the prayer and how it is performed, and you will notice the wonderful combination it provides for body, mind and soul which no other religion or system has yet suggested. This process of the activation of spiritual or super-sensory powers in man can also be explained in this way. Man is a psychosomatic organism — he has a body, which is the external part of him and a mind, which is the internal part of him. His body is composed of matter, which, in the ultimate physical analysis, consists of atoms. His mind represents the entire world of ideas, beliefs, hopes, fears and aspirations. All these belong to the world of consciousness, i.e., the

474

Rahman, (1986), 28. Qur’an, 38:75. 476 Words ascribed to the prophet by Al-Nisaburi in his commemtary on Sunnan ibn Majah. To us, it is not the saying of the prophet. ‫ في‬- ‫ صلى هللا عليه وسلم‬- ‫الذي يظهر لنا إلى اآلن أن هذا ليس بحديث ؛ فلم نجد أحدا سوى النيسابوري ينسبه للنبي‬ .‫تفسيره شرح سنن ابن ماجة‬ 477 Rahman, (1986), 28. 478 Rahman, (1986), 29. 475

inner side of man. This consciousness mind of a man plays a vital role in relating the soul of man to his environment. In other words, it is a vital factor in relating spirit to matter.479 There are thus two worlds in man: the physical, represented by body and, the spiritual, represented by mind. The latter belongs to the invisible world that exists side by side with the visible world disclosed by perception. The latter is dimensional while the former is extradimensional. Internally man belongs to the invisible world, that is to say, his soul or spirit belongs to that world, externally he belongs to the visible world, that is to say, his body belongs to that world, but through consciousness man is related to both the worlds. If a man looks within his self, he moves towards higher levels of consciousness and a deeper understanding of spiritual values. If, on the other hand, he devotes himself to the external world of matter, he tends to move away from the higher spiritual values to the lower values of the visible world.480 Regular prayer helps to attain the right equilibrium between the spiritual and the material worlds of man. He lives in the world of matter, works in it for his livelihood and satisfies all his material needs, but, at the same time, he keeps his link with the spiritual world and further strengthens it. Prayer enables him to develop and widen his perception of the extradimensional spiritual world to such an extent that he is able to perceive and understand the things of a higher level of consciousness which he could hardly visualize before. Establishment of prayer will strengthen the extra-dimensional powers of man to such a degree that he will be able to establish close relationship with the Ultimate Power.481 It must, however, be emphasised that this link cannot be maintained without the establishment of regular prayer. Prayer is the means as well as the end. It helps man to establish and maintain his link with God. If the institution of prayer or its proper performance is lost, the link with the spiritual world will automatically be cut off. Man has not yet known any other effective means of establishing and then maintaining his relationship with God. It is as if a wire, as explained before, connected with the main generator. As soon as the wire is disconnected from the main source of power, the light goes off, and all is darkness again. This wire is prayer.482 The Divine words spoken in prayer produce a radionic effect on man. They produce imperceptible energy in the human body that assists in activating the consciousness (i.e., the mind) of man to such an extent that he becomes spiritually conscious of God. The human mind is freed from the chains of the physical body and soars high up in the world of spirit. It gradually opens up invisible horizons of the spiritual world to the human mind that were quite unknown to it before. This is the first step to nearness to God. As a believer attains perfection in the performance of prayer, he is able to travel through unknown spiritual worlds, unveil some of the mysteries of this realm, and gradually establish close communion with his Creator. In other words, prayer sharpens the extra-dimensional powers of the mind to such an extent that it becomes capable of receiving information, which was far beyond its comprehension before. Thus prayer, through multifarious ways beyond human comprehension, acts and reacts on the human mind until the latter is enlightened spiritually with the Nur (light) of the Universe. As not all men possess similar or equal power, their personal experiences may vary 479

Ahmad, (1986), 12. Rahman, (1986), 29. 481 Ahmad, (1986), 13. 482 Rahman, (1986), 30 480

considerably. Each man gains this experience according to his own internal as well as external powers. Nevertheless, regular prayer does provide opportunities to every believer to develop his latent energies within his self, according to his potentialities and thereby establish his link with God. The greater the perfection is in the performance of prayer, the closer the relationship with God.483 Communion with the Divine Being is attained when prayer is performed perfectly and properly in body, mind and soul as instructed by the Holy Prophet. This is why the Holy Prophet said that prayer was a mi'raj for believers. It provides an opportunity to believers to have a direct and close relationship with God as did the Holy Prophet during the night of the mi'raj. This is also explained by another hadith when the Holy Prophet said: When you perform prayer, think that you are standing in front of God and seeing Him with your eyes. Moreover, if it is not possible for you to see Him, at least think that He is seeing you.484 When one achieves this mi'raj in prayer, he is bound to rise far above the physical barriers of this corporeal world and enter into the world of the unknown, experiencing new and wonderful things that he could never think of in his ordinary state of mind. The Companions of the Holy Prophet often experienced this in their prayer. 5.2.2

Five obligatory prayers

Islam is bases on five pillars. Among these five, prayer undoubtedly occupies the most impotent position, and is given the greatest prominence in the Qur’an, Zakat coming next to it. The second pillar of Islam Salat (Arabic: ‫صلوة صالة‬salat or salah; pl. ‫صلوات‬Salawat) is the practice of formal worship in Islam. "Salat" is an Arabic word whose basic meaning is "bowing, homage, worship and prayer". In its English usage the reference of the word is usually confined to the Muslim formal, obligatory worship described in this chapter. Translating Salat as "prayer" is not usually considered precise enough, as "prayer" can indicate several different ways of relating to God; personal prayer or supplication is called ‫دعاء‬du’a’ (literally “call”) in Islamic usage. Muslims themselves use several terms to refer to Islam is bases on five pillars. Among these five, prayer undoubtedly occupies the most impotent position, and is given the greatest prominence in the Qur’an, Zakat coming next to it. The second pillar of Islam Salat (Arabic: ‫صلوة صالة‬Salat or Salah; pl. ‫صلوات‬Salawat) is the practice of formal worship in Islam. "Salat" is an Arabic word whose basic meaning is "bowing, homage, worship and prayer". In its English usage the reference of the word is usually confined to the Muslim formal, obligatory worship described in this chapter. Translating Salat as "prayer" is not usually considered precise enough, as "prayer" can indicate several different ways of relating to God; personal prayer or supplication is called du’a’ (literally “call”) in Islamic usage. Muslims themselves use several terms to refer to salat depending on their language or culture. In many parts of the world, including many non-Arab countries such as Indonesia and Nigeria, the Arabic term Salat is used. The other major term is the Persian word namaz (‫)نماز‬, used by speakers of the Persian, Turkish and Bosnian. Depending on their language or culture. In many parts of the world, including many non-Arab countries such as Indonesia and 483

Ahmad, (1986), 11 In another report the prophet said: whenever any of you is in prayer he should know that Allah is in front of him so none should spit in front of him in the prayer." Bukhari, no. 720. 484

Nigeria, the Arabic term Salat is used. The other major term is the Persian word namaz (‫)نماز‬, used by speakers of the Persian, Turkish and Bosnian. The five obligatory prayers mentioned in the Qur’an, not in one place but in many, as if by way of reference to something which already existed. Actually, the Qur’an only enjoins the iqamah, and the prophet guided by the Holy Spirit or by inner revelation gave organization, of prayer and the details of that organization. The following are the times of the five obligatory prayers, and their names according to the practice (Sunnah) of the prophet: 1. Fajr (‫)فَجْ ُر‬, or the early Morning Prayer, is said after dawn and before sunrise. It is mentioned by this name in the Qur’an in 17:78 and 24:58.485 This prayer is to be said when a man rise from his sleep in the morning. A Muslim must therefore habituate himself to rising before sunrise, but if he gets up late sometimes, then the prayer may still be said even though the sun may have risen.486 2. Dhuhr (‫)ظهر‬, or the early afternoon prayer, is said when the sun begins to decline, and its time extends until the next prayer. In the hot season, it is better to delay it until the severity of the sun is mitigated a little.487 3. Asr (‫)عصر‬, or the late afternoon prayer, is said when the sun is about midway on its course to setting, and its time extend till the sun begins to set. However, it is better to say it when the sun is yet high.488 4. Maghrib (‫)مغرب‬, or the sunset prayer, is said immediately after the sunsets, and its time extend till the red glow in the west disappears.489 5. Isha (‫)عشاء‬, or the night prayer, is said when the red glow in the west disappears, and its time extend until midnight.490 It is mentioned by name in the Qur’an in 24:58. This prayer must be said at the time of going to bed, so that it is the last act of the day, just as the Morning Prayer is the first act of the day. The time of prayer in Islam is a perfectly regularized institution, and it is the first lesson that a Muslim learns in the organization of things. Without divesting the individual of his liberty to pray to God at whatsoever place and time and in whatsoever manner he likes, Islam has thoroughly organized the institution of prayer. As stated earlier, prayer brings about not only the development of the individual but also a perfect development of society, being a means for the unification of humanity. This latter object cannot be attained without a properly organized institution of prayer with fixed place and fixed times and a uniform method, so that through it individuals may be brought together. Hence it is that the Qur’an requires prayer to be said at appointed times: “prayer indeed has been enjoined on the believers at fixed times.”491

485

Al-Shaowkani, (1965), 1/ 304. Ali, (1973), 336. 487 Al-Shaowkani, (1965), 1/ 305. 488 Al-Shaowkani, (1965), 1/ 306. 489 Al-Shaowkani, (1965), 2/ 2. 490 Al-Shaowkani, (1965), 2/10. 491 Qur’an, 4:104. 486

The Qur’an does not explicitly state that prayer should be said at such and such times, but it does give indication of the times of prayer. For example, it stated in a very early revelation: “keep up prayer from the declining of the sun till the darkness of the night, and the recital of the Qur’an at down; surely the recital of the Qur’an at down is witnessed.”492 There are four prayers that follow one another successively, the two afternoon prayers and the two evening prayers; and the time of each of these extends till the time of the next following prayer, with the exception of a very short interval, when the sun is actually setting, between the late afternoon and the sunset prayer. These four prayers are, therefore, spoken of together in the words” from the declining of the sun till the darkness of the night”, and the Morning Prayer is mentioned separately. In another verse it is stated: And celebrate the praise of thy Lord before the rising of the sun and before its setting, and glorify Him during hours of the night and part of the day, that thou mayest be well-pleased.493 That the glorification here referred to is prayer, is shown by the context, since another verse says: “And enjoin prayer on thy people and steadily adhere to it,”494 here the Morning Prayer and the late afternoon prayer are indicated, while the two evening prayers are spoken of together. A third verse of the later Mecca period throws further light on the times of the first hour of the night.”495 The addition of the words “first hours” of the night here makes it clear that, apart from a prayer in the darkness of the night, which is spoken of in the Qur’an: “Observe prayer from the declining and paling of the sun till the darkness of the night.,”496 there is also a prayer in the “first hours,” that is to say, immediately after sunset. Thus, the Morning Prayer, the early afternoon and the night prayer are referred to in 17:78, the late afternoon prayer is mentioned as well in the Qur’an. We read: “And glorify thy Lord with His praise before the rising of the sun and before its setting; and glorify Him in the hours of the night and all parts of the day,”497 for the sunset prayer the Qur’an says: “and observe prayer at the two ends of the day, and in some hours of the night.”498 To be fully prepared for prayers, a Muslim should keep his garments, body and place of worship pure and clean and cover the awrah i.e., nakedness in reasonably loose-fitting garments. The prophet says: "purity is half the faith" illustrates how Islam has incorporated and modified existing rules of purity in its religious system. Purification is a required preliminary to prayer. Thus, a pure mind in a pure body is the watchword of Islam. Here cleanliness is not next to godliness but it is half of godliness or faith.499 The Holy Qur’an has also commanded the prophet concerning cleanliness in this regard, “Allah says: and thy Lord do thou magnify, and thy garments do thou purify, and uncleanliness do thou shun.”500 The prophet has said in one of his sayings that “prayer is not accepted without purification and charity is not accepted

Qur’an, 17:79. Qur’an, 20:131. 494 Qur’an, 20: 133. 495 Qur’an, 11:115. 496 Qur’an, 17:78. 497 Qur’an, 20:130. 498 Qur’an, 11:114. 499 Ali, (1975), 41. 500 Qur’an, 74: 4-6. 492 493

out of what is acquired by unlawful means.” In addition, in one of the traditions the prophet says: “purification is the key of prayer.” 501 However, the compulsory act of worship is obligatory for those who meet these three conditions: First, they are Muslims, second they are of sound mind and third they have reached the age of 10 (beginning at age seven is recommended). There are five elements that make Salat valid: Confidence of the time of worship, facing the qibla, with the chest facing the direction of the Ka'ba. However, the ill and the old are allowed leniency with posture. 5.2.3

Ritual purity

Islam places a great importance on cleanliness and purity. Prophet Muhammad has considered purification as half of the faith in one of his saying. A Muslim in order words should remain clean in body, dress and even in his thought and spirit.502 Another tradition of the prophet sums up the importance of purification. It is reported that he used to say. “O Allah I seek refuge in thee from impure deeds and evil habits.” 503 Thus, the place of worship should be clean, and in a few cases where blood is leaving the body, Salat is forbidden until a later time that is why women are not allowed to pray during their menses nor for a period after childbirth. The Ritual purities are (Ghusl, wudu, and tayammum). Bath or Ghusl is taken to clean one’s body or refresh one’s self. In Islam, any small action performed with good intention is meritorious. However, there are certain occasions when a bath becomes obligatory for a Muslim to clean himself. It is obligatory, for example, to have a bath when semen comes out in youthful days whether during sleep or otherwise. Similarly, after intercourse with a woman, the bath becomes obligatory for both man as well as woman. For woman, it is essential to have a bath after finishing the monthly course called Hayd )‫(حيض‬in Islamic law.504 As soon as the blood stops, a woman should have bath. Similarly, when a woman gives birth to a child and when the blood stops nifa’as (‫)نفاس‬, it is essential to have a bath. Both Hayd and nifa’as prevent ritual prayer, fasting, divorce, touching the Qur’an, reading the Qur’an, entry into the mosque and real sexual cohabitation during the menses or after it but before, a woman performs ritual water purification.505 There are other occasions when a bath is recommended, in all these cases it is not obligatory, e.g. when non-Muslim becomes a Muslim or when one gives a bath to corpse or on Fridays or days of Id al-Fitr and Id al-Adha to prepare for the prayer. Those on whom bath is obligatory should not touch the Qur’an or enter a mosque. 506 The method of having a bath is that one should was two hands up to the wrist and then washes the hidden part of one’s body or any other place that has become unclean. Then one should perform an ablution. After performing an ablution, one should start first washing hands and then the entire body.507 The whole body should be made wet. No portion should remain dry. There are three obligatory of bath: 501

Ali, (1975), 42. Abdur Rahman I. Doi: The Cardinal Principles of Islam, (Kuala Lumpure: A. S. Noordeen, 1992), 97. 503 Reported by Bukhari. 504 Doi, (1992), p.98. 505 Y. A. Quadri, et al. Al-Izziyya for the English Audience, (Ijebu – Ode: Shebiotimo Publications, 1990), 40. 506 Doi, (1992), 98. 507 Doi, (1992), 98. 502

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(1) The mouth should be cleaned thoroughly so that water may reach up to the palate, (2) The nostrils should also be made wet (up to the soft portion), (3) Water should be made to reach every part of the body (including holes) except in sickness when there is a fear that by making the head or any part of the body wet, the suffering will increase or the sickness will get worse.508 Before conducting Salat, a Muslim has to perform a ritual ablution or Al-Wudhu ‫الوضوء‬. Muslims perform Wudhu according to the instructions of God given in the Qur'an: O you who believe! when you rise up to prayer, wash your faces and your hands as far as the elbows, and wipe your heads and your feet to the ankles; and if you are under an obligation to perform a total ablution, then wash (yourselves) and if you are sick or on a journey, or one of you come from the privy, or you have touched the women, and you cannot find water, betake yourselves to pure earth and wipe your faces and your hands therewith, Allah does not desire to put on you any difficulty, but He wishes to purify you and that He may complete His favor on you, so that you may be grateful.509 More specifically, wudhu is performed by Muslims by washing the hands up to wrist, three time starting with the right hand first. Washing the mouth three times. Washing the nostrils by inhaling and exhaling water three times; washing the face three times, from the forehead to the chin and from the right ear to the left; washing the arms up to elbow three times, starting with the right arm first; wiping the head with wet hands starting from the forehead and ending towards the back of the head and doing the same from the back of the head to the forehead; rubbing the outside of the ears with wet fingers and inside of the ear with the wet thumbs simultaneously. In addition, washing the feet up to the ankles three times each in that order. (It is not obligatory to wash the hair three times, once is sufficient, and men must wash their beards and mustaches when washing the face). Having finished the ablution, one should now recite the following: ْ ُ ‫أشهد‬ َ‫ أَلَّل ُه َّم اجْ عَ ْلنِّي ِّمن‬.ُ‫سولُه‬ ُ ‫ َوأ َ ْش َهد ُ أ َ َّن م ُح َمدا ً َع ْبدُهُ َو َر‬,ُ‫ َوحْ دَهُ الَش َِّريكَ لَه‬،ُ‫أن الَ إلَهَ إِّالَّ هللا‬ َ َ ‫ َواجْ َع ْلنِّي ِّمنَ ال ُمت‬,‫لــتوا ِّبين‬ ُ‫ أشهد‬, َ‫س ْب َحانَكَ أَلَّل ُه َّم َو ِّب َح ْمدِّك‬ ُ , َ‫صالـِّحـِّين‬ َّ ‫ َواجْ َع ْلنِّي ِّم ْن ِّعبَادِّكَ ال‬,‫ط ِّهرين‬ َّ ْ‫ا‬ َ َ َ َّ َ َ َ َ َ ُ ْ ْ َ ْ َ َّ ‫صلى‬ .‫س ِّل ْم‬ َ ‫ص ِّحبِّ ِّه َو‬ َ ‫اّللُ َعلى‬ َ ‫سيِّ ِّدنَا ُمـ َح َّم ٍد َو َعلى آ ِّل ِّه َو‬ َ ‫ َو‬, َ‫ أ ْستغ ِّف ُركَ َوأتوبُ إِّليْك‬, َ‫أن ال إِّلهَ إِّال أنت‬ 510. ‫ّلل رب اْلعالـم‬ َ‫َواْلـ َح ْمد ُ ِّ َّ ِّ َ ِّ َ َ ِّ ين‬ Meaning: I bear witness that there is no god but Allah, He is one, He has no partner. I bear witness that Muhammad is His servant and Messenger. O Allah make me one of those who ask for repentance and make me one of those who keep themselves clean and one of those who are pious servants. Glory be to you O Allah, and praise be to you. I bear witness that there is no god except you. I ask for your forgiveness and turn to you in repentance

508

Doi, (1992), 99. Qur'an, 5: 7. 510 Ibn Hajar Al-Asqalani: Bulugh Al-Maram, (Riyadh: Dar-us –Salam Publications, 1996), 30. 509

101

salutations be on our master Muhammad, on his progeny and his companions and praise be to Allah, the Lord of the worlds. It is essential that ablution should be made with pure water. Pure water means that it should not be defied, has not been used already for some other incumbent duty, whose taste and colour and smell have not been altered even by mixture with other pure things like musk, saffron, rose water or flowers.511 Tayammum is performed using sand when water is unavailable or not advisable to use for reasons such as illness.512 Tayammum is earth ablution that is an act of purity done with pure earth when one does not find water or is unable to use water. Whenever water is not available, tayammum is recommended for purification since Islam does not impose a burden or difficulty on any believer.513 When the time of prayer strikes, the prayer must be said even if water is not to be found. In this case, a Muslim can use pure earth in place of water. The symbolic idea underlying the earth-ablution is the purification of the soul that is the sole aim of prayer. The Tayammum helps to divert attention from the bodily purification to the purification of the soul.514 The authority for the Tayammum is derived from the Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an: And if you are sick or on journey or one of you come from the privy, or you have gone to women, and you cannot find water, betake yourself to pure earth and wipe your faces and your hands therewith. Allah does not desire to put you in any difficulty, but He wants to purify you and that He may complete his favour on you, so that you may be thankful.515 In performing Tayammum one should strike both hands on pure earth, blow off the excess of the dust from the hands by striking the sides of both hands together. Wipe the face with the two hands. Then pass hands over the front back of the two hands, the left hand over the right hand and then the right hand over the left hand.516 This completes the Tayammum. Immediately after performing the Tayammum, the prayer should be said. Purification by earth has the same validity as has ritual ablution, but becomes invalid when water is found. Until the ritual purification is broken or until water is found it is lawful with one Tayammum to perform any of the obligatory or voluntary prayers.517 It is worthy to note that Malik School of law holds the opinion that Tayammum should be done by striking the dust twice, one for the face and once for the hands.518 In addition, according to Malik School Tayammum should be performed for each prayer.519 It is worthy to mention that, the Islamic worship (Salat) practiced by one Muslim may differ from another's in minor details, which can affect the precise actions and words involved. Differences arise because of different interpretations of the traditions by the different schools 511

Doi, (1992), 101. Doi, (1992), 104. 513 Doi, (1992), 103. 514 Doi, (1992), 103. 515 Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an, 5: 7. 516 Ibn Abi Zayd Al- Kairawani: Matn Ar-risala, (Beirut: Dar El Fiker,1994), 36 517 Shaikh Muhammad Mahmud Al-Sawwaf: The Muslim Book of Prayer, (Salimah: International Islamic Federation of Student Organization, 1980), 50. 518 Al- Kairawani, (1994), 50. 519 Al- Kairawani, (1994), 16. 512

102

of law (madhhib). In the case of ritual worship these differences are generally minor, and do not necessarily cause dispute. It is important to note the reason why Sunni Muslims have a basic agreement on the necessary part of the Salat.520 Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad practiced, taught, and disseminated the worship ritual in the whole community of Muslims and made it part of their life. The community in each of the generations has therefore, concurrently and perpetually practiced the practice of the prophet. The authority for the basic forms of the Salat is neither the hadiths nor the Qur'an, but rather the consensus of Muslims. Differences also occur due to optional (recommended rather than obligatory) articles of prayer procedure, for example, which verses of the Qur'an to recite. 5.2.4 Performing the prayers The word adhan is derived from idhn which means originally anything that is heard, udhun meaning the ear, and hence it comes to mean knowledge or giving knowledge that a thing is permitted, and adhan or ta’dhin means an announcement, or an announcement of prayer and of the time thereof, the call to prayer.521 According to Al-Izziyyah, Adhan is Sunnah of the prophet in places where people normally gather such as centre mosques and other area mosques. The call to prayer is the signal that the time for prayer has arrived. Though the use of prescribed words the Muslim community is summoned to attend the prayers which will lead to their prosperity in this life and hereafter. The call itself an act of worship which precedes the prayer and such is one of the most important religious ceremonies in Islam and the most widely recognized characteristic of the religion. Adhan and Iqamah were introduced in the first year of the hijrah, and the prophet observed it throughout his life. Night and day, whether at home or travelling, on no occasion until the day of his death was not it known of him to break the custom, nor is there any unknown instance in which he granted a dispensation from the rule.522 The companions continued to observe the rule until it become a duty or the equivalent of a duty because of the prophet’s order, which is preserved in a number of traditions. The call to prayer, as stated in authentic traditions, is as follows: ,‫ ا َ َّّللُ ا َ ْكبـَ ُر‬,‫ اَهللُ أ َ ْكبـ َ ُر‬,‫ ا َ َّّللُ ا َ ْكبـ َ ُر‬,‫بر‬ َ ‫اَهللُ أ َ ْك‬ َّ َّ‫ ا َ ْش َهد ُ اَ ْن الَاِّهللَ اِّال‬,ُ‫اّلل‬ َّ َّ‫ا َ ْش َهد ُ ا َ ْن الَاِّهللَ اِّال‬ ,ُ‫اّلل‬ َ ْ َ َّ ‫سو ُل‬ َّ ‫سو ُل‬ ,ِّ‫اّلل‬ ُ ‫ اش َهد ُ ا َّن مـ ُ َح َّمدًا َر‬,ِّ‫اّلل‬ ُ ‫ا َ ْش َهد ُ ا َ َّن مـ ُ َح َّمدًا َر‬ ,ِّ‫صلَوة‬ َّ ‫علَى ال‬ َّ ‫ي َعلَى ال‬ َ ‫ي‬ َّ ‫ َح‬,ِّ‫صلَوة‬ َّ ‫َح‬ ْ ْ َ َ َ َ َ َ ,ِّ‫ي َعلى الفالح‬ َّ ‫ َح‬,ِّ‫ي َعلى الفالح‬ َّ ‫َح‬ 523 َّ ْ َ َ َ َّ ‫ الا َِّّّللَ اِّال‬,‫ ا َّّللُ اكبـ َ ُر‬,‫اَهللُ أ َ ْكبـ َ ُر‬ .ُ‫اّلل‬ Allahu Akbar, Allahu Akbar, Allahu Akbar, Allahu Akbar

520

Ali, (1975), 123 Cowan, (1960), 11. 522 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/ 32. 523 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/ 36. 521

103

Ash hadu an la ilaha illal lah, Ash hadu an la ilaha illal lah Ash hadu anna Muhammadan Rasu lul lah, Ash hadu anna Muhammadan Rasu lul lah Hayya'alas Salah, Hayya'alas Salah Hayya'alal Falah, Hayya'alal Falah Allahu Akbar, Allahu Akbar, La ilaha illal lah, Allah is great, Allah is the greatest, Allah is the greatest, Allah is the greatest, I bear witness that there is no god but Allah, I bear witness that there is no god but Allah, I bear witness that Muhammad is Allah's Messenger; I bear witness that Muhammad is Allah's Messenger, Hasten to prayer, Hasten to prayer, Hasten to prosperity, Hasten to prosperity, Allah is the greatest, Allah is the greatest, There is no god but Allah. In the Morning Prayer only after saying “Hasten to prosperity” but before saying the second “Allah is the greatest, Allah is the greatest” the Muadhin says:”prayer is better than sleep, prayer is better than sleep,” ,524‫وم‬ ٌ ‫صلوة خ‬ َّ ‫ ال‬,‫خير ِّمنَ النَّوم‬ ٌ ‫صلوة‬ َّ ‫ال‬ ِّ َّ‫َير ِّمنَ الن‬ As-salatu khairun minamnaum, As-salatu khairun minan naum i.e. Prayer is better than sleep. Prayer is better than sleep. Then he continues. The traditional private prayer which is said after each call to prayer is that in which has taught is the following: َّ َ‫الرفِّي َعة‬ ِّ ‫الل ُه َّم َربَّ َه ِّذ ِّه الدَّعْو ِّة التَّا َّم ِّة َوالصلو ِّة ْالقَائِّ َم ِّة آ‬ َّ َ‫ضلَةَ َوالدَّ َر َجة‬ ِّ َ‫س ِّيدَنَا ُم َح َّمدَ ْال َو ِّسلَةَ َو ْالف‬ َ ‫ت‬ ْ َّ ْ ْ ُ ْ ‫ف‬ َ ‫ار ُزقنَا‬ ْ ‫َوا ْبعَثهُ َمقَا ًما َّمحْ ُمودَ الذِّي َو َعدْتَهُ َو‬ ُ ‫شفَا َعتَه ُ يَ ْو َم ال ِّقيَا َم ِّة اِّنَّكَ الَتخ ِّل‬ 525 .ْ‫ْال ِّميعَاد‬ Allah, lord of all supplications and steadfast prayer grant Muhammad the most favoured and excellent position, admit him to the praise worthy place that you promised him. Bestow upon us his intercession, for you do not fail in you promise.

524 525

Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/ 44. Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/54.

104

Facing the Qiblah The worshipper faces the Ka’bah, the holy shrine of Islam, as determined to the best of his or her ability by simple means. This directional focus is called the qiblah. The Ka’bah is the House of Allah, located in the holy city of Mecca in present-day Arabia. It is the goal of the pilgrimage, which is the fifth pillar of Islam. In Islamic teachings, the Ka’bah is said to mark the location where the Divine House in the Seventh Heaven, beyond which stands the Supreme Throne, which angels constantly circle in praise and worship of Allah, descended to Earth after the first man and woman, Adam and Eve, were cast out of Paradise for their mistake. In the time of Noah’s flood, this heavenly sanctuary was taken up to heaven again. Millennia later, Abraham and Ishmael built the Ka’bah in the same location, where it stands until today, the first house of worship dedicated to Allah. By facing this location in prayer, each Muslim aims and hopes to reach that holy location at some point in her or his life. Initially, in the early days of Prophet Muhammad’s mission, the believers faced Jerusalem when they prayed, out of respect for the Temple there. This direction represented respect for the previous Divine dispensations brought by Moses and Jesus and the Israelite prophets. Later, Divine legislation altered the direction of prayer to face the Holy House in Mecca: ْ ‫ضاهَا فَ َو ِّل َوجْ َهكَ ش‬ ُ ‫َط َر ْال َمس ِّْج ِّد ْال َح َر ِّام َو َحي‬ ‫ْث َما‬ َّ ‫ب َوجْ ِّهكَ فِّي ال‬ َ ‫س َماء فَلَنُ َو ِّل َي َّنكَ قِّ ْبلَةً ت َْر‬ َ ‫َقدْ ن ََرى تَقَ ُّل‬ ُ ْ ْ ْ َ َّ ْ َ َ ُ ُ ‫َاب ليَ ْعل ُمونَ أنَّهُ ال َح ُّق ِّمن َّربِّ ِّه ْم َو َما اّللُ بِّغَافِّ ٍل َع َّما‬ َ ‫ُكنت ُ ْم فَ َولُّواْ ُو ُج ِّو َهك ْم شَط َرهُ َوإِّ َّن الذِّينَ أ ْوتوا ال ِّكت‬ 526 . َ‫يَ ْع َملُون‬ We see thee (O Muhammad) turning of thy face for guidance to the heavens: now shall We turn thee to a prayer-direction that shall please thee. Turn then thy face in the direction of the Sacred Mosque [Ka’ba]: Wherever ye are, turn your faces in that direction. Thus, wherever Muslims live, their prayers have a common focus: the Ka’bah. Because of the presence of this blessed shrine, the area surrounding the Ka’bah is holy. These environs are called the Haram, literally “prohibited,” meaning a place where sins are prohibited. The Ka’bah itself is located within the “Prohibited Mosque,” ‫مسجد الحرم‬Masjid al-Harām. The name Prohibited Mosque was given because no one may act on bad desires there. While it is called a mosque, Allah made it more than that. In reality, it is a place where sins are utterly rejected, not only in their outward forms but also in their inner realities. There, even negative thoughts and intentions are considered blameworthy. Only pure, positive desires and good thoughts are accepted. Indeed, within the confines of that holy sanctuary, no hunting is allowed; even the cutting of trees and vegetation is proscribed. Allah said in the Holy Qur’ān:

526

Qur’an, 2:144.

105

‫ار ْكنَا َح ْولَهُ ِّلنُ ِّريَهُ ِّم ْن‬ ُ َ َ‫صى الَّذِّي ب‬ َ ‫س ْب َحانَ الَّذِّي أَس َْرى ِّب َع ْب ِّد ِّه لَ ْيالً ِّمنَ ْال َمس ِّْج ِّد ْال َح َر ِّام ِّإلَى ْال َمس ِّْج ِّد األ َ ْق‬ َّ ُ‫إِّنه‬ ‫الس َِّّمي ُع‬ ‫ه َُو‬ ‫آيَاتِّنَا‬ 527 .‫ير‬ ُ ‫ص‬ ِّ َ‫الب‬ Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless, in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who Heareth and Seth (all things). This verse describes the important journey that Prophet Muhammad made between the Prohibited Mosque in Mecca and the Temple in Jerusalem (referred to as the Farthest Mosque, Masjid al-Aqsā), a journey that in one moment bridged three divinely-revealed religions. One of the distinctive characteristics of Islamic ritual prayer is that the worshipper is obliged to keep his vision, both external and internal, concentrated upon the qiblah. The focus of every worshipper is, and must be, a holy place. People whose understanding is purely external believe facing the Ka’bah is of intrinsic value. That is why Muslims all over the globe pray in one direction, towards the Qiblah the Holy Ka’bah in Mecca. Islam is unique because in other religions the adherents in different parts of the world face each other, or in various directions for worship. Turning to the Ka’bah while praying is a means of establishing complete unity amongst the believers and this provides them with a focal of congregation although, the focus remains firmly on God.528 Muslims all over the globe pray in one direction, towards the Qiblah the Holy Ka’bah in Mecca. Islam is unique because in other religions the adherents in different parts of the world face each other, or in various directions for worship. Turning to the Ka’bah while praying is a means of establishing complete unity amongst the believers and this provides them with a focal of congregation although, the focus remains firmly on God.529 The first and foremost fundamental part of the ritual prayer is intention (niyyah). As in all Islamic worship, the worshipper intends the prayer as a fulfillment of Allah’s Order done purely for God’s sake. The Prophet Muhammad established this as a paramount rule of worship when he said: “Verily all deeds are based on their intention.”530 The person should be conscious and aware of the particular Salat that is being offered, whether it is obligatory, if it is missed (qad’a) worship, performed individually or among the congregation, a shortened traveler’s worship etc. The explicit verbalization of this intention is not required, though it can be helpful. The person should think his worship to be the Last Worship so that he may perform the best he can.531 Qur’an, 17:1. Rafiq, Malik Jamil R: “Aspect of Islamic Prayer,” in the Review of Religions, 106, no. 3, (2011): 47 529 Rafiq , (2011), 47 530 Reported by Bukhari and Muslim in their authentic collections. 531 The intention of praying, does not need to be uttered verbally, according to the consensus of the opinions of jurists of Islam. Rather the place of intention is the heart, according to the consensus among them. If a person utters something by mistake that goes against what is in his heart, then what counts is what he intended, not what he said. No one has mentioned any difference of opinion concerning this matter, except that some of the later followers of al-Shaafa’i expressed approval of that, but some of the leaders of this madhhab said that this was 527 528

106

Every prayer service consists of two, three or four units, the units being called a rak’ah literarily means, an act of bowing, which consists of qiyam, standing, ruku, bowing of the head and body, sajdah prostration and jalsah or qa’dah sitting, in the order in which they are mentioned. Each Salat is made up of a repeating unit or cycle called a raka'ah.532 The number of raka'ahs for the five daily prayers can be found below. Prayer

No of cycles

Dhuhr

Asr

Maghrib (sunset)

Isha

Fajr

Every posture or change from one posture to another is connected with some kind of dhikr, and the man who prays should know its significance. The most frequently occurring dhikr in prayer is the takbir, magnifying, i.e., the utterance of Allahu Akbar, Allah is Greatest. A basic raka'ah is made up of these parts.533 The prophet said: “performed your prayers in the same manner you had seen me doing.”534 Therefore, here is the explanation for the prophet’s manner of prayer: Standing or Qiyam, is prerequisite of prayer, having faced the Qiblah, the formal act of prayer begins when the worshipper raises his or her hands to the lobes of the ears, or up to the shoulders this is a sign of surrendering to God. This is a symbolic statement of giving preference to religion over worldly matters.535 A Muslim raises his hands to recite Takbiratul-Ihram in prayer while standing. If this is the first raka'ah, the prayer is commenced by the saying of the takbir, which is ‫(هللا أَ ْكبَر‬transliteration "allāhu 'akbar", meaning God is Greater). The hands are raised level wrong. But in the dispute among the scholars as to whether it is mustahabb ‫مستحاب‬to utter one’s intention, there are two points of view. Some of the companions of Abu Haneefah, al-Shaafa’i and Ahmad said that it is mustahabb to utter the intention so as to make it stronger. Some of the companions of Maalik, Ahmad and others said that it is not mustahabb to utter it, because that is a bid’ah ‫(بدعة‬innovation). It was not narrated that the Prophet or his companions did it or that he commanded anyone among his community to utter the intention. That is not known from any of the Muslims. If that had been prescribed then the Prophet and his companions would not have neglected it, as it has to do with worship which the ummah does every day and night. This is the more correct view. Indeed, uttering the intention is of irrational thinking and falling short in religious commitment. In terms of falling short in religious commitment, that is because it is bid’ah ‫( بدعة‬an innovation). In terms of irrational thinking, that is because it is like a person who wants to eat some food saying, “I intend to put my hand in this vessel, take out a morsel of food, put it in my mouth and chew it, then swallow it, and eat until I have had my fill.” This is sheer foolishness and ignorance. Intention is connected to knowledge. If a person knows what he is doing then he has obviously made an intention. It cannot be imagined, if he knows what he wants to do, that he has not formed an intention. The jurists agreed that speaking the intention out loud and repeating it is not prescribed in Islam. Al-Fataawa al-Kubra, 1/214, 215 Available at: http://islamqa.info/en/13337 (10/04/2016). 532 Ali, (1975), 132. 533 Ali, (1975), 133. 534 Al-Asqalani, (1996), 119. 535 Rafiq, (2011), 48.

107

with shoulders or level with top of the ears, with fingers apart and not spaced out or together. This is done before, with or after the takbir. Both arms are placed over the chest, with the right arm over the left. If this is the first raka'ah, a supplication praising God is said such as: . َ‫اركَ اْ ْس ُمكَ َوتَعَالَى َجدُّكَ َو الَ إلَهَ َغي ُْرك‬ ُ Subhaanak-Allaahumma, WA bihamdika, َ َ‫س ْب َحانَكَ أَلَّل ُه َّم َوبِّ َح ْمدِّكَ َوتَب‬ WA tabaarakasmuka, WA ta'aalaa jadduka, wa laa ilaaha ghayruka.536 Muslims then ask َ ‫ش ْي‬ َّ ‫' أَعُوذ ُ ِّباهللِّ ِّمنَ ال‬a’ūdhu bi-llāhi minash-shayṭāni rrefuge from God from such as:‫الر ِّج ِّيم‬ َّ ‫ان‬ ِّ ‫ط‬ َّ ‫ بِّس ِّْم‬b-ism illāhi r-raḥmāni rrajīm. The recitation of the Quran begins with‫الر ِّح ِّيم‬ َّ ‫الرحْ َم ِّن‬ َّ ِّ‫اّلل‬ raḥīm. Surah Al-Fatiha the first chapter of the Holy Qur’an is recited. If this is the first or second raka'ah, the recitation of Al-Fatiha is followed with a recitation from any other section from the Quran of choice. The takbir is said again and the hands are raised as previously described and the next position, ruku', begins. Bowing Ruku', the palms are placed on the knees, with finger spaced out. The back is erected at an angle at which poured water may not fall from it. Some of many types of remembrances of God are recited for this situation such as ‫ى‬ َ‫س ْب َحان‬ ُ َ ِّ‫َربـ‬ ْ ‫(العَ ِّظيم‬transliteration subḥāna rabbī al-adhīm, meaning "Glory to my Lord, the Most Magnificent") three times or more.537 I'tidal and stopping ‫اعتدال‬, I'tidal is the standing again after ruku'. The back is straightened and the hands are raised as in takbir as mentioned before but saying ‫س ِّـمـع هللاُ لـ ِّ َم ْن‬ َ ‫(حـَ ِّمدَه‬transliteration sami’a allāhu li-man ḥamidah, meaning (Allah listens and responds to the one who praises him). Some of many praises to God are said for this situation such as ‫َربَّنَا َو‬ ُ ‫(لَكَ اْل َح ْمد‬transliteration rabbanā wa-laka al-ḥamd, meaning (O our Lord! And all praise is for you)538 The takbir is said and the hands are either raised or do not raised as mentioned before as the next position, prostration, begins with hands on the ground before knees. Prostration Sajdah ‫السجود‬, as much of the ground must be felt by the nose as the forehead must be felt. The elbows are raised and the palms are on level with either the shoulders or the ears, with fingers together. Some of many types of remembrances of God are recited for this situation539 such as ‫ي اْأل َ ْعلَى َوبـِّ َح ْمدِّه‬ ُ (transliteration subḥāna rabbī al-'aclā wa-biَ ِّ ‫س ْب َحانَ َربـ‬ ḥamdih meaning "Glory to my Lord, the Most High Most Praiseworthy") three times or more.540 The takbir is said again and the hands are either raised or not raised as mentioned before while the next position, kneeling, begins. While sitting, the left foot is placed along either the ground with the right foot upright or both feet are kept upright. Some of many types of remembrances are recited for this situation such as: 541 .ِّ‫ار ُز ْقني‬ ْ ‫ َو‬,ِّ‫ َواجْ بـ ُ ْرني‬,‫ارفَ ْعنِّي‬ ْ ‫ َو‬,ِّ‫ َو َعافِّني‬,ِّ‫ َوا ْهدِّني‬,‫ارحـ َ ْمنـِّي‬ ْ ‫ َو‬,‫ اللَّ ُه َّم ا ْغ ِّف ْر ِّلي‬i.e. “O Allah-umma-ghfrili wa-rham-ni wa-hadi-ni wa- afi-ni wa-rfa-ni wa-jburni wa-rzuq-ni.” Allah forgive me, and have mercy on me, and guide me, and grant me security, and exalt me, and set right my affairs and grant me sustenance). The takbir is said again and the hands are either raised or not raised as mentioned before as the second prostration begins. Second prostrations are done exactly as the first time. The head is raised and the takbir is said again and the hands either raised or not raised as mentioned before. If this is either the second or last raka'ah, the sitting position begins again. Otherwise, the standing position 536

Abdul Wahab Al-shara’ani: Kashful Ghummah, (Cairo: Dar El fikr, 1969), 2/ 120- 121. Al-shara’ani, (1969), 2/ 130. 538 Al-shara’ani, (1969), 2/ 130. 539 Ali, (1973), 342 540 Al-shara’ani, (1969), 2/134. 541 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/263. 537

108

begins again with the start of a new raka'ah. If this is the second raka'ah, sitting is done as before. If this is not the second raka'ah, the left thigh is placed on the ground and both feet are protruding from the right side with the right foot either upright or along the ground. The left palm leans on the left knee. The tashahhud is recited, which is as follow: ‫سالَ ُم َعلَ ْينَا‬ ًّ ‫ اَل‬،ُ‫ي َو َرح ْـ َمةُ هللاِّ َوبـَ َركَاتُه‬ ُّ ِّ ‫أ َ ُّي َها ال َّنبـ‬ َ َ ً ُ‫ َوأ ْش َهد ُ أ َّن مـ ُ َح َّمدا َع ْبدُه‬,ُ‫ َوحْ دَه ُ الَش َِّريكَ لَه‬،ُ‫هللا‬

َّ ‫ص َل َواتُ َوال‬ َ‫سالَ ُم َعلَيْك‬ َّ ‫ اَل‬، ُ‫ط ِّي َبات‬ َّ ‫ا َلت َّ ِّح َّياتُ ِّ َّّللِّ َوال‬ َّ‫ أَ ْش َهدُ أ َ ْن الَ إِّلَهَ إِّال‬، َ‫صالـ ِّ ِّحين‬ َّ ‫َو َعلَى ِّعبَا ِّد هللاِّ ال‬ 542 ُ .ُ‫َو َر ُسوله‬

At-tahiyatu li-llah wa-s-salawatu wa- tayyibatu; as-salamu alai-ka ayyuha-n-nabiyyu wa rahmatu-llahi wa barakatuhu, as-salamu alai-na wa ala ibadillahi-s-salihin. Ashhad an la ilaha ill-Allahu wahadahu la shari ka la hu, wa ashhadu anna Muhammadan abduhu wa rasuluhu. The meaning: All service rendered by words and bodily actions and sacrifice of wealth are due to Allah. Peace be on thee, O Prophet! And mercy of Allah and His blessings. Peace be on us and on the righteous servants of Allah. I bear witness that none deserves to be worshipped but Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is His servant and His Messenger. If this only the intermediate sitting in a prayer of three or four rak’ahs, the worshipper stands up after the above-mentioned tashahhud, but if it is the final sitting, whether in a prayer of two or three or four rak’ahs, the following dhikr, called al-salat ala-l-Nabiyy, is added: ٌ ‫ِّيم ِّإ َّنكَ حـَ ِّميد‬ َ ‫ص ِّل َعلَى مـ ُ َح َّم ٍد َو‬ َ ‫علَى آ ِّل مـ ُ َح َّم ٍد َك َما‬ َ ‫ا َللَّ ُه َّم‬ َ ‫ِّيم َو َع َلى آ ِّل ِّإب َْراه‬ َ ‫صلَّيْتَ َعلَى ِّإب َْراه‬ َ‫ِّيم ِّإنَّك‬ ِّ ‫ اَللَّ ُه َّم َب‬.ٌ ‫مـَ ِّجيد‬ َ ‫ِّيم َو َعلَى آ ِّل ِّإب َْراه‬ َ ‫ار ْك َعلَى مـ ُ َح َّم ٍد َو َعلَى آ ِّل مـ ُ َح َّم ٍد َك َما َبار ْكتَ َعلَى إِّب َْراه‬ 543 .ٌ ‫حـَ ِّميدٌ مـ َ ِّجيد‬ (Transliteration "Allaahumma salli 'alaa Muhammadin wa 'alaa ali Muhammadin Kamaa sallaita 'alaa Ibraaheem wa 'alaa ali Ibraaheem Innaka hameedun Majeed. Alaahumma baarik 'ala Muhammadin wa 'alaa a’li Muhammadin Kamaa baarakta 'alaa Ibraaheem wa 'alaa a’li Ibraaheem Innaka hameedun Majeed. This translates as follow: O Allah, bless Muhammad and the people of Muhammad as you have blessed Abraham and the people of Abraham; surely you are the Most Praiseworthy, the Most Glorious. O Allah, be gracious unto Muhammad and the people of Muhammad As you were gracious unto Abraham and the people of Abraham, surely you are the Most Praiseworthy, the Most Glorious. 542 543

Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/278. Al-shara’ani, (1969), 2/ 136.

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Then the following prayers is added: ‫صلَوةِّ َو ِّم ْن‬ َّ ‫يم ال‬ ِّ ‫ َر‬544.‫ار‬ َ َ‫سنَةً َّوقِّنَا َعذ‬ َ ‫سنَةً َوفِّي اْأل َ ِّخ َرةِّ َح‬ َ ‫َربَّنَا آتِّنَا فِّي الدُّ ْنيَا َح‬ ِّ َّ‫اب الن‬ َ ‫ب اجْ عَ ْلنِّي ُم ِّق‬ ْ ْ َّ َ‫ اَلل ُه َّم اِّنِّي اَعُوذُ بِّك‬. ُ‫ساب‬ ِّ ‫ذ ُ ِّريَّتِّي َربَّنَا َوت َ َقب َّْل د ُ َع‬ َ ‫ي و لل ُمؤْ ِّمنِّينَ يَ ْو َم َيقُو ُم ال ِّح‬ َّ َ‫آء َربَّنَا ا ْغ ِّف ْر ِّلي و ِّل َوا ِّلد‬ ْ ْ ُ َ ‫س ِّل َواَعُوذ ُ ِّبكَ ِّمنَ ْال ُجب ِّْن َو ْالب ُْخ ِّل َواَعُوذُ ِّبكَ ِّم ْن َغلَ َب ِّة‬ ‫ك‬ ‫ال‬ ‫و‬ ‫ز‬ ‫ع‬ ‫ال‬ ‫م‬ ‫ب‬ ‫ذ‬ َ َ ِّ ْ‫منَ ال َه ِّم َو ْال ُح ْز ِّن َواَعُو ِّكَ ِّ نَ َج‬ ْ ْ َ ُ ُّ َّ َ ‫ اَللَّ ُه َّم اِّنِّي‬.‫الر َجا ِّل‬ ً‫وب اِّال أ ْنتَ فَا ْغ ِّف ْر ِّلي م ْغ ِّف َرة‬ ً ‫ظلَ ْمتُ نَ ْفسِّي ظل ًما َك ِّث‬ َ ُ‫يرا َوالَ َي ْغ ِّف ُر الذن‬ ِّ ‫الدَّي ِّْن َوقَ ْه ِّر‬ 545 ْ َ ُ ْ َّ َ .‫الر ِّحيم‬ ‫ور‬ ‫ف‬ ‫غ‬ ‫ال‬ ‫ن‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ن‬ ‫إ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ن‬ ‫م‬ ‫ح‬ ْ َ‫اَللَّ ُه َّم ا ْك ِّف ِّني ِّب َحالَلِّكَ َع ْن َح َر ِّامكَ َوا َ ْغ ِّن ِّني ِّبف‬ َ‫ضلِّك‬ َ‫ت‬ َ‫ك‬ ْ ‫ِّم ْن ِّع ْندِّكَ َو‬ َّ ُ ِّ ِّ ْ ً ‫ار‬ 546 َ َّ ُ ‫ َوأَعُوذ‬,‫ َوأَعُود ُ بِّكَ ِّم ْن فِّتْنَ ِّة ْال َمسِّيحِّ الدَّ َّجا ِّل‬,‫ب ْالقَب ِّْر‬ ُ ِّ ‫ اَلل ُه َّم اِّني أعُوذ بِّكَ ِّم ْن َعذَا‬. َ‫َع ْن َّم ْن ِّس َواك‬ 547 .‫ اَللَّ ُه َّم اِّني أَعُوذ ُ ِّبكَ ِّمنَ ْال َمأْث َ ِّم َو ْال َم ْغ َر ِّم‬,ِّ‫ِّبكَ ِّم ْن فِّتْنَ ِّة ْال َمحْ َيا َوفِّتْنَ ِّة ْال َم َمات‬ Rabbana aatina fidduniya hasanatan wa fil akhirati hasanatan waqina adhabannar. Rabbi- j’al-ni muqima-lsalati wa min dhuriyyati Rabba-na wa taqabbal du’a’i; Rabba-naghfir-li wa li-walidayya wa li-l-mu’minina yauma yaqumu-l-hisab. Allahumma inni a’udhu bi-ka min-al-hammi wa-l-huzni wa a’udhu-bika minal-ijzi wa-l-kasali wa a’udhu-bika min- aljubni wal-bukhli wa a’udu-bi-ka-min ghalabati-d-daini wa qahari-r-rijal; allahum-ma ini dhalamtu naïf dhuliman kathiran wa la yaghfiru dhunuba ila anta, faghfir li maghfiratan min indika wa arhamni innaka antal Ghafoorur Rahim. Allahumma-kfi-ni bi-halal-ka an harami-ka wa-ghnini bi-fadlika an man siwa-ka. Allahumma inni a’udhu bika min adhabilqabri wa a’udhu bika min fitnatil-masihid-dajjal. Wa a’udhubika min fitnatil mahya wa fitnatil mamaat. Allahumma inni a’udhu bika minal ma’thami wal maghram. The meaning: Our Lord, bestow on us good in this world and good in the Hereafter, and shield us from the torment of the fire. My Lord! Make me and my offspring keep up prayer; our Lord! And accept my prayer; our Lord! Grant protection to me and my parents and to the believers on the day when the reckoning will take place. O Allah I have been unjust to myself and no one grant pardon for sins except you; therefore, forgive me with your forgiveness and have mercy on me. Surely, you are the Forever, the Merciful. O Allah! I seek Thy refuge from anxiety and grief, and I seek Thy refuge from lack of strength and laziness, and I seek Thy refuge from cowardice and niggardliness, and I seek Thy refuge from being overpowered by debt and the oppression of men; O Allah! Suffice Thou me with what is lawful to keep me away from what is prohibited, and with Thy grace make me free from want of what is besides Thee! O Allah I seek Thy protection from the punishment of the grave, I seek Thy protection against Dajjal, the architect of disorder and trials, and I seek refuge with you from afflictions of life and death. O Allah I seek Thy protection from sins and from being in debt. Qur’an, 2: 202. Al-Asqalani, (1996), 116. 546 Al-shara’ani, (1969), 2/ 137. 547 Al-shara’ani, (1969), 2/137. 544 545

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If this is not the last raka'ah (unit of prayer), a new raka'ah with standing up with the takbir and the hands are either raised or not raised as mentioned before. If this is the last raka'ah, the greetings of Salam are said to the right such as: ِّ‫سالَ ُم َعلَ ْي ُك ْم َو َرحـْ َمةُ هللا‬ َّ ‫(ال‬transliteration "As-Salaamu 'alaykum wa rahmatullaah," meaning: (May Allah grant you peace and security, and may His Mercy be upon you) and then similarly to the left. 548 After the prophet used to pray, he would seek Allah’s forgiveness three times in these words: ‫ار ْكتَ َيا ذَا اْل َجالَ ِّل َو‬ َّ ‫سالَ ُم َو ِّم ْنكَ ال‬ َّ ‫ اَللَّ ُه َّم ا َ ْنتَ ال‬، َ‫ ا َ ْست َ ْغ ِّف ُر هللا‬، َ‫ ا َ ْست َ ْغ ِّف ُر هللا‬، َ‫ا َ ْست َ ْغ ِّف ُر هللا‬ َ ‫سالَ ُم تَ َب‬ . ‫اْ ِّال ْك َر ِّام‬ As’taghfiru llah, As’taghfiru llah, As’taghfiru llah, allahuma antas’salam wa minkas’salam tabarakta ya dhal- jalal wal-ikra’m. O Allah, you are the peace and from you is peace. Blessed you are, O Owner of Greatness and Honor. And it was narrated by Abu Huraira that prophet Muhammad said: whoever glorified Allah by saying (subhan-Allah) ‫س ْب َحانَ هللا‬ ُ after every salat thirty-three times, and praise Allah by saying (Al-hamdulillah) ‫واْل َح ْمدُ َ هّلِل‬thirtythree times, and exalts Allah by saying (Allahu Akbar) َ َ ْ ‫وهللاُ أكبـَر‬thirty-three times, those are ninety -nine in all, and says to complete a hundred: َ َ ‫ َوه َُو َعلَى ُك ِّل‬,ُ ‫ َولَهُ اْل َح ْمد‬, ُ‫ لَهُ اْل ُم ْلك‬,ُ‫الَ ش َِّريكَ لَه‬ ٍ‫ش ْيء‬

ُ‫ َوحْ دَه‬,ُ‫الَإِّهللَ إِّالَّ هللا‬ 549 .‫ِّير‬ ٌ ‫قَد‬

“La ilaha illa-Allahu, wahadahu la sharika lahu, lahul-mulku wa lahulhamdu, wa Huwa ala kulli shai’in Qadir.” There is no god but Allah Alone who has no partner; to Him belongs the kingdom, to Him praise is due, and He is Omnipotent. One may pray individually or congregationally, in the home, outside, at the mosque or in virtually any clean place. However, observing the prayers at the mosque and in congregation is strongly encouraged. In addition to the regular daily prayers, there is a special Friday noon prayer, called Jum’ah. It, too, is obligatory, and must be performed in a mosque, in congregation. It is accompanied by a sermon (khutbah) and replaces the normal noon prayer. Since ritual prayers are performed throughout the waking cycle of the day, they influence the rhythm of the entire day in many Muslim nations. Although it is preferable to worship together in a mosque, a Muslim may pray almost anywhere, such as in fields, offices, factories and universities. Visitors to the Muslim world, where the call to prayer, adhān, is made publicly from every mosque at the onset of each prayer time, are often struck by the centrality of prayer in daily life. To announce that prayer is ready, the Iqamah (‫ )إقامة‬which means causing the stand is pronounced in a loud voice, though not so loud as the call to prayer (adhan). The sentences of 548 549

Al-shara’ani, (1969), 2/ 137. Al-Asqalani, (1996), 118.

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the adhan are also the sentences which form the iqamah, but with the difference that they may be uttered only once and not repeated, and the following sentence is uttered twice after hayya ‘ala-l-falah: Qad qamati-s-salah 550,‫صلوة‬ َّ ‫قدْ قامت ال‬the additional words of the morning adhan also do no find a place in the Iqama, which is generally recited by the person who call out the adhan, though in his absence anyone else standing behind the imam may do so. When the iqamah has been called out, the followers do not begin the prayer until the Imam starts it by saying “Allahu Akbar” in a loud voice. With the utterance of these words by the Imam, the whole congregation, like the Imam, raises hands to ears while uttering the same words in a low voice. Both the Imam and the followers then recite, still in a low voice, some introductory Dhikr, as stated above, after which the Imam recite the opening chapter of the Qur’an (Fatihah) in a loud voice, pausing slightly after every verse, so that during the interval the followers may slowly repeat each sentence.551 After the Imam has recited the Fatihah, the whole congregation says Amin, either in a low or loud voice, the former, no doubt having the greater effect. After this, the Imam recites in a loud voice any portion of the Qur’an, the followers listing in silence, occasionally glorifying God or praising Him or addressing some petition to Him, in accordance with the subject matter of the verses that are being recited. The procedure is followed in the case of the Morning Prayer, which consists only two rak’ahs and of the first two rak’ahs of the evening and early prayers.552 In the case of the first two rak’ahs of early afternoon and the late afternoon, prayer is more in the nature of meditation than a recital, like the private prayer, and the Imam and the followers individually recite the Fatihah and a portion of the Qur’an inaudibly. In the last two rak’ahs of the both the afternoon prayers and the early night prayer, as well as in the last rak’ah of the sunset prayer, the Fatihah is recited in a similar manner, individually and inaudibly. All the takbirs uttered at the changes of posture, and the final taslim ending the prayer, are, however, uttered by the Imam in a loud voice in all congregational prayers, and so is the dhikr sami’ Allahu li-man hamidahu recited or raising from ruku, while the followers in the last case say in a low voice, Rabba-na Wa- la-kal hamd. The dhikr in ruku and sajdah and the sitting posture is repeated in a low voice by the Imam, as well as those who follow him.553 Allah says in the Holy Qur’ān: ‫صينَ لَه ُ ال ِّدينَ َك َما َبدَأَ ُك ْم‬ ِّ ‫قُ ْل أ َ َم َر َر ِّبي ِّب ْال ِّقس‬ ِّ ‫ْط َوأَقِّي ُمواْ ُو ُجو َه ُك ْم ِّعندَ ُك ِّل َمس ِّْج ٍد َوادْعُوه ُ ُم ْخ ِّل‬ .‫تَعُودُون‬ Say: My Lord has enjoined justice. And fix your attention aright at every time and place of worship, and call upon Him, making yourselves sincere towards Him in religion. As he brought you into being, so shall you return.554

550

Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/ 43. Ali, (1973), 353. 552 Ali, (1973), 354. 553 Ali, (1973), 354. 554 Qur’an, 7:29. 551

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When performed in congregation, prayer provides a strong sense of community, equality and brotherhood. All Muslims are welcome in every mosque, regardless of their race, class or nationality. There is no minimum number of congregants required to hold communal prayers. Traditionally, mosques were the centers of their communities, where believers gathered five times daily or, at minimum, once a week. There, the poor found food and assistance; the homeless, shelter; the student of religion, learning. Because of the centrality of prayer in Muslim religious life, mosques are often the dominant structures in Muslim villages, towns and cities. Traditionally, great attention was paid to making these houses of worship more than just halls for prayer. Governments, individuals and communities invested huge sums to make their mosque the visual focus of its neighborhood. In particular, the great mosques, in which the Friday obligatory congregational prayer was held, often became magnificent examples of architecture and art.555 Prayer in congregation (jama'ah) is considered to have more social and spiritual benefit than praying by one. When praying in congregation, the people stand in straight parallel rows behind the chosen imam, facing qibla. The imam, who leads the congregation in salat, is usually chosen to be a scholar or the one who has the best knowledge of the Qur'an. In the first row behind the imam, if available, would be other scholars to correct the imam in case a mistake is made during the performance of the Salat. The prayer is performed as normal, with the congregation following the actions and movements of the imam as he performs the Salat. Upon entering the mosque, "Tahiyyatul masjid" may be performed; this is to pay respects to the mosque. Every Muslim entering the mosque is encouraged to perform these two rakats. When the worshippers consist of men and women combined, a man is chosen as the imam. In this situation, women are typically forbidden from performing this role. This point, though unanimously agreed on by the major schools of Islam, is disputed by some groups, based partly on a hadith whose interpretation is controversial. When the congregation consists entirely of women and pre-pubescent children, one woman is chosen as imam. When men, women, and children are praying, the children's rows are usually between the men's and women's rows, with the men at the front and women at the back. Another configuration is where the men's and women's rows are side by side, separated by a curtain or other barrier, with the primary intention being for there to be no direct line of sight between male and female worshippers, following a Qur'anic injunction toward men and women each lowering their gazes. Say to the believing men that they should restrain their eyes and guard their private parts. That is purer for them. Surely, Allah is well aware of what they do. And say to the believing women that they restrain their eyes and guard their private parts, and that they disclose not their natural and artificial beauty except that which is apparent thereof.556 It is worthy to note that the salah must be performed in the Arabic language. Naturally a man would like to unfold his heart before his maker by praying in the language in which he http://www.isca.org.Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ritual prayer: Its Meaning and Manner (15/10/2012). 556 Qur'an 24:31â&#x20AC;&#x201C;32. 555

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can most readily express his feelings, and this is fully recognized in Islam. Not only in private prayer but in the course of the public services as well, the worshipper is at liberty to pray to God in his own tongue, after or during the recitation of portions of the Qur’an in a standing posture, or after utterance of words of Di‫ر‬nine glory(‫ )تكبير‬in that of bowing down or prostration. In the public service such prayers would understand be limited, since the worshiper must follow the imam, but in the private portion they may be of any length.557 The unification of Muslims through prayer is as much an end and object of prayer as to bring man into communion with God. If there were a babel of languages prevailing in these gatherings, the object of unification of the human race through Divine service an idea unique to Islam would fail together. The bond of a common language is one of the greatest factors towards unification, and this bond Islam has established by the use of common language at the Divine service. This language, it is evident, could be none other than Arabic, the language of the Qur’an. Anyone who realizes the grand object which Islam has set before itself of unifying the human race through Divine service, will at once appreciate the necessity of having that service in Arabic.558 In certain circumstances, one may be unable to perform one's prayer within the prescribed time (waqt). In this case, the prayer must be performed as soon as one is able to do so. Several Ahadith narrate that Prophet Muhammad stated that permissible reasons to perform Qad’a Salah are forgetfulness and accidentally sleeping through the prescribed time. However, knowingly sleeping through the prescribed time for Salat is deemed impermissible.559 It also compulsory that the missed prayers have to be repaid before the performance of a current prayer even if the period of the current prayer is very tight, provided the missed prayers are not more than five prayers. If they are more than five prayers, the current ritual prayer shall be observed first, when the remaining period for the current prayer is very tight.560 One, who remembers a missed ritual prayer while he is on a current one, would have to arrange them chronologically. If one is a lone worshiper one would break the prayer provided a rak’ah has not been completed by the placing of one’s hands on the knees. If it has been completed, one should add one rak’ah to it before terminating it on the second rak’ah.561 When travelling over long distances, one may shorten some prayers, a practice known as qasr. Furthermore, several prayer times may be joined, which is referred to as Jam' bayn as-Salaatayn. Qasr involves shortening the obligatory components of the Dhuhr, Asr, and Isha'a prayers to two raka'ah. Jam' bayn as-Salaatayn combines the Dhuhr and Asr prayers into one prayer offered between noon and sunset, and the Maghrib and Isha'a prayers into one between sunset and Fajr. Neither Qasr nor Jam' bayn as-Salaatayn can be applied to the Fajr prayer. While shorting the prayers the Sunnah may be dropped all together.562 Ibn Abbas reported: “The prophet, stayed for nineteen days shortening the prayer, so when we were in journey for nineteen days we shortened, and when it was above that we completed the prayers.”563 According to this tradition, a person who has 557

Ali, (1973), 303 Ali, (1973), 303-304 559 Quadri, (1990), 48. 560 Quadri, (1990), 48. 561 Quadri, (1990), 48. 562 Ali, (1975), 157. 563 Ali, (1975), 157. ‫ص ْرنا وان زدنا‬ َّ َ‫صر فنحن اذا سافرنا تسعة عشر ق‬ ِّ َ‫ اقام النبي صلى هللا عليه وسلم تسعة عشر يُق‬:‫قال ابن عباس‬ . ‫أَتْ َم ْمنا‬ 558

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to stay at one place even for nineteen days in the course of a journey may continue to shorting the prayers. But as nineteen days is nowhere spoken of as the limit, the prayers may be shortened even for a longer periods in such a case. When a person settles down at a place, the case is different, and he must complete the prayer. So also in touring when that is part of the duty of a person.564 During the ritual prayer, if a person forgets to do one of the actions of prayer he can make up for certain actions by performing two prostrations called in Islamic terminology sujud-us-shawl (‫ )سجودالسهو‬at the end of the prayer. This can only be done if specific types of actions are forgotten by the person praying. In another words if a person commits a mistake during prayer, which affects the validity of the prayer, or he is in doubt whether he has offered the prescribed number of Rak’aat, the prostration of condonement are necessary.565 The prostrations are offered after the recitation of Tashahud, and As-Salatu ala-nabbiy, and other prescribed prayers in the final Q’adah (sitting) of the prayer. Thus, after saying Allahu Akbar, two prostrations are performed, in which Subhana Rabbi yal A’alaa is recited, then the Imam reverts back to Q’adah position and says Assalamu Alaikum wa Rahmatullah turning his face towards the right and then towards the left, to make the end of the prayer. If the Imam commits a mistake, which can be condoned by the prostrations, then the whole congregation will have to perform those prostrations of condonement, but if one of the followers commits a mistake while following the Imam, he is not required to perform the prostrations of condonement. If there is a doubt as to how many Rak’ahs have been performed, then one should observe the rule of certainty, i.e. if the doubt is whether one has offered three or four Rak’ah, for instance, one should offer the four Rak’ahs to be on the safe side though one might have offered it before. 566 Muhammad Ali noted: If a mistake is made in prayer, or the worshipper is doubtful about the number of rak’ah, he adds, what is called, sajdah sahw,(sahw meaning mistake) at the close of prayer, just before the taslim…if the imam has made a similar mistake, he along with the whole congregation, performs sajdah sahw.567 5.2.5 Mosque and its role According to the Qur'an, a mosque is God's “sacred house,” a setting for Muslims to perform rituals, and a “meeting place for the people.” The term mosque derives from the Arab word masjid, meaning a “place for (ritual) prostration.” A jami is a congregational mosque used specifically for Friday prayers. In modern times, the words masjid and jami are used interchangeably. The term ‫مصلى‬musalla designates informal areas and open-air spaces set apart for prayers. Although a mosque primarily serves as a place for formal prayer, throughout the history of Islam, its functions have been practical as well as spiritual.568

Sheikh, Abdullah bin Zaid Al-Mahmud, “min ahkam qasr al-salat”, ‫من أحكام قصر الصالة‬Al-Ummah‫مجلة األمة‬, 5, no. 55, (1985): 14-15. 565 Al-shara’ani, (1969), 1/158. 566 Al-shara’ani, (1969), 1/158 567 Ali, (1973), 354 568 "Muslim Journeys | Item #245: 'Mosque' from Oxford Islamic Studies Online", February 25, 2016 http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/245. 564

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Building a mosque is a prophetic and Islamic tradition of Muslim Communities. One of the first things that the Prophet Mohammed "Peace be upon him" did when he entered Medina, is to build a mosque, the mosque of Quba. Subsequently wherever the Muslim's have gone, they have built a Mosque for their needs in that community. 569 Muhammad reportedly said: “The earth is a mosque for you, so pray wherever you happen to be when prayer time comes.” In another report he said: The Prophet Muhammad once remarked, "I have been given by God some distinctions which my predecessors did not have, one of these being that the whole expanse of the earth has been made a Masjid (mosque) for me.570" Although Islam places few restrictions on the place of prayer, wherever Muslims have settled in large numbers, one of their first tasks has been to erect a mosque. As Islam spread, mosques appeared across the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. But the model of early mosques, was the courtyard of Muhammed's house in Medina, which was constructed in 622 AD.571 Thus, Mosque is one of the most fundamental bodies in Islam that is known to play a major role in the distribution of knowledge, truth and justice. They are used as a place to worship Allah the almighty and this is a great role of mosque in Islam. Besides that they, are used as a place to hold meetings regarding significant matters. In the past and even these days, young children get religious education from the mosques. Muslim rulers and caliphs of almost all the era paid special attention on the construction the mosques around the country keeping in mind the role of mosque in Islam. As mosque is considered as a house of Allah, it has superior veneration and respect in the eyes of Muslims.572 It was one of the events that marked the establishment of the Islamic community. Muslims assembled at this house-mosque for prayer and to discuss business matters. The mosque became Muhammad's burial site. The mosques of Medina, Mecca, and Jerusalem have special status in Islam. According to the hadith, a visit to the Medina mosque will win Muhammad's intercession on the Day of Judgment. The Kaaba, a shrine located near the center of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, is said to be the earthly representation of God's throne in heaven. Muslims believe that the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem is the site of the Prophet's famous Night Journey. When Prophet Muhammad received the command from God to lead the Muslim community in five daily prayers, their prayers were directed towards the holy city of Jerusalem. For Muslims, the city of Jerusalem is an important site. As the home of numerous prophets of Islam such as Dawud (David), Sulayman (Solomon), and ‘Isa (Jesus), the city was a symbol of Islam’s past prophets. When Prophet Muhammad made the miraculous Night Journey from Makkah to Jerusalem and the Ascent into Heaven that night (known as the Isra’ wal-Mi’raj), it acquired an added importance as the place where the Prophet led all the earlier prophets in prayer and then ascended to Heaven.573

Shahid Athar. “Roles of a Mosque in a Muslim Community.” Available at: http://www.imana.org (25/02/2016). 570 www.nedians.8m.com/mosque.htm accessed (1/3/2016). 571 http://www.allaboutturkey.com accessed (1/3/2016). 572 http://www.jerusalem.com accessed (1/3/2016). 573 http://.www.lostislamichistory.com accessed (1/3/2016). 569

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Muslims built mosques nearly everywhere they settled. During the conquests of Iraq and North Africa in the 600s, advancing Arab armies created prayer spaces in the center of their camps. As military posts developed into cities, such as Basra and Kufa (in Iraq) and Fustat (on the future site of Cairo in Egypt), prayer spaces evolved into buildings. In some captured foreign cities, Muslims converted temples, churches, and palaces into mosques. In the early period of Islam, the mosques in cities were usually one of two types. Large state buildings were used for Friday prayer and community assemblies. Muslim caliphs and their appointed governors often established their residences close to these mosques. Small mosques were built and operated by various groups within the community. Both state and private mosques depended on donations and waqf endowments for support.574 As the Islamic empire grew, the number of mosques increased. For example, FustatCairo had one congregational mosque during the 600s. By the 1400s, it had 130, along with several hundred additional small mosques. Other cities, such as Damascus and Aleppo in Syria and Fez in Morocco, followed a similar pattern. Beginning in the mid-1400s, the Ottomans took over much of the central Islamic world. During the reign of Mehmed II (ruled 1451 – 1481), they built almost 200 new mosques. Both Shi'is and Sufis have played major roles in the construction of mosques over the tombs of the Prophet, his family, and other holy men and women. These tomb-mosques became pilgrimage sites, and some functioned as congregational mosques as well. During the late 1900s, Muslims built mosques at an unprecedented rate. Several factors contributed to this surge: the Muslim population greatly expanded during this period, Arab oil revenues boosted state and private support for mosques, and Muslims increasingly sought to maintain their identity in an ever-changing global society.575 The Islamic world is noted for its distinctive architecture, and the mosque is its most impressive example. Early mosque designers modeled their buildings on Muhammad's mosque-house in Medina. Unfired brick walls surrounded the spacious open courtyard, which contained rooms for the Prophet and his wives. The prayer area had a roof supported by columns made of the trunks of palm trees. Mosque design has undergone many changes since the 600s, and the characteristics of mosques vary. Generally, the building includes a large open area—sometimes covered by a roof—for prayer. Mats or carpets cover the floor. The imam delivers the Friday sermon from the minbar, a platform modeled on the stone structure that the Prophet ascended to give his sermons. The minbar stands next to the mihrab, a semicircular niche set into a wall of the mosque to indicate the direction of Mecca.576 Islamic law requires Muslims to perform ritual washing (ablution) before prayer. Mosques contain ziyadahs, walls that hold the facilities for ablution. Outside the mosque stands the minaret, a tower from which the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer five times a day. In addition, mosques include a separate chamber for women, because female worshippers are not permitted to pray in the main area with men. Mosque walls are decorated with mosaics, 574

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verses from the Qur'an, and sometimes, the names of Muhammad and his companions. The buildings do not, however, include pictures, statues, or ritual objects.577 All Muslims are required to practice the five Pillars of Islam; one pillar is prayer five times each day and community prayer in the mosque on Fridays. The mosque basically exists as a place for Muslims to perform these rituals. Even so, this institution serves a variety of other functions. Today, as in the past, mosques hold great social, political, and educational importance. The Qur'an and Sunnah provide two models for the connection between the mosque and society. One portrays the mosque as a place reserved for spiritual matters, and the other depicts it as the hub of public affairs. Most mosques combine aspects of both models, to a greater or lesser degree. Some mosques may be situated in relatively isolated areas, while others are located in a capital city or in a busy neighborhood. Builders may design mosques as a composite complex. For example, the SĂźleymaniye kĂźlliye of Istanbul, built in the 1500s, consists of a congregational mosque, two schools, a hospital, a public bath, a public kitchen, fountains, housing, shops, cafes, and a cemetery, among other sections.578 Historically, mosques had an established hierarchy. At the top was the imam, an individual who had a thorough knowledge of the sacred Islamic texts. Religious scholars and jurists were also members of the core leadership. They often served as intermediaries between the ruler and the people. Village and tribal mosques sometimes incorporated devotion to holy men or women, usually deceased, who acted as intercessors with God. A chosen disciple or descendant of the saint was usually the unofficial leader in such settings. Today mosques fall under either government or private sponsorship. In the case of a government mosque, the buildings and staff receive financial support from the state. The Ministry of Religious Affairs or its equivalent hires a professional preacher and monitors his performance. By contrast, a private mosque receives funds from charitable associations. The congregation usually sets the agenda and selects the preacher. Some private mosques attract a sizable following, and their preachers attain social and political prominence. 579 Although practices vary across the Islamic world, important rituals and ceremonies often take place in the mosque. Muslims commonly place the body of a deceased relative before the mihrab for funerary prayers. Believers frequently visit their mosques before and after the hajj or a minor pilgrimage. Mosques also serve as the centers for the collection and distribution of zakat (charity). Business agreements may be reached in a mosque. During times of crisis, Muslims gather at a mosque for mutual support and guidance.580 Since the days of Muhammad, the mosque has been a center of political activity. Early mosques were gathering places for political discussion and debate. Pious Muslim rulers placed great importance on building a central mosque, usually located near the palace. In recent years, the mosque has become even more politically relevant for several reasons. Mosques provide a forum for the exchange of ideas and an opportunity to challenge the questionable practices of the authorities. Under oppressive regimes, a preacher may use his sermon to 577

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criticize the country's leadership. Since the 1970s, some Muslim rulers have elevated the importance of the mosque. Saudi Arabia's King Faysal and Iran's Ayatollah Khomeini, for example, attended Friday prayers and publicized these events. In the process, such leaders created a sense of cultural pride and encouraged other Muslims to follow their example. Globalization has enabled imams to relate local issues to international events. 581 In this way, the mosque can shape a unified Muslim response to contemporary political issues. In many Muslim societies, private mosques are the main focus of opposition to the government, and therefore, subject to increasing control. During the 1990s, for example, the Egyptian government attempted to incorporate many of these institutions into its administrative system. The authorities often pressure the imams of government-controlled mosques to avoid preaching about political topics. In some instances, government officials write the sermons to be delivered at the mosques. From the beginning of Islam, the mosque has functioned as a center of religious education. At an early age, children learned to memorize passages from the Qur'an and hadith. At a higher level, mosques enabled Muslims to advance their religious knowledge through inquiry, debate, and discussion. At the turn of the nineteenth century the major Sunni mosques providing education were the Great Mosques in Mecca ‫مسجد الحرم‬and Medina‫مسجد النبوي‬, Cairo's al-Azhar mosque‫جامع األزهر‬, Zaytunah in Tunis‫جامع الزيتونة‬, and Qarawiyin in Fez ‫جامع‬ ‫القرويين‬. In modern times mosques have continued to serve as centers of religious instruction, inquiry, discussion, and debate, but religious education on the higher levels has been transferred to modern Islamic universities, institutes, and faculties of Islamic religious studies and Shari’ah. Nevertheless, most mosques emphasized a set body of religious knowledge consisting of the Qur'an, Sunnah, and Shari'ah.582 For centuries, mosques provided higher education in scripture and law. Certain features were characteristic of the great Sunni mosques during the early 1800s. Revenues from ‫وقف‬waqf endowments and donations from wealthy Muslims financed the educational system. Although some students traveled great distances to study with respected religious scholars, most were from nearby towns and villages. Mosques attracted students from a wide range of economic backgrounds. For students from poor, rural families, a mosque education provided an opportunity for upward mobility. Young, affluent Muslims pursued a mosque education as an avenue to important government or religious positions. Knowledge of classical Arabic was a requirement for mosque studies. Religious scholars lectured from a favorite pillar in the mosque with students gathered at their feet. After a student completed several years of study under a particular teacher, the teacher issued an ‫إجازة‬ijazah (written statement) certifying that the student had successfully mastered certain texts and was qualified to teach them. Mosques did not have required courses, and students did not receive an official degree or diploma other than the ‫إجازة‬ijazah.583 Between 1850 and 1950, mosque education underwent major changes. Reformers of that period encouraged Muslims to pursue modern learning, arguing that a modern education 581

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was the key to overcoming European dominance. As Muslim countries achieved independence from colonial rule, their new governments reduced the power of the traditional religious authorities, which extended to education practices. Beyond these forces, however, economic and social changes were the primary causes of the decline of traditional mosque education. As younger Muslims embraced secular, nationalist ideas, this type of education declined in status and value. In recent decades, the modern Islamic university has become the preferred place for higher education in the religious sciences. Mosque education persists at the elementary level and in informal ways, such as adult instruction in the Qur'an and Sunnah.584 Muslims who settled in Western Europe and North America during the early 1900s expressed little interest in establishing Islamic institutions. Many of them expected to earn enough money to be able to return to their native countries. Even when they decided to remain in the West, they lacked the resources to build mosques. Consequently, many held prayer services in their homes. By the 1930s, Muslim immigrants sought more formal ways to observe their religious traditions and to affirm their social identity. Mosque construction began slowly, but after 1970, building activity increased significantly. Several factors caused the dramatic growth in the number of mosques and Islamic centers in Europe and North America. Muslim populations in the West increased. Muslim governments, rich from oil revenues and eager to cultivate Islamic communities abroad, provided the funding for mosque construction. Several European governments even supported the mosque movement, largely out of concern that minority Muslim populations would become angry and frustrated if they did not have a voice in the community.585 By the beginning of the twenty-first century, the United States had an estimated 1,450 mosques, Islamic centers, and prayer halls. More than 5,000 were located in Europe, and almost one-half of them were in Germany. Mosques in the West vary in style. Muslims in the United States often convert former churches or other buildings into mosques. For Muslims living in the West, mosques serve many of the same social, political, and educational functions that they did at home. In addition, they forge a sense of solidarity among the members of the minority Muslim population. Many turn to the mosque as a haven from discrimination and a place to receive moral support. At the mosque, Muslims affirm their shared values and reinforce their Islamic identity.586 In modern times, governments have attempted to control mosque administration, the appointment of its officials, and the content of the ‫خطبة‬khutbah in order to direct and control the nature of Islamic debate in society. Preachers are considered to be government employees and are encouraged to discuss religious topics, such as fasting, praying, and respect and obedience to those in authority, rather than current political issues. In contrast, the popular ‫خطبة‬khutbah, which is uncontrolled by the government, is often a highly emotional and topical speech that combines discussions of mainstream Islamic thought and history with national problems and crises interpreted in the context of local politics and international crises related to Muslims. Common themes include the eternal, universal struggle between good and evil, 584

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where the West, especially the United States, symbolizes moral and spiritual decadence, and the necessity of jihad, or holy struggle, in the face of injustice. The analysis is usually presented in black and white terms and targets corrupt rulers, inequalities between rich and poor, and the inefficiency of government. Many of these popular preachers oversee large congregations and become prominent social and political voices. The faithful take off their shoes before entering the house of worship out of respect for its sanctity and in keeping with the commandment to the Prophet Moses, when he entered the hallowed ground around the burning bush: ُ ‫اخلَ ْع نَ ْعلَيْكَ إِّنَّكَ بِّ ْال َوا ِّد ْال ُمقَد َِّّس‬ ْ َ‫سى إِّنِّي أَنَا َربُّكَ ف‬ .‫ط ًوى‬ َ ‫فَلَ َّما أَت َاهَا نُودِّي يَا ُمو‬ “And when he came to it, he was called by a voice, O Moses! I am thy Lord, therefore put off thy shoes, for thou art in the sacred valley of Ţūwā.” 587 When entering the mosque, a person shall take off his shoes or sandals. Entering the mosque shall be done with the right foot first. It was reported that the Prophet said: “When one of you enters the mosque, he should say, ‫‘اللهم افتح لي َأبواب رحمتك‬O Allah! Open for me the doors of Thy mercy; and when he goes out, he should say, ‫‘اللهم إني َأسألك من فضلك‬O Allah! I beg of Thy grace of Thee.”588 Once inside the mosque, two rak'as shall be performed. A person inside the mosque shall talk softly, not loudly, so that he or she does not disturb people praying. For the Friday prayer, nice clothes and perfumes, are recommended.589 Praying with the shoes on, is permitted, but the shoes must be clean and not dirty. The practice has, however, grown of removing the shoes at the door of the mosque as a mark of respect to the mosque and to ensure cleanliness. Keeping the mosque clean and neat is an act of great merit.590 5.2.6

Supererogatory prayers (Nawafil)

In addition to the obligatory prayers, Islam has prescribed some supererogatory prayers attached to each of the main obligations beside the decreed prayers for example Nafl prayers are also required as defined and explained by the shari’ah. We may call these prayers Sunnah. These Nawafil associated with the five obligatory prayers are: Two rak’ahs before the obligatory Fajr Prayer, two raka’ahs before the obligatory Dhuhur Prayer and two rak’ahs after it, two rak’ahs before the obligatory Asr Prayer, two rak’ahs after the obligatory of Maghrib Prayer and two rak’ahs after the obligatory of Isha’a prayer591 and Sala-al-witr. The meaning of the Arabic word Witr is odd and is the name given to the single rak’ah, which is separated from all which has gone before. The appointed time for Witr prayers starts from shortly after the Isha’ prayers and runs up to the break of down as defined by the prophet, “who said: “perform the witr prayers between the Isha’a and Fajr prayers”.592 To be on the Qur’an, 20:12-13. Ali, (1975), 88 589 Mosque in Islam. www.mosque.com (3/3/2016) 590 Ali, (1975), 317-318. 591 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/16. 592 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/16. 39. 587 588

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safe side, it would be better to perform the witr prayers early at night to avoid oversleeping although it is much preferable to postpone it until after midnight.593 Witr can be done in 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3, or one rak’ah, but 3 rak’ahs are more preferable at least, with two tssalims. In this method witr is preceded by Shaf, which is demarcated from it by the utterance of Assalamu alaykum. Then the hands are raised to recite qunut, upon which the believer can recite any du'a supplication, however there are many recommended du'as for this purpose. Such as: َ ‫ار ْك ِّلي فِّي َما اَ ْع‬ َ‫ضيْت‬ َ َ‫طيْتَ َوقِّنِّي ش ََّر َماق‬ ِّ ‫اَللَّ ُه َّم ا ْه ِّدنِّي فِّ َم ْن َهدَيْتَ َو َعافِّنِّي فِّي َم ْن َعافَيْتَ َوت ََولَّنِّي فِّي َم ْن ت ََو َّليْتَ َو َب‬ 594 َ َّ ُ َ ‫ضاكَ ِّم ْن‬ َ ‫ اَلل ُه َّم اِّنِّي أعُوذ بِّ ِّر‬. َ‫ار ْكتَ َربَّنَا َوتَعَاليْت‬ َ ‫ضي َوالَيُ ْق‬ ِّ ‫اِّنَّكَ ت َ ْق‬ َ َ‫ضى َعلَيْكَ اِّنَّهُ الَيَ ِّذ ُّل َم ْن َّوالَيْتَ تَب‬ ‫صي ثَنَا ًء َعلَيْكَ أَ ْنتَ َك َما أَثْ َنيْتَ َعلَى‬ ُ ‫ َو أَعُوذ ُ ٍب َم َعافَافَاتِّكَ ِّم ْن‬, َ‫َطك‬ ِّ ‫سخ‬ ِّ ْ‫ َوأَعُوذ ُ ِّبكَ ِّم ْنكَ الَ أَح‬, َ‫عقُو َبتِّك‬ َ 595 ْ . َ‫نَفسِّك‬ Allah-humma-hadini fi-man hadaita, wa afi-ni fi-man a’faita, wa tawallani fi-man tawallaita, wa-barikli fi-ma’ataita, Wa-qini shara ma’a qadhaita, inaka taqdhi wala yuqdha alai-ka, inna-hu la yadhillu man wa’alaita, taba’arakta rabba-na wa ta’alaita. Allah-Humma inni audhu biridhaka min skhatika, wa audhu bimuafa’atika min uqubatika, wa audhu bika minka la husi thana’an alaika anta kama athnaita ala nafsika. O Allah! Guide me with those whom You have Guided, and strengthen me with those whom You have given strength, take me to Your care with those whom you have taken to Your care, Bless me in what You have given me, Protect me from the evil you have Ordained. Surely you Command and are not commanded, and non whom you have committed to your care shall be humiliated [and non whom you have Taken as an enemy shall taste glory]. You are blessed, our Lord, and Exalted. O Allah! I seek Refuge with Your Pleasure from Your Anger. I seek refuge in Your Forgiveness from Your Punishment. I seek refuge in You from You. I cannot count Your Praises; you are as you have Praised Yourself. The position at which the devotion call for request can be said is either before ruku, or after qiyam from ruku, jurists are of the opinion that it could be done before or after the ruku.596 It was reported that the prophet, Abu Bakr and Umar did it after standing up from ruku, but Uthman did it before he goes to ruku. But widely, the scholars of Islam and the regular practice at, the Holy mosque of Mecca is to recite the Qunut after getting up from Ruku, in the 3rd Rak’ah of Witr. There is also a prayer called Tahajjud prayer. This prayer is offered in the early hours of the morning i.e. before the Fajr (Morning) prayer. Its time starts after midnight. It is to be offered in two Raka’ats each, totaling eight Raka’ats if the witr has been said with Ish’a, 593

Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/16. 42. Al-Shawkani, (1965), 3/ 42. 595 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 3/ 43. 596 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/164 594

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Tahajjud prayer would consist of only eight rak’ahs, otherwise it would be eleven rak’ahs. Preferably, it should be offered at home and alone. But it may be offered in the mosque and, in time of great danger, in congregation also.597 The prophet laid special stress on Tahajjud in the month of Ramadan, and it was the Tahajjud prayer that ultimately took the form of Tarawih in that month.598 The number of rak’ahs in the Tarawih prayers seems, at first, to have been eleven being the exactly the number of rak’ahs in the Tahajjud prayer including three witr rak’ahs. It is held that Umar at first ordered eleven rak’ahs, but later on, the number seems to have been increased to twenty rak’ahs of Tarawih and three rak’ahs of witr, making a total of twenty three. And this practice is maintained throughout the Muslim world, the Ahl-ahdith (‫ )اهل الحديث‬and the Ahmadis599 (‫ )احمديون‬being the almost the only exception.600 It is the customary for the Imam to recite the whole of the Qur’an in Tarawih during the month of fasting, whether the number of rak’ahs is eight or twenty. 5.2.7 Other important Prayers Beside the (As-salat al mafrudah) the five compulsory daily obligatory prayers, other important prayers are: the Friday prayer (jumu'ah), Salat al Eidain and the funeral prayer (janazah). i) Salat al-Jumu'ah is a congregational prayer on Friday, which replaces the dhuhr prayer. It is compulsory upon every adult man to perform it in congregation. However, those who are sick, blind or disabled those on a journey, and women are exempt from the obligation of attending the prayer at the mosque. The can join in the prayer if they so wish, but if they cannot attend the Friday prayer, they have to offer dhuhr salat instead, as the Friday prayer is offered in place of dhuhr prayer. There are two adhans for Friday prayer. The first adhan is recited when the sun begins to decline and the second is recited just before the imam stands up before the congregation to deliver his sermon.601 Friday prayer is an occasion for the assembly of a whole city or a town. In a large city, Friday prayer can be offered in more than one place for the convenience of the Muslim community. It gives them an opportunity to meet together to discuss and solve their individual as well as community problems. Getting together once a week develops unity, co-operation and cohesiveness among Muslims. Friday prayer is also a demonstration of Islamic equality.602 It gives the imam a chance to advise all Muslims at the same time on urgent matters that face them. The imam’s sermon gives them guidance in Islamic teachings. Salat al-Jumu'ah consists of a sermon (khutba) given by the speaker (khatib) after which two rak'ah are performed. There is no Salat al-Jumu'ah without a khutba. The sermon consists of two parts. 597

Naseem Saifi: Muslim Prayer, Rabwah: The Oriental& Religious Publishing Corporation Ltd.,1965), 24 Ali, (1973), 372. 599 Ahmadis are the followers of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement, who declared that he was the “Promised One” of all religions, fulfilling the eschatological prophecies found in world religions. Ahmadis subscribe to the same beliefs as most Muslims, but with a difference of opinion regarding Khatam alNabuwwah (finality of prophethood). The Articles of Faith are identical to those believed in by Sunni Muslims, and are based on traditions of Prophet Muhammad himself. 600 Ali, (1973), 374. 601 Al-shara’ani, (1969), 1/ 185. 602 Salat, the Muslim Prayer Book, (Tilford: Islam International Publications Ltd, 1996), 58. 598

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In the first part, the imam, after the recitation of Ta’awudh (‫ )التعوُّ ذ‬and Surat fatiha, advises the gathering to act upon the commandments of Allah and also about the duties they have to perform to become good Muslims. The sermon can also deal with any other matter of importance. This part of the sermon can be delivered in any language. After delivering the first part of the sermon, the imam sits down for a short while, then stands up again and starts with the second part which is in Arabic and which reads as follows: ُ ‫ َونَعُوذُ بِّاهللِّ ِّم ْن‬.‫اَلـْ َح ْمد ُ ِّ َّّللِّ نَـحْ َمدُهُ َونَ ْست َ ِّعيـنُهُ َونَ ْستَ ْغ ِّف ُرهُ َونُؤْ ِّمنُ بِّ ِّه َونَت ََو َك ُل َعلَ ْي ِّه‬ ‫ور أَ ْنفُ ِّسنَا َو ِّم ْن‬ ِّ ‫ش ُر‬ ْ ُ‫ض َّل لَهُ َو َم ْن ي‬ ِّ ‫س ِّيئ َا‬ ُ‫ َونَ ْش َهد ُ أ َ ْن الَاِّهللَ اِّالَّ هللاُ َوحْ دَه‬.ُ‫ِّي لَه‬ ِّ ‫ َم ْن َي ْه ِّد ِّه هللاُ فَالَ ُم‬,َ‫ت أ َ ْع َما ِّلنا‬ َ َ ‫ض ِّل ْلهُ فَالَ هَاد‬ 603 ْ َ ُ ْ ْ َ ‫ان‬ .ُ‫سوله‬ ُ ‫الَش َِّريكَ لهُ َونَ ْش َهد ُ أ َّن مـ ُ َح َّمدًا َع ْبدُهُ َو َر‬ َ ْ‫ِّعبَادَ هللاِّ َر ِّحـ َم ُك ُم هللا ا َِّّن هللاَ يَأ ُم ُر بِّالعَدْ ِّل َواالِّح‬ ِّ ‫س‬ ُ ‫َاء َواْلـ ُمـْنك َِّر َواْل َب ْغي ِّ َي ِّع‬ ‫كر ُك ْم‬ ِّ ‫َواِّيت َِّاء ذِّي اْلقُ ْربـَى َو َي ْن َهى َع ِّن اْلفَ َخش‬ ُ ْ‫هللا َيذ‬ َ ‫ أُذْ ُك ُروا‬. َ‫ظ ُك ْم لَ َعلَّ ُك ْم تَذَ َّك ُرون‬ َ َ ْ ُ ‫َول ِّذك ُر‬ ‫لك ْم‬ ْ‫يَ ْست َِّجب‬ ُ‫َوادْعُوه‬ ِّ‫هللا‬ .‫أ َ ْكـبَ ُر‬ Alhamduu lilahi nahmaduhu wa nasta’inhu wa nastaghfriruhu wa nu’minu bihi wa natwakkalu alaih. Wa na’udhu billahi min shururi anfusina wamin sayyi’ati a’malina. Man yahdihillahu fala mudhilla lahu wa man uudhlilhu fala hadiya lah. Wa nash-hadu alla ilaha illallahu wahdahu la sharika lahu wa nashadu anna Muhammadan abduhu wa rasuluh. Ibadallah rahima-kumullah. Innallaha y’amuru bil adli walihsan wa itai dhil-qurba. Wa yanha anil fahshaai walmunkari wal-baghyi, yaidhukum la’allakum tadhakkarun. Udhkurullah yadh-kur-kum wad’uhu yastajib lakum. Wala dhikrullahi akbar. The meaning: All praise is due to Allah. We laud Him, we beseech help from Him and ask His protection; we confide in Him, we trust Him alone and we seek protection against the evils and mischief of our souls and from the bad results of our deeds. Whomsoever He guides on the right path, none can misguide him; and whosoever He declares misled, none can guide him onto the right path. And we bear witness that none deserves to be worshipped except Allah. He is alone and has no partner. We bear witness that Muhammad is His servant and Messenger. O servants of Allah! May Allah be merciful to you. Verily, Allah commands you to act with justice, to confer benefits upon each other and do good to others as one does to one’s kindred and forbids evil which pertain to your own selves and evils which affect others and prohibits revolts against a lawful authority. He warns you against being unmindful, you remember Allah; He too remembers you; call Him and He will make a response to your call. Moreover, verily Divine remembrance is the highest virtue. Muslims are required to listen to the sermon attentively. Any type of conversation during the sermon is prohibited.604 After the imam has delivered, the second part of the sermon, the Iqamah is recited and the imam will then led the congregational two Rak’ah of Jumu’ah prayers. It is preferable that the person who delivers the sermon should lead the prayer. The 603 604

Alshara’ani, (1969), 1/ 187. Al-shara’ani, (1969), 1/189.

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imam should recite Surat Fatiha and some verses of the Qur’an in a loud voice during the Jumu’ah prayer. One should offer four Rak’ah of Sunnah prayers before the Jumu’ah congregational prayer and four Rak’ah Sunnah prayers after the congregational Jumu’ah prayer. However two Rak’ah of Sunnah prayers are also allowed instead of four, as mentioned in the famous book of Tradition called Sunan Abi Daud.605 The two Rak’ah of Sunnah prayers to be offered before the Jumu’ah are compulsory and are not dropped even during a journey. A person who comes to the mosque during the sermon should not force his way to the front by jumping over the shoulders of the people already sitting. As the sermon has already begun, he can if wishes, offer two Rak’ah of Sunnah prayers quickly during the sermon. If a person is late for Friday prayer and joins the congregational in the final Q’adah, he should complete his prayer individually after the imam has finished leading the prayer. If however, he misses the congregational prayer completely; such a person should offer dhuhr prayer instead. ii) There are two Eid festivals in the year. One is called Eid-ul-Fitr and the other, which comes about 10 weeks later, is called Eid-ul- Adhha. Eid-ul-Fitr is celebrated at the end of the month of fasting. On Eid-ul-Fitr, one should pay Zakt-ul-Fitr before the Eid prayer. Zakatul-Fitr is spent on the poor and needy so that they too, can join in the festivities of Eid. Every member of the household is required to contribute towards the Zakat-ul-Fitr at the rate fixed for that year.606 Zakat-ul-Fitr is due in respect of children also, even of newborn babies, whose parents are expected to make the necessary payments.607 One should have a full breakfast before proceeding to the Eid-Gah, the place where the Eid prayer is offered.608 Eid-ul-Adhha is celebrated on the 10th of the month of Dhul-Hijjah to commemorate the obedience of Abraham and his son Ishmael. On the Eid ul-Adhha, it is reported that the prophet preferred not to eat anything until he had slaughtered his own animal for sacrifice. With the meat of that sacrifice, he would have the first meal of the day,609 but to eat before that is not forbidden. As was the practice of the prophet, Muslims generally go to the Eid-Gah by one route and return by another route.610 Eid salat or Salat al Eid is performed on the morning of Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adhha. It consists of two raka'at, with seven (or three for the followers Imam Hanafi) takbirs offered before the start of the first raka'ah and five (or three for the followers of Imam Hanafi) before the second. After the salat is completed, a sermon (khutbah) is offered. However, the khutbah sermon is not an integral part of the Eid salat.611 The Eid salat must be offered between sunrise and true noon i.e. between the times for Fajr and Dhuhr. The Takbir is recited from the dawn of the ninth of Dhu al-Hijjah to the thirteenth, and consists of: Allāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar ‫بر‬ ُ َ ‫بر اَهللُ أ َ ْكـ‬ ُ َ ‫ا َهللُ أ َ ْكـ‬ law ilia ill Allāh ُ‫الَ ِّإلَهَ ِّإالَّ هللا‬ wa Allāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar ‫َوهللاُ أ َ ْكـبـ َ ُر اَهللُ أ َ ْكـَبُر‬ Reported in Sunnan Abi Daud, Kitab-us Salat bab Assalat ba’d al Jumu’ah. Al- Asqalani, (1996), 232. 607 Al- Asqalani, (1996), 232. 608 Al- Asqalani, (1996), 191. 609 Ali, bin Abi Bakar Al-Mirghinani: Al-Hidaya Sharihu Bidayatul Mubtadi, (Beirut-Lebanon: Dar ihyau AlTurath Al-Arabi, 1995), 1. 85. 610 Al- Asqalani, (1996), 191. 611 Al- Asqalani, (1996), 192. 605 606

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wa li-illāhil-ḥamd Allah is the Greatest, Allah is the Greatest, There is no deity but Allah and Allah is the Greatest, Allah is the Greatest and to Allah goes all praise.

612

.ُ ‫َوهللِّ ْال َح ْمد‬

Another version is: Allāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar ‫بر اَهللُ أ َ ْكــَبُر اَهللُ أَ ْكبـ َ ُر‬ ُ َ ‫ا َهللُ أ َ ْكــ‬ lā ilāha illā Allāh ُ‫الَ إِّلَهَ إِّالَّ هللا‬ Allāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar ‫اَهللُ أَ ْكبـ َ ُر اَهللُ أ َ ْكبـ َـ ُر‬ 613 wa li-illāhil.ُ ‫َو ِّ َّللِّ اْلـ َح ْمد‬ Allah is the Greatest, Allah is the Greatest, Allah is the Greatest, There is no deity but Allah Allah is the Greatest, Allah is the Greatest and to Allah goes all praise. iii) Janaza (Death rite). The first procedure for the preparation of a Muslim's body for burial is Body-Washing or "Ghusl. Washing the deceased's body is obligatory on Muslims; it is a Fard Kifaya, i.e., if some members take the responsibility of doing it the need is fulfilled, but if no one fulfills it then all Muslims will be accountable. Washing can be carried out in the following way: A man's body should be washed by men and a women's by women, but a child's body may be washed by either sex. A husband can wash his wife's body and vice-versa if the need arises. Only one person is needed for washing with someone to help and preferably those people who know the deceased. Place the body on a high place, e.g., a table or something similar. Remove the deceased's clothes (garments) leaving the private parts covered. Press the stomach gently and clean whatever comes out. For washing, use a piece of cloth or your hands. Only clean water may be used; add some scented oils (nonalcoholic) in the final wash. It is preferable to use warm water. Perform ablution (wudu) for the body, cleaning the teeth and nose from outside only. Wash three times, but if the body needs more cleaning, continue washing five or seven times, but in it must be odd numbers.614 Turn the body on its left side and begin washing the right side. Then turn it on its right side to wash the left side. This is done in each wash. The first and the second washes are done with water and soap, while the last one with water and scent. Hair should be un-braided, washed and combed, for women it may again be braided in three braids. Dry the body with a clean cloth or towel. Add some perfume on the head, forehead, nose, hands, knees, eyes, armpits, and place perfumed cotton on the front and rear openings.615 The second step is wrapping (‫كفن‬Kafan) the cloth used for wrapping the body must be a clean (preferably white) and should cover the whole body. Add some perfume to the kafan 612

Al-Mirginani, (1995), 1/ 86. Khalid, bin Abdulrahman Al-jarisi: Fatawa ai-shari’yyah fi masai’l al-asriya, .)‫(فتاوى الشرعية في المسائل العصرية‬ (Riyadh: Matab’i Al-Humaidh), 765. 614 Al Jazeeri, Abdul Rahman: Al Fiqh'Ala Al Madhahib Al Arab'a, translated by Nancy Roberts, (Louisville: Fon Vitae, 2009), Volume 1, pp.666-720. 615 (Al Jazeeri), 1/pp.666-720. 613

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(non-alcoholic). Do not use silk cloth for men. Use three pieces of cloth for men and five for women, (each piece of cloth must cover the entire body.) Tie the open cloth at the head and feet, with a piece of cloth (from the same kafan) in such a way that one can differentiate the head from the legs.616 The next step is the Janaza prayer. Unlike any other prayer, the Janaza prayer is to be said in the standing posture. The Holy prophet has instructed the Muslims to bury their dead without undue delay.617 The dead body is therefore washed properly, wrapped in two unsown sheets of clean white cloth from head to foot, and carried on a bier a coffin can also be used to the place where funeral prayer is to be performed. It is placed before the Imam and all those who come for the funeral service stand behind the Imam in row as in any other prayer service. In the Janaza prayer the row should be an odd number. There is no bowing, sitting or prostration in this service. The Janaza service consists of four Takbirs the Imam begins the service by raising his hands to the level of his ears and calling out: - Allah-o-Akbar (Allah is the Greatest), fold his arms on his chest. The Imam should stand by the middle of a female body, and by the head for a male body. Then the Imam as well as the followers recites َ‫اركَ اْ ْس ُمكَ َوت َ َعالَى َجدُّك‬ ُ َ ‫س ْب َحانَكَ أَلَّل ُه َّم َو ِّب َح ْمدِّكَ َوتَ َب‬ 618 َ . َ‫ َو الَ إلهَ َغي ُْرك‬Subhaanak-Allaahumma, WA bihamdika, WA tabaarakasmuka, WA ta'aalaa jadduka, WA laa ilaaha ghayruka Muslims then ask refuge from God from such as 'a’ūdhu bi-llāhi min ash-shayṭāni r-rajīm. The recitation of the Quran begins with. B-ism illāhi r-raḥmāni r-raḥīm. Surah AlFatiha the first chapter of the Holy Qur’an is recited.Al Fatiha silently. The Imam says: Allah-o-Akbar (Allah is the Greatest), for the second time and all recite Blessing for the Holy prophet Muhammad. The Imam say: - Allah-o-Akbar (Allah is the Greatest), for the third time loudly and all recite: - prayer for the deceased. It is narrated that Prophet Muhammad had said: ‫يرنَا َوذَك َِّرنَا َوأ ُ ْنثَانَا اَللَّ ُه َّم َم ْن أَحْ َي ْيتَهُ ِّمنَّا فَاحْ يِّ ِّه‬ َ ‫اللَّ ُه َّم ا ْغ ِّف ْر ِّل َحيِّنَا َو َميِّ ِّتنَا َوشَا ِّه ِّدنَا َوغَائِّبِّنَا َو‬ ِّ ‫يرنَا َو َك ِّب‬ ِّ ‫ص ِّغ‬ 619 ‫ اَلَّل ُه َّم‬.ُ‫ اللُّ ُه َّم الَتَـحـْ ِّر ْمنَا ا َجْ َرهُ َوالَ ت َ ْف ِّتنَا َب ْعدَه‬.‫ان‬ ِّ ‫َعلَى اْ ِّإل ْسالَم َو َم ْن ت ََوفَّ ْيتَهُ ِّمنَّا َفت ََوفَّهُ َعلَى اْ ِّإلي َم‬ ْ ْ َّ ْ ْ َ ‫ْف َع ْنهُ َوا ْك ِّر ْم نُ ُزلَهُ َو َو ِّس ْع َمدْ َخلهُ َوا ْغسِّلهُ بِّالما َ ِّء َوالثلجِّ َوالبـ َ ْر ِّد َون َِّق ِّه‬ ْ ‫ا ْغ ِّف ْر لَهُ َو‬ ُ ‫ارحـ َ ْمهُ َو َعافِّه َواع‬ َ ‫ِّمنَ اْل َخ‬ ,‫ َوأ َ ْهالً َخي ًْرا ِّم ْن أ َ ْه ِّل ِّه‬,ِّ‫ارا َخي ًْرا ِّم ْن دَ ِّاره‬ ً َ‫ َوا ْبد ِّْلهُ د‬,‫ض ِّمنَ الدَّن َِّس‬ ِّ ‫ب اْأل َ ْب َي‬ َ ‫طا َيا َك َما نَ َّقيْتَ الثَّ ْو‬ ْ َ ْ َ ‫ب‬ ,‫القَب ِّْر‬ ‫فِّتنَة‬ ‫َوقِّ ِّه‬ ,‫زَ ْو ِّج ِّه‬ ‫ِّم ْن‬ ‫َخي ًْرا‬ ‫َوزَ ْو ًجا‬ ِّ ‫َو َعذا‬ 620 َّ .‫ار‬ ِّ ‫الن‬ Allahumaghfrir lihayyina wa mayyitina wa shahidina wa ghaibina wa saghirina wa kabirina, wa dhakarina wa unthana. Allahumma man ahyaitahu minna fa ahyihi alal Islam, wa man tawaffaitahu minna fa tawaffahu alal-Iman. Allahumma la tahrimna ajrahu wala taftina b’adah. Allahumma’gfir lahu arhamhu wa a’fih wa’fu an’u wakrim nuzlahu wa wazi madkhalahu waghsilhu bil ma’i wat- thalj wal bard wa naqihu minal khataya’a kama naqaita athab al-abyadh minal ddanas, wabdilhu da’ar khairan min da’arihi, wa ahalan khairan min ahalihi, wa zaojan khairan min zaojihi, waqihi fitnatl qabr wa adhabi-nna’r. 616

(Al Jazeeri), 1/ pp.666-720. Al- Asqalani, (1996), 197. 618 Al-shara’ani, (1969), 2/ 120- 121. 619 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 4/63. 620 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 4/ 64. 617

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O God, forgive our living and our dead, those who are present among us and those who are absent, our young and our old, our males and our females. O God, whoever you keep alive, keep him alive in Islam, and whoever you cause to die, cause him to die with faith. O God, do not deprive us of the reward and do not cause us to go astray after this. Another version of prayer is: O God, forgive him and have mercy on him, keep him safe and sound and forgive him, honour his rest and ease his entrance; wash him with water and snow and hail, cleanse him of sin as a white garment is cleansed of dirt. O God, give him a home better than his home and a family better than his family. O God, protect him from the torment of the grave and the torment of Hell-fire. The funeral service of a child is similar to that one who has reached the age of discretion, ً ‫ألله َّم اجْ عَ ْلهُ لنا فَر‬ except that the prayer after the third takbir is different: 621.‫وذخرا واَجْ ًرا‬ ‫طا وسلفًا‬ ً Allahumma-j’alhu lana furtan wa salafan wa dhkhran wa ajran. The meaning: “O Allah! Make him for us a cause of recompense in the life to come and as one going before and a treasure and a reward.” If one makes du'a with other words, this is acceptable, for example, one could say: ُ‫ َو ِّإل ْن َكانَ ُمسِّ ئًا َفا ْنتَ أ َ ْولَى بِّ ْالعَ ْف ِّو َع ْنه‬,‫سا ًنا‬ َ ْ‫“اللَّ ُه َّم ا ِّْن َكانَ ُمحْ ِّس ًنا َف ِّز ْدهُ إِّح‬O God, if he was a doer of good, then increase his good deeds, and if he was a wrongdoer, then overlook his bad deeds. O God, forgive him and give him the steadiness to say the right thing.” After this the Imam says: Allah-o-Akbar (Allah is the Greatest), for the fourth time and turn his face to the right and recite: - ‫علَ ْي ُك ْم َو َرحـْ َمةُ هللا‬ َّ ‫(ا َل‬peace be upon you and blessings of Allah), then he turn his face َ ‫سالَ ُم‬ to the left and recite the same. The prayer is thus concluded. The body is taken to the cemetery and buried. Those who can go to the cemetery for the burial go along with the funeral procession.623 622

Funeral prayer is a collective obligation of the Muslim community, which means that if a few members of the community conduct the funeral service, they are deemed to have fulfilled the obligation on behave of the whole community. The object of the funeral prayer in Islam is to seek God’s forgiveness and His mercy for the dead. The Muslims are therefore encouraged to participate in the funeral service. It was reported that the Holy prophet said: “If as many as one hundred Muslims should participate in the funeral service of a dead person, all of them interceding for him, their intercession would be granted”.624 In the procession mourners should walk in front or beside the bier. Those who are riding or driving should

621

Al-Shawkani, (1965), 4/ 64. Al-Shawkani, (1965), 4/ 64. 623 Rashid Ahmad Chaudhry: Muslim Festivals and Ceremonies, (Tilford: Islam International Publication Ltd, 1988), 56. 624 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 4/ 54. 622

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follow it. Silence is recommended. It is absolutely forbidden to accompany the body with music or crying. Though, as a general role, the coups is placed in front of the congregation for funeral service, yet in certain cases it is also permissible to offer funeral prayer even without the coups. This is called Janaza al-ghaibah )‫ )جنازة الغائبة‬the funeral service without the coups being in laid in front of the Imam, who lead the prayer service. The situation gives a chance to the relatives, friends and acquaintances of the deceased who are living far away, and therefore could not be physical present at the service, to conduct the service at their own places and pray for the deceased. It should be remembered, however, that the Janaza in the absent of the coups can only be performed after the burial and not before. This provision also covers the cases where it is impossible to obtain the dead body for burial e.g. drowning or the fire incident.625 After the funeral prayer, the body should be taken to the cemetery for burial without any delay. The coffin should be carried on shoulders and all those who accompany the coffin should take turns in shouldering the coffin. If the body is to be carried to a considerable distance for burial, a vehicle may be used. Those who follow the funeral procession should continue the remembrance of God as well as pray for the forgiveness of the deceased in a low tone. The grave may be prepared either as a dug up area which contains a further niche of land inside for the body to rest on, or it may be just a dug up area. However, it is essential for the grave to be wide and spacious, in extreme cases more than one body can be buried in one grave.626 It is not recommended to use a casket unless there is a need for it, e.g., if the soil is very loose or wet. If the burial at a particular location is meant to be temporary, or if the burial ground is likely to be affected by flood waters, or the body of the deceased is damaged, or for health reasons, or when the grave is wet and cannot be dried, then it is permissible to use an iron or wooden box for the corpse so as to protect the body from decaying prematurely.627 The body most be lowered into the grave with care and caution. The following should be recited when the body is being lowered into the grave: 628 َّ .‫سل ْم‬ ُ ‫سنَ ِّة َر‬ ُ ‫( ِّبس ِّْم هللاِّ َو ِّباهللِّ َو َعلَى‬Bismillahi wa billahi ala sunnati rasulillahi َ ‫صلَى هللاُ َعلَ ْي ِّه َو‬ َ ِّ‫سو ِّل هللا‬ salallahu ‘alahi wa sallam.) The meaning, in the name of Allah and with his blessings, upon the path set by the conduct of the messenger of Allah (Peace and Blessing of Allah be upon him). As the body is placed in the grave, the sheet wrap should be loosened a bit at the opening and the face tilted a little towards the Qibla. Some bricks or stone slabs should be used to cover the niche (lahd) and then sand or loose earth should be heaped. When the burial ceremony is completed, a brief silent congregational prayer with raised hands should be made for the forgiveness of the deceased.629 Condolences must be offered to those related to the deceased. It is commendable for the near and dear ones, or neighbours, to provide meals to the bereaved family for one time at least.630 It is a Muslim’s duty to offer condolences, comfort, and sympathy to the family and 625

Chaudhry, (1988), 57. Al-shara’ani, (1969), 1/216. 627 Salat, (1996), 85. 628 Al-shara’ani, (1969), 1/ 217. 629 Salat, (1996), 85. 630 Al-shara’ani, (1969), 1/ 221. 626

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the relatives of the deceased. This strengthens the relationships within the Muslim community. When offering condolences, words should be chosen carefully and said gently to convey sympathy and to encourage the family and the relatives of the deceased to accept Allah’s will and to help them to get back to their normal life. Condolences may be offered to the family and to the relatives of the deceased before, during or after burial for up to three days, but it may be offered even at later time if someone did not hear about it or he was far away. It is recommended to leave after offering condolences to give the family time to take care of their other affairs, assistance may be offered for anything the family may need, and one may stay to help, if asked. 631 Some families hold gatherings for three days or more, and hire people to recite Quran loudly. While the Quran is recited, others eat, drink or talk, disregarding the rules of listening to the Quran, and inflicting the family with high expenses. It is Sunnah that friends, neighbors and relatives prepare food for the family of the deceased, for the loss of the loved one occupies the family’s whole attention. The condolences and conditions of bereavement should be maintained for three days. After that, life should come back to normal. Arranging a mourning gathering on the day of death, or on the third day after death, or on the seventh, or on the twentieth day, or on the fortieth day, or on the anniversary of the death, all are abominable and heretical practices which people have introduced. These practices have no basis whatsoever in the Quran, in the Sunnah of the Prophet, or in the practices of the early Muslims, may Allah the Exalted have mercy upon them. Some of these practices are done by some Muslims in different countries, but that does not make it the Islamic way.632 However, the period of bereavement as applicable to the widow of the deceased is four months and ten days. Allah says: And as for those of you who die and leave wives behind, these wives shall wait concerning themselves for four months and ten days. And when they have reached the end of their period, no blame shall attach to you concerning anything that they do with regard to themselves in a decent manner.633 The words “concerning anything that they do with regard to themselves,” obviously refer to re-marriage.634 Elsewhere the Qur’an says: “And marry widows from among you,”635 According to the Qur’an, this is a period to stabilize her mentally and emotionally. As women are under a great stress more so than men in this situation are, and they need protection from those who sometimes exploit their helplessness by sympathizing at the time when such women are more vulnerable. Thus, it is forbidden to a man to make an open proposal of marriage to a widow within her prescribed period of waiting. He may drop a hint indirectly suggestive of his intention. However, he must on no account make an open suggestion, a formal proposal, or even a secret proposal concerning marriage.636 A widow, too, is prohibited from giving her consent to such a proposal within the prescribed period. She must patiently wait for four month and ten days, out of deference to 631

Authentic, Step-by-Step, Illustrated Janazah Guide available at: www.missionislam.com/knowledge/janazahstepbystep.htm (17/04/2016) 632 Authentic, Step-by-Step. www.missionislam.com/knowledge/janazahstepbystep.htm 633 Qur’an, 2: 235. 634 Farid, (1969), 98. 635 Qur’an, 24: 33. 636 Farid, (1969), 98.

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the memory of her departed spouse and in order also that her possible pregnancy may become apparent, because a pregnant woman is not allowed to marry until she delivered of the child. During this period, a widow should not leave her house except for unavoidable needs. In case she is the only earning hand in the family and she has to keep up her job obligations, then she is allowed to go out for performing her essential professional responsibilities, without socializing herself.637 She may further abstain from wearing make-up, dressing up festively, using perfume or taking part in festive ceremonies. 5.3. Fasting (Saum or Siyam) ‫صوم أو صيام‬ 5.3.1 Significance of Fasting The signification of saum is abstaining, in an absolute sense. In the technical language of the Islamic law, ‫صوم‬saum and ‫صيام‬siyam signify fasting or abstaining from food and drink and sexual intercourse from down to till sunset.638 The institution of fasting in Islam came after the institution of prayer. It was in Medina in the second year of Hijrah that fasting was made obligatory, and the month of Ramadan was set apart for this purpose. Before that prophet used to fast, as an optional devotion, on the tenth day, it being a fasting day for the Quraysh as well. The origin of fasting in Islam may thus be traced to the time when the prophet was still at Mecca, according to ibn Abbas, it was after his flight to Medina that he saw Jews fasting on the tenth day of ‫محرم‬Muharam; and being told that Moses had kept a fast on that day in commemoration of the delivery of the Israelites from Pharaoh, he remarked that they (the Muslims) were nearer to Moses than the Jews and ordered that day to be observed as a day of fasting.639 In the Qur’an, the subject of fasting is dealt with only in one place, that is “O you who believe! Fasting is prescribed for you as it was prescribed for those before you, so that you may be guard against evil.”640 The truth of the statement made here that “fasting was prescribed for those before you” is borne out by reference to religious history. The practice of fasting has been recognized well-nigh universally in all the higher, revealed religious, though the same stress is not laid on it on all, and the forms and motives vary.641 Its modes and motives very considerably according to climate, race, civilization and other circumstances; but it would be difficult to name any religious system of any description in which it is wholly unrecognized. Confucianism, is the only exception. Zoroastrianism, which is sometimes mentioned as another exception, is stated as enjoining, “upon the priesthood at least, no fewer than five yearly fasts.”642present-day Christianity may not attached much value to religious devotions of this sort, but not only did the founder of the Christianity himself keep a fast for forty days and observe fasting on the day of atonement like a true Jew, but also commended fasting to his disciples.643 It appears that his disciples did fast, but not as often as did those of the Baptist, and when questioned on that point, his reply was that they would fast more 637

Salat, (1996), 87. Ali, (1973), 393. 639 Ali, (1973), 393. 640 Qur’an, 2: 183. 641 Ali, (1973), 394. 642 Ali, (1973), 394. 643 Moreover, when ye fast, be not as the hypocrites, of a sad countenance: for they disfigure their faces that they may appear unto men to fast. Verily I say unto you, they have their reward. But thou, when thou fastest, anoint thine head, and wash the face. Mathew, 6:16, 17. 638

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frequently when he was taken away.644 The early Christians are also spoken of as fasting.645 Even St. Paul fasted.646 5.3.2 The month of Ramadan Ramadan is the ninth month of the lunar year Muslims regard it to be blessed particularly because: (1) The revelation of the Holy Qur’an commenced in this month, (2) As-Siyam, or fasting, one of the four fundamental practical ordinances, was enjoined upon the Muslims to observe during this month, (3) Unlike other ordinances all guidance for fasting was revealed and completed during this month, (4) The door of the divine blessing is thrown open to all supplicants and their prayers are especially accepted by God in this month, and (5) It was during this month that the prophet exerted himself more in prayers, and exhorted his followers to do the same. 647 More importantly, fasting in the month of Ramadan is one of the five principal pillars of faith in Islam. Therefore, the ninth of the lunar calendar has been reserved, under divine charter, for fasting from the pre-down prayer-hour to sundown. Fasting as prescribed by Islam imposed abstinence from eating, drinking and mating. That is not all. There has to be stricter vigil exercised by the individual over all his activities, his thoughts, his speech and his attitude648. Thus, the month of Ramadan teaches a different lesson of self-denial; it affords the well-todo an opportunity to learn the way of austerity and through voluntary reduction of wants and to the surplus, he can put to the use of his needy brethren. It teaches the poor patience and dignified indifference to the wealth of the wealthy and total reliance on his Creator649. The society of Islam, as envisaged in the Qur’an is thus free from internecine wrangles, the tug-of-war between the so-called haves and have-nots. One is eager to give, the other is unwilling to harbor a grudge and sees no cause in his poverty for quarrel or complaint but appreciates the relief he gets650. Allah says: “Surely, all the believers are brothers.”651 In addition, this observation finds its translation through deeds of benevolence during the Ramadan is a bounden duty, as one of the imperatives of faith, as a link that keeps the nation together, for unless it is cemented as a closely-knit force, the nation of Islam is mere rabble and rubble. 652 644

And they said unto him, why do the disciples of John fast often, and make prayers, and likewise the disciples of the Pharisees; but thine eat and drink? And he said unto them, can ye make the children of the bride chamber fast, while the bridegroom is with them? But the days will come, when the bridegroom shall be taken away from them, and then shall they fast in those days. Luke, 5:33-35 645 As they ministered to the Lord, and fasted, the Holy Ghost said, separate me Barnabas and Saul for the work whereunto I have called them. And when they had fasted and prayed, and laid their hands on them, they sent them away. Acts, 13: 2, 3; and when they had ordained them elders in every church, and had prayed with fasting, they commended them to the Lord, on whom they believed. Acts, 14: 23. 646 In stripes, in imprisonments, in tumults, in labours, in watchings, in fastings; in weariness and painfulness, in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often, in cold and nakedness. 2 Corinthians, 6: 5; 11:27. 647 At-Taya’ar, (2007), 125. 648 Ahmad, M. G. “The Ramadan”. The Review of Religions, LXV, no. 10, (1971):315. 649 Ahmad, S. D. “The blessed month of Ramadan.” The Review of Religions, LXIV, no. 11, (1970): 383. 650 Ahmad, S. D. (1970), 383. 651 Qur’an, 49:11. 652 Soofi, A. G. “The Ramadan, the unifying links”. The Review of Religions, LXVII, no.10 (1972): 302.

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Thus, fasting in the month of Ramadan is a time-honoured institution, finding favour with many religions, thought taking different forms. In Islam, it found its perfection, as did the rest of the duties and directive. 653 The Holy Qur’an says on the duties: O you who believe! Fasting is prescribed for you as it was prescribed for those before you, so that you may become righteous. The prescribed fasting is for a fixed number of days, but who so among you is sick or is on a journey shall fast the same number of other days; and for those who are able to fast only with great difficult is an expiation- the feeding of a poor man. And who so performs a good work with willing obedience, it is better for him. And fasting is good for you, if you only know.654 It is clear from the verses that the idea of the fast has been inculcated in all religious disciplines, which are based on revelation, though strict conformity to the ordinances relating thereto is no longer insisted upon. Indeed, within some disciplines the fast has been reduced to a purely symbolic observance.655 In Islam, the ordinances relating to fasting are clearly stated and defined in scriptures and to the degree of their applicability, they are to be strictly observed. A tendency towards greater rigidity is sometimes encountered and has to be checked and countered through exposition of the true purpose of fasting and of the meaning of the regulations and their spirit.656 Allah says, “The month of Ramadan is that in which the Qur’an was sent down as guidance for mankind with clear proofs of guidance and discrimination”657 i.e., criterion (between right and wrong. The Qur’an is described in this verse as guidance for humankind, and as its revelation took place in the month of Ramadan. Now this raises an interesting point. The verse here is addressing only the believers, so how can Ramadan be described as guidance for the whole of humankind? The answer can be found in the verse quoted earlier where it is stated that previous generations had also been commanded to fast. Subject to the permissible exemptions, the observance of the fast is obligatory upon every adult Muslim during the month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the lunar calendar in Islam. For the last 1350 years, the Muslims of the world have uniformly practiced the observance of this ordinance. Being a month of the Lunar year, fasting ten or eleven days earlier than in the preceding solar calendar year, Ramadan revolves round and witnesses every season whether it is freezing cold or scorching heat. 658 Thus in every part of the earth it progresses through every season in turn.659 The planet on which we live has not the same climate everywhere. Man suffer from every kind of excesses, be it of heat or of cold. The seasons of heat and cold are only relative from one region to another – for instance, winter is a pleasant season in Mecca, but not so near the pole in Canada and northern Europe. Summer is the best season near the poles, but not near the equator and in the sandy deserts. Spring may be midway, but many countries near the equator (in south India, for instance) do not know the rainy season. For a world – wide religion, if it fix some season, it will thus be either a perpetual ease for some or perpetual hardship to others, or inconvenient in some way 653

Ahmad, M. G. (1971), 315. Qur’an, 2:184-185. 655 Muhammad Zafrullah Khan, “Fasting”. The Review of Religions, 91, no.1, (1996):15. 656 Khan, (1996), 15. 657 Qur’an, 2:186. 658 Chaudhry, Muzaffar-ud-Din, “The blessed month”. The Review of Religions, Vol. 104, no. 8, (2009): 27. 659 Ahmad Abid, “Fasting in Religions”. The Review of Religions, 97, no. 3, (2002): 40-41. 654

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to the inhabitants of certain regions of the earth. However, if the seasons are regularly to change for the fasting period, ease and hardship will alternate, and nobody will feel dissatisfied with the practice. Further, this change of season in the matter of fasting means also that one becomes accustomed to fasting in all seasons. 660 In the tropics, when Ramadan falls in the summer season, not only are days longer than in the winter but the fasting entails additional hardship on account of the heat, as normal occupations and pursuits have to be carried on. In addition, in the intense heat any dryness a severe degree of thirst may have to be endured through several hours each day. Fasting is, however, in no sense a penance. It is a physical, moral and spiritual discipline, and the object is the promotion of righteousness and security against evil. 661 It is worthy to note that complete abstention from food and drink during Ramadan does not constitute so great hardship for a Muslim as adherents of other discipline may be disposed to imagine. Muslim children are brought up in an atmosphere of respect for and devotion to the values indicated by the faith. 662 It is a pity that some who call themselves Muslims at this time desire to modify these forms of worship. They are blind and are not aware of the perfect wisdom of Allah the Almighty. These forms of worship are essential for the purification of the spirit. These people seek to intervene absurdly in a sphere of which they have no knowledge and devise false schemes for the improvement of a territory that they have not visited. Their lives are devoted to worldly affairs; of spiritual matters they have no notion. 5.3.3

True purpose of Ramadan

The month of Ramadan is a period of intensive training in beneficent values. Abstention from food and drink and conjugal relations for a certain number of hours each day through a month is a valuable exercise in endurance and steadfastness. That is only the outer shell, as it were of the fasting.663 The philosophy of piety is not that Allah places people in hardship for the sake of suffering. During the fasting period, one does endure as an act of seeking the pleasure of Allah, which is an act of virtue. The experience of fasting as an act of worship is required to exalt Allah for His having provided guidance to mankind.664 Faghih Imani added: Indeed, the most important philosophy of fasting is this very spiritual status of it. A person who has many kinds of food and drinks available at his reach to use of them whenever he is hungry or thirsty cannot be so tolerant at the time he is in lack of them. But the one who observes the fast is like a plant which grows in a dry desert. It resists when water is rare, stands steadfast against stormy storms and with deprivations when they are challenged with them, and, therefore, can be firm and perseverant. 665

660

Doi, (1992), 175. Khan, (1996), 16. 662 Khan, (1996), 19. 663 Khan, (1996), 17. 664 Khan, (1996), 16. 665 Faghih Imani, Ayatullah Sayyid Kamal: An Enlightening Commentary into the Holy Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an. (Isfahan: Imam Ali Islamic Research Center, 1998), 2/ 86-87 661

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Fasting thus, trains the soul of a person. With temporary restrictions, fasting gives man perseverance, authority in will, ability of challenging with severe deprivations, and since it controls restrictive instincts, it showers light and inner purity into the heart.666 Having undergone the rigorous of fasting, faith takes on a new colour- first one undertakes a journey towards one’s Lord, one undergoes spiritual training for his sake and supplicates to Him, then a dialogue is established between Allah and man and man feels close to Allah in true faith. Therefore, the journey started with faith and resulted in a higher level of faith. Ahmad, Tahir further argues that Allah guides those who believe in Allah. In fact, only people are truly wise. Many worldly people are proud of their intellect but none of their decisions are made with reference to God. The decisions that they make sometimes happen to coincide with the will of Allah and these prove to be successful. However, whenever their interest is opposed to that of Allah, they follow their own self-interest and resultant benefits are short lived. Many nations commit grave errors in their political decisions making simply because they are deprived of the light of Allah. 667 There is much to achieve during the month of Ramadan and only thirty days in which to do so in a year. On the other hand, the Holy month lasts for short period and on the other hand, it comes just once a year, and should not be wasted. It is a wonderful opportunity to please Allah and the endurance is minute in comparison to the blessings. Those who have true knowledge of virtue take stock of their weaknesses and seek forgiveness for them. Walker observed and sys: The virtue found within abstinence can be of great benefit to the social nurturing and sustenance of any society. Abstinence is not simple to shun away from excess, rather it is to forgo that which is lawful to man in order to facilitate a higher spiritual or social ambition. 668 The prophet said: “He who observes the fast during Ramadan out of sincerity of faith, and in hope of earning merit will have his past sins forgiven him.”669 Thus, this is a great glad tiding, which is linked to these limited numbers of days, and by following this formula of the prophet, one is bound to avail of the blessing of Ramadan. Self-analysis must be done alongside virtue for this safeguards virtue. Keeping a strict account of one’s intention will ensure that the spirit of Ramadan is fulfilled. Ramadan means to find God, to take all piety to its highest point; anything that contradicts the spirit of Ramadan takes one away from righteousness. During the Ramadan it is especially important to concentrate on worship, piety and remembrance of Allah.670 Ramadan is repeated every year and the wisdom and philosophy of Ramadan should be remembered alongside it. The prophet said: “When Ramadan arrives the gates of Paradise are opened and the gates of hell are locked up and satans are put in chains.671 There is another Hadith, which states that the doors of mercy are opened during Ramadan. Visibly there are no signs of improvement in the moral condition of the world; rather than looking externally for signs of progress one should look inside oneself. Every man has his own universe, his own heaven and his own earth. The above-mentioned Hadith is linked to this 666

Faghih Imani, (1998), 2/85-86 Ahmad, “Ramadan- Part 1”. The Review of Religions, Vol. 97, no. 9, (2002), 67. 668 Adam Walker, “The significance of abstinence.” The Review of Religions, Vol. 104, no. 9, (2009), 2. 669 Reported by, Bukhari and Muslim. 670 Ahmad, (2002), Ramadan, 1, 68. 671 Reported by, Bukhari and Muslim. 667

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internal universe. A person who brings about changes in his inner-self and who adopts the virtues associated with this month, which incidentally is made easy during Ramadan, the doors of his heaven are opened and the doors of his hell are closed. If this does not happen, if Ramadan has no positive impact, then the Hadith does not apply to that person’s universe.672 The question now is, why do the gates of paradise and mercy open more during Ramadan in comparison to the rest of the year? The reason is that an atmosphere of virtue and piety comes into being during this month. People pay more attention to worship and are more inclined to offer sacrifices and to do well. Ramadan is a season in which hearts are inclined towards righteousness. It is important to avail of this atmosphere of piety. Gradually the door of paradise will open and the door of hell will close. The gates of heaven and hell mentioned in the Hadith are the gates of one’s own inner world. The shackled Satans are the Satans of man’s own self. As a result, even a pious progress in virtue. To achieve such progress, man is dependent on God’s mercy. On his part, man has to struggle hard to remove impieties from himself through his efforts in supplication that attracts the mercy of God. Therefore, it must never be overlooked that the whole purpose of fasting is to promote righteousness, which means the progressive cultivation of spiritual values.673 5.3.4

Social significance of Ramadan

Beside the spiritual aspect of fasting in the month of Ramadan, it has a great social significance as well. It brings home to the well-to-do sector of society the meaning of hunger and thirst. Privation ceases, in their case also, to be a mere expression and becomes an experience in common with all. The consciousness that a large number of their fellow beings have to go hungry most of the time is sharpened and there is a greater eagerness to share with them the bounties that Allah has, of His grace, bestowed on them. 674 Unfortunately, some Muslims held the belief that helping a poor person to break his fast brings salvation. It seems that there is a great contradiction in that belief. On the one hand, people are required to practice the strict discipline of Ramadan for salvation and on the other hand, all that is required of them is to help a poor person to break his fast as part of the practice but not as the sole requirement for salvation. There is Hadith reported by Salmon Pharis to support this view. The Hadith says: O men, the great month is casting its shadow over you, blessed month, a month holding a night better than a thousand months. Allah has made fasting in it an obligatory duty and praying at night a voluntary option. During its course whoso sought nearness through supererogatory prayer his reward is equal to the one who did his obligatory duties during the day. This is the month of patience and the reward of patience is paradise and this is the month of fellow-feeling and during this month the provision of a believer who serves breakfast to a fasting person is enlarged, it will serve as his a remission of his sins and his neck will be saved from fire and for

672

Ahmad, (2002), Ramadan, 1, 68-69. Khan, (1996), 22. 674 Khan, (1996), 18. 673

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him shall be a recompense diminishing naught of the recompense of the other.675 The fact still remains that any Hadith which contradicts the Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an and the nature of the Holy prophet should be rejected. Being kind to poor people is virtue and to help a poor person to break his fast is a symbol of piety, which does not remain restricted to that one need. 676 Allah rewards the virtuous person by enabling him to do more good, removing his sins by gradual process. It is reported that prophet used to spend generously in charity but during Ramadan his charity gather the strength of forceful winds. Ibn Abbas relates: The Holy prophet was the most generous of men and he was at his bountiful during Ramadan when Gabriel visited him every night and recited the Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an to him. During this period the bounty of the Holy prophet waxed faster than the rain-bearing breeze.677 The practice of the prophet was to help the poor and needy in many ways, which included breaking the fast. To ignore the needs of the poor until the time of ending of the fast and then just give them few morsels to eat and claim that this will earn one salvation is a mere fallacy. 678 What is expected of the Muslims today is that they should try to benefit fully from Ramadan by spending in the ways of Allah using various methods. Oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intention must be genuine and healthy and whatever one spends should be purely for the sake of Allah. Having sorted out their domestic problems, they should look at their surroundings, their neighbours and other people suffering in the world. They should try to alleviate their suffering. Thus, fasting has a lesson of equity among the member of a society. By practicing the religious command, the rich realizes perceptibility both the state of the hungry and the deprived of their society, and with saving in their daily meals, can help them well. It is possible, of course, that by explaining the status of the hungry and the deprived to the rich, it will make them understand that status, but if this condition becomes perceptible and objective, it will react more effectively. Fasting gives this great social subject a perceptible form to those who observe it.679 Hisham ibn Hakam asked the prophet about the reason for the divine legislation of the ordinance of the fasting the prophet said: Allah has enjoined fasting in order to settle equivalence between the rich and poor, and this is for the sake that the rich feel the taste of hunger and, consequently, be merciful towards the poor by giving them their rights. In addition, since the things are usually available for the rich, then Allah, the exalted, is pleased when His servants. So, He, thereby, has ordained that the rich feel the taste of hunger and pain so that they feel sympathy for the weak and be merciful towards the hungry.680

675

Reported by, Tirmidh. Ahmad, (2002), Ramadan, 1, 69. 677 Reported by, Bukhari and Muslim. 678 Ahmad, (2002), Ramadan, 1, 70. 679 Faghih Imani, (1998), 2/86-87. 680 Faghih Imani, (1998), 2/ 87. 676

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Thus, if man is to eliminate the cancers of war and economic anarchy then each individual must administer a portion of abstinence in their life. It is not only to inculcates a sense of moderation within humankind but also empowers people to apply moderation towards others; even their enemies.681 If the Muslims make their lives, a long unending Ramadan in the wider sense of the institution. In term of its essence, its spirit of sacrifices and self-denial, in the interests of others, blood-brothers, kinsmen, neighbours, fellow-citizens, fellow-countrymen, fellow-human beings, in fact in favour of all men, without bias and without prejudice, purely and solely on human level, recognizing no other angle and for rendering the sacrifice to save whatever little they can, to serve the needs of those who suffer from want, who must eat to live, Muslims would have been amply rewarded for their selfinflicted privation, under the command of Allah.682 If the Muslims, as must, establish such a society, a society that exudes so much good will and so much solitude for the welfare of mankind, they shall become the chosen instruments of the will of Allah who has made known His wish that He has decided to clear the debris of the old world of stomach-servant, and has instead, chosen to raise a new generation of compassionate, Allah-preferring men who will starve themselves so that they can feed others, who shall be ready to suffer, so that they can provide comfort to others.683 For Ramadan is not a negative act of imposed starvation, the prophet set the best example during the month for all Muslim to follow. It is said that he generously gave away during Ramadan, and his bounty was like a fast-blowing gale without this positive aspect, Ramadan remain an incomplete process, with its benefits limited to the subject alone. The act of giving away, however, puts it into its proper perspective, making its source of benefit as much to the individual as to the society.684 Unfortunately, it is becoming increasingly difficult for the Muslims living in the wealthiest nations of the world today to put into context and consider their lavish lives with the reality of their fellow human beings living in less financial fortunate area of the World. Those who have fasted in the true spirit of the act, can testify to the truthfulness of its soullifting and mind-sifting properties and may well look forward with a surge of happiness to its next visit. There could possibly be some who fasted and felt the pangs of hunger. However, no pangs of compassion for those who went through the routine without meditating on its meaning for themselves as individuals and for the society they live in, for them the process meant a purely physical and after the month is over, they would share the feelings of elation, the donkey experiences when left free in a field of greens. For them, Ramadan is a burden and they carry it only because of fear of public opinion, and therefore they reap no benefit and only suffer in vain, the hardship of privation. There is another very important point that relates to this. Abu Hurairah related that the Holy prophet (saw) said: â&#x20AC;&#x153;If a person does not eschew falsehood and false conduct, Allah has no need that he should abstain from food and drink.685 This is to say that, if a person does not eschew falsehood and false conduct, Allah has no need that he should abstain from food and drink. This means that a person nullifies his fast by indulging in vanity. On the one hand, people are willing to forgo those things that are lawfully things, and on the other hand they 681

Walker, (2009), 2. Ali, Muhammad Ch. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ramadan in Retrospect,â&#x20AC;? The Review of Religions, LXI, no. 3, (1967): 67. 683 Muhammad Ch., (1967), 67. 684 Muhammad Ch., (1967), 67. 685 Reported by, Bukhari. 682

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are not willing to abstain from unlawful acts. What a contradiction! To some extent all people suffer from this malady, if not major sins then in minor sins. The most destructive of diseases is falsehood. It is an acid, which dissolves all piety. Great problems arise because of dishonesty divorces, business losses and crimes. Dishonesty is found in many walks of life- there is welfare fraud, the misuse of government benefits, income tax fraud among others. If a person finds peace in Ramadan, then, the rest of the year will be peaceful for him. So every effort should be made to maintain the pious habits developed during the month of Ramadan and one should continue on the course set during that period. The rest of the year would then be peaceful. It is a pity that, some people try to maintain the benefits during the year, some, unfortunately, return to their old ways. 5.3.5 Programmes in the Ramadan The month of Ramadan is one of the months of the Luna calendar. It begins with the appearance of the new moon and end with the appearance of the new moon. As soon as the new moon of Ramadan is sighted, a joyous surge of anticipation inspires the hearts of young and old. The season of closer communion with the Most Gracious, Ever Merciful, Most Compassionate, Most Forgiving Lord of the worlds. All praise to Allah for His unending bounties! Greetings and felicitations are exchanged all round. All is bustle and solemn preparation. Mosques began to fill with eager worshipers for the Maghrib service, to be followed after a brief interval by Isha. And then Tarawih during the eight raka’as of which the congregation is privileged to listen to the recitation of the Qur’an from the very beginning to the end in prayer sequence, evening after evening till by the end of the month the whole Qur’an has been recited.686 The greater part of the night is passed in supplication and praise, glorification and remembrance of Allah. Those who prefer to offer the eight raka’as of voluntary prayer during the latter part of the night rather than in the evening as Tarawih occupy themselves with it as the time approach for a light breakfast in the solemn pre-down hour. The Mua’dhin’s call to prayer with its first Allah-o-Akbar (Allah is Great) is the signal for the commencement of the fast and preparation for the Fajr prayer.687 Thereafter the normal daily routine is followed with a heightened consciousness of the duty owed to Allah and to His creatures, one’s fellow beings. Praise, glorification and remembrance of Allah for, as it were, the infra-structure of all activity and greater attention is directed towards caring for the poor, the needy, the widowed, the orphan, the sick, the distressed, the neighbor, the wayfarer, etc. courses on the Qur’an are given in mosques and seminaries’. Towards the close of the day, the heart experiences a glow of gratitude to the Divine that His Grace has enabled one to approach the end of the fast having spent the night and the day in striving to conduct oneself in conformity to His will.688 The Mua’dhin’s call to prayer for the Maghrib salat is the signal announcing the end of the fast, which is terminated with a mouthful of water, a cup of tea, a dried date or two, or even a pinch of salt should nothing else be immediately available and with the supplication:

686

Khan, (1996), 22-23 Khan, (1996), 22 688 Khan, (1996), 23. 687

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Allah, for thy sake I observed the fast, putting my trust in thee, and I have ended it with which Thou has provided. Thirst is quenched, the arteries are refreshed, and I look for my recompense to Thee Allah, if Thou should so will. I beg of Thee Allah, of Thy mercy that encompassed all things, that Thou may be pleased to forgive me my sins.689 The Maghrib prayer follows within a few minutes and thereafter the evening meal is partaken of. It is considered very meritorious to invite others, but more particularly the poor, the needy, the orphan to the breaking of the fast and the evening meal. These two need not to be, however, separate occasions. A simple meal may be taken at the time of breaking of the fast, thus preceding the Maghrib prayer. An elaborate meal designed as a compensation for the period of abstention is not only contrary to the spirit of the fast but tends also to upset the digestion. In this, and indeed in certain other respects, the spirit of the fast is not respected and observed as strictly in certain parts of the Muslim world, as could be wished. There is, however, general eagerness to do so, as the benefits to be derived there from are patent. The Isha service and Tarawih complete the rhythm and tempo of life during Ramadan. When the month begins to approach its end the general mood is one of pensiveness which promotes eagerness to take full advantage of all remaining days to make up for any short comings and falling off during the earlier periods. Numberless people experience closer communion with their Maker and Creator during the blessed month, the intensity and frequency of which continue to increase as the month progresses. Some people choose to spend the last ten days of Ramadan residing in the mosque, devoting their time to the remembrance of Allah. This taking up residence in the mosque for the remembrance of Allah is termed I’tikaf. I’tikaf is derived from ‘akafa’, akafa alaihi, meaning he kept, or clave, to it constantly or perseveringly.690 Thus, I’tikaf means literally to stay in a place. Technically, it is staying in a mosque for a certain number of days, especially the last ten days, the man who enters the state of I’tikaf (mu’takif) dissociates himself from all worldly affairs, and he does not leave the mosque unless there is necessity (hajah), such as evacuation, or having a bath, etc.691 Usually I’tikaf means to sever one’s worldly ties and to dedicate one’s time for the remembrance of Allah. In some religions, this takes on an extreme form. For example, Hindu hermits, Christian monks and Sufi Muslims exile themselves from world on a permanent basis. While the Qur’an does not advocate the practice of secluding oneself for an entire, lives span. According to Islam, Allah did not teach monasticism, as found in Hinduism, Christianity and Sufi Muslims,692 it is an interpolation of later generations, and thus a teaching full of wisdom was taken to a point where not every person could adhere to it.693 The real concept of I’tikaf is to withdraw from the world for a short period leaving all worldly trials behind. However, the prophet did not call I’tikaf a high standard of piety; rather he called it a sacrifice. I’tikaf is actually for the last ten days, but as it is not, always possible to determine whether Ramadan will last for twenty-nine or thirty days, as a precautionary 689

Al-Shawkani, (1965), 4/ 221. Ali, (1973), 415. 691 Ali, (1973), 415. 692 “And monasticism they invented – we did not prescribe it for them – for the seeking of Allah’s pleasure, but they observed it not as it should be observed”. Qur’an, 57:27. 693 Ahmad, (2002), 2, 32. 690

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measure, the prophet would start the I’tikaf a day early. Thus, as precautionary mu’takif enters the mosque on the morning of the 20th of Ramadan.694While observing I’tikaf, one is not allowed to undertake any unnecessary tasks, both inside the mosque or outside it. As early, stated, mu’takif is only allowed to leave the mosque if necessary and beautification and adornment of the self is not permitted. Thus, there is no part time I’tikaf. The entire life of the Holy prophet Muhammad was an example of how to establish personal links with God. Cutting ties with the world is escapism, an escape from trials and tribulations. The conduct of the Holy prophet was such that he led a full and active life and yet remained aloof from worldly attractions, never letting himself to be overpowered by them. The fast terminates with the appearance of the new moon. The new moon may be visible after sunset of the twenty-ninth day of the fast, but if not the fast must be continued the next day, thus making a total of thirty days during the month. It may be that on the thirtieth evening visibility may be poor due to atmospheric conditions, and the moon may not be visible. That will make no difference and Ramadan would terminate at sunset on that day, as at is recognized that a lunar month cannot extend beyond thirty days. The same rule governs the commencement of the month.695 The day following the last day of Ramadan, determined as above, is observed as the festival of the termination of fast Id fitr. It is one of those occasions when even a voluntary fast may not be observed. In conformity with the spirit of Islam, the only celebration prescribed for the festival is an additional service during the forenoon comprising two raka’as services may be held in one of the bigger mosques of a large city, but in view of the large numbers involved is generally held in the open. It is customary, following the example of the Holy prophet, to take alight breakfast after sunrise before setting out for the service, and to vary the route home on returning from the service. The festive character of the occasion is proclaimed, through exchange of visits, feeding the poor, visiting the sick and glorification of Allah and celebrating His praise in thankfulness to Him. For the guidance, he provided. Particularly, with regard to all that pertains to the observance of the fast and for having enabled those upon whom the fast was obligatory to observe it duly. Allah is great, Allah is great; there is none worthy of worship save Allah; Allah is great, Allah is great; to Allah belongs all praise. 5.4. Zakat 5.4.1 Definition of Zakat Literally, Zakat means increase, growth and purification.696 Technically, Zakat is a fixed portion of one’s wealth, which is obligatory to be given away annually for the benefit of the poor: the giving away of wealth to the needy is thus regarded as bringing about its purification and increase. Zakat is a tax distinct from voluntary charity, and the most important obligation next to prayer for Muslims.697 Zakat is obligatory alms levied on certain kinds of property and distributed to eight categories of persons in the Muslim community. Thus, it is not a tax on income alone, but on capital and profit as well. The law of Islam on Zakat is a double-edged

694

Ahmad, (1988), 1, 247. Khan, (1996), 24. 696 Cowan, (1960), 379. 697 Doi, (1992), 162. 695

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weapon against a possible wrong distribution of wealth, and on the other hand opens up a source of revenue in the interest of the poor and needy.698 Since time immemorial, poverty has always been an unavoidable problem among mankind; all the efforts of philanthropists in the past were to no avail. Islam does not only give valuable admonitions on morals to the rich and poor, but also presents the institution of Sachet, which gives the poor part of the wealth of the rich. Something similar to Zakat exists in the Jewish faith, but not in detail as in Islam.699 The main objective of this institution is to establish the fact that individual comfort in an Islamic state is a collective responsibility of all the members of the society.700 Islamic law has therefore laid down the means of the implementation of the above stated ordinance in such a way that those are entitled to it are not deprived of it. Islam as the way out of poverty recommends Zakat. It is an obligation of giving out a certain amount of money by a well-to-do Muslim to the poor in the society.701 Zakat is therefore compulsory for any person whose wealth reaches the minimum amount that is liable to the payment of Zakat called ‘Nisab’ (‫)نصاب‬. Refusal to fulfill this obligation is tantamount to denying one out of the five pillars of Islam. In defence of the important of Zakat, the first Caliph to the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) Caliph Abu Bakr declared war against those who refused to pay Zakat. He said: By Allah! I shall fight those who make a difference between prayers and Zakat; By Allah! If they withhold from me even a she-kid, which they use to make over to the messenger of Allah, I shall fight against them for withholding it.702 The expression of Abu Bakr “If they withhold from me even a she-kid…” shows that Zakat is the most important source of revenue for any Islamic state.703 Abu Bakr’s action on this occasion also shows that Zakat cannot be distributed according to the will of the individual who pays the Zakat, but it must be collected and distributed by a central organization. This is also an indication that Zakat should be collected as public money, and distributed as such, under the direction of the head of state or the head of the community as the case may be. 704 The word zakat occurs thirty times in the Qur`an and in twenty –seven of them it is mentioned side by side with salah705 for in such form like, “offer prayer and pay Zakat”. Allah says: “Those who, if we establish them on the earth, will observe prayer, pay Zakat, enjoin good and forbid evil. And with Allah rest the final issue of all affairs.”706 Zakat is not optional but compulsory; Allah enjoins its payment whenever it is due to be paid as the right of the poor, the needy and members of the society. The payment of Zakat

698

Mirza Bashir-ud-Din Mahmud Ahmad: The New Order, of Islam, (Rabwah: The Oriental Religious Publishing Corporation Ltd. 1946), 56. 699 Sheikh Mubarak Ahmad: The philosophy of Zakat, (London: London mosque publication, 1983), 9. 700 Ahmad, (1983), 17-18. 701 Doi, (1992), 161. 702 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/ 119. 703 Sabahiuddin Azmi: Islamic Economics, (New Delhi –India: Good word Books pvt. Ltd., 2004), 60. 704 Doi, 163. 705 Al-Qaradawi, Yusuf. Fiqh az-Zakat. Cairo Maktabah Whabah, 1994, 57-58. 706 Qur’an, 22:42.

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is part of worship fundamental aspects of Islamic religion.707 Zakat therefore promotes love among different classes of the society and remove hatred, rancour and enmity by ensuring redistribution of wealth among the members of the society. Since it is levied on net worth and not on income, its proportion to income is much higher than its literal ratio of 2.5 per cent. Consequently, it mobilizes a big portion of annual income for redistribution. Even more important is, its influence on the consumption behaviour. It influences the choice of the consumer in distributing his income between saving and consumption. The objective of this chapter is to analyse Zakat as a means of equitable distribution of wealth, highlight its functions and examine the practical aspect of it with a view to show its ability to enhance equitable distribution of national wealth, ensuring national progress as well as ensuring economic prosperity. 5. 4.2 Legal -threshold for Zakat (nisab) ‫نصاب‬ It is agreed by the majority of the classical jurists that there is no zakat on all growing wealth but those reaching the minimum laid down limit as set by the Sunnah (nisab). The Prophet is on record to have exempted anything that is less than five camels, forty sheep, two hundred silver dirhams or five wasqs of grain .Abu Hanifah, on the other hand, do not regard this to be a pre-requisite in the case of land crops, fruits and minerals. Nevertheless, the majority opinions is more rational as it would be imprudent to impose zakat on who are themselves in need of help.708 It is to be noted that once the above properties reach nisab, they will subjected to four types of rates:709 i) 2.5% from the capital income ii) 10% or 5% from the land crops iii) According to detailed code of rates for livestock iv) 20% of the found treasures As to why not a flat rate for all the zakatable assets? Ibn Taymiyyah rationalizes by saying that the ratio of zakat has to vary for the above types of wealth due to no or less involvement of human effort in acquiring them. According to the Islamic law, it is the duty of Islamic state to levy a tax of 2½ % on average upon all wealth and capital, which has been in the possession or under the direction of an assessee for one year. The proceeds of this tax must be devoted exclusively towards the relief of poverty and the raising of the standard of living of the poor. It must be noted that Zakat is not to be levied merely upon the income or profits, but on capital and accumulations, so that sometimes this 2 ½ % may amount to as much as 50% of the income or profits, and in the case of accumulations has to be paid out of the accumulated money. This also encourages investment, for, if a person has a certain amount of money accumulated in his account, he will have to pay Zakat on it at the rate of 2 ½ % per annum, so that gradually the money will begin to disappear in payment of tax. Every normal person, therefore, is compelled to invest his money and to put it into circulation so that he may be able to meet the assessment out of the profit earned. This is a double benefit to the community as it secures the circulation of wealth and thus provides employment for all sections and in 707

Ruxton, F. H: Maliki Law a Summary Translation of the Muktasar of Sidi 2004), 31. 708 Ruxton, (2004), 85-86. 709 Khan , Some Accounting Issues Relating to Zakat p.109

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Khalil, (Cairo: EL Nahar Press,

addition secures 2 ½ % of the capital and the profits made for the benefit of the poor. If the injunctions, laid down by Islam in this respect, are obeyed and effectively carried out, poverty and distress would have disappeared from the Muslim society.710 It is on this principle that, gold, silver, cash in any shape, stock-in-trade, all the agricultural produce and livestock are assessable for Zakat provided nisab is achieved. 'Nisab' in Islamic law means minimum of the amount of property liable to payment of the Zakat tax.711 The nisab –quorum and rate of Zakat is clearly defined in the following tradition of the prophet: When you possess two hundred Dirhams till one year passes, five Dirhams are payable on them and you are not liable to pay anything till you possess twenty Dinars for one year, thereupon half of Dinar is payable on them. And no Zakat is payable on a property, till a year passes from the time of its possession.712 The above Hadith contains a statement concerning Zakat to be levied on gold and silver. The ruling about the silver is that no Zakat is payable on it if it is less than 200 Dirhams in its worth. And on gold if it is less than 20 Dinars. The quantity of silver subject to Zakat is fiftytwo and a half tolas (620 grams) and the Zakat thus levied on it shall be at one-fortieth. Similarly, the quantity of gold subject to Zakat is seven and a half tolas (87 grams) and Zakat payable on it shall be at one-fortieth too.713 Silver and gold are the two commodities, which man has always loved to hoard, and beside this these are the two precious metals, which are the basis of the currencies of the world.714 The Naira value of 20 Dinar or 200 Dirham Changes from time to time for example the value in 2003 to 2005 was N156, 000.00,715 2006 to 2008 was N278, 329, 2009 to 2012 was N367, 380.716 On August 2012 the new Nisab for the 2011/2012 calculated and released is N736, 067 the Zakat due from this is N18402. This is a combine effort of the Zakat and Endowment Board, Zamfara State and the Islamic Propagation centre, Kaduna State in conjunction with the Sultan Bello Mosque committee,717 while those who used American dollars are of the view that the nisab is $3840 and this amount in Nigeria is N642120 the Zakat due from this is N16053.718 Thus, more united effort is needed because of the variety of living standard in the country and instability of the purchasing power of the Nigeria local currency. On currency notes of whatever denomination, Zakat is similarly payable by establishing their value against an exchange of the silver price. This is because such notes are merely the 710

Mirza Bashir Uddin Mahmud Ahmad: The New World Order of Islam (Rabwah: The Oriental Religious Publishing Corporation Ltd., 1969), 75-76. 711 Cowan, 969. 712 Al-Asqalani (1996 211. 713 Al-Asqalani, (1996), 211. 714 Qurdawi, (1994), 1/ 260. 715 Iysa Ade Bello, "The Institution of Zakat and its Administration in Nigeria Problem and Prospects." In Amidu Sanni (Ed). Unfamiliar guest in a familiar household, Arabic and Islamic Studies. (Bariga: Debo Prints, 2003), 43. 716 Abbas Jimoh, “Fall of Naira - Zakat Now N367, 380”,http://allafrica.com/stories/htm, (21/11/2012). 717 http://www.zakatzamfara.com/index.htm, (21/11/2012) 718 http://www.soundvision.com/info/life/zakatcalc.asp (22/11/2012)

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modern bearer currency unit of the former silver or gold standard, which over recent years has been abandoned for floating rates of exchange. Yet bear some relationship to the gold (perhaps subject to greater fluctuation) and silver prices. The same rule applies to coins of other metals, thus Zakat is prescribed for gold and silver –whether they are in the form of coins, ingots, or dust –as long as the amount owned constitutes a nisab, a period of a year has passed, debts are settled, and/or basic needs satisfied from it. The due is 2 ½ % - a quarter of a tenth. It is imperative to note that if a Muslim possesses less than the Nisab of 200 Dirhams of silver or 20 Dinar of gold or its equivalent in Naira, Zakat is not binding on him. If on the contrary, he possesses the exact amount or more, it is required of him to remove 1/40 or 2 ½ percent of the total amount in his custody and give it out as Zakat.719 For instance, if a Muslim possesses six hundred and forty-two thousand one hundred and twenty naira for a year (N642, 120.00), he is expected to pay 1/40 or 2 ½ of the said amount as follows: a) 1/40 of N642, 120.00 = N16, 053.00 of b) 2 ½ % of N642, 120.00 = 5/2 x 1 x N642, 120.00= N16, 053.00. Provided the sum never falls below that figure in the course of the year. The parameter for working out the Nisab of Zakat should be the amount of wealth which is considered, in a particular community, sufficient to sustain the family or individual consisting of three persons for one year, with minimum essentials of food, clothing and shelter.720 According to majority of the jurist, twelve full lunar months should pass over the possession of zakat payable asset from the beginning of its ownership. But this condition applies to capital assets, such as money, business stock and livestock. This is on a hadith where the Prophet says: ``There is no zakah on ones wealth unless one lunar calendar year transpires over its possession. ``721 5.4.3

Beneficiaries of Zakat

The aim of Islamic teachings on Zakat is to guarantee the fulfilment of basic needs for all. At this stage, it is important to mention those that are to benefit from Zakat as it has been rightly stated by Allah in the Holy Qur’an. He says: The alms are only for the poor and the needy and for those employed in connection therewith, and for those whose hearts are to be reconciled and for the freeing of slaves, and for those in debt, and for the cause of Allah, and for the wayfarer –an ordinance from Allah. And Allah is allknowing, wise.722 In the above verse, Allah has outlined the spending of the Zakat in eight different categories and these are as follows: The poor are those people who depend upon others for subsistence. Among these are included the disabled persons also who cannot earn and 719

Abe-Bello, (2003), 43. Sha'a Waliullah Dahlawi: Hujatulla-ill-Baligha, (Cairo: Dar-alt-Turath, 1980), 2/ 43. 721 Sunan Ibn Majah , 424 722 Qur’an, 9:60. 720

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who depend upon others for their daily needs. Among them are included also one or more of those who cannot earn as much as required for normal subsistence and may even be reduced to the point of starving.723 The needy people in fact come under the category of the poor. The only difference is that 'Miskeen' is Saakin (stationary) –the poor who do not move away unless and until their need is removed. But the prophet of Islam has defined the 'Miskeen' as one who confines himself to his own house and who does not go begging after people; nor does he let them know that he is light of purse. Such a man maintains his dignity even if he is at death’s door and does not extend his hand begging. The point in mentioning the 'Miskeen' quite separate from the poor is that he is more deserving than an ordinary poor man and Allah Almighty has especially drawn the attention of those responsible for disbursing Zakat to bear that fact in mind when distributing Zakat. They must not give preference to those who come craving and clamouring and ignore those who stand aloof and hesitant. Those who maintain their dignity and give a proof of high moral integrity do deserve much more consideration.724 The department and the staffs engaged especially for the administration and disbursement of Zakat have to be paid from this fund.725 These are referred to in the Qur’an as “wal a’amilina alaha”.726 The literal meaning of ‘al-muallafatu- al-qulub' is those whose hearts have become joined with you. ’Under this category come those who, because of some kind of fear from the disbelievers, do not or cannot come out in the open and declare themselves Muslims, but are definitely very much inclined towards Islam. It would be permissible to render assistance to such men to come out of the sphere of influence of the disbelievers. Then there are those men who are thoroughly convinced of the truth of Islam but are in the unhappy position of losing their means of livelihood if they declare that they are Muslims. They may also be given assistance from the Zakat funds. However, this does not mean that financial assistance would be given simply to attract people to Islam. This would surely make them hypocrites. Those who--interpret the above term to mean that it is lawful to attract and lure people to Islam with money are exceedingly wrong and are guilty of bringing a bad name to Islam. They ascribe a thing to Islam for which neither Allah is responsible nor His Prophet, (S.A.W). Islam does not stand in need of enticing people through monetary or other gain. Islam must be accepted on its own merits.727 The phrase ‘Firiqab’ ‫ب‬ ِّ ‫الرقَا‬ ِّ ‫ َوفِّي‬literally means ‘setting the neck free. ’This is the term used for getting someone freed from the yokes of slavery. Freedom of slaves can be purchased with the Zakat funds. For this, there are no restrictions that the slave must necessarily be a Muslim. In the beginning of Islam, all slaves were non-Muslims.728 The term 'Firiqab' also applies to men in distress who may virtually be like slaves. As for example, someone has been imprisoned because of debts, which he is unable to pay. Such people may be given assistance from the Zakat funds. ‘Gharimee ’( َ‫َار ِّمين‬ ِّ ‫)واْلغ‬ َ are debtors and those bound under penalty or a guarantee given on behalf of someone who was in difficulty and for which they are not personally responsible. As for instance one who issued a guarantee for some friend, a relative 723

Ruxton, (2004), 49. Dahlawi, (1980), 2/73-74. 725 Ruxton, (2004), 50. 726 And for those employed in connection therewith, Qur’an, 9:60. 727 Ahmad, (1983), 7. 728 Ahmad, (1983), 9. 724

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or he may unintentionally or unknowingly cause the death of someone, or he may have suffered a heavy loss in business for reasons beyond his control and one who could recover his losses through timely assistance. Zakat fund could be used for this purpose.729 The phrases wa fisabilillah wabnis-sabil (‫سبِّي ِّل‬ َّ ‫س ِّبي ِّل هللاِّ َواب ِّْن ال‬ َ ‫)وفِّي‬ َ i.e., in the way of Allah and the wayfarer under this sub-heading come the organising of the Muslims, their protection, and their stability or for their progress and welfare. This kind of expenditure is for the benefit of the whole nation and carries great importance. Zakat funds could also be used for this.730Under this heading come the travelers of small means who need some assistance. Sometimes even a wealthy and rich traveler who has exhausted all his funds that he has brought with him may stand in need of financial assistance. One may have become a victim of a crook and may therefore be out of funds. Such travelers may also be assisted from the Zakat funds.731 These are eight categories of the beneficiaries of Zakat. With the above analysis, it is clear that the 1st and 2nd categories are meant for the eradication of poverty in the society. The 3rd category is meant for the orderly collection and immediate distribution of zakat to those that are entitled to it. To maintain the integrity and the independence of collection and disbursement of zakat, the third category ameleen-a-alaiha refers to those expenses that are necessary to administer the zakat fund, including personnel salaries.732 The 4th category is to assist the Muslims in the propagation of Islam among those that are not aware of the message of Islam. The 5th category is for saving mankind from slavery, it relates to both ransoming prisoners of war and freeing slaves.733 6th and 8ht categories are to serve as relief to those in pathetic situations. The 7th category deals with services for the betterment of all and sundry. Thus the purpose of the Islamic economic system is that wealth should be in constant circulation, should be widely distributed and should be so employed as to yield the maximum beneficence for the largest number of people. It should not circulate only among the well-todo. Allah says: Whatever Allah has given to His Messenger as spoils from the people of the towns, it is for Allah and for the Messenger and for the near kind, the orphans, the needy, and the wayfarer, in order that it may not circulate only among those of you who are rich.734 There are many institutions within the economic sphere operating constantly to further the whole system. But they make no provision for the direct relief of poverty and distress except Zakat, with which we are mainly concerned in this paper. All sources of wealth, the earth, its capacities and treasures, the sun, the moon, the planets, the winds that derive the clouds, rain, sub-soil, water, rivers and oceans are all God’s gift to mankind. They are not anyone’s property. Wealth is produced by the application of human skill, capital and labour to this source. According to Islam, produced wealth should be distributed not only between skill, capital and labour but a portion of it should be set aside for the community as a whole 729

As-Sayyid Sabiq: Fiqh-Us-Sunnah, (Washington: American Trust publications, 1991), 68. Sabiq, (1991), 69. 731 Sabiq, (1991), 69. 732 Asad, Muhammad: The Message of the Qur’an. Gibraltar: Dar Al Andalus, 1984, 270. 733 Asad, (1984), 270. 734 Qur’an, 59:8. 730

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as the beneficiary of the basic source of wealth.735 Based on the above discussion Zakat could be considered as a means of ensuring national progress, sustaining and helping the poor as well as ensuring economic prosperity. 5.4.4

Zakat and poverty eradication

Zakat funds are used to provide assistance for people of different walks of life who need to be assisted. It is evident that Zakat is an effective means of national progress and advancement. In short, the Zakat disbursements are so flexible that all types of men of any religion or national could derive benefit from it without any form of humiliation because payments are made by the authority in charge of Zakat and not by those who contributed.736 Apparently, this institution of Islam is not practised anywhere in Nigeria as it should. Care for the poor and helpless through Zakat is not found. It is not enough just to inform people of the method of calculating what they should pay without providing channels by which the Zakat funds can actually reach and be seen to benefit the people authorized by Allah to receive them. Since these channels for collection and distribution of Zakat are not organized, such Zakat as is given is largely wasted. It is generally given to wrong persons or to the right persons but the wrong way so that it disappears without any visible benefit to the community. Generally, people take social injustice for granted. We are of the opinion that since the Muslims in this country are not all living under Islamic government, the collection of Zakat and its disbursement are the duty of Muslim community as a whole, and the institution of Zakat must take the shape of National Muslim Institution in every state where there is a Muslim population. This institution will be responsible not only for the collection and disbursement of Zakat, but also for carrying out proper investigation concerning the census of the Muslim population and their living conditions, not only in the state where they are majority, but where they are minority as well. We can now see that the essence of Zakat is more than feeding the poor only, but goes further by providing the poor an amount of money to start a trade. It is also very glaring that if the Muslims are to adhere strictly to the collection and appropriate distribution of Zakat, no single person will be hungry in the Muslim world. Islam sees that: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;poverty makes a man susceptible to disbelief and rebellionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Zakat is the best means of assisting and providing sustenance to the poor of the nation. Through this, the poor and have-nots can be properly assisted. The command of the Holy Prophet, that "Zakat should be taken from the rich and handed over to the poor."737 This verse denotes that the basic principle of Zakat is sympathy for mankind and helping the poor. From the details given by the Holy Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an, it becomes clear that the underlying idea is the support of the poor. 738 The prophet of Islam did not confine his help of the poor only to their spiritual enhancement but took practical steps to remove their poverty and want. He adopted practical means the best and most effective of which was the institution of Zakat and which served as a sure guarantee for their sustenance and other needs. Zakat is the hub of the Islamic public

735

Muhammad Zafrullah Khan, "economic values", in the Review of Religions: vol. Lxxxvi, no. (1991): 37-43. Ahmad, (1983), 9. 737 Al-Asqalani, (1996), 206. 738 Ahmad, (1983), 21. 736

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finance since it is the most important source of revenue for any Islamic state. It provides relief from poverty and brings other forms of social security. The Zakat assumes a unique character in the socio-economic structure of an Islamic state as its payment not only fulfills an economic necessity but also becomes a religious obligation and means of spiritual purification.739 However, it was during the reign of caliph Umar, that permanent and regular department of finance, called diwan, came into being. Thus, the institution of Zakat worked and helped the needy in such a manner, that in no time the social conditions were radically changed. So much so that few have-nots were to be found in the length and breadth of, the Muslim Empire and people become so prosperous that when people went about in search of the needy they could not find one who deserved help.740 Zakat is the most effective means of ending poverty and want in the society; it is also the best course of improving the moral conditions of the nation. Facts provide us with an undeniable truth that poverty, destitution, hunger and want are the main causes of crimes. When individuals of a nation live in straitened circumstances, they are bound to commit crimes to put an end to their distress. It comes to our daily experience that some people merely because of the straitened means start pick pocking, thieving and robbing and when in extreme poverty they do not hesitate in murdering people, many adopt robbery as a profession.741 This causes an upheaval in the country’s peace and security. Poverty does not only force people to commit crimes only, but induces them to enter the walks of immorality. It also tends to make one begin to think that, the rich people are their gods, who would come to their rescue. They consider them their only benefactors, sustainers and patrons. They begin to fear them more than they ever fear God. This is the problem of the materialistic life the whole world is facing today, though the so called the third world are badly affected. The moral ailments and weakness suppress people’s capabilities. The only way to improve matters is to find ways and means to remove poverty and hunger, want and scarcity. Zakat in Islam is a viable remedy to poverty alleviation. When Zakat was the law and the people obeyed and paid the Zakat into the government treasuries, crimes were seldom committed and most certainly not for want and poverty. The moral state of the people was indeed enviable.742 5.4.5

Zakat and Economic Prosperity

Zakat is not only advantageous in the moral and spiritual uplifting of man but is also a guarantee for economic betterment. The word 'Zakat" implies increase, growth and purification.743 This, therefore, means that God has made Zakat an important means of increase and multiplying of national wealth and betterment of social conditions. The Almighty God has said in the Holy Qur'an to the Prophet Muhammad "Take alms out of their wealth, so that you may cleanse and purify them."744 Again, He says:

739

Azmi, (2004), 60-61. Hassan, (2001),1/381-382 741 Ahmad, (1983), 22. 742 Abdulkareem Zaidain: Usul-ud-Dawah, ‫(أصول الدعوة‬Baghdad: Maktabah-Al-Qudus, 1992), 269 743 Cowan, (1960), 379. 744 Qur’an, 9:103. 740

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The similitude of those who spend their wealth for the cause of Allah is like the similitude of grain of corn which grows seven years, in each ears a hundred grains. And Allah multiplies it further for whomsoever He pleases; and Allah is bountiful All-knowing.745 From the above two verses it is evident that Zakat is the means of ameliorating social conditions and of making the nations economically prosperous. This is because when the poor and needy obtain financial assistance and the people get financial support in their difficulties and distress they would naturally tend to stand on their own feet and try to become independent and would enter the highroad of success and prosperity. Economic welfare and prosperity of the nation is never attained through the wealth of the nation going into the hands of limited few. National prosperity means the collective prosperity of all the citizens of a given nation. When Zakat funds are distributed among the poor, the wealth of the nation shall pass from the hands of a limited few into the hands of the have-nots who form the majority. They –the majority –shall in turn, by the means of this financial assistance, be able to make their own living. The social and economic conditions are bound to become stable and rest on very firm footings.746 The biggest evil of capitalism is that the wealth of the nation is amassed in the hands of a limited few and the rest of the nation becomes a prey to want and poverty. It was because of this inequality that communism gained its roots. It is based on the principle that no one really is the rightful owner of what he earns and the real master of the national wealth is the state, which must distribute it according to the needs of the members of the community.747 Careful study of both systems-capitalism and communism reveal that both belong to the opposite extremes. If capitalism is responsible for the wretchedness and distress of a great number of the people living under it and due return is given to the real producer of wealth, communism also completely ignores the labour and effort put in by the real producer of wealth. Under this system, the person who has put in the labour to produce is totally deprived of its possession. The result is that the true zeal to work with earnestness dies out.748 Islam, unlike communism and capitalism, gives due regards to labour, upholds its dignity, and approves the right of ownership so that zeal and enthusiasm, for hard work and best results, is not lost. In an economic sense, Zakat can be considered a motivating force analogous to interest in the capitalist system-but with important differences. In Islamic economic order Zakat propels the economy, as idle capital is continually taxed irrespective of who possesses it. If capital owned by individuals is not employed in some economic project, it decreases in value for that individual. Thus, the incentive behind individual effort and enterprise is not weakened or compromised as it is under communism. Under the Islamic system, join-venture, partnerships, and other entrepreneurial pursuits operate on a strict profit and lost basis without obligation to any financial institutions, which charge interest on borrowed capital.749 Moreover, when capital is employed in trade or industry it naturally provides work for labour and it keeps on circulating among different classes of people. Qur’an, 2:262. Al-sharani, (1969), 1/ 226-227. 747 Ahmad, (1969), 83-84. 748 Ahmad, (1969), 89. 749 Amir Ijaz, “Economic Immorality and Capitalism” in the Review of Religions: Vol. 92, no. 9, (1997): 11-12. 745 746

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In this way, a good businessman not only increases his own wealth but also provides work for others. However, it is a great pity that very many people do not realize this fact and try to evade paying Zakat. They wrongly fear that this might cause a great loss. They do not understand that God enforced this law to induce men to make more wealth and become richer and richer. There is an assurance from God Almighty for those who pay the Zakat that their wealth will not decrease, it shall, on the contrary, continue to increase. Therefore, those who pay it reap the benefit. God says: Whatever you pay as interest that it may increase the wealth of the people, it does not increase in the sight of Allah; but whatever you give in Zakat seeking the favour of Allah-it is these who will increase their wealth manifold.750 The foregoing shows that all that has been created in the whole of the universe is for the service and the benefit of entire humankind and is not confined to any particular persons or groups. Nevertheless, in actual practice, we see that for various reasons, not every man is deriving equal benefit and there are some, who are getting no benefit at all. God has therefore, directed a special course, a special system under which even those who have no means to get their share may derive a certain benefit from what God has created for mankind and from which they have totally denied their share. So long as the have-nots and their kind do not get their due share, they have a claim on the wealth and possessions of the rich. For this reason, Islam has laid down rules under which the due share of the poor and the weak is taken from the wealth of the rich. Zakat funds when spent for education, medical care, and social welfare of those who otherwise cannot afford them or are oppressed, provide moral stability and human dignity to the recipients, essential elements in maintaining economic harmony. Likewise, by providing financial assistance to ibn as-sabil who may be refugees or political exiles, the expenditure of zakat, while maintaining the human dignity and general well-being of the recipients, contributes toward their economic self-sufficiency. Over a period of time they no longer will be a burden on the society. 5.4.6 Reestablishing the institution of Zakat Due to a variety of eroding factors, the institution of zakat, which once provided an economic safety net to society, has lost its meaning. Today, it has an ad hoc and irregular function reduced to almost a ritual practiced individually by a small minority of Muslims.751 Many who pay zakat, unfortunately, do not even know how to accurately calculate it, let alone its potential economic impact on society.752 To re-establish the institution of zakat, it is essential that we first understand the importance of zakat in terms of its economic impact upon society. Also, in order to properly Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an, 30:40. Sabzwari, M.A. A Study of Zakat and Ushr with Special Reference to Pakistan, (Lahore: Industries Printing Press, 1979), 246-250 752 Quraishi, M.A. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Institution of Zakat and Its Economic Impact on Society.â&#x20AC;? Proceedings of the Second Harvard University Forum on Islamic Finance: Islamic Finance into the 21st Century, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Harvard University. 1999), 6. 750 751

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apply its rules and regulations to many forms of wealth, we must recognize that there are new categories of wealth (such as intellectual property and other intangible assets) which did not exist in early Muslim society, and for which we need to use appropriate evaluation methods (book value, replacement values, market value, present value of future earnings, etc.) in computing zakat.753 Can the institution of zakat achieve its stated objectives of establishing economic justice and the general well-being of all members of the society through equitable distribution of wealth in today’s economic environment? Since there is no contemporary empirical data, this question can be answered only through simulation or extrapolation of the cumulative economic impact of a redistribution of wealth. To test if it is as valid as it was fourteen centuries ago, let’s go through a simple accounting exercise. If we conservatively assume that collective net-worth of one of the forty industrial families of Nigeria has an estimated value of $500 million and earns $75 million annually in net profits (15% rate of return on equity)754 a 2.5% zakat on this family’s net-worth would be $12.5 million. On the national level, the forty families’ combined net-worth of $20 billion (40 x $500 million) would produce an annual zakat of $500 million (or 4.4585% of Pakistan’s 1993 budget). If we were to distribute this money among various categories of recipients of zakat as prescribed in the Qur’an over, say, every year for the next ten years, the cumulative result of this annual redistribution of wealth will substantially reduce unemployment, expand investment base, eliminate poverty and extreme disparity of wealth between rich and poor by the end of the tenth year. This projection is however based on the premise that this goal is achievable in a reasonable length of time provided the system of collection and distribution of zakat is credible, cost-effective, and loophole-free and supported by strong accountability mechanisms to assure its integrity.755 In this context, we may recall that in Medina and Basra during the caliphates of Umar ibn Al-Khattab and Umar ibn Abdul Aziz (717-720 C.E.), respectively, there were years when there was a surplus in the zakat fund but no eligible recipients to receive it.756 We may not attain this ideal condition within a projected ten-year period as suggested in this example, but we would certainly be on the road for reaching contentment. The institution of zakat when fully operational would become a fountain of economic harmony and contentment. 5.5. Hajj in Islam 5.5.1 Pilgrimage experiences Pilgrimages are, perhaps the most powerful rituals performed by religious members. Most religions prescribe a pilgrimage of some sort, and pilgrims often return from their sacred journey with a new sense of self, a reaffirmed religious identity, a new outlook on society, and a strong social solidarity with others of the same faith. In addition, pilgrimage carries pilgrims into the holy land, where, in the past, prophets received revelations from God and performed miracles, and/or where important religious figures performed unequaled acts of 753

Quraishi, (1999), 6. Zakat is calculated on an individual’s net worth. To simplify calculations in this example we have -worth of a family instead of net-worth of each member of a given family. 755 Quraishi, (1999), 6. 756 Husaini, S.A.Q: Arab Administration. Lahore, Pakistan: Ashraf Publications, See also Tanzil-ur Rehman, Introduction of Zakat in Pakistan, (Islamabad: Council of Islamic Ideology 1981), 78. 754

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piety. As a result, the rituals of pilgrimage center on the actions of these prophets and religious figures, allowing pilgrims from all periods to interact with and internalize a common religious history “where miracles once happened, still happen, and may happen again.”757 Literally: The word "Hajj" means heading for an honourable person or place.758 Legally: Hajj means worshipping Allah by performing the Hajj rituals, which are defined as specific acts performed at a specific time and place in a specific way. 759 There is agreement among Juristic schools over the Hajj definition. Almost all pilgrims describe their pilgrimage experiences as ethereal, where events are supernatural, prayers are most likely to be answered, and the possibilities are endless. Some pilgrims emphasize the impact of their experiences in formulating new solutions to their homeland’s social, political and religious problems. Others describe themselves walking amongst the prophets, or undergoing a metaphorical rebirth as important religious figures. In addition, others describe their initiation into the Islamic community and the larger Islamic World. Whatever the case may be, pilgrims describe their sacred pilgrimage experiences as influential and transformative.760 But how does pilgrimage facilitate such experiences? Do all pilgrims, performing the same pilgrimage from different periods and geographical backgrounds, interact with and internalize the sacred rituals and symbols of pilgrimage the same way? One anthropologist states that pilgrimage represents the belief “that somewhere beyond the known world there exists a power that can make right the difficulties that appear so insoluble and intractable here and now.761” The hajj is not simply a meritorious ritual for the pious, but a duty placed on all Muslims by God to perform once in his or her lifetime.762 Thus, individuals with health related problems, insufficient funds, or an inability to leave their homeland because of dangerous political circumstances are released from this duty. Although the Prophet Muhammad had gained control over Mecca by the time of Hajj in the ninth year after the Hijrah, he did not perform Hajj in this year. Instead, Abu Bakr was appointed the chief of Hajj duties (AmeerulHajj). In the tenth year after the Hijrah, Prophet Muhammad performed his last Hajj, otherwise known as the farewell Hajj, Hajjatul Widaa (‫)حجة الوداع‬. As mentioned earlier, Prophet Ibrahim and his son initially rebuilt the Kaba’a; hence, many of the rituals and practices of Hajj are in respect of the sacrifices that Prophet Ibrahim made for Allah. Many of the Prayers also include reference to him and his acts. In addition, not only did the hajj contain all of these sacred symbols, but it required Muslims to participate, interacting and surrounding themselves with sacred symbols in a specific manner and for a specific period of time. 5.5.2

Method of performing Hajj

There are three ways of performing the Hajj: Tamattu (‫)تمتع‬, Qiran (‫ ) َق َران‬and Ifrad (‫)افراد‬. i) Tamattu` It is the act of performing `Umrah in the Hajj season then performing the Jeffery A. McCarter, “The individual and Social Process of Pilgrimage,” in Studies in Islam and the Middle East (SIME) majalla, Vol. 2, no. 1, (2005): 1. 758 Al-Bustani, (1975), 118. 759 Ibrahim Dasuki Mari’i: Kita’abul -fiqh ala madahib al- arbah, ‫( كتاب الفقه على المذاهب األربعة‬Cairo: Ministry of Religious Affairs, 1981), 611 760 McCarter, (2005), 1. 761 Morinis, Alan. Ed. Sacred Journeys: The Anthropology of Pilgrimage, (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1992), 1. 762 Quadry, (1990), 118 757

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Hajj itself in the same year. In this type of Hajj, a pilgrim intends to perform Tamattu` before setting forth on journey. He intends Ùmrah and enters into the state of Ihram763 while uttering the following words: O Allah! I answer your call to perform Ùmrah. O Allah! I intend to perform Ùmrah, so make it easy for me, and accept it from me. I intend to perform Ùmrah and I put on the garb of Ihram only for You, O Allah (the Almighty).764 He then starts to pronounce the Talbiah (‫)تلبية‬. Such a pilgrim, upon reaching Mecca and visiting the Sacred House, circumambulates the Ka`bah seven times, walks between Safa and Marwah seven times, then removes his Hajj garb and gets his hair cut or shaved. He may do everything that is permissible but was prohibited for him in the state of Ihram till the 8th of Dhul-Hijjah (the day of Tarwiah), as he states his intention and puts on the Hajj garb from his residence, while uttering the following words: O Allah! I answer your call to perform Hajj. O Allah! I intend to perform Hajj, so make it easy for me, and accept it from me. I intend to perform Hajj and I put on the garb of Ihram only for You, O Allah (the Almighty).765 Then he starts to pronounce the Talbiah that goes : . َ‫ الَش َِّريكَ لَك‬, َ‫ لَكَ َو ال ُم ْلك‬,َ‫ ِّإنَ ال َح ْمدَ و النِّ ْع َمة‬, َ‫ لَبَّيْكَ الَ ش َِّريكَ لَكَ لَبَّيك‬, َ‫لَبَّيْكَ اللَّ ُه َّم لَبَّيْك‬ O Allah! Here I am at your service. I respond to your call, O Allah! Here I am at your service. I respond to your call. Here I am at your service. I respond to your call, and I am obedient to your orders, you have no partner. Here I am at your service. I respond to your call. All praises and grace are due to you and all sovereignty is (too) for you and you have no partner with you. O Allah! I forbid myself, my hair, skin and body from wearing perfume on and from touching women. This is something that you prevent the one who is in a state of Ihram from doing it, and I do this only for your sake, O Allah! Lord of the worlds.766 Upon this, he must make an Offering, because he has performed Ùmrah during the season of Hajj, as stated in the Holy Qur'an: "If any one wishes to continue the Ùmrah on to the Hajj, he must make an Offering such as he can afford." For the pilgrim performing Tamattu` Hajj, the Circumambulation of Ùmrah (Tawaf Umrah) is performed instead of the Arrival (Qudum ‫ )قدوم‬Circumambulation. Then, after the first act of removing the garb of

Sheikh Muhammad bin Saleh Al-Uthaimin: A Guide to Hajj, Umra and Visiting the prophet’s Mosque, (Riyadh: Ministry of Islamic Affairs Endowments, Da’awa and Guidance, 2008), 22. 764 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 3/ 320. 765 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 3/ 320. 766 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 3/ 320 763

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Ihram, he performs the Ifadah (‫ )افاضة‬Circumambulation and walks between Safa (‫ )الصفا‬and Marwah (‫ )المروة‬for Hajj.767 ii) Qiran It is to combine both Hajj and Ùmrah in only one Ihram. In this type of Hajj, the pilgrim intends to perform both of them with declaring his intention only once, saying, "O Allah! I answer your call to perform Hajj and Ùmrah."768 Then, he starts to pronounce the Talbiah, and remain in the state of Ihram till the morning of the Ìd Al-Adha (‫)عيد األضحى‬. Then, he sets forth to throw pebbles at the greater Jamrah of Al-Àqabah (‫ )جمرة العقبة‬located near Mecca, gets his hair shaved or cut, and slaughters his Offering. Upon completing, he can do the first act of removing his Ihram, and enjoy everything except touching women. In addition, he can perform the Ifadah Circumambulation (Tawaf ‫ )طواف‬while wearing his usual clothes. As for the one who performs the Qiran, the Saì (‫ )السعي‬which he performed after the Circumambulation upon entering the Sacred House, will not have to be performed after the Ifadah Circumambulation.769 That is because that Saì was performed for both Hajj and Ùmrah. Finally, he must make an Offering because he has joined the rituals of Hajj and Ùmrah together. iii) Ifrad It is the intention to perform Hajj only. 770 In this type of Hajj, a pilgrim declares that intention while still at his own home and wears the garb of Ihram for the Hajj only. Upon reaching the Sacred House, he starts to circumambulate the Ka`bah and to walk between Safa and Marwah for Hajj only. He must keep wearing the garb of Ihram till the morning of Ìd Al-Adha. Then, he sets forth to throw the pebbles at the greater Jamrah of AlÀqabah near Mecca, then gets his hair shaved or cut, and slaughters his sacrificial animal. Then, he can remove his Ihram, and no Offering has he to make.771 When a pilgrim goes to Mecca for the performance of pilgrimage (Hajj) or lesser Hajj (Umra), he puts on ihram, before reaching Mecca, or at a specific place called the miqat an Arabic word means appointed time; date, deadline; time; season, time of the year; meeting point; times of departure and arrival.772 Miqat in Islamic terminology means entering the state of Ihram which takes place somewhere along the journey to Mecca. Specific stopping stations set up along the pilgrimage routes for various countries. Thus, for the pilgrimage, the places of miqat on different routes are different: Duhl al-Hulaifa (‫ )ذو الحليفة‬for the people coming from medina, Juhfa (‫ )جحفة‬for Syria and Egypt, Qaranal-manazil (‫ )قرن المنازل‬for Najd. For people who come from Yemen or by ship from India, Java, etc., via Aden, the hill of Yalamlam (‫ )يلملم‬is the miqat. For Iraq, it is Dhat Irq (‫)ذات العرق‬. For places situated within these limits, the residence of the person is his miqat. For people of Mecca the city of Mecca and preferable the holy mosque of Mecca is the miqat.773 However if a pilgrim passes the miqat without putting ihram, for instance if a pilgrim coming from Egypt reached Jeddah passing over Juhfa with intention of going to Medina first 767

Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 23 Mari’i, (1981), 689. 769 Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 23 770 Mari’i, (1981), 689. 771 Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 24. 772 Cowan, (1960), 1087. 773 Mari’i, (1981), 621. 768

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for visitation, or a pilgrim travel to Saudi Arabia by plane reach Jeddah without Ihram, with aim of going to Medina first. In all these cases, there is no any penalty on them. However, if a pilgrim has already but his ihram from his miqat, but on arrival at Jeddah, he was directed to Medina, in this case, he should remain on his ihram. Talbiyyah – every Muslim recites the Talbiyyah as he prepares for Hajj, and he continuously recites these words in his preparations and even when he is performing Hajj. It is necessary to learn these words for Hajj: . َ‫ الَش َِّريكَ لَك‬, َ‫ لَكَ َو ال ُم ْلك‬,َ‫ ِّإنَ ال َح ْمدَ و النِّ ْع َمة‬, َ‫ لَبَّيْكَ الَ ش َِّريكَ لَكَ لَبَّيك‬, َ‫لَبَّيْكَ اللَّ ُه َّم لَبَّيْك‬ “Here I am, O my great Allah, answering your call. I am indeed here to do your bidding. Indeed, praise, bounty, grace, and sovereignty are yours. You have no partner.” Ihram - Another important aspect of the Hajj is that every Hajji (pilgrim) must wear proper dress known as Ihram. This is different for the sexes. Men’s dress – This is two pieces of cloth, which are not stitched together in any way but can be woven. One Ihram cloth is used to cover from the waist downwards and the other piece of is wrapped under the armpit and over the left shoulder. The right shoulder remains bare. Men are forbidden to wear any stitched clothing (e.g. socks, underwear, gloves, even sandals with stitching), but a sewn money purse or belt is permissible. Once the Ihram has been adopted, the head remains uncovered.774 Women’s dress – Women must cover all of their hair and not their face. Unlike men, they are allowed to wear stitches clothing. The rest of the body must be covered as in normal Muslim dress. The state of Ihram is not only a dress but is also a state of mind. Men and women alike are to be in a state of purity and forgiveness and their attention towards God775, Allah. Hence, their state is like that of a person fasting, i.e. the same restrictions apply: One is forbidden to kill insects, hurt insects, hunt animals, cut nails or anybody-hair and allow anyone else to do this for them. The application of scents and intercourse between husband and wife is also forbidden.776 The intention for Hajj is simple: you must first take a shower and adopt the Ihram, perform two voluntary prayers and continue to repeat the Taliyah from that point onwards, on your lips through your mind.777 5.5.3

Obligations of Hajj

Obligations of Hajj mean any obligatory act on which the validity of Hajj depends and which is redeemed by offering a sacrifice. According to this school, the obligatory act may be represented as the Essential Al-Run (‫)الركن‬, and it includes the Requisite Al-Shirt (‫)الشرط‬. The Four Obligatory Acts of Hajj are:

774

Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 25. Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 25. 776 Mari’i, (1981), 626. 777 Abdulmuhsin bin Hamd Al-Aba’d Al-Badr: Tabsir al-nasik bi hakam manasik, ‫تبصير الناسك بأحكام المناسك‬ (Riyyadh: Matab’i Al-Humaidh, 2007), 56. 775

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Ihram, Waqif bil-Arafah (staying at Arafat), Tawaf Ifadah (circumambulation) and Sa`ai (‫ )السعي‬between Safa and Marwah (‫)الصفا و المروة‬. There is agreement among Juristic Schools on the obligatory and necessary rituals of Hajj. Hajjis (pilgrims) travel from near and far away countries to Mecca, reciting the Talbiyyah. On arriving, they leave their bags in accommodation and quickly head for the Ka’aba. The first time they set their eyes on the house of Allah they must offer a prayer. It is said that this prayer holds great significance and will always be accepted.778 It brings tears to many eyes as they see the Ka’aba for the first time. Before it was merely a picture of a building, covered in black, and surrounded by people dressed in white, but now it is a reality and stand before them. They view at this time is very inspiring. Pilgrims from all over the world, different race, colour and sizes all praying and entering the Haram (the area surrounding the Ka’aba) – but before Allah they are all one, His servants.779 Hajj starts on the eighth of Dhul-hijjah (the twelfth month of the Hijra calendar) and ends on the twelfth of Dhul-hijja. For those pilgrims that arrive early it is commendable to perform Umurah. Umurah can be divided into two parts, Tawaaf and Sa’ai. Tawaaf is to go around the Ka’aba seven times, whilst reciting prayers. One starts from the Southeastern corner of the Ka’aba where the black stone is. Each time one passes the starting point they must either kiss the stone, if this is feasible, or raise their hands towards it.780 On completion of Tawaaf, it is compulsory to offer two raka’ats prayers at a time when prayers can be offered, in the great Mosque, preferably near or around Muqam-e-Ibrahim.781 As you perform Tawaaf, you will notice a large number of people standing, and weeping on one side of the Ka’aba. This area is known as multazim. This part of the ka’aba is particularly sacred and most blessed for the acceptance of one’s prayers.782 It is here that many of Allah’s prophets prayed and rested their chests against the wall of the ka’aba. Although it is highly unlikely that one will be able to reach this place during Hajj, pilgrims must try to pray with their sights fixed towards it, if possible.783 Afterwards, pilgrims enjoy a drink of water from the Zam-zam well, and recite this prayer: “Allah! I beseech you to grant me abundant provisions, beneficial knowledge and cure from every disease”.784 It was here that Prophet Ibrahim left his wife, Hajira, and son, Ishmael, by Allah’s command, in solitude. Hajira ran between two hills, Safa and Marwa, seven times each time searching and praying for water for her infant son. Allah, of His Grace, issued forth a spring where Ishmael lay. Hajira tried to stop the water from flowing away. She circled the spot where the water was flowing with soil and stones, crying ‘Zam zam’, meaning ‘stop, stop,’ hence the name Zam zam. This is Allah’s sign that He will help those who run to His help. In emulation of Hajira’s struggle for finding water in an arid desert, every pilgrim must make seven rounds between Safa and Marwa, known as Sa’ai (struggle). Standing on top of Safa, you can just see the Ka’aba through the arches of the mosque. Before starting Sa’ai a pilgrim faces towards the Ka’aba and prays: Allah! I intend to do Sa’ai of seven rounds between Safa and Marwa solely for your pleasure. So make it easy for me and accept it from me. Then the 778

Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 27. Khan, Muneeb,” Hajj- Pilgrimage to the House of Allah”, in the Review of Religions, 91, 4, (1996):8. 780 Mari’i, (1981), 636. 781 Mari’i, (1981), 636. 782 Mari’i, (1981), 637. 783 Mari’i, (1981), 637. 784 Mari’i, (1981), 638. 779

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pilgrims raise their hands and recite the following each time they start a round: (I begin) in the name of Allah, Allah is Supreme. All praise is for Allah alone. Pilgrims then start towards Marwa reciting prayers. Between Safa and Marwa there are two green posts situated a few yards apart from one another. These posts mark the exact place where there was a severe depression between the hills during the time of Hajira’s struggle and which she had to run through so as to bring Ishmael back into her sight. Male pilgrims are ordered to walk at a running pace between the posts. Regarding the rounds, one round is going from one hill to the other. The seventh round finishes the hill named Marwa.785 Males must either shave their hair or have a lock of hair cut from their head. It is preferable to have the head shaved. Females are instructed to cut their hair to equivalent to a third part of their finger.786 This completes Umrah. If the pilgrim is doing Hajj Tamattu, then it is preferable to shorten his hire, so that he leaves the shaving of the hire for the act of going out of the rites of Hajj. If doing Hajj Tamattu or Qiran, the sacrifice of a sheep or one-seventh of a camel, or one-seventh of a cow is obligatory on him. He slaughters it on the day of sacrifice (the 10th of Dhul Hijjah). If he cannot afford this sacrifice, it is obligatory on him to fast ten days: three days during the Hajj and seven after returning home.787 It is preferable to fast the three days before the day of Arafat (the 9th of Dhul Hijjah). However, there is nothing wrong if you fast the three days after the day of the Eid.788 5.5.4 The Hajj proper Islamic days begin at sunset and hence the 8th of Dhul-Hijja starts on the eve. By this time Hajji would have prepared for their first destination Mina. If the pilgrim is performing Hajj al Ifr’ad or Hajj al Qira’n (that is the Hajj that is combined with Umrah), he enter into ihram at the station of Hiram (miqat) that lies on his way to Mecca. However, if he lives in a place that lies between the miqat and Mecca, then he enters into his Hiram for the type of Hajj he intends from his place of residence. If he is performing Hajj al-Tamattu he makes ihram for Umrah from the miqat through which he come to Mecca, the he makes the ihram for Hajj from his residence in Mecca on the 8th of Dhul ijjah. Thus, the hajj proper beginning on the 8th of Dhul ijjah when the whole body of pilgrims moves together. It is called the yaum altarwiyah (‫ )يوم التروية‬a pilgrim wash the whole of his body, perfumes himself if possible, and put on the two garment of ihram. After putting on ihram make his niyyah (intention) by saying: “I answer your call with Hajj.” Then recite the talbiyah: “Here I am at your service O Lord, here I am. Here I am. There is no partner to you Here I am. Truly, the praise and favour is yours, and the dominion. There is no partner to you.” 789 The Hajji must reach before the afternoon prayer, dhuhr, hence many will continue the journey to mina during the night. The reason many travel to Mina is that Mina is the place where Prophet Mina Ibrahim was instructed by Allah in a dream to slaughter his son, Ishmael. Pilgrims must stay here until they have performed five prayers: dhuhr when they arrive, Asr Mari’i, (1981), 641. Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 32. 787 Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 32. 788 Mari’i, (1981), 688. 789 Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 34-35. 785 786

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in the afternoon, Maghrib at dusk, Ishaa in the evening, and Fajr on the morning of the 9th of Dhul hijja. The Holy Prophet of Islam had also performed these five prayers when he performed Hajj.790 During the day and night, all of the pilgrims will pray to their supreme being, who has created heavens and the Earth for forgiveness. They will remember the time when the Prophet Ibrahim put his son down for the slaughter and they will remember the Holy Prophet of Islam sending him salutations in abundance. After Fajir of 9th Day of Dhul-Hijja (‫)ذوالحجة‬, pilgrims will start to move to the plains of Arafat. This is the main part of Hajj. It is said that should a pilgrim not reach Arafa, he has not performed Hajj. Such is the importance of this place. Arafat is a vast plain and its boundaries are clearly marked for pilgrims to stay within its limits. Inside the plain of Arafat is the Nimira mosque, which the prophet Ibrahim had built. Here the pilgrims will pray their Dhuhr and Asr prayers. What is noticeable here is that the Imam of the mosque will lead both prayers one after the other, leaving no time gab between them. Only one Adhan will be announced for the afternoon prayers. This is to allow pilgrims the chance to perform wuquf (‫)وقوف‬. Wuquf means to stand and this is exactly what is done. Pilgrims face the Ka’aba; standing if possible, recites prayers from the depth of their hearts until sunset. During wuquf, sitting or lying down is also permissible.791 The prophet Muhammad was most concerned for the welfare of his followers while he was on the plain of Arafat. It is known he wept and prayed until sunset for their salvation and well-being. Arafat becomes a beautiful sight of simplicity and harmony once a year. All the pilgrims are clad in white and on their lips are the words of prayers seeking forgiveness and guidance from the one God, Allah. This is the biggest gathering of human beings in the world and is held annually, and with the will of Allah, will continue to be held here until the Day of Judgement. Arafat is also the place where the prophet of Islam delivered a sermon on his farewell pilgrimage, in which he gave an eloquent reminder of the equality of all human beings: All mankind is from Adam and Eve, an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over black nor does a black have any superiority over white except by piety ( ‫تقوى‬taqwa) and good action. Learn that every Muslim is a brother to every Muslim and that the Muslims constitute one brotherhood. Nothing shall be legitimate to a Muslim which belongs to a fellow Muslim unless it was given freely and willingly. Do not, therefore, do injustice to yourselves.792 Having finished this sermon from the hill, the prophet was on the plains of Arafat en route to the Nimra mosque (‫ )مسجد النمرة‬that he received a revelation: “this day have I perfected your religion for you and completed My favour unto you, and have chosen for you Islam as religion.793”

790

Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 36-37. Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 36-37 792 http://.www.iqrasense.com/about-islam/the-last-sermon-khutah-of (25/02/2016). 793 Qur’an, 5:4. 791

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After sunset, pilgrims depart from Arafat for Muzdalifa (‫)مزدلفة‬. Is a three miles long plain east of Mina. At the far end of this plain is a hill called Mashar-elHaraam (‫)مشعر الحرم‬. The prophet as stayed close to the hill and it is every pilgrim’s prerogative to follow the way in which the prophet performed Hajj. After setting up camp, Hajjis spend the night in submission to Allah and find little time for sleep. Again the two evening prayers are led together, Maghrib and Ishaa, allowing the Hajjis to rest and settle down before the night begins. This night is important and many regard this as a time when Allah showers His mercy and His blessings upon the people in Muzdalefah. It is the night of blessings and forgiveness when every prayer that has emanated through the depth of the heart will be headed to. After fajr prayers at Muzdalefah, pilgrims must collect more than 70 pebbles, each about the size of a date stone, from the plain. These are later required to throw at the three pillars depicting the accursed Satan. After this the Hajji completes his stay at Muzdalefah and must move on. Care should be taken not to linger in the Hassar valley as this is the place where AsHaab-e-Feel (the people of the elephant) were shown Allah’s wrath as they came to demolish the Ka’aba.794 The 10th Day of Dhul-Hijja this day all Muslims will be celebrating Eid-ul-Adha but for those on Hajj many other tasks lay ahead. After offering Fajr prayers, the pilgrims must stand and again do Waqoof for a few minutes asking for Allah’s forgiveness before sunrise. In Muzdalifah pilgrims pick up seven pebbles to throw at the stone pillar (Jamrah) of Aqabah. The remaining pebbles can be picking up at Mina. There is no harm even if the seven pebbles to be thrown at the stone pillar Aqabah are also picked up at Mina.795 There are three Jamrat, Jamra-I-Aqaba, meaning the Big Satan. Many centuries ago, as prophet Ibrahim took his son Ishmael to sacrifice him at mina, Satan appeared in the form of a human and attempted to mislead the prophet from his task. The prophet asked for Allah’s guidance and was told to throw seven stone at Satan. This he did and Satan fled away, this spot is marked as Jamra-I Aqaba (the big one). The prophet had only walked a few yards when again Satan trying to mislead him from Allah’s command accosted him. The prophet picked seven more stones and threw them, causing Satan to flee. This spot is marked as Jamrai-Wsta (the middle one). The prophet Ibrahim with his son walked further and was again met by Satan. Again the prophet Ibrahim threw another seven stones, this time Satan turned away and disappeared. This spot is marked by Jamra-i-Ula (the first one).796 These Jamra are now tall, stone pillars where pilgrims throw stones in memory of this event, the object being to ensure that no pilgrim is misled during or after Hajj. Pebbles are thrown at the Satans and thrown in reverse order, in which they appeared in front of prophet Ibrahim. This is because of the geographical position of the three stones. Pilgrims set off from Muzdalifa heading towards Mecca, the three Satans are seen in this order to allow the pilgrims to travel in one direction. With the large amount of people present, it is impractical to go in the order that the Satans appeared. Thus like Islam, Hajj, performed by the prophet Muhammad, was foreseen by Allah to last until the end of time.797 At each stone pilgrims are instructed to throw seven pebbles and say each time a pebble is thrown: (I begin) in the name of Allah; Allah is Supreme.

794

Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 37. Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 38. 796 Al-Badr, (2007), 161-162. 797 Khan, (1996), 15. 795

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Nowadays the Saudi government has enlarged the stone, allowing more people to access it. It does not matter where the stones are thrown. Many pilgrims do get carried away with this part of Hajj thinking that the stones are actually Satan. Some try to throw their shoes at the pillars. With millions of people throwing stones, it is not uncommon to see forklifts clearing the stones thrown at the pillar. The rami (‫ )رمي‬or throwing of the stones must take place between sunrise and post-meridian.798 Once the ram’i throwing pebbles has been completed of the three Satans, sacrifice is carried out in Mina. This is in memory of when prophet Ibrahim presented his son for sacrifice following Allah’s command. This is the moment when Allah observes the intention and spirit of man and man makes his sacrifice without concern for anything other than the execution of Allah’s command, as Almighty Allah says: “Their flesh reaches not Allah, nor does their blood; it is your righteousness that reaches Him. Thus has He subjected them to you, that you may glorify Allah for His guiding you. And give glad tidings to those who do good.”799 Various animals are available for sacrifice a sheep, a cow, a goat, or a camel. Should one decided to sacrifice a camel or a cow then he is allowed to share with up to six others. The sacrifice of sheep and goats cannot be shared. After sacrifice and lapidation comes the fourth task that all male pilgrims must perform Halq (saving of the head).800 After finishing with sacrifice, male pilgrims should have their heads shaved or get a haircut. Shaving off all of the hair on the head is preferable. Women are not permitted to shave their hair off; they must instead cut off a lock of their hair. Once this has been completed, the pilgrim is allowed to take off his Ihram and wear his normal clothes.801 Tawaaf-e-Ziyarat is called Tawaaf- e- ifadah.802 To perform circumambulation of the Ka’aba is to walk around the ancient House. This is performed after the sacrifice on yaum – e – Nahr (day of sacrifice; 10th Dhul-Hijjah), and after the Ihiraam is replaced by one’s daily wear and ones has bathed. The best time to do this is on the 10th but pilgrims have until the sunset of the 12th to perform their duty.803 Even if it has not been completed by then it is still obligatory to complete the circumambulation. Following this, pilgrims are instructed to go back to Mina and spend two days and two nights. Allah Almighty says in the Qur’an: And remember Allah during the appointed number of days, but whoso hastens to leave in two days, it shall be no sin for him; and whoso stays behind, it shall be no sin for him; and whoso stay behind, it shall be no sin for him. This is for him who fears Allah. And fear Allah and know that you shall all be brought together before Him.804 This means that the return of pilgrims could be on the 12th or 13th of Dhul-Hijja. No harm is done in either case. The duration of a pilgrims stay is not important but what he or she does during their time spent in Mina.805 798

Khan, (1996), 15. Qur’an, 22: 38. 800 Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 39. 801 Al-Badr, (207), 113 – 114. 802 Mari’i, (1981), 634. 803 Al-Badr, (2007), 147. 804 Qur’an, 2:204. 805 Khan, (1996), 16. 799

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The next two days are for making up for any task still not performed in the terminology of the Hajj rites, the 11th, 12th and 13th of Dhul-Hijja are called Ayyamul tashreeq or ayyamu -Rami (days for lapidation). For this reason to lapidate the Satans is a worship for which staying in Mina is an essential Sunnah. The time for lapidation is after Dhuhr prayer and before sunset, as it becomes undesirable after sunset. Exactly the same exercise is at each Jamra it is better to face the direction of Mecca and pray for oneself and relatives. After the third it is better to go back to one’s living quarters as was practiced by the prophet. Again, the pilgrim must perform lapidation of the Satans, and again this is only permissible after Dhuhr prayers and before sunset. Because of the great number of people present for Hajj it may not have been possible to perform the sacrifice or Tawaf-e-Ziyarat. It may be feasible today. After lapidation on the 12th it is up to the pilgrim if he or she wants to stay in Mina as stated earlier in the verse, provided they leave before sunset and after lapidation. If by chance pilgrims are still in Mina on the morning of the 13th then lapidation becomes obligatory. Once the 13th arrives pilgrims are free to leave the Holy place of Mecca.806 But before they do so they must perform Tawaaf –e-waddaa (Farwell circumambulation of the Ka’aba).807 It is obligatory on those who live outside the city of Mecca they should perform a farewell Tawaaf. The pilgrim must also fast for three day while in Mecca or Medina and seven days after arriving home if he performed his pilgrimage in Tamattu or Qiran manner and he was unable to offer the sacrifice as required of those who performed their pilgrimage in both Tamattu and Qiran manner.808Allah says: ...then he, who would avail himself of the Umrah together with the pilgrimage, should make whatever offering is easily obtainable. But such of you as cannot find an offering should fast three days during the pilgrimage and seven when you return home.809 5. 5.5 visiting the prophet’s mosque Going to Medina at any time of the year, with intention of visiting the prophet’s mosque and performing Salat in the mosque is Sunnah. A Salat performed in the prophet’s mosque is better than a thousand Salats in any other mosque except that sacred mosque in Mecca. There is no ihram or talbiyah for visiting the prophet’s mosque, and there is no connection whatsoever between the visit and the Hajj.810 When visitors enter the prophet’s mosque, he should enter with his right foot first, saying: Bismillah (in the name of Allah), and invoke blessing on the prophet, and ask Allah to open gates of His mercy for him. Then say: ‫الله َّم ا ْغ ِّف ْر ِّلي ذُنُو ِّبي‬

811

َ ‫ش ْي‬ َ ‫س ْل‬ َّ ‫ِّيم ِّمنَ ال‬ .‫الر ِّج ِّيم‬ ُ ‫ووجْ ِّه ِّه الك َِّر ِّيم َو‬ َّ ‫ان‬ ِّ ‫طا ِّن ِّه ْالقَد‬ ِّ ‫ط‬ َ ‫أَعوذ باهلل العظيم‬ 812 .: َ‫اب َرحْ َمتِّك‬ َ ‫َوا ْفت َ ْح ِّلي أَب َْو‬

806

Khan, (1996), 17. Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 43. 808 Farid, (1969), 197. 809 Qur’an, 2: 197. 810 Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 47. 811 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/ 156. 812 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 2/ 155. 807

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I seek refuge in Allah, the Almighty, and in His noble Face, and His Eternal Power from the accursed Satan. O Allah! Open for me the doors of your Mercy. This is just the same practice when entering other mosques. It is the practice Sunnah to pray two (rak’ahs) of salutation of the mosque. Although he can perform them anywhere in the mosque, it is preferable to perform them in the place called ‫روضة‬Rawdah. Then go to the grave of the prophet, and standing in front of it and facing it say with all respect and in a َّ ُ‫ي َو َرحْ َمة‬ hushed voice ُ‫اّللِّ َو َب َركَاتُه‬ ُّ ‫ السالم عليك أَيُّ َها النَّ ِّب‬:“peace be on you, O prophet, and mercy and blessing of Allah". Then say the salat ala Nabiy (that is ask Allah’s Blessings on Him). There is no harm if visitors add the following: .‫اء‬ ِّ َ‫ض َل ال َجز‬ َ ‫ اَللَّ ُه َّم اجْ ِّز ِّه َع ْن أ ُ َّمتِّه أ َ ْف‬.ُ‫ام ال َمحْ ُمودَ الَّذِّي َو َعدْتَه‬ ِّ َ‫الو ِّسيلَةَ والف‬ َ ‫اللَّ ُه َّم آته‬ َ َ‫ضيلةَ وا ْب َعثْه ُ ال َمق‬

813

O Allah! Give him the station of waseelah (special nearness to Allah, or intercession) and the favour, and raise him to the praiseworthy station that you promised him. O Allah! Reward him on behalf of his community with the best of rewards. Then move a little to the right to stand before the grave of Abu Bakr, greet him and ask Allah to bestow His mercy, forgiveness and pleasure on him. Again move a little to the right to stand before the grave of Umar, and greet him and ask Allah to bestow His mercy, forgiveness and pleasure on him.814 It is Sunnah to purify oneself (have taharah) and visit the mosque of Quba (‫ )مسجد القبة‬and offer Salat in it, as the prophet, prayed there, and encouraged others to do the same.815 It is Sunnah to visit the Baqe cemetery, wherein is the grave of Uthman, and visit the martyrs of Uhud, among whom is Hamzah. You greet them and pray for the mercy of Allah upon them. The prophet, used to visit all these graves to pray for those buried there. He taught his companions when visiting graves to say: َّ ‫اّللُ ِّب ُك ْم الَ ِّحقُونَ نَ ْسأ َ ُل‬ َّ ‫ار ِّمنَ ْال ُمؤْ ِّمنِّين َو ْالمـ ُ ْس ِّل ِّمينَ َو ِّإنَّا ِّإ ْن شَا َء‬ ‫اّللَ لَنَا‬ ِّ ‫سالَ ُم َعلَ ْي ُك ْم أ َ ْه َل‬ َّ ‫ال‬ ِّ ‫الد َي‬ 816 َ ُ .‫َولَكم العَافِّيَة‬ Peace be on you, O dwellers of this place from among the believers and the Muslims, and by the will of Allah we will certainly join you. We ask Allah afiyah (security from the fire of Hell and from all tribulations) for ourselves and for you.817 According to the teachings of Islam, besides the mosques and other places mentioned above, there are no other mosques or place in Medina that are to be visited. Therefore, one should not burden himself by visiting places for which there is no reward, or for which in fact there 813

Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 50. Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 50. 815 Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 50. 816 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 4/ 111. 817 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 4/ 111. 814

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might be some blame for doing so. And Allah is the source of all guidance. It is worthy to note that visiting the grave of the prophet, is neither obligatory, nor a condition for the completion of the Hajj, as some people believe. The Hadith cited by some people prescribing the undertaking of a journey to visit the prophet’s grave either have weak authority or are fabricated.818 5.5.6 Eid al-Adha Sacrifice Eid al-Adha (Arabic: ‫‘ عيد األضحى‬Id al-’Aḍḥa, "festival of sacrifice"), also called Feast of the Sacrifice, the Major Festival, the Greater Eid.819 is an important religious holiday celebrated by Muslims worldwide to honour the willingness of the prophet ʾIbrāhīm (Abraham) to sacrifice his young first-born son Ismā'īl (Ishmael) as an act of submission to God's command and his son's acceptance to being sacrificed, before God intervened to provide Abraham with a ram to sacrifice instead. In the lunar Islamic calendar, Eid al-Adha falls on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah and the celebration lasts for four days. Eid al-Adha is the latter of the two Eid holidays, the former being Eid al-Fitr. The word "Eid" appears once in the Quran, with the meaning "solemn festival". Allah says in the Qur’an: Said Jesus, son of Mary, O Allah, our Lord send down to us a table from heaven spread with food that may be to us a festival, to the first of us and to the last of us, and a sign from Thee.820 Dhu al-Hijjah, the twelfth and last month of the lunar Islamic calendar in the international Gregorian calendar, the dates vary from year to year, drifting approximately 11 days earlier each year. The Eid-ul –Adha is so called because animal are slaughtered for sacrifice on the first, second and third day of the Eid. The word ‫(اضحى‬Adha) in Arabic is plural of ‫اضحاة‬ (Adhah), just as ‫اضاحى‬Adhi is the plural of ‫(اُضحية‬udhiatun) which means an animal meant for sacrifice.821 It is also called the Day of Sacrifices 822‫يوم النحر‬. The Holy Prophet himself has frequently used both the words as we learn from his sayings. Every book of traditions has invariably used this word. In sooth, no other word except these two has been used for the day of Eid. In this connection, it should also be remembered that the Holy Qur’an as well as the traditions used the word823 ‫هدي‬for sacrifices, which are to be offered by pilgrims in the Holy precincts of the Ka’ba and not the word Adha that is used for the sacrifices offered by the nonHajis (non-pilgrims) in their respective localities.824 We learn from the traditions that, the Eid-ul-Adha was instituted in the second year of the Hijra, which means that the Holy Prophet enjoyed nine or ten such Eids. During his sojourn in Medina while he performed the pilgrimage (which proved his last) after the Hijra only in 818

Al-Uthaimin, (2008), 82. Cowan, (1960), 661 820 Qur’an, 5: 115. 821 Cowan, (1960), 536. 822 Cowan, (1960), 946. 823 Abu Walid Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Rushd: Bidayat Al-Mujahid, wa Nihayat al- Muqtasid, (Cairo: DarulFikr. 1995), 1/ 301. 824 Mirza Bashir Ahmad, “Eid sacrifices”, the Review of Religions, LIX, no. III, (1965):71. 819

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the last year of his life as he expires 2.1/2 months later.825 The Holy Qur’an tells us that the Hajj (pilgrimage) was instituted in the time of Prophet Abraham 826 who under God’s orders settled his first-born, Ishmael, in the arid and waterless valley of Mecca, at a time when there were no means of sustenance of life. This was, in truth, the interpretation of Abraham’s dream that he was slaughtering his son with his own hands. On this occasion God ordained animal sacrifice in lieu of human sacrifice but human sacrifice too, did continue in spirit. This was, as it were. The first dedication of a son on the part of a father, that was offered in the way of God so that he might grant to the son (Ishmael) a new life after his apparent “death.” In addition, that he might sow a seed which was destined to grow into a big and lofty tree and bear delicious fruits in the Holy person of Muhammad, the last Giver of a Universal code of laws to humanity. Says the Holy Prophet, “I am descended of one, who was doubly offered for sacrifice,”827 meaning thereby that the one was the corporeal frame of Ishmael, who, being settled in the waterless valley of Mecca, was, as it were, practically slaughtered by Abraham, his father, and the other the soul of Ishmael that was dedicated in the way of God. Another interesting and notable point of which most people seem to be ignorant is the fact that Eid-ul-Adha prayer is never offered for Hajis (pilgrims) but only for non-Hajis. It is never offered at Mecca because the pilgrimage itself is a magnificent Eid comprising a most perfect form of all the four elements of Eid viz, (a) worship (b) assemblage of believers (c) pleasure (d) Recurrence of the Day of Eid every year. This is why the Islamic Shari’ah has ordained the Eid prayer for the non-Hajis only so that they too, in their respective localities might commemorate, by offering prayer and animal sacrifices the sacrifices, which began with Ishmael and culminated in its spiritual perfection with the Holy Prophet of Islam. Hence wherever in the traditions we find mention of the sacrifices of the Holy Prophet and of his companions, it exclusively refers to the sacrifices of non-hajis only.828 The points enumerated above in connection with the background of Eid-ul-Adha sacrifices are so prominent, vivid, and supported by sound argument and proofs that even a casual observer of Islam, no matter what sect he belongs to, may not venture to deny them.829 For the same reason we did not deem it necessary to quite references in support of any of them. An objection is raised in certain quarters that animal sacrifices are, no doubt, mentioned in the Traditions but there is no mention of them in the Holy Qur’an, hence they can be overlooked under certain circumstances.830 However, this viewpoint is as ridiculous as it is erroneous and mischievous. Do we not read in the Holy Qur’an? “Verily you have in the

825

Ahmad, (1965), 71. “And proclaim unto men the pilgrimage. They will come to thee on foot, and on every lean camel, coming by every distant, deep track” (Qur’an, 22:28). 827 Al-sharani, (1969), 1/ 292 828 Ahmad, (1965), 72. 829 Ahmad, (1965), 72. 830 Ahmad, (1965), 75. 826

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prophet of Allah an excellent model for him who fears Allah and the Last Day and who remembers Allah much;”831 “O ye who believe! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger.”832 Now if all the Quranic injunctions culminated in obedience to God only, then where was the necessity of adding the words ‫الرسول‬ َّ ‫اطيعوا‬, which means obedience to the prophet as well? The fact of the matter is that the Quranic revelation sometimes aims at concision and brevity which not be easily understood by each person of ordinary intelligence. This is why the wisdom of God ordained the obedience to the prophet as a part of Islamic Shari’ah so that no phase of it might remain imperfect and unexplained and there might be no occasion for a lame excuse for those who want to flout the commandments of Shari’ah.833 Hence, if anything is proved from Hadith and Sunnah by conclusive evidence we shall have to accept it as true. And I hold that the audacity of a man, who, being a follower of the greatest of prophets and the best of Messengers, declares that he need not follow him, is nothing less than a declaration of his disbelief and irreligion. He will daily confirm to the hundred and one wishes of his wife, his children and friends but he will not listen to the sayings of the greatest of prophets and the best of creation. Moreover, the Holy Qur’an, too, is not silent on the question of sacrifices834 as it says: “Surely we have given thee abundance of good: “So pray to thy Lord and offer sacrifice.”835 This chapter was revealed just before the year of Hijra when the Ka’ba was still under the control of the unbelievers and the Hajj had not yet been declared obligatory on the Muslims. The word ‫(نحر‬sacrifice) does not refer to sacrifices on the occasion of Hajj (pilgrimage) but an ordinary sacrifices on which is offered during the three days of Eid-ul Adha ; and ‫(يوم النحر‬day of sacrifices) is another name for Eid-ul Adha and the same word (nahar) has been used here in this verse. On another occasion, the Holy Quran says concerning the pilgrimage: “And complete the Hajj and the Umra for the sake of Allah: but if you are kept back, then make whatever offering is easily available.”836 Now evidently this verse refers to the pilgrims who may set out with the intention of performing pilgrimage to Mecca but owing to certain unavoidable circumstances (for example, disease, loss of passage-money or insecurity of the road etc) they may not be able to perform the pilgrimage. But with a keen and discerning eye the Holy prophet concluded from this verse that as every man has a natural desire to pilgrimage at least once during his life, but owing to some circumstances he has been debarred from undertaking the journey his case falls under the category of those who, being debarred, have to offer a sacrifice.837 Therefore it can reasonably be argues from this verse that animal sacrifices are essential for non-pilgrims as well. Just as the five daily prayers with their scheduled times have been inferred from the verse of the Holy Quran by the Holy prophet, similarly the offering of sacrifices has been inferred from the above-mentioned verse by the Holy prophet.838 Hence, from the study of these two verses we are perfectly justified to conclude that the system of sacrifices is based Qur’an, 33:22. Qur’an, 47: 34. 833 Ahmad, (1965), 75. 834 Ahmad, (1965), 76. 835 Qur’an, 110: 1- 3. 836 Qur’an, 2:197. 837 Ahmad, (1965), 76. 838 Ahmad, (1965), 76. 831 832

166

on the holy Quran while the sayings of the prophet of Islam are but deductions from the same verses. Some of the modern Jurists, although their number is insignificant, are of the opinion that Shari’ah has allowed the pilgrims to keep fasts if they cannot afford the ‫(هدي‬animal sacrifice), similarly non-pilgrims may offer money as a substitute for animal sacrifice. Moreover, they argue that is a certain Hajis may have some trouble in the head and might feel it difficult to get his head shaved during the days of Hajis, he may have resort to a substitute whether it is a fast or charity money. At any rate, Islam has sanctioned the principle of substitute and the same principle may, with advantage, be applied in the case of animal sacrifice.839 However, all this reasoning is illusive, because the ordinances contained in the verses quoted above pertain to Hajj and not to the animal sacrifices. In addition, one ordinance pertaining to a particular problem must not be indiscriminately applied to another problem. Moreover, these ordinances are themselves a proof that there is no substitute for sacrifice to be offered by the non-pilgrims, whereas there is a substitute for sacrifices in certain cases, as well. But the provision of a substitute in one case and the non-provision of it in another simply show that there is no question of a substitute for sacrifices by the non-pilgrims. In his translation of Sahih Muslim Abdul Hamid Siddiqi say:”It should be remembered that this sacrifice of animal is essential and can in no way be substituted by charity in form of money.” 840 The truth of the matter is that, whereas sacrifices are obligatory in certain cases of Hajj which is in itself one of the fundamentals of Islam, hence in case the pilgrims are unable to offer a substitute they have been provided for them in the Shari’ah but as sacrifices are not obligatory on non-pilgrims, therefore, no substitute is provided for them. Apparently this is a very simple proposition and there is hardly any room for a sensible man to doubt it. The Shari’ah being universal, comprehensive and having been sent down by the Omnipresent God aims at an all-round development of human nature and of the multifarious phases of it the two phases have been particularly emphasized by the Shari’ah, namely the phases which deal with that sacrifice of wealth and the sacrifice of self. Those two phases are, as it were, the roots, which branch out into various smaller roots. 841 Of those two phases, moral and spiritual, the Holy Quran says: “Surely Allah has purchased of the believers their persons and their property in return of the garden they shall have.”842 In addition, in another place it says: “Allah has exalted in rank those who strive with their wealth and their persons above those who sit at home.”843 Hence, the spirit of sacrifice of life and property and the training and state of preparedness of Muslims for these sacrifices in the most important part of Islamic teachings and in fact these are two pivots on which the whole system of Islamic sacrifices revolves. In addition, most of the Islamic ordinances have been revealed to prepare Muslims for these two kinds of sacrifices, which form the basis of human nature. If Islam had emphasized either the one or the other phase of sacrifices the Muslim community would have looked half paralyzed

839

Ahmad, (1965), 79. Abdul Hamid Siddiqi: Sahih Muslim, (Beirut: Dar Al Arabia Publishing, Printing & Distribution, 1978), 3/ 1086. 841 Ahmad, (1965), 80. 842 Qur’an, 9:111. 843 Qur’an, 4:96. 840

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and half healthy and would have fares no better than a broken reed at times of national trials.844 In short, Islam has laid emphasis on both kinds of sacrifices to which the Qur’anic verses refer so that it may be pointed out that paradise can be obtained by offering both kinds of sacrifices and the progress of a nation also depends upon these two kind of sacrifices. Hence, the real aim of Islam is ordering animal sacrifices on Eid-ul-Adha are to train the Muslims for the sacrifices of their lives and property in the way of God. This aim may be obtained in the following ways: i. These sacrifices are reminiscent of the Great Sacrifice, which Ishmael offered in the way of God with his both body and soul.845 ii. Just as the animals such as goats and sheep, cows and camels, are the property of men and are sacrificed for his benefit similarly man, the best of creatures may in times of need be prepares to sacrifice his life for his god, his country and his nation; instead of proving a raw thread he might come forth to the forefront ready to sacrifice his all.846 iii. So that the sight of slaughtering the animals may weed out any sentiments of weakness, fear and awe which vegetarian nations generally develop in themselves? This is why Islam ordains the slaughtering of animals with one’s hands or at least in one own presence so that one may have the courage to see the animal slaughtered. Imam Abu Hanifa says that one should kill the animal with one’s own hand if knows how to do it otherwise one should, at least, be present at the time of slaughter.847 There are three lessons which might be learn from the animal sacrifices but it is a matter for regret the so called educated young Muslims of to-day, who are simply ignorant of the secrets of Shari’ah, are up to discontinue animal sacrifices and are prone to look upon everything through colored glasses and substitute them by cash distribution. In other words, they want to retain sacrifices of property but try to obliterate sacrifices of life so that by paralyzing half the body of Shari’ah the whole spiritual and moral make-up of man is hopelessly destroyed in a manner never to be organized again. Another approach to this question is that, when we firmly believe that the Shari’ah is from the Omniscience God who knows best all human requirements and the ways of their fulfillment, constant, and invariable it is none of our business to poke our nose (to bring about changes) in its commandments. Thus, make a toy of it for human brains, except when the Shari’ah itself concedes certain amount of latitude in certain circumstances. For example, the Shari’ah requires Muslim to perform ablution before prayers but if water is not available or there is the fear or apprehension of one’s developing the disease one might perform what is known as tayammum. Or, the Shari’ah requires believers to say their prayers in a standing position but it concedes them the latitude to say their prayers in sitting position if they are unable to stand. Or again, the fasts of Ramadan are obligatory on Muslims but if someone happens to be ill or on a journey, he may not observe fasts but postpone them till he has recovered from his illness or has returned home from his journey.848 All these forms are lawful and are a part of our Shari’ah. Nevertheless, no son of a man can prove that a concession has been conceded in the case of sacrifices during the day of Eid844

Ahmad, (1965), 80. Ahmad, (1965), 81. 846 Ahmad, (1965), 81. 847 Ahmad, (1965), 81. 848 Allah says: “But whoso is temporarily sick or is on a journey, shall fast the same number of other days.” Qur’an, 2:186. 845

168

ul-Adha. But there is, as stated above, one concession has even in the case of sacrifices as well when God says:”Allah burdens not on any soul beyond its capacity.”849 That is, only those are requires offering animal sacrificed who are capable of doing so. As to the use of the meat of a slaughtered animal, the Shari’ah lays down the rule that, it should be used by oneself and his family or by his relatives and friends, by his neighbours and by the poor and the needy in the neighbourhood. Just as your souls are jubilant over the prospects of a happy Eid, your corporeal frames as well as of those connected with you may partake of the pleasures of Eid. It should be noted that whereas the worship of God and the service of religion require the application of both soul and body together why then, should the latter (body) be deprived of the share of the reward by the wise providence. Besides emphasizing the spiritual side of sacrifices the prophet says: The days of Eid are the days of eating and drinking besides the remembrance of God. The body should not be deprived of its proper share of a rich diet. Even the poor and needy should be made to share of your dainties, which you enjoy during these days.850 We learn from the tradition that if there are more than one person in a family who can afford to offer a sacrifice each, even then only one animal will suffice for the whole family. 851 This is why most of the Muslim jurists have taken the family as a unit and some of them have gone to the extent of taking the larger family as a unit.852 Again, it may be noted that during the day of Eid-du-Adha the usual practice of slaughtering animals is naturally stopped and meat shops remain practically closed for three days because there is sufficient meat for family needs in the house or it is sent as a present by friends and relatives. Hence, if, on the one hand, more animals are slaughtered for sacrifice there is a natural stoppage on the other, so the difference is not very appreciable. The Holy prophet of Islam has laid down certain conditions concerning the selection of animals for sacrifice. For example: i. The age for the animal; ii. Milch animals are not to be slaughtered for sacrifice. On one occasion, a companion of the Holy prophet was about to kill a milch goat for him when the Holy prophet said, “you must not kill a milch goat”. iii. A cow meat for sacrifice may be shares by seven persons and camel by ten persons,853 so that there may be no wastage of meat. The jurists have laid down certain conditions for a man who is capable of offering a sacrifice; for instance: i. He must have a house of his own; ii. He must have a reasonable amount of property. iii. He must have gold worth at least 20 dinars (gold coins) or silver 200 dirhams or he must not be in debt, the amount of which may not be equivalent to his property, and again he must not be on journey, but staying at home.854 Qur’an, 2: 287. Reported by Muslim in his Sunnan. 851 Abu Daud on sacrifices. 852 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 5/ 120. 853 Al-sharani, (1969), 1/ 294. 854 Mari’i, (1981), 712. 849 850

169

In the presence of numerous limitations, so wisely imposed by Shari’ah on the animals meant for sacrifice where lies the wisdom of interfering in a religious commandment, which is so essential for individual as well as national progress? Again, in the light of medical science of animal husbandry a male (ram, bull or camel) is sufficient for a number of females for procreation purposes. If milch animals are carefully safeguarded and bulls are properly kept for procreation, then there is no real danger. Moreover, cultivators seldom kill animals used for agricultural purposes. Hence, from whichever angle of view we might perceive the supposed fear of the death of animal wealth in the country is only imaginary, not real. Now all these limitations not-with-standing, if the Government deems it necessary it may impose certain limitations on the country or prohibit the killing of animals on certain days of the week, as it has already done in many Islamic countries, but it will be on the safe side if it did not interfere in the religious commandments. Muslim Governments, like other civilized governments of the world, may undertake several useful plans for increasing the number of animals. It is a fact that due to the cold climate of Europe and America as well as the comparative wealth of the people more animals are killed there than in Nigeria, and it may reasonably be asserted that a Western consumes four or five times as much meat as a Nigerian does. But the dearth of animals has never been apprehended in the Western country. This is because particular attention is paid to give proper nourishment to animals, the procreation and curing of their disease. But, the majority of people in Nigeria do not think of anything better than interfering in matters of religion and thud preserve the stock of animalsa serious affair to which the intelligentsia of the country should pay particular of economic system of the country. There is no gainsaying in the fact that the Shari’ah has prohibited too much use of meat in order to protect the moral side of man and his faculties by a judicious admixture of meat, cereals, vegetables and fruits. Says the Holy Quran “Eat and drink but exceed not the bounds; surely He does not love those who exceed the bounds.”855 In the light of this injunction of the Shari’ah, it would be quite reasonable to put a certain control on the slaughter of animals without interfering in the Islamic commandments. Thus, the following are our observations: i. The word Eid-ul-Adha, as named by the Holy prophet himself, is distinct from the Eid-ul-fitr and very name of it suggests the purpose, which underlies it. It has been instituted in commemoration of Prophet Ishmael’s sacrifice of body and soul and because of which the noblest and most perfect of human beings, the seal of prophets, came in to being. ii. The Holy Quran itself has instituted the system of sacrifices in Islam as it says: “So pray to thy Lord and offer sacrifice;” “if you are kept back, then make whatever offering is easily available.” iii. The Holy founder of Islam not only emphasized the sacrifices to be offered on the day of Eid but also actually slaughtered animals on that sacred Day and declares that a Muslim who can afford to, but does not offer a sacrifice has no business to join in our Eid prayers. iv. The companions of the Holy prophet followed the example set by him in this respect.

855

Qur’an, 7:32.

170

v. The consensus of Muslims of all shades is in favour of the legality of sacrifices. Moreover, the four jurists of Islamic jurisprudence agree on the point that sacrifices are essential and obligatory on those who have the capacity to do so. vi. The suggestion that animal sacrifices should be replaces by pecuniary aid is nothing less than an heretical ideal for it is tantamount to wrongfully meddling with the Islamic Shari’ah which originated from the Divine source and was in calculated by the seal of prophets himself. Moreover, the substitution defeats the very object which animal sacrifices are meant to carry-viz, enliven, maintain and develop the spirit of self-sacrifice in the hearts of Muslims vii. The apprehension that the injurious slaughter of animals will cause famine in food production is unreal, for in the glorious past, when the Muslims rolled in wealth no Islamic country ever experienced such a famine during the last 1400 years. Why so now in Nigeria? When the percentage of sacrifices is negligible as compared with the non-sacrifice in the country and Shari’ah itself has laid down so many hard and fast rules about sacrifices. There remains not the remotest possibility of the famine of animals provided the Government takes necessary steps for their procreation, their health and their maladies. viii. Moreover, Islam prohibits the prodigal use and lays down instructions for an admixture of food, which deeply affects the faculties and morals of man. We have discussed, in principle, all the important phases of this problem but what the Muslims really stand in need of, is the love of religion, respect for the faith and eagerness for understanding the Shari’ah. Without a thorough understanding of their faith they cannot put up a brave defends against the materialistic tendencies of the modern age. So long the heart is sick, there is no use applying balm to the parts of the body. How beautifully the Holy Prophet says: ْ ‫صلَ َح‬ َّ . ُ‫صلَح ْال َج َسدُ ُّكلُهُ َواِّذَافَ َسدَ ْت فَ َسدَ اْل َج َسدُ ُكلُّهُ اَالَ َوه َِّي القَ ْلب‬ ْ ‫س ِّد ُم‬ َ ‫وان فِّي ْال َج‬ َ ‫ت‬ َ ‫ضغَةً اِّذَا‬ In the corporeal frame of man there is a piece of flesh, which, if diseased, the whole body is diseased, but if it is healthy and functions properly the whole body becomes healthy and all parts of the body work harmoniously. Remember, it is the heart, which is the fountainhead of all good actions.856 The Hadith shows that religion does not consist in the devotional exercise, which a man may perform, but in the presence in him of a right mentality, the mentality to act aright and avoid the wrong. A sound mind is of the essence of religion, as Qur’an says:” but he alone will be saved who brings to Allah a sound heart.”857 Now I take up the question of curing and preserving of meat. The pre-Islamic Arabs used to preserve surplus meat by curing it properly. Islam, too, has not only permitted the use of seasoned meat but has laid stress on it. This is known as ‫تشريق‬or the preservation of meat by the admixture of various spices, and the days immediately following Eid-ul-Adha are called ْ ‫“ ُكلُوا َو‬make use the days of ‫تشريق‬or preservation of meat. The prophet says: 858 ‫اط ِّع ُموا َواد َِّّخ ُروا‬ 856

The hadith is reported by Bukhari. Qur’an, 26:90. 858 Al-Shawkani, (1965), 5/ 127. 857

171

of the meat of slaughtered animals yourselves and also give it to your friends and relatives and preserve the surplus for your use.” The verdict of the Hanafite school of thought concerning the meat of slaughtered animals is as follows: It is desirable that the meat of the slaughtered animal should be used by the slaughterer himself and by the poor and the needy in the neighbourhood and the surplus may be prepared; perfectly one should give out 1/3 as charity, distribute 1/3 among one’s friends and relatives and 1/3 be preserved for future use.859 In the present of a wise teaching as the above, there is hardly any danger of the wastage of animal flesh. The indigenous and elementary methods of the preservation of meat adopted by ancient Arabs may still be profitably used but with the scientific methods called dehydration, it has become possible to preserve meat for a considerable time. This gives Muslims an opportunity to develop a profitable industry on commercial lines and Saudi Arabia government may be advised to carry on a new industry in wool, leather and preservation of meat by adopting modern scientific methods. Islam does not allow the wastage of natural resources, and it has organized all its charities in such a manner that they can be turn to the best use. While Eid al-Adha is always on the same day of the Islamic calendar, the date on the Gregorian calendar varies from year to year since the Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar and the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. The lunar calendar is approximately eleven days shorter than the solar calendar. Each year, Eid al-Adha (like other Islamic holidays) falls on one of two different Gregorian dates in different parts of the world, because the boundary of crescent visibility is different from the International Date Line. The Islamic calendar, Muslim calendar or Hijri calendar (AH) is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 days the Qur’an says: They ask thee about the new moons. Say: they are means for measuring time, for the general convenience of people and for the pilgrimage.860 The number of months in the sight of Allah is twelve months by Allah’s ordinance since the day when he created the heavens and the earth. Of these four are sacred. That is the right religion so wrong not yourselves therein. And fight the idolaters all together as they fight you all together; and know that Allah is with those who fear him.861 Prophet Muhammad said: “We are an illiterate nation; we neither write, nor know accounts. The month is like this and this, i.e. sometimes of 29 days and sometimes of 30 days.” Furthermore, in his farewell pilgrimage, the Prophet said: Mari’i, (1981), 721. Qur’an, 2:189. 861 http://www.kacst.edu.sa/en/services/ummalqura/Pages/about.aspx (9/3/2016). 859 860

172

Time has grown similar in form and state to the time when Allah created the heavens and the earth. A year is twelve months. Four of which are Sacred Months (Hurum‫)حرم‬. Three of the four months are successive. They are (‫ ذوالحجة و المحرم‬,‫)ذوالقعدة‬. Dhul-Qa‘dah, Dhul-Hijjah, and AlMuharram. The fourth Month is ‫ رجب‬Rajab Mudar, which comes between Jumada and Sha‘ban.862 The Umm Al-Qura calendar is thus defined, adopting the Hijri lunar Islamic system of dating events and accounting days and months. The first issue of the Um Al-Qura calendar was published in 1346H by the government press in Mecca where it was printed until 1399H. The government then decided to have it printed in its press office in Riyadh, where state of the art equipment can produce an elegant modern version of the calendar. To further develop the calendar, a supervisory committee was created, chaired by the president of King Abdul Aziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), with member experts in Islamic law and astronomy, to review any studies or remarks related to the calendar. The committee has been active since 1400H, making recommendations on issues pertinent to the calendar. In 1420 H, the coordinates of the Kaaba were adopted as the basis of the Umm Al-Qura calendar. If moonset occurs after sunset at Mecca, then the day beginning at that sunset is considered the first day of the new month. Months of the Hijri calendar are: 1. Muharram (‫)محرم‬: It is the first month of the Hijri year and one of the four sacred months of the year in which fighting is prohibited. Muharram is so called because Arabs prohibited fighting during this month. 2. Safar (‫)صفر‬: literally means ‘the empty month’, because when Arabs went on their looting expeditions they would leave their houses empty, as well as anyone whom they would encounter on these raiding trips. 3. Rabi' al Awwal (‫)ربيع األول‬: It was named so (first spring) because it was named with the beginning of spring. 4. Rabi’ al Thani (‫)ربيع الثاني‬: It was known to be the month of grazing and pasturage for Arabs. It is also said that it was named so because it occurred during springtime when it was first named. 5. Jumada al Ula (‫)جمادى األولى‬: Before the birth of Islam, it was known as Jumada Khamsa ‫(جمادى الخمسة‬Five as it is the fifth month), which happened to be in winter when the month was named, when water freezes. 6. Jumada al Akhir (‫)جمادى اآلخرة‬: Was known in pagan times as Jumada Sitta ‫(جمادى الستة‬six as it is the sixth month). The name also refers to the freeze of winter, at which time the month was first named. 7. Rajab (‫)رجب‬: It was a sacred month during which fighting was also forbidden. “Rajab” refers to breaking up the spear heads thus ending fighting. “Rajab” is also said to mean “stopped fighting”. 8. Sha'aban (‫)شعبان‬: is the month of ‘separation’, so called because the Arabs would disperse in search of water. 9. Ramadan (‫)رمضان‬: is the month of fasting for Muslims. The word is derived “ramd" (to burn), in reference to the excessive heat at the time that the month was named. 862

Reported by Bukhari and Muslim.

173

10. Shawwal (‫)شوال‬: is the month of Eid ul Fitr. Shawwal was named so because the camels’ milk dries up at the time. 11. Dhul Qi’dah (‫)ذوالقعدة‬: is one of the sacred months. It was named so as Arabs did not conduct war during this month, nor did they seek pastures or provisions. 12. Dhul Hijja (‫)ذوالحجة‬: is one of the sacred months. It is the month of the annual Hajj pilgrimage and the month of Eid ul Adha. It was named so because Arabs went to perform Hajj during this month.863 The following list shows the official dates of Eid al-Adha for Saudi Arabia as announced by the Supreme Judicial Council. Future dates are estimated according to the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia. However, it should be noted that the Umm al-Quraa is just guide for planning purposes and not the absolute determinant or fixer of dates. Confirmations of actual dates by moon sighting are applied to announce the specific dates for both Hajj rituals and the subsequent Eid festival. The three days after the listed date are also part of the festival. The time before the listed date, the pilgrims visit the Mount Arafat and descend from it after sunrise of the listed day. Future dates of Eid al-Adha might face correction 10 days before the festivity, in case of deviant lunar sighting in Saudi Arabia for the start of the month Dhul Hijja.      

863 864

1437 (Islamic Calendar): 11 September 2016 (calculated) 1438 (Islamic Calendar): 1 September 2017 (calculated) 1439 (Islamic Calendar): 21 August 2018 (calculated) 1440 (Islamic Calendar): 11 August 2019 (calculated) 1441 (Islamic Calendar): 31 July 2020 (calculated) 1442 (Islamic Calendar): 20 July 2021 (calculated).864

http://www.kacst.edu.sa/en/services/ummalqura/Pages/about.aspx (9/3/2016). http://www.kacst.edu.sa/en/services/ummalqura/Pages/about.aspx (9/3/2016).

174

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