'Agro-Urbanisms' as Alternate Futures by Abhinand Gopal

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures A Climate Change investigation of peri-urban settlements of Johannesburg Individual Thesis presented to obtain the Degree of Master of Urbanism and Spatial Planning (MAUSP) 2019-2020

Volume 3

Abhinand Gopal Pulijala KU Leuven, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Urbanism Master (of Science) of Urbanism and Strategic Planning EMU â&#x20AC;&#x201C; European Post-master in Urbanism

Promoted by: Prof. Kelly Shannon and Prof. Bruno de Meulder

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures A Climate Change Investigation of peri-urban settlements of Johannesburg Abhinand Gopal Pulijala KU Leuven, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Urbanism Master (of Science) of Urbanism and Strategic Planning abhinandgopal13@gmail.com

Promotors

Prof. Kelly Shannon Prof. Bruno de Meulder Local Promotor

Ar. Ludwig Hansen WITS Unviersity Readers

Prof. Viviana d'Auria KU Leuven

Ar. Tanzeem Razak Lemon Pebble Architects

ÂŠ Copyright by Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. All rights reserved. All text, images, graphics and other materials in this publication are subject to the copyright and other intellectual property rights of the authors, supervisor and co-supervisors, unless otherwise credited. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or modified in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the supervisor. Permissions should be addressed to Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Faculty of Engineering - Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B3001 Heverlee (Belgium). Telephone +32 16 32 13 50 and Fax +32 16 32 19 82. A written permission is also required to use methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests. All images and maps are by author unless otherwise stated. All images and maps are by the author unless otherwise stated.

Contents

PART 1 | Preface 7 1 – Abstract 9 2 - Introduction 12 3 – Research Objective 14 4- Methodology 16

PART 2 | Origin 20 4 – Historic Interplays 22 5 – Segregated Planning 28 6 – Ekurhuleni Sustainable Framework? 34

PART 3 | Tracing & Reading 38 8 – Farm Estates Then, Commercial Agriculture Now 40 9 – Existing Spatial Demorgaphics 48 10 – Effects of Climate Change 52

PART 4 | Design Investigation 58 11 – Design Strategies 60 12 – Water as a Resource 13 – Alternate Futures 72

References 82

A view of Johannesburg city's Skyline in the backdrop of Klippoorjite Agriculture Hub

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

PART 1

Preface 1 - Abstract 9 2 – Introduction

3 – Research Objective 4 – Methodology

Contents

1 – Abstract Johannesburg nestled in the Highveld region continues to bear the spatial scars of mineral exploitation and segregated apartheid planning. It is a splintered megalopolis with rising social-inequities, mass unemployment, lack of services and a plethora of degraded landscapes. The perpetual urban sprawl of greater Johannesburg driven by the operations of ‘pyramid of mining’ is putting tremendous risk on the its fragile water eco-systems, habitats, and peri-urban agricultural domains. The contamination of ground and surface water made the absolute dependency of Johannesburg on hydro-colonization. The Lesotho Highlands Water Project artificially diverts river water from the Drakensburg Range through a series of dams, tunnels, and canals to supply the potable water needs of households, gardens and swimming pools. The Klippoortjie agricultural hub is a food belt on the city’s southeast periphery which under constant threat from future housing development, industrial expansion, water scarcity and drought. The predictions of frequent drought conditions coupled with irregular rainfall patterns and temperature anomalies outlined in the FAO Agriculture Report (FAO, 2016) has become a harsh reality. Since the dryland agriculture uses groundwater for irrigation, there has been a depletion in the water table and ruptures to the precarious dolomite bedrock leading to the subsequent formation of sinkholes. The increase in average global temperatures makes the agricultural area severely vulnerable to profound harsh weather conditions and shortage of water resources. At the same time, a high flood risk area has been created by the widening and fragmentation of the Natalspruit floodplain intervals by dams and transport infrastructure. These compounded circumstances place utmost importance on the effective and efficient use of water resources in the region. ‘Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures’ explores the post-Covid19 scenario with a hypothesis which includes the collapse of the global oil and the Mpumalanga coal industry. This thesis is an urban design research investigation from the lens of climate change to understand the symbiotic relationship of water landscape, agriculture, and urbanism in the greater Johannesburg region. The design strategies are two-fold and developed across different scales: adaptative climate-resilient landscapes that enhance dynamic growth of threatened biodiversity, and provide alternate modes of living, work and sustainable development based on hyperlocal resource management in the absence of fuel-based automotive and non-renewables. The proposal envisions a self-sufficient hyperlocal entity that is intrinsically linked to its natural water and recycled wastewater systems, topography, and biodiversity, rather than its historic developments of mining, apartheid and top-down land-use planning.

Keywords: agricultural urbanism, degraded landscapes, ecological resilience

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Territorial tensions between agriculture and settlements, "sometimes, there is white foam on my lawn from the use of fertilizers" - David Felex, local resident

Ekhurleni Metropolitan

Population - 3.8 million

City of Johannesburg

Population - 2 million

Johannesburg Metropolitan

Population - 5.8 million

Gauteng Province

Pretoria

Population- 15.2 Million

2 3

Vereeniging

Ridges Fig. 1.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Map of Gauteng shows the study area 3 in relation to the natural terrain and the greater Johannesburg's sprawl

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Urban Footprint

Mine Residue

Johannesburg Inner City

CBD

Study Farme: 8kmx8km

Klippoorjite Agriculture Hub

Abstract

2 – Introduction The study area of 8x8km is the Klippoortjie Agricultural Hub part of the Ekurhuleni municipality of the Gauteng province located 30 kms southeast of the Johannesburg inner city. The strong geometric patterns of settlements interwoven with pockets of native vegetation (open veld) and oversized infrastructure is a constant reminder of the original survey grid lines superimposed on the terrain with much of the ‘unimproved’ veld reduced to degraded landscapes and any surviving water courses severely polluted (Foster, 2009).The vast swathes of commercial agriculture are the last remnants of the vast pastoral lands that dominated the rural landscapes, whose existence today is threated by increasing pressures of human settlements and highway projects. Apart from urbanization, the biggest threats to cultivation are drought conditions, water scarcity and severe temperature changes. (Please refer Vo.1 Ch.10) With the advancement in technology, the exponential water demand for mining started a process of damming and canalizing upstream Natalspruit river that in turn resulted in deterioration of wetlands’ morphological characteristics. Alongside, the large-scale infrastructural mobility has severed the Natalspruit catchment with rapid deepening and widening of the floodplain associated with excessive soil erosion and unbalanced sedimentation (Climate Change Adaptation Plan, CoJ 2009). But, in informal settlements without any access to municipal water rely on groundwater for drinking purposes directly impacting their health (Toffah, 2013). With poor service delivery by the state and municipality, the localised region has the necessary ingredients in becoming a self-sufficient territory by overlapping forces of decentralisation and promoting collective growth. The research unfolds with the historical interplays that have shaped the physical landscape and altered the native vegetation, followed by decoding the landscape nuanced characteristics of settlement, industry and agriculture in the study frame. The design research is an earnest attempt to seek alternative perspectives of development for peri-urban fringes of global cities. The final segment of the thesis unveils alternate modes of mobility, living, and economy through concepts of communitarianism: shared space, circular economy and advanced waste recycling within a hyper-locality entity. Thus, the primary line of critical investigation of the area is through the lens of climate change and the necessity of paradigm shift in existing systems.

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Elspark

Natalspruit Catcment Wadeville Industrial Zone

Leeuwpoort

Groenweide

Informal Settlements

Ethembeni Park Klippoortjie AH

Klippoortjie Agriculture Hub

Klippoortjie Industrial Zone

Rondebutlt Bird Santuary Dawn Park

Roodekop

Rondebult

Mapleton Spruitview Villa Liza

Volroorus 0 13

Introduction

1km

2km

3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Research Objective How can adaptive spatial transformation of the Klippoortjie agriculture hub and its urban landscapes envision alternate futures for the region, achieve selfsustenance: food and energy, and offset impacts of climate change? The primary objective of the research is to understand the transforming relationships between agriculture and settlements in the Highveld region of Johannesburg. The historical interplays mapped will be investigated from the lens of climate change and thereafter an urban design proposal will focus on a contemporary area which is significantly challenged by the consequences of climate crisis. The design will focus specifically on the following subresearch questions: In support of the main research question above, the associated sub-questions are: Q. Which strategies can be developed so that can the dryland Klippoortjie agriculture on Dolomite shifts away from groundwater irrigation towards rainwater harvesting and treated wastewater, thereby preventing the depletion of groundwater and reduce the dependency of water imports? Q. What alternate methods of hybridization in agriculture and forestry can be integrated with mixed-use typologies to achieve food security, improve quality of living and health, provide new forms of employment and strive for an alternative form of growth? Q. What adaptive design strategies can be implemented to mitigate foreseeable flooding on edge settlements of Klippoortjie AH, and protect and preserve the Rondebult Bird Sanctuaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ecology?

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

religion

community v/s individual dialects

gated community

Ecology

folklore

Identity

reception areas

ubuntu

altered vegetation

Housing Typologies

nationality

threatened wetlands

native vegetation use of fertilizers

pool-villa

informal settlements

traditions

diesel subsidies

Context

sprinkler irrigation culture

language

migration bird species

loss of ecosystems

social housing

Klipoortjie Agriculture Hub

migrant workers

ethnicity

past | present | future

food distribution systems

food security

Colored African

ERWAT waste water

Indian

Alternate Futures

Demographics Indigenous

White

animal rearing subsistence farming

rainwater harvesting

Water

Occpancies

industry

industrial letoffs

What is the pace?

Changes

intensive mining

frquent droughts

apartheid regime

domestic water imports

population boom

sinkholes

Scales

inequity

commercial cultivation

recycling industry

extraction of groundwater

human settlements

agriculture

commercial farming

excess+++ roads heavy industry spatial segregation

Research Objective

paved surfaces

Challenges

urban heat islands

Climate Crisis

top-down planning extreme temperatures

mono-cultivation

water scarcity

water contamination

irregular rainfall patterns increase in flood events

4 – Methodology The analytical methods used in this post-masters’ graduate thesis is based on the ‘designerly’ research highlighted in Urban Trialogues whereby the interplay of vision-making and strategic urban projects identifies spaces of co-production and creatively re-organise with desired spatial qualities and activities (de Meulder, Shannon, & Loeckx, 2004). The intrinsic aspects of working on inter-connected scales with a variety fields of knowledge to analyse and synthesise plays a key role in seeking alternate paradigm shifts of human development embedded in nature. This joint venture thesis with Pranit Nevrekar was initiated with the guidance of Architect Ludwig Hansen, and the research material compiled by Studio Urbanism conducted in Spring 2014. The objective of the three-week fieldwork in Johannesburg was to frame the study areas highly vulnerable to the climate change impacts and develop a gradual understanding of the region. The data collection and information gathering includes discussions with Architect Tahira Toffa and the LHA+UD team. The several colloquial interviews conducted with local inhabitants, private taxi drivers, farm owners, seasonal tourists and support staff of Hotel Once in Joburg, Braamfontein have contributed to the discern the nuanced lifestyles and affairs of South Africa. The Literature Review constitutes academic readings, theories and case studies in relation to urban agriculture, food security, alternate cultivation techniques, and the growing compendium of scientific data on climate change. The policy documents and annual reports by the provincial and national governments indicate the parameters of the future growth and outline the course of development in the region. Combining the literature review with fieldwork explorations, extensive GIS Data and archival material from WITS University Library has helped us to identify complementary study areas and analyze the spatial characteristics through the lens of climate change. The mapping exercise includes a holistic understanding of the study area’s physical terrain and the ecological features in relation to the social-economic dynamics of the larger territory. The urban morphology mapped on a vast geographical network of water systems, soil strata and eco-habitats is based on the Gauteng GIS databases and other related technical reports by the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. This designerly method allows to interpret and imagine infinite possibilities in the mediating and transformation of existing space. In which, the public space in particular is married with local architecture, alternate mobility, and ecological landscape to rekindle new forms of interaction, amalgamate urban societies and environments to make new vessels of collective life (Shannon & Smets, 2010). Thus, the premise of the thesis is based on shifting towards decentralization, communitarianism, and alternate forms of development beyond the mere logics of master planning, historical links and building more roads.

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Methodology

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

PART 2

Origin 5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Historic Interplays 22 6- Segregated Landscapes 28 7 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Ekurhuleni Spatial Development Framework 34

Methodology

5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Historic Interplays For more than a century, the spatial configuration of people, wealth and future development are dictated by top-down city planning approach with little regard to natural water system and physical geography. As the visible expression of peripheral urbanization, the new city edges are on the constant charge of finding un-occupied palatable land for occupation through speculative realestate schemes and competitive market for landed property (Murray, 2010, p. 108). The new growth is mono-functional, erratic and skewed around a serial multiplication of identical work, residence and business rather than compact integrated mixed-function radiating outward from an established urban core. The quick returns on land conversion from agriculture to settlements and the mounting pressures of new urbanisms continue to displace productive landscapes and biodiversity in the region. The macroscopic lens to decipher the Klippoortjie Agricultural Hubâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s physical geography indicates strong undulating plains superimposed with Natalspruit valley system. The wetlands comprise of sponge and seepage areas along the floodplains extensively bordered by industries and settlements. The urban morphology reflects a densely stratified landscapes whose nature is encoded in a multiplicity of histories, temporalities and memories (Foster, 2009). The transport system of highways and railways juxtapose the agriculture, open land and the settlements that have re-invented the wetlands and water system as innate natural corridors, for outdoor recreation as jogging, cycling, birdwatching, dog-walking, fishing and picnicking (Foster, 2009). This can be clearly seen with the presence of large water structures like dams and man-made lakes towards north of the mining belt. The two biggest threats for the downstream Natalspruit regions south of the mining belt are the untreated mining wastewater and the damming of the natural spruits and streams for mining operations. A few studies determine amount of metal concentration in wetlands from mining operations and industries in the past 130 years using a wide range of physical, biological chemical variables evaluated at the inflow and outflow points (Humphries, McCarthy, & Pillay, 2017) (Dzwairo & Otieno, 2003). The analysis reveals high concentration of heavy metals of Cobalt, Nickel and Zinc in the wetlands as they turned into pollutant sequestration areas for contaminated mining water and traces of fluoride, nitrate and phosphate in the water stream (Humphries, McCarthy, & Pillay, 2017). This industrial phenomenon has made the surface and groundwater unfit for human consumption instituting the formal process of hydro-colonization/ mega-water imports from the Lesotho Highlands catchment areas 500 kms away. Fig. 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 represent the extents of the same territory. A set of historic aerial images from 1938, 1975 and 1991 (Fig. 5.4, 5.5, 5.6) are stitched together to decipher the logics of mono-functional out-dated industry and segregated settlements and their role in enrochment of wetlands and farm lands, and how the natural vegetation altered with the metamorphosis of the peri-urban fringes of the city.

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Study Farme: 8kmx8km

Fig. 5.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Satellite Image of the East Rand region imposed with 5m elevation contours.

Historic Interplays

2km

4km

Fig. 5.2â&#x20AC;&#x201A; 1903 General Map of Witwatersrand gold fields indicates the division of land and water resources amongst mining syndicates. Source: Archives Survey Department, South Africa

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Floated Mining Properties Freehold Mining Property Water Rights

Fig. 5.3â&#x20AC;&#x201A; 1955 Map Prepared by Corps of Engineers, US Army

Figures in red denote the distances between stars in miles. Source: University of Texas

Historic Interplays

Fig. 5.5 1938 Aerial Image

Fig. 5.6 1975 Aerial Image Fig. 5.4 Geometric Mining Landscapes intricately tied to the geological rock formations.

2km

4km

Legend River System Wetlands

Alluvial Soil Dolomite

Sandstone Quartz

Shale Grandiorite

Black Reef Tonalite

Basalt Mining Syndicates

Fig. 5.7 1991 Aerial Image

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

1938

Settlement

Industry

1975

Settlement

Industry Fig. 5.8â&#x20AC;&#x201A; The timeline growth of settlement and industry

Legend River System Wetlands

1991

Settlement

Industry

Historic Interplays

C-Plan Protection Agriculture

Open Space Mine Residue

1901-1938 1938 - 1975

1975 - 1994 1994 - 2020

2km Industry

4km

6 – Segregated Landscapes The narratives of comprehensive separation were inscribed with the introduction of the Groups Areas Act No. 41 in 1950 seen as a cornerstone of Apartheid policy. It aimed to eliminate mixed neighborhoods through physical separation and segregation between races by creating different residential areas for each race which would allow the citizens to develop separately. A new endeavor emerged for the city builders, as ‘Payneville’ a predominantly black town considered too close to a white town was to be completed resettled. ‘Kwa-Thema’ a new township for 30,000 residents to be built was handed over to a group of town planners, sociologists and engineers at the National Building Research Institute (Calderwood, 1954). The planning criteria was based on a half-finished sociology survey disclosed all natives under 3 broad economic categories without any consideration of the several ethnic languages and cultural variations amongst the natives. In turn, the experimentations of native housing by Calderwood and his team were carried out to achieve low-cost housing solutions for the indigenous population at reduced costs (Calderwood, 1954). The residential areas with different economic categories were clubbed within walking distance from bus stop and equipped with common amenities such as shopping center, playing field and primary school (Calderwood, 1954). Please refer fig. 6.2 that elaborates zoning principles of row-housing neighborhoods with a civic center. Today, even after the abolishment of apartheid, ‘segregation’ remains a distinctive spatial characteristic and the seminal works of Calderwood through disconnected mono-functional planned neighborhoods still dominate the city’s endless sprawl. The diagram below is a figurative guideline to understand the segregated landscapes of industry, settlement and agriculture. Please note this step should not be seen as a step to generalise the terrain into zones.

River System Industry Settlement Agriculture Native Vegetation

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

0 Fig. 6.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; The disparate spatial entities fragemented by the road and train network system.

Segregated Landscapes

Natalspruit

Pans Wetlands

Groundwater Tanks Agriculture Hub

1km Native Vegetation Altered Vegetation

2km Industry Settlement

Fig. 6.2â&#x20AC;&#x201A; The Native Housing Township Plan 1951 by D.M. Calderwood and, Principal Research Scientist at the National Building Research Institute, South Africa

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

1. Pool Cottages: water demand exceeds water supply

2. Gated Community Housing: citadel as a form with private security circumcised with high walls and electric fencing

3. Backyard Dwelling: serves as entry point for relatives and migrants from rural areas

4. Informal Settlements: mostly shacks made out of metal sheets, lack of basic services - water and sanitation

5. Informal Settlements with essentiall services, no roads, imitation of formal planned neighbourhoods

6. Social Housing: new housing schemes in recent past to increase density and shift away from low-rise housing patterns

Note: All the above housing typologies represent an area of 100x100 meters in order to understand the spatial density and number of housing units

Segregated Landscapes

1. Ubiquitous impenetrable borders between train infrastructure and pedestrians.

2. The waste picker with a trolley is one of most common informal professions

3. Electrified high walls as a means of intimidation.

4. With strict laws against street vending, hawkers rely on transient measures to make living.

5. Informal traders thrive in the vicinity of licensed retail outlets.

6. Zoning voids used as multi-functional spaces in mono-funcitonal neighbourhoods.

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Mono-functional Industrial Area M3 Highway completely disconnects settlements.

Segregated Landscapes

7 – Ekhurleni Spatial Development Framework As any other global cities in developing countries, the sustainable agenda and the process of spatial transformation are dictated by the National Urban Development Framework (NUDF), Gauteng Spatial Development Framework and the Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Development Framework (MDF): Region F. In turn, these top-down policy documents guide the regional development of Ekurhuleni to facilitate the amalgamation of dysfunctional neighborhoods, integrate multi-disciplinary infrastructural projects with introduction of mixeduse high density along corridors and nodes, and promote and extend economic development in existing urban cores (Ekurhuleni SDF, 2011). The regional framework focusses on 4-development sectors namely economy, society, institution and production with little consideration of environmental aspects of such as mine dumps and slime dams, and the existing socioeconomic imbalances (RSDF: Region F). A combination of the various spatial tools envisage of making Ekurhuleni as Africa’s top workshop and manufacturing hub by unification of the city’s sprawl, effective transport linkages to the OR Tambo International Airport and promotion of investment in certain industries (Ekurhuleni SDF, 2011).The guidelines for dynamic growth and urban transformation introduced in the spatial development framework represent a hierarchical system of spatial planning principles which does provide effective resource mechanisms and fulfill long-term sustainable goals but fail to consider the opportunities and threats on local scale. The Figure 7.1 is a synthesis of the draft Regional Spatial Development Framework of Region F and the township master plan of Dawn Park. It demonstrates the complete transformation of farmlands into future residential projects. Furthermore, the influences of Calderwood model on the layout of the future housing units and civic center can be deduced. The integrated transport plan aims to expand the R526 and plans to extend the Gauteng train corridor to the region. Expansion of R554

Future Housing

Residential (row houses) Residential (mid-rise) Educational Public Green Space Commercial

Planned Gauteng Route

Fig. 7.1 Future Housing and Mobility Development Projecs in Dawn Park 34

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

N12

K8 9

LEEUWPOORT PROPOSED RESIDENTIAL AREA

K126

Alberton

13 PWV

" !

K1 65

Study Farme: 8kmx8km

V1 6

K87

K131

K1 36

N3 /1

K12 9 4 K14 P1 56

5 V1 PW

" !

Tokoza

" ! " !

K12 9

Preferred Urban Growth

Vosloorus

Katlehong

/11 N3

48 K1

K91

6 K14

P156/2

PWV18

Fig. 7.2â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Draft Regional Spatial Development Framework Region F (Source: Department of City Planning, City of Ekurhueleni)

Legend

Freight Rail

BUSINESS

TRANSPORTATION

Freight and Passanger Rail

Mixed Use (Business)

Not in service

Class1_Gauteng_Planned

Pans

Class2_Gauteng_Existing

Rivers

INDUSTRIAL

Landfill_sites

MINING MUNICIPAL AND SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE

Class3_Gauteng_Existing

Class3_Gauteng_Planned

# % ) (

Cemetries Urban Development Boundary

Gautrain

Airports

Ekhurleni Spatial Development Framework

PW V1 3

Urban Development

Open Space System

Class2_Planned

AGRICULTURE

Class1_Gauteng_Existing

Mixed Use (Residential) Mixed Use (Light Industrial / Commercial) Proposed Precinct Plans

Passanger Rail # +

, -

Stations

Hospitals

BRT Route

Primary Nodes

# .

Secondary Nodes TOD NODES Tertiary Nodes

$ #

& '

Stadiums WasteTreatment

Priority Roads

" !

Towns Logistics Hub

Groundwater tanks are the sole water source for irrigation.

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

PART 3

Tracing & Reading 8 – A Tale of Two-Cultivations 40 9 – Extreme Spatial Demographics 48 10 – Potential Threats of of Climate Change 52

Ekhurleni Spatial Development Framework

8 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Tale of Two Cultivations There exists a dual agricultural economy in South Africa, on one hand there are large-scale holding white farmers and on the other end of spectrum are small land holding black farmers. An agriculture commentator observed the fundamental differences in farming practices and stated â&#x20AC;&#x153;One is the essentially market-oriented farming, as practiced by white farmers, and the other is the largely subsistence-oriented farming of African peasants in the reserves. The difference between the two is deep-seated and manifests itself in a variety of ways reflecting cultural differences and fundamental attitudes to the exploitation of the natural environment . . . the white farmers are scientific and experimental in their approach, while the African is traditional, and even the few progressive individuals are hampered by the communal system of land tenure and other social restraintsâ&#x20AC;? (Houghton, 1976). The Klippoortjie Agriculture Hub covers 600 hectares of commercial farming operated by 4 large-scale commercial agricultural companies under the banner of Rebelo Agriculture Group. The disproportionately large holdings were obtained by the current landowners during the start of the apartheid era. Even, though the white farmers enjoyed the privileged stance, historically it was no easy means to till, irrigate and successful cultivate the pastoral lands due to lack of sufficient water (Feinstein, 2005). In earlier times, most agriculture practiced on wetlands (Refer Fig 7.3) of the Natalspruit river stream and a few farms used a system of buckets and cattle carts to irrigate the fields, but with advancement in technology primitive hand pumps were used to draw water from the ground. The Fig. 7.1 and 7.2 demonstrate how the river valley changed drastically by the widening and deepening of the Natalspruit stream. In retrospect, the estate farms where the farm Today, a majority of the dryland agriculture in this region uses groundwater drawn from tube wells and borewells for irrigation drastically lowering of the water table level. The groundwater water problem amplifies due to the dolomite bedrock it sits on, where carbonic acid infiltrates along the planes of the precarious dolomite bedrock such as faults, joints and fractures leading to subsidence in soil strata and the development of sinkholes (Environomics, 2014). Fig. 7.5 illustrates the process and the possibility of sinkholes in the region. In terms of policy making for the agricultural sector, the urgency is not just about land tenure and regulating agri-business, but the greater challenges faced by agriculture in the face of climate change and constant pressures of urbanization. How can existing agricultural practices shift towards organic and mixed cropping unlike large parcels of mono-cultivation which results in low-productivity and soil nutrition deterioration. The role of urban design interventions are examined in further chapters to build a symbiotic relationship between fragmented agriculture and settlement parcels.

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

0 Fig. 8.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Cultivation practices in the Klippoortjie Agriculture Hub

A Tale of Two Cultivations

Natalspruit

Pans Wetlands

Groundwater Tanks Farm Factories

Soil Preparation Sowing

1km Irrigation Ripening

2km Harvest Fallow

Nursery Polyfarms

1938: Estate farming reliant on seasonal rainfall for irrigation

Natalspruit

Pans

Estates

Dolomite

Underground Stream

Wetlands

Farms

Alluvial

1km

Estate Farm

animal rearing

Natalspruit vegetables

Dolomite

cavity

Fig. 8.2â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Section XX' shows estate farming dependent on wetland irrigation.

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Alluvial Soil

cereals

Natalspruit

1975: Gradual shift from wetland irrgiation to tubewell irigation

Pans Wetlands

Farm Factories Commercial Cultivation

Dolomite Alluvial

1km

Commercial Farm severed river system sprinkler irrigation future road mono-cultivation

borewell

Dolomite Alluvial Soil Fig. 8.3â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Section YY' shows the present day commercial agriculture completely dependent on groundwater irrigation from dolomite bedrock and the severing of the river system by transport infrastructure.

A Tale of Two Cultivations

Mono-cultivation

Farm to Table Diagram Source- Mr. John, owner of De Freitas Farms, Dawn Park

sprinkler irrigation

1000Ml/d: Water Demand during wet season 2,500Ml/d: Water Demand during dry season

Maize

Groundwater Tanks

Exported to Middle East (Saudia Arabia & UAE)

Durban Port

Household Consumption

Local Supermarkets 44

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Centralised Hub in City Deep 25km away from production

Operated by Agricultural Company

Soyab

bean

Seasonal Vegetables

Crop Calender Maize Soyabean Carrots

Beetroot

Cabbage

Spinach

Animal Feedlots for fattening cattle

Carrot

Beetroots

F M A M J J A S O N D

Sowing

Growing

Mechanised Agriculture and use of fertilisers and pesticides

Standard Farm Factory of Klippoorjite Agriculture Hub Commercial Agricultural Companies: De Fritas, Costa Farms, Plantation Farms Gonclaves Farms Average Landing Holding Size 150 hectares

Electricity generated by diesel generators for indoor lighting

most farm workers are foreign migrants and national migrants 45

A Tale of Two Cultivations

Harvesting

Farm

Highway

Fallow

Rail

1580m

B Colluvium

Water Table Latent Sinkhole Cavity

Precariou Dolomite Str

Cavity

Hard unweathered Granite bedrock

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Borewell Irrigation on Dolomite Rock

On careful observation, a set of homogenous patterns of the groundwater tanks in region emerge, they are located on the higher contours of the farmlands and irrigate the fields using sprinkler irrigation. The excess pumping of groundwater from aquifers leads to severe depletion of water table in the dolomite bedrock and leads to the formation of sinkholes. The phenomenon has largely been observed recently in Pretoria and Boksburg, drawing attention to look for alternate sources for irrigation.

Dawn Park

Farm

Section AA1

altitude

Borewell Gryke

water table level

us rata

0 47

A Tale of Two Cultivations

500m

1km

Delerict Train Infrastrcture

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Enclosed Rondebult Bird Santuary

Artificial Bird Sanctuary The wetlands and the bird sanctuary in the inland of the Klippoortjie Agriculture Hub is a result of the wastewater recycling facility ERWAT (Ekurhuleni Water Care company) established in 1937. The wastewater treatment works with a capacity of 36Ml/d uses a combination of biological filtration and activated sludge processes to treat domestic and industrial sewage. Over the years, the leftover effluents on the low-lying vacant lands of the facility created dense strands of reeds that attracts many migratory and local bird species. Thus, the treated sewage residue created the Rondebult bird sanctuary (ERWAT, n.d.). The bird sanctuary is an enclosed space with high walls completely disconnected from neighbouring settlements by railway network and Klippoortjie industrial hub. The section below diagrammatically represents the repercussions of extraction of groundwater from dolomite bedrock for irrigation.

Legend Pans Wetlands Groundwater Tanks

Nursery Polyfarms Farming Fallow Land

Degraded Landscapes Decrepit Rail Network School Retail/Commercial

Farm Factories

ERWAT (wastewater recycling plant) Section AA'

Section BB'

previous water level lowered water table

0 49

A Tale of Two Cultivations

500m

1km

9 – Spatial Demographics The Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality acknowledges the housing shortage, dispersed housing settlements with poorly integrated mixed-use social spaces and faces serious the service delivery challenges (Marutlulle, 2019). The constraints in the region are not unique, but ubiquitous across the urban areas of South Africa, where most of the urban population live in dehumanising housing typologies with economic and social uncertainties, while most do have access to average accommodation but at ridiculously high costs (UN-Habitat, 2015). Within the settlements, the urban figures are fragmented with poor linkages to the social spaces such as churches, schools and informal taxi ranks. The authors of the article ‘Fortress Johannesburg’ aptly describe the material constructs of the settlements as “Sensing possible futures is, clearly, not especially comforting for those whose hopes reside in dreams of an apartheid past…..In those dystopias there was and is reason enough to bring on the paraphernalia of Fortress Johannesburg: the razor-wire fences, electrified and spiked walls, salivating guard dogs, gun and walkie-talkie bedecked security guards, police sirens, steel gates, massive burglar-barring, the ubiquitous 'Immediate Armed Response' signs that decorate the city and its suburbs” (Lipman & Harris, 1999). They argue the about the acts of enclosure as the new norm to create inaccessibility and as privatisation takes command, it eventually builds a sense of strict individual land ownership. The other reason being safety due to the high crime and violence rate as direct result of serious socio-economic inequities and alarming rates of unemployment. A diverse variety of traditional African religions who practiced indigenous shaman traditions and ancestral worship existed before the colonial introduction of Christianity. Today, more than 80% of the total population is converted to Christianity making the African Independent Churches the largest religious organisation in the country. The religious entity provides the communal space for social gathering and bonding amongst citizens but divided amongst one another. The pre-conceived notion by early town planners of bus network as a means of public mobility is fully replaced by private mini-bus taxis that are neither formal nor informal, but the most preferred mode of transport. The Fig. 9.1 shows the spatial dispersal of taxi tanks in different neighbourhoods, often connected to the national and metropolitan highways. The physical patterns and urban fabrics considered as palimpsests are the result of haphazard spatial restructuring of the built environment after apartheid largely made up of self-contained ornamental nodes- fashioned from a set of common design guidelines and planning bye-laws (Murray, 2010).

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Natalspruit

Spatial Demographics

Pans Wetlands

Schools Taxi Ranks

Healthcare Open Spaces

Church Cemetery

1km

2km

Natalspruit Catchment

Informal Settlements

2 Disconnected Housing

S.School

Klippoortjie AH

P.School

ER Klippoortjie Industrial Zone

Klippoortjie Agriculture Hub

Rondebutlt Bird Santuary

Roodekop

S.School

Fig. 9.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Informal Settlements isolated by the floodplain, industry &

Fig. 9.2â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Klippoortjie AH low-cost single housing with reception

252 units, mixed use

125 units on 70 plots, limited mixed use

0.12 sq km/ 35,000 - 40,000

0.87 sq km/ 35,000 - 40,000

Corrugated Alumnium, Tin Roof, local bricks

Low-cost building materials

train network

Number of Housing Land Area/ Density (per sq km) Construction Materia

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

areas

Spatial Injustice The spatial demographic analysis of Fig. 9.2 shows the stark differences in the size of land holding and the housing unit densities between different residential neighbourhoods. The concept of space as a social construct that dictates the social values and prejudices is fixed for the residents throughout their lives. The Census conducted in 2011 and the subsequent development plans place the average mean age of the population below 25 indicating a highly resourceful younger population, if productively utilised through creation of new job markets and providing alternate forms of work (Stats SA, 2011), (Wazi Maps, n.d.). An average of 5 members per household was taken to analyse the 3 different housing clusters, but this clearly undermines the higher number of residents in informal settlements. The spatial injustice in region occurs also due to poor accessibility to health centres and transport nodes.

Stables

Retail Market Flea Market

P.School

RWAT

Dawn Park 3

Fig. 9.3â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Pools and Garden Housing of Dawn Park

27units, single-use residential 0.8 sq km/ 3,000 -4,000 Steel frame, expensive bricks, lumber

Spatial Demographics

500m

1km

10 – Can we make use of Climate Crisis? The negative externalities of climate change highlighted in the volume 1 chapter 8 will soon become the new reality across the open velds of South Africa. Keeping this mind, the two parameters to be examined for an urban design intervention are precipitation and temperatures. The climate model projections indicate a decrease in summer rainfall, but an increase of annual rainfall by more than 200 mm making the region prone to a prolonged dry period from October to February (Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Report, 2007). The annual mean temperature increase by 2° to 4°Celsius could be catastrophic for human habitation and crop production. These changes could have a wide array of social, economic and environmental impacts in the region. The main reasons for the emissions of GHGs such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere are (Environomics Report, 2014): 1. High concentration of old-dated heavy manufacturing industries in a single area (Klippoortjie and Wadeville Industrial Hubs) 2. High energy consumption by residential, industrial and transport sectors. 85% of South Africa’s energy demands are supplied by the Mpumalanga coal mining industry (Siegfried, 2014). It is by far the largest contributor of Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 3. Large vehicle population (private mini-buses and private automotive) as a means of transport emits large volatile organic carbon (VOC) emissions lead to the forming of a toxic photochemical smog 4. Use of nitrogen fertilizers and livestock rearing in constricted feedlots by national and global commercial entities (contributes NOx 74% of the national total and CH4, 48% of the national total) Since the dire impacts cannot be restrained, the only prudent option is to interweave man-made systems with natural flows and cycles of the local environment such that it can adapt and sustain future climate shocks. As a scenario building exercise, the recent collapse of the global oil industry can be played out as the new paradigm to shift the existing systems towards renewable energies, restructured modes of production, and alternative living and mobility for sustainable development in the region.

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

0 Fig. 10.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Territorial Impacts of impacts of Climate Change

Can we make use of Climate Crisis?

Air Pollution Water Pollution

Degraded Landscape 50 year floodline

Winter wind carrying coal dust Potential Sinkholes

1km

2km Threatened Vegetation Stunts in River System

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Can we make use of Climate Crisis?

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

PART 4

Design Investigation 11 – Design Strategies 60 12 – Water as Resource + Agro-Ecology 64 13– Alternate Futures 72

Can we make use of Climate Crisis?

11 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Design Strategies The sluggishness of state efforts in responding to peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs makes the region vulnerable to negative externalities. With the recent collapse of global oil, alternate modes of ideation and organising the land are needed for smaller territorial entities to become self-sufficient in terms of water, food, energy, and employment. The main objective of the design research to identify critical areas prone to the impacts of climate change and how can pre-determined urban design interventions offset the negative effects. The design strategies in the Klippoortjie agriculture hub are two-fold: climate resilient landscapes and alternate modes of living, work and recreation. The modification of urban landscape is intended to integrate ecological rehabilitation with sustainable development in the region through: 1. Severing the existing R554 highway and increase the territorial extents of the Rondebult bird sanctuary. 2. Flood embankments on edge settlements using dynamic landforms to prevent future flooding. 3. New ecological structural network interweaving the dispersed urban open spaces and degraded landscapes. A plethora of protected forests are designated to reduce the altered urban space and bring back native vegetation. 4. Reclassification of farmlands to build a symbiotic relationship between cultivation, cattle rearing and carbon sequestration. The urban design strategies emulated work in unison to create alternate social and economic patterns in the hyperlocal territory with the complete absence of non-renewable energy sources. They represent conceptualised systems of collective action by reframing the power relations and incrementally producing spatial, social and economic development practices: A. Socio-ecological production spaces such as community farming, hydroponics and inter-cropping with the reuse of domestic greywater, and industrial wastewater. The large surface area of industrial sites area is effectively used for rainwater catchment. B. Reconfiguration of existing industry by combing diverse functions of separate entities to create a common goal, in this case integrating glass making, steel manufacturing, and local coal-shale industries (resources available within 20kms) to create a unified solar-production hub. C. The socio-economic tensions between rural-countryside and urbansettlements dissolve to pave way for localised production and consumption cycles. This could lead in new avenues of local skilled employment and livelihoods, especially for rural migrants. D. The new urbanism structured on existing systems uses local building materials and integrates the segregated landscapes through mixed-use social and ecological connections.

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Rainwater Harvesting

Flood Protection

Carbon Sequestration Protected Forest

Community Farming

Cycle Highway

New Station Node Naturalised Waste Water Enlarged Bird Santuary Re-configured Manufacturing

New Urbanism Severed Road

Ecological Network

Cattle Rearing

Fig. 11.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Design strategies for the larger territory.

0 61

Design Strategies

1km

2km

Farm

Highway

Fallow

Rail

1580m

Market

B Colluvium School

Borewell Gas Station

Colluvium

Rondebult Bird Santuary Water Table

floater

lowered water table Informal Settlements Cavity

Cavity latent sinkhole Shunting Yard

1570m

Nursery

Gryke Latent Sinkhole

Steel Manufacturing

Precariou 1550m Str Dolomite

Cavity

Floodline Hard unweathered Granite bedrock

Alluvial Soil

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

1560m

Existing Spatial Characteristics

The fragmentation of territory by diverse spatial entities with poor linkages and physical connections is evident thorugh the layering of multiple sections.

Prime spatial elements of the territory:

Legend Pans Wetlands Groundwater Tanks

A' 0

Farm Factories

500m

1km

Section AA'

Dawn Park

Farm

Section BB'

Degraded Landscape

Borewell Gryke Borewell

us rata

Section CC' Roodekop

floater

Cavity

Section DD' Cavity

Dolomite Bedrock

Design Strategies

Nursery Polyfarms Farming Fallow Land

Mono-Function

Exclusive

Barrier

Road Grid

Degraded Landscapes Decrepit Rail Network School Retail/Commercial Primary Health Center

Heavy Industry Transport Light Industry Recycling Electronics

Raised Embankments

New industrial wastewater recycling plant

Severed Road

Naturalised waste water stream

Primary Water Source: Domestic Grey Water effective street lighting

supplies electricity to local grid

solar panels

solar heaters

geyser cooking

rainwater collection

local grid

swimming pool

domestic greywater

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

street water drainage system

12 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water as Resource

The following design interventions implemented in a phase manner can make effective management of local water resources: 1. Domestic grey water recycling as primary source for irrigation by bio-filtration within the precincts of the residential settlements. 2

2. Re-naturalised wastewater from ERWAT and a new proposed industrial wastewater treatment works 3. Rainwater harvesting along mobility corridors and storing them in storage reservoirs with less surface area to reduce evaporation rate. 4. Stormwater harvesting through street drain network in neighbourhoods interconnected to filtration ponds and farm reservoirs.

Secondary Water Source: Rainwater Harvesting 1. Peripheral borders of railway tracks

BEFORE 0 Greywater Channels

Filtration Ponds

Farm Reservoirs

500m

1km

Rainwater Catchment

Water Storage

AFTER 2. Elongated Sections along highway R554

transfer of street catchment water carbon/sand

sedimentation Moringa Oleifera

filtration pond

BEFORE

Phragmites Australis

groundwater recharge

Scale 1:200 65

Water as Resource

AFTER Scale 1:400

Ecology Network

Storm water collection system

Protected Forest

Hydroponics

Ecological Flyover

farm reservoir

Balance CO2

water transfer from filtration ponds

different grades of water to increase producitivty organic manure

grade A

Carbon Sequestration

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

dicots

potash, phosphate, sulphur

monocots

vegetables

carbon seq

Alternate Cultivation & Enhanced Ecology A set of alternative production practices evolved on the principles of agro-ecology and the relevant case studies can transform the agriculture hub from fixed mono-cultivated commercial farming into dynamic mixed-organic farming area using the following techniques: 1. Shifting the orientation of existing farms along natural contours for ease of ploughing and water percolation. 2. Reuse of wastewater from ERWAT for intensive farming and indoor hydroponic farming 3. Alternate cropping patterns between monocot-dicots (maize-sunflower, wheat-beans etc.) 3. Creating symbiosis between farms and cattle rearing with pockets of carbon sequestered lands 4. Breaking the monotonous interface break between food factory & settlement to promote local consumption.

Rainwater Catchment Reservoirs Greywater Channels Filtration Ponds

Ecology Network Altered Farms Storefront Farm Reservoirs

Carbon Sequestration Protected Forest Public Park Dairy Industry

Cultivation orineted along countours

questration

500m

1km

Balance CO2

tubers Case Study: Zero Budget Natural Famring (ZBNF), Andhra Pradesh, India

litterfall grade B

soil regeneration

Scale 1:200 67

Water as Resource

ZBNF is a set of low-cost natural farming methods implemented by grassroot peasant communities in India. It involves making fermented microbial culture using cow urine and jaggery as an alternate to fertilizers, natural treatment of seeds using cow dung, localised soil bacteria and lime and surface, and straw and biomass waste for mulching (CEEW Issue Brief, 2018). The principles of agro-ecology can be emulated and integrated with the localised farming practices in Klippoortjie Agriculture Hub such as inter-cropping, use of local earthworms, building symbiotic relationship between carbon sequestered land, dairy cattle and farms, and construction of natural bunds along contours to increase water permeability. Image Source: www.apzbnf.in

Farm to Table to Farm Diagram

monocot-dicot

all s

drip irrigation

Farm Reservoirs

Corn

Global Export organic manure for cultivation

Durban Port

New Station Node

Hyperlocal Composting Pits

Storefront

Local Consumption 68

Intercropping

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Banana

Sunflower

Banana

ruits

Tuber

season

Crop Calender

Vegetables

drought tolerant

seasonal

Maize Soyabean Carrots Beetroots

Watermelon

Cabbage

Casava

Spinach

Carrot

Beetroot

Casava Banana J

F M A M J J A S O N D

Sowing

Grazing Fields for dairy cattle

Growing

Harvesting

cattle plouging

Production + Retail Interface

Natural difused daylight

Case Study: African Market Garden, Africa Drip irrigation horticultural production toolkit promoted by ICRISAT in the Sudano-Sahel region. The principles of communal management of farming land by a community of small-holder farmers can become a potential source of income and employment. The optimized solar pump helps in diverting water from higher to lower level drastically increasing the labour time, increases productivity and costs negligible when compared to traditional irrigation system such as hand and motor pumps. (Pasternak & Woltering, 2015). Image Source: ICRISAT, flicker.com 69

Water as Resource

Highway

New Urbanism

Carbon Sequestration

Mixed Farming local food sourcing

Cattle Rearing

Cycle

Monocots

organic cultivation

Di 1580m

new living/work

Reservoir local food sourcing

Mix

Rail

Rainwater Channel

drip irrigation

Integrated Market

Open Assembly 1570m

naturalised waste water stream

1560m 1560m

Polyhouse famring living/work

ecology corridors

Light Indutry/ Mixed Use

Flood Protection 1550m

Floodline

Alluvial Soil

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Rainwater Catchment Reservoirs Greywater Channels Filtration Ponds

Carbon Sequestration Protected Forest Public Park Dairy Industry

Community Cultivation Alternate Mobility Public Habitat Assembly

Section AA'

greywater recycling

xed Cropping

Ecology Network Altered Farms Storefront Farm Reservoirs

icots

Section BB'

filtration pond

new living/work

Grade A for vegetables

Grade B for cereals

extension of native vegetation ecological flyover

Existing Housing Typology with greywater and rainwater systems

Section CC'

access to natural habitat

Rondebult Bird Santuary Bird Santuary New Public Space

Section DD'

Dolomite Bedrock

Future self-sufficient community housing on existing land parcels 71

Water as Resource

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

13 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Alternate Futures

Alternate Futures

100m

200m

Steel Manufacturing

Heavy Industry Medium Industry

Light Industry Recycling Industry

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Delerict Station turned into shunting yard

Case Study: Ville Nouvelle - Melun Senart, France by OMA An assemblage of different bands as a coherent whole maximises autonomy and at the same time preserves the original landscape. The elements use landscape, communication, equipment and development bands to accommodate different styles, functions and regimes to redefine the system of emptiness. The canonical project illustrates the concept of picking unbuilt bands on the site that must be preserved for future protection and using inter-bands to coalesce the territory (Koolhaas, 1994). The idea of system of inter-connected bands presented in this case study can emulated using productive, ecology and public habitat bands in the site by redefining existing land parcels and mono-functional spaces. Image Source: www.OMA.eu

0 Wetlands Future Flooding

Schools Retail

Degraded Landscapes

Alternate Futures

Taxi Rank Church

Private Trees Public Trees

100m

200m Pedestrian Paths Asphalted Roads

Public Assembly

Intensive Farming

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Hydroponic Farming

Orchards

New Station Node

Bike Highway

Ecology Band

Productive Band

0 Rainwater Catchment Reservoirs Greywater Channels Filtration Ponds

Ecology Network Altered Farms Hydroponic farms

Alternate Futures

Carbon Sequestration Protected Forest Public Park New Urbanism

100m

200m

Community Farming Alternate Mobility Public Habitat Assembly

Public Habitat Band

Shunting Yard Canalised water system

Degraded Landscapes

BEFORE

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Earth Architecture Hydroponics Community Farming Naturalised Water System

Introudction of Dung Beetles on Wetland Ecosystem

AFTER

Alternate Futures

Retrofit Wagons

References

CEEW Issue Brief. (2018). Zero Budget Natural Farming for the Sustainable Development Goals. New Delhi: Council on Energy, Environment and Water. Calderwood, D. (1954). An Approach to Low Cost Urban Native Housing in South Africa. The Town Planning Review, 312-328. de Meulder, B., Shannon, K., & Loeckx, A. (2004). A Project of Projects. In A. Loeckx, Urban Trialogues- vision, projects, co-productions (pp. 187-198). Nairobi: UN Habitat. Directorate, C. D. (2011). Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework . Johannesburg: City of Ekurhuleni. Dzwairo, B., & Otieno, F. (2003). Chemical pollution assessment and prioritisation model for the Upper and Middle Vaal water management areas of South Africa. Journal of Water and Health, 12(4), 803-816. ERWAT. (n.d.). Wastewater Treatment Works. Retrieved 06, 2020 from ERWAT - Excellence in Water Care: https://www.erwat.co.za/wastewater-treatment-works-wwtw/ Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Report. (2007). Environmental Management Framework for Ekurhuleni. Johannesburg: Gauteng Department of Agriculture Conservation and Environment. Environomics Report. (2014). Environmental Management Framework Report. Johannesburg: Department of Agiculture and Rural Development. FAO. (2016). Evaluation of FAOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contribution to building resilience to El NiĂąo-induced drought in Southern Africa. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation. Feinstein, C. H. (2005). An Economic History of South Africa. Cambridge University Press. Foster, J. (2009). From Socio-nature to Spectral Presence: Re-imagining the Once and Future Landscape of Johannesburg. The Journal of South African and American Studies, 175-213. Houghton, D. H. (1976). The South African economy. Cambridge University Press. Humphries, M., McCarthy, T., & Pillay, L. (2017). Attenuation of pollution arising from acid mine drainage by a natural wetland on the Witwatersrand. South African Journal of Science, 113. Koolhaas, R. (1994). O.M.A. at MoMA : Rem Koolhaas and theplace of public architecture : Novemberplace of public architecture . From Museum of Modern Art: https://assets.moma.org/documents/moma_catalogue_440_300293616.pdf Lipman, A., & Harris, H. (1999). Fortress Johannesburg. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 727-740. Marutlulle, N. K. (2019). Government contribution to housing delivery challenges in Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality: An exploration. Africa's Public Service Delivery and Performance Review;, 7(1). Municipality, E. M. (2015). Regional Spatial Development Framework: Region F. City Planning Department. Murray, M. J. (2010). City of Extremes. Durham: Duke University Press. Pasternak, D., & Woltering, L. (2015). The African Market Garden: Introduction of Drip Irrigation to the Sudano Sahel region. In L. Margholis, & A. Chahouni, Out of Water Design Solutions for Arid Regions (pp. 104-111). Basel: Birkhauser. Shannon, K., & Smets, M. (2010). The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers. Stats SA. (2011). Census Metadata. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. Toffah, T. N. (2013). Reinstating water, resurrecting the Witwatersrand. Journal of Landscape Architecture, 8(2), 24-31. UN-Habitat. (2015). Informal settlements. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Wazi Maps. (n.d.). Ekurhuelni Ward 40, 41, 42, 43. From Wazi Maps: https://wazimap.co.za/profiles/ward-79700041-ekurhuleni-ward-41-79700041/ Winde, F. (2011). Karst, Uranium, Gold and Water - Lessons from South Africa for Reconciling Mining Activities and Sustainable Water Use in Semi-arid Karst areas: A Case Study. In J. A. Jones, Sustaining Groundwater Resources: A Critical Element in the Global Water Crisis (pp. 35-54). New York: Springer Science & Business Media.

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Site Images The photographs taken by the authors in Feb 2020 during fieldwork: pp. 4-5, p.9, p.18, p. 20, p.32, pp.36-38, pp.48-49, pp.56-57, pp.64-65, pp.68-79, pp.78-79, Fig. 8.3

Historic Images + Maps Fig. 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, p. 42, p.42- Historic Aerial images taken from the Archives from the Department of Architecture and Planning, University of WITS Fig. 5.2 - General Map of the Witwatersrand Gold Fields, 1903 compiled by the Survey Department, South Africa. Publisher: Waterlow & Sons Ltd., London Retrieved June 20, 2020, from http://1886.u-bordeaux-montaigne.fr/items/show/9797 Fig. 5.3 - Prepared by the Army Map Service, US Corps 1955. Sourced from the Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection of the University of Texas.

GIS Data + Aerial Images GIS database used for base mapping is provided by IYER Design Studio, South Africa. p.11, p.13, p.17, p.33, pp.52-53, pp.60, pp.72, pp 80-81, Fig. 3.1 - aerial images taken from ESRI, Digital Globe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA FSA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community, (2019). “World Imagery” [base map].

Adapated Images Fig. 1.1 - Adapted from the thesis of Tahira Toffah ‘Mines of Gold, Mounds of Dust: Resurrecting the Witwatersrand’ (2012) Fig. 7.1 - Couretesy Mr. John. D, Defreitas Farms, Boksburg Fig. 7.2 - Ekurhuelni Regional Spatial Development Framework for Region F. Fig. 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, p. 31 - images taken from Google Earth Pro.

References

Fig. 13.5 asd

Fig. 13.6 asd

Fig. 13.3 asd

Fig. 13.4 asd

Fig. 13.1 asd

Fig. 13.2 asd

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

References

Fig. 13.8 1938

Fig. 13.10 1975

Fig. 13.7 1991

Fig. 13.9 2010 88

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Timus conficto tro interdita egerei pravent. Nosse cleger hentemus numuraeceps, maiore hebus, quiditi licaperox nonscidees aderdic audeess oltis. At que mo atuidis, pro vensum confeconloc te tatil hales cone es esed ina, men telibefac tame audemus orarit. Sere crestra edius; nostratius, acienitios mus, untis ina, Ti. Simihi, scri pubi tem, quam vicerio ndicaed itenissa inius. Quit? Opie publis re obus ex noc, nonsula pri consinprat, praventer perum crunt? Bis An res a catquam patiliam omnerei inum diene menatque fuius; none comanti, quon diis bon si factureis, consuncum is. Unt. Nihictudem nem, nocul vercestro videm dius Cat, que popublium, quo cons a nis? Piorudam tes hos vem de dit, pere que de et nosum, et C. elinatod movit vis andum aus, ac tatum pris perma, nequem in Itam. Go nunterr aedius, desceris dum menitrum hum temus rem inatus coniu qua tebem a se, ceporta nimenatum ut fue te nonscis, niurnir lostermaio Catracibes! Sato tastem pris mentil viconsus ete aut grae num aucepsente, mandi, nondicute cludam milicon temquemus comnosterest re condam manum rem aucepse deatam, quostem sa nos, eo nitis facerce rcestor supicitam era? que atiam int. Timus conficto tro interdita egerei pravent. Nosse cleger hentemus numuraeceps, maiore hebus, quiditi licaperox nonscidees aderdic audeess oltis. At que mo atuidis, pro vensum confeconloc te tatil hales cone es esed ina, men telibefac tame audemus orarit. Sere crestra edius; nostratius, acienitios mus, untis ina, Ti. Simihi, scri pubi tem, quam vicerio ndicaed itenissa inius. Quit? Opie publis re obus ex noc, nonsula pri consinprat, praventer perum crunt? Bis An res a catquam patiliam omnerei inum diene menatque fuius; none comanti, quon diis bon si factureis, consuncum is. Unt. Nihictudem nem, nocul vercestro videm dius Cat, que popublium, quo cons a nis? Piorudam tes hos vem de dit, pere que de et nosum, et C. elinatod movit vis andum aus, ac tatum pris perma, nequem in Itam. Go nunterr aedius, desceris dum menitrum hum temus rem inatus coniu qua tebem a se, ceporta nimenatum ut fue te nonscis, niurnir lostermaio Catracibes! Sato tastem pris mentil viconsus ete aut grae num aucepsente, mandi, nondicute cludam milicon temquemus comnosterest re condam manum rem aucepse deatam, quostem sa nos, eo nitis facerce rcestor supicitam era? que atiam int. Timus conficto tro interdita egerei pravent. Nosse cleger hentemus numuraeceps, maiore hebus, quiditi licaperox nonscidees aderdic audeess oltis. At que mo atuidis, pro vensum confeconloc te tatil hales cone es esed ina, men telibefac tame audemus orarit. Sere crestra edius; nostratius, acienitios mus, untis ina, Ti. Simihi, scri pubi tem, quam vicerio ndicaed itenissa inius. Quit? Opie publis re obus ex noc, nonsula pri consinprat, praventer perum crunt? Bis An res a catquam patiliam omnerei inum diene menatque fuius; none comanti, quon diis bon si factureis, consuncum is. Unt. Nihictudem nem, nocul vercestro videm dius Cat, que popublium, quo cons a nis? Piorudam tes hos vem de dit, pere que de et nosum, et C. elinatod movit vis andum aus, ac tatum pris perma, nequem in Itam. Go nunterr aedius, desceris dum menitrum hum temus rem inatus coniu qua tebem a se, ceporta nimenatum ut fue te nonscis, niurnir lostermaio Catracibes! Sato tastem pris mentil viconsus ete aut grae num aucepsente, mandi, nondicute cludam milicon temquemus comnosterest re condam manum rem aucepse deatam, quostem sa nos, eo nitis facerce rcestor supicitam era? que atiam int.

References

Fig. 13.11â&#x20AC;&#x201A; asd

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Liquiduciam nisit ium re expedit optatium quia debis dolupta turectiasse ni blanias ea sum voluptatis quam, con pro ulparci omnim quia iment, raturera etur autem arum re ipicipsus nem repuda volores volori ventius ciisinciusam a cupta sum qui coribus rerspienient et id eatiam ute vendelis molut facestrum num faci re core modiantur am et facerum quo dolupta quam asitat porerum.Nisit ium re exciisinciusam a cupta sum quid quiaepe rnatibus, conseneste commos voluptate est hilignisci aspis aut deriass inctoresti di nobisto et explabo renihit ratatur? Orecepta sum quunt ad moluptas comnimus eos endendu scipsap itaturiore perum es ea sanimoles moluptatqui solorroreris dicate lignisi dundel ex et Culluptatem ium quid quibus am quis voluptatatet doluptate mo ipis qui dolupis si se estium net odi utem quatati nveliametur mo conse maionsequi nosapis mo diti odicto con rem ent quiae pla que peresti cuptaecta cusandia prae landio. Ut omnimi, ut dolenet id qui diciis enditatur.

References

13.1.1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Strategy Ftypes of different spatial strategies,

schematic diagrams?

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

2 Fig. 13.12â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Sed omnihilis pa quiatia qui at as dolutae natur mincturiti at vel ipsamus ipsuntori restibu quatect aquamus danditem ium ne doluptati blaborro mo blabore ndipsap Porempore verci odi blaciis evelitatiur susant et omnis dolumquae etur?

Orecepta sum quunt ad moluptas con rement quiae debis dolupta turectiasse ni blanias ea sum volorio rempel mo ipsam qui untiam mo diti odicto con rem ent quiae pla que peresti cuptaecta cusandia prae landio. Ut omnimi, ut dolenet id qui diciis enditatur.

References

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

PART 1

Origin Post minning cityt

Fleurhof and Mine-belt

West Mine-belt development framework

Origin

asd

Fig. 13.13 asd

13.1 – Strategy First, Accessibility and visibility; the port area is one of the most inaccessible area in Amsterdam and thus it is important to enhance the accessibility. The existing abandoned train tracks becomes the main spine with ‘bike path’ and ‘trees’. the tracks will get converted into common parks for people. The vehicular mobility will be reduced gradually and an enhanced walking experience with the help of increased tree cover will invite more people in the area. this process can further aided by Tram Line running in the same line to connect port to Houthhaven and Amsterdam Central. and a ferry service will help people go on the other side of the river with bike Second, creating destinations: the accessibility goes hand in hand with destinations, which will attract people. The strategy focuses on creating places of interest within the area. The big warehouses in the areas will be reused as mixed-use functions such as library, sports club, restaurants, markets and other innovative and small businesses. These places are in the vicinity of green spine thus creating network of many public spaces.

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

asd

Third, purification, the land and water is polluted due to industrial use and solid and water purification is a necessity. The purification process follows natural purification by plants in the water and land. Deliberate Sedimentation in the area can become wetlands, which will also help water purification and create new eco system. Finally, Algae Innovation, in which a pilot micro-algae park can be developed in oil port area across the highway. This park along with the green spine will become a green buffer between port and living environment. The Power plant can be reused to generate electricity by bio-stock or biofuel from the algae thus making a transition toward sustainable form of energy. The ten years strategy is a process that will enhance citizen engagement with the place thus creating consensus amongst them regarding the expectation from the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Newâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; port.

Origin

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

PART 2

Tracing and reading Urban Aquatic ecosystmes

Vegetal Structure

Urban Fabric

Tracing and reading

100

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

Fig. 13.14â&#x20AC;&#x201A; plan

101

Tracing and reading

102

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

103

Tracing and reading

Epilogue

Soluptatus, invelic tem facerae preperi tatur, imporum re sedi net, consequia aut aut idempori nullora inte parum aut prorpor ehenihi llorruntur, serum et estinto rectusa adigenihil mo doloriori nis ea quias aperumeturis quunt, sit incipsunt dolendi od estibus amusdan daerumq uatqui aborum consecu ptatiis enis aut as earciis se pe nos et qui opta im ditempo ratio. Nam, te duciandundae solecum quibus non commos ullecup isinus eumque vellorem doluptat utet vellautatia sandaerciam vit volupta volorempor assita vidiam rem re porem utatium quatis estiberrovid eum in re voluptaturis sum nis mil moloria tissum quo cusdam voluptium que renem seditemo et as di rectium quidelenias accum nulparu ptatusa pernatume velis iliti dolorep erumqui aut dundigent, sande veria sin estoriaes eiusam, cone volorrovit dolupta soluptat volorit, cone cusdandic temporesed untiae moles si derum velenda ndanitatem quost ut re, odigendae. Nam vendam et atiorum seque conseque ommolorum evellig enimet eum sequo volupis venia dundunt, illestiam, ut eat. Nia delestis sequisit, id mil evendi que volut labor autem sit volorae ceaquiatur, sit eum escit dolore eat quam alignat urestrum ea vel ipsum simagnatur? Quidem volorenet volorest occum fugiae eos comnist harum latiorent esto maximod itatio. Solo ex et andis quatqui derchici unt et et officip saperrorum rem elit erempor re quibus, sum eveles velest as et lam quod modis secus dis ea pos demolup tionsequi beaque volorehendel illo dolorum quost, ium ea corepro repelitatur? Onsedis et omnis si omnisse quatur? Expere enessit fugit volupic iminullut aruptassunti cullecu picitatem. Nem hillaborunt omnihicit volorep eriaepuditat ipsapie ndamus. Ullenim inciis dipsam nimaior umquam quiandi tatiunt eum eturita voles volum exeribusania poritis quosamu sdaectur, ullaccabore nonsecte lit, nonecust idesequi opta in re solorro dolorior sam, vendaecatius eos con consecto volore pliquae laborpores es inctor suntis soluptati namus duciisi nvernatius volesti urestiur aut quatist molores dollab ipsam ipsamus.

104

Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures

105

Epilogue

References

Liquiduciam nisit ium re expedit optatium quia debis dolupta turectiasse ni blanias ea sum quam, con pro ventius ciisinciusam a cupta sum qui coribus rerspienient et id eatiam. Num faci re core modiantur am et facerum quo dolupta quam asitat porerum comnienis voluptam, sus eate nat alibuscid mos ene secus sunt, sed moluptibusae sapient as evenis sit iumque ium hil id quiaepe rnatibus, conseneste commos voluptate est hilignisci aspis aut deriass inctoresti di nobisto et explabo. Orecepta sum quunt ad moluptas comnimus eos volorio rempel mo ipsam qui untiam quiae ra ipit, aped ut explabor aliati simaion peles ende nihicil ipsunda ntiist, quam im hil mi, tem dolupid ut endendu scipsap edioris venda quo id que nullestibus. Sed ea natur mi, et, si tentiandae volores sum es dollanis am alias expedionse imus doluptatusda vendipitam vel ius rerio. Solent aut am eos voluptibus quatis plibustrum, volo corerume pellupi enectas duscit as ut int ut mod quis modit, od quamusanis evel etur suntium aceario. Minvend antus, sitatur minventotas debissit hariorest aut harum esed eiusant lam, corro et mos magnatum reped mintiis aborae modi dolore doluptaque expelit perovit hiliquis dolores. Pro quo blabor minciae pellam ut et exceaquia nonsequo quam, omnihilis pa quiatia qui at as dolutae natur mincturiti at vel ipsamus ipsuntori restibu santus apid que evel ium volupturion est dolo corehendi debisquis coriaecatur, occum exerspis ipsant eos re lati cum et elitiorem faccus re, consequat. Ut pe venda quaeproria cum, el ipsum es nobis quuntem porroratquae pos porit ipitatur, sunt accus molut ius ne voloreiur ra dolum dolupti ut aut quuntis sum fugitem int hiliti blabo. Arum, si tem litet et assunti sciatis quatqui nus dolupta eroviti aestiam dis renim quae des quideli busciate natin num aut quia con pro disto iliquatio esciam si rectureicime volorit eos qui omnitios eic tempore stiberum veribus millia conem rem rerum, evendi dolestio quam, quae nempe cusapidus. Liquiduciam nisit ium re expedit optatium quia debis dolupta turectiasse ni blanias ea sum quam, con pro ventius ciisinciusam a cupta sum qui coribus rerspienient et id eatiam. Num faci re core modiantur am et facerum quo dolupta quam asitat porerum comnienis voluptam, sus eate nat alibuscid mos ene secus sunt, sed moluptibusae sapient as evenis sit iumque ium hil id quiaepe rnatibus, conseneste commos voluptate est hilignisci aspis aut deriass inctoresti di nobisto et explabo. Orecepta sum quunt ad moluptas comnimus eos volorio rempel mo ipsam qui untiam quiae ra ipit, aped ut explabor aliati simaion peles ende nihicil ipsunda ntiist, quam im hil mi, tem dolupid ut endendu scipsap edioris venda quo id que nullestibus.

Sed ea natur mi, et, si tentiandae volores sum es dollanis am alias expedionse imus doluptatusda vendipitam vel ius rerio. Solent aut am eos voluptibus quatis plibustrum, volo corerume pellupi enectas duscit as ut int ut mod quis modit, od quamusanis evel etur suntium aceario. 畑半市著全潮田職報岐協員光南職共。目任政告真会友示路盗翌悪究確掲。情込禁速聞集東格座著応祝変小文。様真歳鰒治返田日村土軍載辺政前僚見止中用。更対負干融本位煙中取真濃卒企首無本。最分泣輝策導院供使迫田量局唆争冠握画禁。紙象勝辞元課大投渡優保本作整機域展画政青。女肉日史母中認術毎辺本訃見変変。押枚球様首服芸見無身給富雰会像現防国復玉。畑半市著全潮田職報岐協員光南職共。目任政告真会友示路盗翌悪究確掲。情込禁速聞集東格座著応祝変小文。様真歳鰒治返田日村土軍載辺政前僚見止中用。更対負干融本位煙中取真濃卒企首無本。最分泣輝策導院供使迫田量局唆争冠握画禁。紙象勝辞元課大投渡優保本作整機域展画政青。女肉日史母中認術毎辺本訃見変変。押枚球様首服芸見無身給富雰会像現防国復玉。畑半市著全潮田職報岐協員光南職共。目任政告真会友示路盗翌悪究確掲。情込禁速聞集東格座著応祝変小文。様真歳鰒治返田日村土軍載辺政前僚見止中用。更対負干融本位煙中取真濃卒企首無本。最分泣輝策導院供使迫田量局唆争冠握画禁。紙象勝辞元課大投渡優保本作整機域展画政青。女肉日史母中認術毎辺本訃見変変。押枚球様首服芸見無身給富雰会像現防国復玉。畑半市著全潮田職報岐協員光南職共。目任政告真会友示路盗翌悪究確掲。情込禁速聞集東格座著応祝変小文。様真歳鰒治返田日村土軍載辺政前僚見止中用。更対負干融本位煙中取真濃卒企首無本。最分泣輝策導院供使迫田量局唆争冠握画禁。紙象勝辞元課大投渡優保本作整機域展画政青。女肉日史母中認術毎辺本訃見変変。押枚球様首服芸見無身給富雰会像現防国復玉。畑半市著全潮田職報岐協員光南職共。目任政告真会友示路盗翌悪究確掲。情込禁速聞集東格座著応祝変小文。様真歳鰒治返田日村土軍載辺政前僚見止中用。更対負干融本位煙中取真濃卒企首無本。最分泣輝策導院供使迫田量局唆争冠握画禁。紙象勝辞元課大投渡優保本作整機域展画政青。女肉日史母中認術毎辺本訃見変変。押枚球様首服芸見無身給富雰会像現防国復玉。畑半市著全潮田職報岐協員光南職共。目任政告真会友示路盗翌悪究確掲。情込禁速聞集東格座著応祝変小文。様真歳鰒治返田日村土軍載辺政前僚見止中用。更対負干融本位煙中取真濃卒企首無本。最分泣輝策導院供使迫田量局唆争冠握画禁。紙象勝辞元課大投渡優保本作整機域展画政青。女肉日史母中認術毎辺本訃見変変。押枚球様首服芸見無身給富雰会像現防国復玉。畑半市著全潮田職報岐協員光南職共。目任政告真会友示路盗翌悪究確掲。情込禁速聞集東格座著応祝変小文。様真歳鰒治返田日村土軍載辺政前僚見止中用。更対負干融本位煙中取真濃卒企首無本。最分泣輝策導院供使迫田量局唆争冠握画禁。紙象勝辞元課大投渡優保本作整機域展画政青。女肉日史母中認術毎辺本訃見変変。押枚球様首服芸見無身給富雰会像現防国復玉。畑半市著全潮田職報岐協員光南職共。目任政告真会友示路盗翌悪究確掲。情込禁速聞集東格座著応祝変小文。様真歳鰒治返田日村土軍載辺政前僚見止中用。更対負干融本位煙中取真濃卒企首無本。最分泣輝策導院供使迫田量局唆争冠握画禁。紙象勝辞元課大投渡優保本作整機域展画政青。女肉日史母中認術毎辺本訃見変変。押枚球様首服芸見無身給富雰会像現防国復玉。畑半市著全潮田職報岐協員光南職共。目任政告真会友示路盗翌悪究確掲。情込禁速聞集東格座著応祝変小文。様真歳鰒治返田日村土軍載辺政前僚見止中用。更対負干融本位煙中取真濃卒企首無本。最分泣輝策導院供使迫田量局唆争冠握画禁。紙象勝辞元課大投渡優保本作整機域展画政青。女肉日史母中認術毎辺本訃見変変。押枚球様首服芸見無身給富雰会像現防国復玉。畑半市著全潮田職報岐協員光南職共。目任政告真会友示路盗翌悪究確掲。情込禁速聞集東格座著応祝変小文。様真歳鰒治返田日村土軍載辺政前僚見止中用。更対負干融本位煙中取真濃卒企首無本。最分泣輝策導院供使迫田量局唆争冠握画禁。紙象勝辞元課大投渡優保本作整機域展画政青。女肉日史母中認術毎辺本訃見変変。押枚球様首服芸見無身給富雰会像現防国復玉。畑半市著全潮田職報岐協員光南職共。目任政告真会友示路盗翌悪究確掲。情込禁速聞集東格座著応祝変小文。様真歳鰒治返田日村土軍載辺政前僚見止中用。更対負干融本位煙中取真濃卒企首無本。最分泣輝策導院供使迫田量局唆争毎辺本訃見変変。押枚球様首服芸見無身給富雰会像現防国復玉。

Image References

Fig 4.1 Fig 4.2 Fig 4.3 Fig 4.4

107

Image References

Contents Preface 9

PART 1 Preface Nobis quuntem porroratquae pos porit ipitatur ne voloreiur ra dolum dolupti ut

1 – Imod magnam sed que nonsent seritatus porre nonectustrum 15 Nobis quuntem porroratquae pos porit ipitatur ne voloreiur ra dolum ut 1.1 – Minvend antus, sitatur 16 1.2 – Culluptatem ium quid quibus am quis volupt 17 1.3 – Minvend antus, sitatur 19 1.4 – Culluptatem ium quid quibus am quis volupt ium quid quibus am quis voluptatatet doluptate mo ipis cuptaecta cusandia prae landio 20 1.5 – Ut pe venda quaeproria cum el ipsu laborpo rerumqui bersperernam 21 1.6 – Minvend antus, sitatur ut explabor aliati simaion peles 24 1.7 – Hilignisci aspis aut deriass dollanis am alias expedion 24 1.7.1 – Ut pe venda dollanis am alias expedion quaeproria cum el ipsu 24 1.7.1.1 – Imod magnam dollanis am alias sed que por seritatus 24

1.8 – Minvend antus, sitatur ut explabor aliati simaion peles 25 1.9 – Hilignisci aspis aut deriass dollanis am alias expedion 25 1.9.1 – Ut pe venda dollanis am alias expedion quaeproria cum el ipsu 25 1.9.1.1 – Imod magnam dollanis am alias sed que por seritatus 25

2 – Liquiduciam nisit ium re expedit optatium quia debis dolupta turectiasse ni blanias 27 2.1 – Hilignisci aspis aut deriass perum es ea sanimoles moluptatqui solorroreri 27 2.2 – Hilignisci aspis aut deriass perum es ea sanimoles moluptatqui solorroreri 28

PART 2 Orecepta sum quunt ad moluptas comnimus eos volorio 3 – Imod magnam sed que nonsent seritatus porre nonectustrum 31 3.1 – Minvend antus, sitatur 31

PART 3 Riassum eatus quis autas dolupta de dolo explaudit dunt laborpo 4 – Imod magnam sed que nonsent seritatus porre nonectustrum 49 4.1 – Minvend antus, sitatur 49

Acknowledgements 53 References 55

Appendix 1 Hilignisci aspis aut deriass 57

Contents

Preface 9

PART 1 Liquiduciam nisit ium re expedit optatium quia debis dolupta Nobis quuntem porroratquae pos porit ipitatur ne voloreiur ra dolum dolupti ut

PART 2 Orecepta sum quunt ad moluptas comnimus eos volorio 3 – Imod magnam sed que nonsent seritatus porre nonectustrum 31 3.1 – Minvend antus, sitatur 31

PART 3 Riassum eatus quis autas dolupta de dolo explaudit dunt laborpo 4 – Imod magnam sed que nonsent seritatus porre nonectustrum 49 4.1 – Minvend antus, sitatur 49

Acknowledgements 53 References 55

Appendix 1 Hilignisci aspis aut deriass 57

Contents

Preface 9

PART 1 Liquiduciam nisit ium re expedit optatium quia debis dolupta Nobis quuntem porroratquae pos porit ipitatur ne voloreiur ra dolum dolupti ut

PART 2 Orecepta sum quunt ad moluptas comnimus eos volorio 3 – Imod magnam sed que nonsent seritatus porre nonectustrum 31 3.1 – Minvend antus, sitatur 31

PART 3 Riassum eatus quis autas dolupta de dolo explaudit dunt laborpo 4 – Imod magnam sed que nonsent seritatus porre nonectustrum 49 4.1 – Minvend antus, sitatur 49

Acknowledgements 53 References 55

Appendix 1 Hilignisci aspis aut deriass 57

PART 2 Orecepta sum quunt ad moluptas comnimus eos volorio 3 – Imod magnam sed que nonsent seritatus porre nonectustrum 31 3.1 – Minvend antus, sitatur 31

PART 3 Riassum eatus quis autas dolupta de dolo explaudit dunt laborpo 4 – Imod magnam sed que nonsent seritatus porre nonectustrum 49 4.1 – Minvend antus, sitatur 49

Acknowledgements 53 References 55

Appendix 1 Hilignisci aspis aut deriass 57

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Agro-Urbanisms as Alternate Futures