Volume 2 Number 1 Fall 2010 by Thomas Howard

The Academical Heritage Review The Academical Heritage Review Vol 2 O No1

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1 2 2 Volume 2 Number 1

The Academical Heritage Review

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THE ACADEMICAL HERITAGE REVIEW PUBLISHED BY THE

UNIVERSITY HISTORICAL SOCIETY VOL 2

NO 1

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Managing Editor Managing Editor Layout Editor Copy Editor Copy Editor Copy Editor Copy Editor Copy Editor Copy Editor

Thomas Howard Owen Gallogly Win Rutherfurd Lauren Simenauer Matt Pesesky Justin Pierce Eric Morris Michael Alerhand Claire Cororaton Connor Mackenzie

Editorial Policy The Academical Heritage Review is published by the University Historical Society, a completely student-run Contracted Independent Organization at the University of Virginia devoted to promoting the study of history at U.Va. as well as showcasing its rich history. We strive to publish work that displays originality of thought as well as depth of research. AHR is published bi-annually, and there is an open application process each semester for the composition of the Editorial Board. Every submission is independently reviewed by at least two editors, and final decisions regarding the content of the Review are made by the full Editorial Board at a table read. All submissions are reviewed anonymously by the editors in order to ensure the fairest evaluation on the merits of the work. The Editorial Board retains full discretion to edit works that are published. The views expressed in this publication are not necessarily those of the University Historical Society, the Academical Heritage Review or the editors. Inquiries about obtaining copies of the Review, submitting to future issues, or concerning subscriptions should be directed to: uhsuva@gmail.com The University Historical Society PO Box 400701, SAC Box 90 Charlottesville, VA 22904

Table of Contents The Perpetuation of the Robert E. Lee Persona in Postwar Richmond Casey Ireland Page Six

The Politics of Race on the Silver Screen: Where Hollywood Met Paternalism Christopher R. Mullen Page Thirteen

Uncle Sam – “I’ll Carry Mine Too!” Government Reformation of

Gender Ideology through Domestic Food Supply Policy in World War II Ashley L. Brown Page Twenty

Peace, Politics and Pishtacos: US-Peruvian Relations 1950s-1960s Allison Kay Campbell

Page Forty-Three

Of Heathens, Heavens and Hors d’oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism,

Anthropology and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition Marshall Johnson Page Sixty-One

Nascent Globalization and Imperialism: Agricultural Developments and the Demise of the Indian Cottage Industry: 1757-1865

Michael Sagan

Page Ninety-One

Heartbeat from the Presidency Timothy McGarry

Page One Hundred One

editor’s Note November 7, 2010 In one very short year, the AcAdemicAl HeritAge review has grown from a glimmer in a few students’ eyes to a thriving publication that plays a central role in the academic life of undergraduates at the University of Virginia. We have the unique privilege at the University of enjoying a great deal of control over the opportunities for research that we may pursue, and I can only hope that the AcAdemicAl HeritAge review provides a valuable outlet for the students whose historical research has proven to be exemplary. It is only appropriate, then, that students who have achieved through their research should be recognized by their fellow students and given an outlet for their work. As such, the AcAdemicAl HeritAge review is an entirely student-driven effort, from the ground up. The responsibility I hold as Editor-in-Chief of the AcAdemicAl HeritAge review has caused me to stop and think deeply over the last year about why, exactly, we are driven to study history, what it means to us as an academic discipline today, and how we will be remembered in the future. Thomas Jefferson wrote to Ebenezer Hazard, a Philadelphia printer and later Postmaster General, in 1791: “Let us save what remains: not by vaults and locks which fence them from the public eye and use in consigning them to the waste of time, but by such a multiplication of copies, as shall place them beyond the reach of accident.”

Mr. Jefferson’s comments focus on the past, on how it was preserved, remembered, and interpreted, but its implications echo through to the present. How will historians, anthropologists, sociologists, and the rest of academia see what we call the present day? Only time will tell. But what is certain is that we will be looked back upon, and our actions will be scrutinized. We cannot control how we are understood, but that understanding doubtlessly rests on what we leave for future generations to find. To aid in their pursuit of our own history, we can, and must, be careful stewards of our historical memory for future generations. Paper is, and may always be, the most durable form of widely used media. Parchment from hundreds of years ago, while fragile, still gives us penetrating glimpses into the past in the form of letters, legal records, legers, and countless other artifacts rich with information. Yet today our society has moved away from using paper to communicate. It remains to be seen how durable forms of electronic media will be. Millions of electronic communications are deleted days or seconds after they occur, lost to the historical memory. Future generations will face a challenge in finding new ways to interpret and apply a changing historic record. If we should strive to be careful stewards of the historical record for those who come after us, what then should we do with what has been left for The Academical Heritage Review

us? We spend lifetimes learning about the individuals and communities who came before us, but why engage in this seemingly endless pursuit? It would seem that constantly looking over our shoulders into the past neglects forward-looking progress. It is not for us, though, to expect to be able to “learn from the mistakes of the past” or prevent future disasters by studying history. Instead, history teaches a way of thinking and frame of mind by which we may be more engaged, active citizens in our own world. Mark Twain put it best: “History doesn’t repeat itself, but it does rhyme.” The articles included in this issue represent an ever-broadening representation of what the study of history at the University has to offer. The portrayals of the historical topics presented in the following pages are informed by a variety of different methods, experiences, and perspectives. They show that history is a discipline that is not confined to the classroom, library, or archive. Rather, it lives in the hills of Peru, the statues of Richmond’s Monument Avenue, and the homes and family lives of Americans today. I believe that each article in this issue adds some understanding to why we are the way we are today. The words on the following pages are about the past, but they all have an eye towards the present. Producing AHR continues to be a richly rewarding experience for everyone involved. I would like to thank the entire Editorial Board for their invaluable help and effort throughout this semester’s production process. Theirs is a labor of love, with only the satisfaction of a job well done as their reward. In particular, I would like to thank Managing Editors Owen Gallogly and Win Rutherfurd for their constant support and contributions to the vision of AHR. Owen has been with AHR since its inception, and has seen the publication through from the very beginning with me. Win joins us this year after being featured in the Spring 2010 issue of AHR. He brings a wealth of valuable experience to the editorial board. I would also like to thank the Undergraduate Research Network for their support and collaboration; Lauren Simenauer, without whom this publication would not have been possible; and Daniel Garner, who provided the cover art. The selections in this journal come from students of all kinds, writing with a variety of motivations. It has been difficult to choose from among the many submissions we received, but the work you find here represents the highest quality of undergraduate research at the University and spans a wide spectrum of the topics. All of those who submitted should be commended for their work, for theirs is the effort that makes the University of Virginia community a lively one, and will make this publication an interesting one. With that, I humbly submit the Fall 2010 issue of the AcAdemicAl HeritAge review to your perusal and enjoyment. Thomas L. Howard III Editor-in-Chief

The PerPeTuaT ua ion of The uaT roberT oberT e. Lee Persona in PosTwar T Twar richmond

Casey Ireland

Robert E Lee’s

personal merit, distinguished military career, and illustrious family background formed the basis for the general’s cultural deification following the Civil War. Virginians and much of the South chose for the flag bearer of the Lost Cause not the most radical or visible of the ex-Confederates but one who lived in the Virginia Way: conservatively, with a strong sense of stoicism, self-effacement, and dignity. Interestingly, the very man whom most of the South came to idolize as the personification of the Lost Cause had been educated at the United States Military Academy at West Point, N.Y. and had been offered the command of both the armies of the Union and of the Confederacy before the Civil War. Despite these ironies, the New South-- especially Virginia’s capital city of Richmond-- used the modest Lee as a figurehead and embodiment of their ideals. Lee’s status as the patron saint of Richmond lasted, even flourished, in the twentieth century in matters political and cultural. Generations of Richmonders following the Civil War used the Lost Cause myth and its embodiment in Robert E. Lee for various aims, though none more important and prevalent than the desire to continue the distinct institution of Southern culture and tradition. Following the surrender of the Confederate forces at Appomattox Court House on April 9th in 1865, Lee sought to withdraw from the public life and demands of a recovering society. At the home in Richmond where his wife and family were residing in 1865, the “many visitors” seeking the General “had made him uncomfortable,” according to his biographer Emily Mason1. Mason also states that after entering the ruined city, Lee was “in a moment...recognized. Men, women, and children... even the United States soldiers [welcomed him]. It was with difficulty he could dismount.”2 Mason recounts how men even “kissed his feet.”3 Lee was constantly beset by wellwishers from home, former soldiers, even Northern tourists. He was offered a plantation and servitude by a large gathering of “ragged rebels” who sought to “die in [Lee’s] defense,” according to Mason.4 Despite well-intentioned offers and the promise of even loftier social standing in Richmond, Lee chose to live out the next several years of his life in the quiet of Lexington with his newly accepted position as president at Washington College. He replied to one well-wisher attempting to aid Lee’s situation, “I am deeply grateful, but I cannot consent to desert my native South in the hour of her adversity. I must abide her fortunes and share her fate.”5 * Casey Ireland is a member of the Class of 2012. She wrote with the guidance of Professor George Gilliam. 1 Emily V. Mason, Popular Life of General Robert Edward Lee (Baltimore: John Murphy & Co. 1872), 199. 2 Mason, Popular Life of General Robert Edward Lee, 319. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid., 324. The Perpetuation of the Robert E. Lee Persona in Postwar Richmond

Mason states Lee’s response to the challenges of reconstructing Virginia “[set] an example of moderation and charity which... was impossible...not to wish to imitate.”6 When asked how one could go about restoring and rebuilding the former glory of the ruined state, Lee pronounced, “[one could] work for Virginia, to build her up again...[and] teach one’s children to love and cherish her!”7 Thus in the words of sculptor Edward Valentine, “those who had the privilege of [Lee’s] personal acquaintance at once recognize a character in which were blended the noblest qualities of mind and heart.”8 Lee’s impeccable behavior following his surrender and his hopeful yet dignified demeanor inspired the “delicate devotion”9 of Richmonders, Virginians, and Southerners that would carry over into the next century. The cultural preoccupation with the Robert E. Lee persona, tempered during his lifetime by his modesty and dislike of hero-worship, was able to flourish in the years of Reconstruction following Lee’s death in 1870. Comparisons between George Washington and the Confederate general became popular. A writer for the Richmond Whig in the immediate postwar years stated that “our people love [Lee] as our fathers did George Washington.”10 According to historian Richard McCaslin, it was “after Lee’s death that a ‘Lee cult’ deliberately ‘implanted symbolism’ in the process of transforming Lee into a Lost Cause hero of almost mythical proportions.”11 Lee was fond of the equestrian statue of George Washington by the capitol building in Richmond; thus, Lee’s own memorial statue unveiled in 1890 also depicted the general on horseback. The Richmond poet James B. Hope wrote verses for the layingdown of the corner stone of Lee’s memorial monument entitled “The Lee Memorial Ode” in 1887. In his poem, Hope reverently asserts, “I tell you Lee shall ride/ With that great ‘rebel’ [George Washington] down the years/ Twin ‘rebels’ side by side!” The front page headline of the Richmond Times on May 29, 1890 reads “Richmond Reoccupied by Men Who Wore The Gray. Her Citizens welcome them for they come to honor the memory of Robert E. Lee. Tribute to the Great Chieftain who led their Cause for right... Thousands of ex-Confederates will witness it.”12 The turn-out for the unveiling of Lee’s statue was as enormous and jubilant as predicted. This massive memorial service, twenty years past the general’s death, was evidence of the ever-growing strength of the Lee persona. Just at the turn of the century, Lee was just near enough in the public memory of Richmond to be mostly free from the manipulation and encoding that would transform his cultural legacy in the century to follow. Devoted Southerners erected similar monuments throughout the ex-Confederate states

6 Ibid., 322. 7 William A. Anderson, Rector of W & L, “Tribute to General Lee as a Man.” Jan. 19th 1907; banquet at W & L at centennial of Lee’s birth, 202. 8 Edward V. Valentine, “Reminiscences of General Lee,” The Outlook (Dec. 22, 1906), 154-155. 9 Mason, Popular Life of General Robert Edward Lee, 341. 10 Richard B. McCaslin, Lee in the Shadow of Washington (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 2001), 226. 11 Ibid., 12. 12 The Richmond Times (Thursday May 29, 1890), vol. IV no. 1376. The Academical Heritage Review

as the sentimentalization and memorialization of the Civil War and its failed heroes gained popularity. By the beginning of the 20th century, Virginians no longer found themselves overwhelmed and consumed by the demands and trials of reconstructing their state. New political movements became part of public consciousness, mainly the rise of Progressivism and its unique adoption by Virginians into their pre-existing political ideology. The urbanization of their state, the managing of race relations, and the general modernization of Southern culture emerged at the forefront of Virginia’s social consciousness. The great Confederate hero Lee, however, was not abandoned in these increasingly modern times; rather, Lee became even more important as a link between tradition and the uncertain future. Thus, with the advent of the 1900s, Lee’s persona was made more malleable in order to apply his symbolic heft to political concerns. Lee’s cultural and traditional significance, however, became so deeply and importantly ingrained in Virginia’s identity that to separate Lee from Virginia was both impossible and undesirable. The Progressives of the early 1900’s capitalized on Lee’s renown by connecting his own ideals and practices with those of their political party. William Barrett gave an address at the University of Georgia that described Lee as a man “pure in thought and deed.”13 The emphasis on pureness was a trademark of the Progressive movement, as it was sought in matters political, social, and personal. Further expostulating on Lee’s purity, Barrett also quotes Lee as saying, fittingly, that “private and public life are subject to the same rules.”14 Lee’s moderate drinking also matched the Progressive focus on temperance; he is described as “absteminous, for, while he would take a drink of wine, it is narrated he carried [through the Mexican and Civil Wars bottles of alcohol] without ever opening them.”15 The moderate nature of Lee’s actions and ideals, his purity of deed and word, and his generally unimpeachable reputation gave Progressives the perfect poster boy for advancing their cause while appealing to the tradition of Southern identity. While the Progressives focused largely on Robert E. Lee’s morals, other political factions chose to emphasize the less-lofty aspects of the Lee myth. In 1921, a Richmond branch of the Ku Klux Klan put out a pamphlet describing their bylaws. This section of the Klan referred to itself in the title of the pamphlet as the “Robert E. Lee Klan No. 4”. There is no evidence that Lee ever supported such an organization, let alone was a member; in fact, a support of the Klan appears contradictory to Lee’s morals and desire for postwar peace and amicable Reconstruction. The Ku Klux Klan then used Lee’s name for the title of their chapter as a proclamation of pride in heritage as well as a means of legitimizing a dubious, ill-favored organization that had its roots in Reconstruction-era Virginia. The perpetuation of Lee as a cultural icon gathered steam in the early 1900s. Speeches, college addresses, and memorial addresses continued to be delivered by prominent admirers who sought to imprint the sanctity of 13 William H. Barrett, “Robert Edward Lee,” Georgia University Bulletins, vol. 25 no. 6a, (University of Georgia chapel, 1925), 4. 14 Ibid., 9. 15 Ibid. The Perpetuation of the Robert E. Lee Persona in Postwar Richmond

Lee’s persona upon a younger generation. At a centennial celebration of Lee’s birth held at the University of South Carolina in 1907, the speaker asserted that “despite [the attempts of] modern seekers after something new, the Confederacy can safely leave the memory of its greatest man... Robert E. Lee [in the hands of a younger generation.”16 In an address delivered before the Robert E. Lee Camp of Confederate veterans in Richmond in 1908, the speaker attested to the fact that “each passing year, more and more, [Lee endeared] himself to [Southerners]”.17 The prominence of Lee’s place in public discourse was a testament to his concrete position as the ideal symbol and representative of Southern and Virginian ideals. The speaker at the Confederate veteran gathering mentioned in his remarks that “Charles Francis Adams [had] called Lee ‘the quintessence of VA’.”18 Likewise, William A. Anderson, the rector of Washington and Lee in 1907, closed his centennial remarks with the statement that “those who were once [Lee’s] enemies in war, and their descendants, [had] come to recognize the greatness and goodness of him who was the very incarnation of the Confederate cause.”19 The symbolic popularity of Lee the man during the late 19th century had grown into idolization and myth by the beginning of the 20th. The almost total embodiment of Southern identity in the figure of Robert E. Lee can be seen in the reaction of Richmond inhabitants to an essay that appeared to slander the general’s good name. In 1908, a Minnesota native and Columbia University student named Christine Boyson wrote an award-winning essay entitled “Robert E. Lee: A Current Estimate.” This essay, a response to Columbia’s attempt to collect and reconfigure Confederate history, takes a fairly detached, albeit indecisive and often-contradictory view of the Southern icon’s military, personal, and social reputation. With the essay’s publication in the Confederate Veteran journal, the Daughters of the Confederacy as well as much of the South took offense at Boyson’s stance. The Daughters then engaged Morgan Robinson to author a rebuttal to this offensive article. In his response to “the Boyson essay”, as he refers to “Robert E. Lee: A Current Estimate,” Robinson states: What is it that Miss Boyson and her judges know that justifies them in saying that it would be “ridiculous” “to represent him as a man of stainless virtue”? This seems to be a fitting climax to this scandalous libel, to which two Southern educators gave their unqualified approval.20

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16 Robert E. Lee centennial celebration of his birth held under the auspices of the University of South Carolina on the nineteenth day of January 1907 (Columbia, SC: The State Company 1907), 18. 17 Address delivered before R.E. Lee Camp, C.V. at Richmond, Va., December 18th, 1908, in the acceptance of the portrait of General William H. Payne, by Leigh Robinson, (Richmond: Wm. Ellis Jones 1909), 4. 18 Ibid. 19 Anderson, 197. 20 Morgan P. Robinson. Concerning the Boyson Essay and Its Defence. Prepared, 1909, by Morgan Poitiaux Robinson, Richmond, Virginia at the request of the Daughters of the Confederacy (Richmond,1909), 38. The Academical Heritage Review

Robinson scathingly attests that â&#x20AC;&#x153;what the Daughters wanted was an historical essay...not the private opinions of the essayist and her learned Judges.â&#x20AC;? 21 WKDW ZDV D PDWWHU RI KLVWRULFDO LQWHUHVW WR %R\VRQ EHFDPH D PDWWHU of honor to Richmonders and Southerners alike. Though nothing in Boysonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s HVVD\ LV SDUWLFXODUO\ RIIHQVLYH WR WKH REMHFWLYH UHDGHU RRELQVRQ DQG WKH DDXJKWHUV RI WKH CRQIHGHUDF\ EULVWOHG DW WKH DWWHPSW WR GH P\VWLI\ RREHUW E Leeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cultural legacy and thus de-mystify the peculiar institutions of Southern identity. The ties between Lee, Southern heritage, and the continuation of WKH SRXWKHUQ WUDGLWLRQ KDG EHFRPH VR LQH[WULFDEOH WR VLUJLQLDQV WKDW HYHQ DQ XQGHUJUDGXDWH SDSHU ZULWWHQ E\ D NRUWKHUQ ZRPDQ ZDV WDNHQ WR D GHJUHH RI duel-worthy offense. In the years and decades following his death, Robert E. Lee was transformed from an elegant, admirable war hero to veritable deity of the South. His every action and saying was commemorated, memorized, and UHYHUHG E\ KLV VWDWHVPHQ LQ VLUJLQLD DV ZHOO DV HOVHZKHUH LQ WKH SRXWK AV WKH WK FHQWXU\ EHJDQ WR FKDQJH WKH VRFLHWDO DQG HFRQRPLF PDNH XS RI WKH SUHYLRXVO\ DJUDULDQ VWUDWLÂżHG SRXWK LHH EHFDPH QRW MXVW DQ HPEOHP RI a former way of life but a way to carry it on. As evidenced by the erudite, restrained, yet vitriolic response of a Richmond man to the Boyson Essay, any DWWHPSWV WR GHEXQN WKH P\WK VKURXGLQJ WKH CRQIHGHUDWH KHUR ZHUH WDNHQ DV DQ DIIURQW WR WKH YHU\ KHULWDJH DQG IDEULF RI VLUJLQLD TKXV DV VLUJLQLD PRYHG from Reconstruction into modern times, Robert E. Lee became the symbol of both a proud past and a wish to carry the Southern tradition into a new era.

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21 Ibid., 4. The Perpetuation of the Robert E. Lee Persona in Postwar Richmond

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1 2 The Academical Heritage Review

THE POLITICS OF RACE ON THE SILVER SCREEN: WHERE HOLLYWOOD MET PATERNALISM

Christopher R. Mullen

The advent of motion pictures shocked and enthralled the American public as still images came to life on the silver screen and the

glamour of Hollywood emerged for the world to admire. Motion pictures opened up a whole new world to the general public, but not everyone readily condoned the unbridled display of free thought. Many feared that ideas seen on the screen could alter the carefully established social order, and ÂżOP FHQVRUVKLS ERDUGV TXLFNO\ EHJDQ WR DSSHDU DFURVV WKH FRXQWU\ LQ RUGHU WR UHJXODWH WKH QHZ LQGXVWU\ TKH CRPPRQZHDOWK RI VLUJLQLD PRYHG VZLIWO\ LQ IROORZLQJ WKLV WUHQG DQG HVWDEOLVKHG LWV RZQ BRDUG RI CHQVRUV LQ 1 OYHU WKH QH[W VHYHUDO GHFDGHV WKH BRDUG ZRUNHG WR HQVXUH WKDW WKH ÂłVLUJLQLD WD\Â´ ZDV QRW DGYHUVHO\ DIIHFWHG E\ LPDJHV WKDW WKUHDWHQHG FDUHIXOO\ VWUXFWXUHG norms, particularly those concerning relations between the races. TKH AFW RI WKH GHQHUDO AVVHPEO\ SHUPLWWHG WKH VLUJLQLD BRDUG RI CHQVRUV WR SURKLELW ÂżOPV ZKRVH FRQWHQW ZDV ÂłREVFHQH LQGHFHQW LPPRUDO inhuman, or [was] of such a character that its exhibition would tend to corrupt morals or incite to crime.â&#x20AC;?2 EYHQ WKH EULHIHVW VWXG\ RI WKH BRDUGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V YDULRXV ÂżOHV LQGLFDWHV WKDW WKH YDVW PDMRULW\ RI ÂżOP UHMHFWLRQV RU DOWHUDWLRQV GLG LQGHHG stem from the Boardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aversion to nudity, violence, and profanity; but a VLJQLÂżFDQW DPRXQW RI ÂżOPV ZHUH SURKLELWHG IRU DQ HQWLUHO\ GLIIHUHQW UHDVRQ Âą an unacceptable depiction of race relations.3 Thus, historian J. Douglas Smith correctly asserts: VLUJLQLDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FHQVRUV FOHDUO\ XQGHUVWRRG WKDW WKHLU PDQGDWH GHPDQGHG WKH SURKLELWLRQ RI ÂżOPV ZKLFK SRUWUD\HG EODFNV LQ ways that did not comport with prevailing standards of acceptance. [â&#x20AC;Ś] Alternative images of blacks posed a serious threat to the racial status quo at a time when traditional ERXQGDULHV WKURXJKRXW WKH 8QLWHG SWDWHV KDG EHFRPH increasingly blurred [â&#x20AC;Ś]4

Virginians were not willing to surrender their carefully managed race relations to contemporary challenges, and the Board worked vigilantly to ensure the continuation of established norms. A careful study of the Board of &ensorsÂˇ reactions to two Ă&#x20AC;lms, The House Behind the Cedars and Birth of a Nation, provides valuable insight into the Boardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s adherence to CKULVWRSKHU R MXOOHQ LV D PHPEHU RI WKH CODVV RI HH ZURWH ZLWK WKH JXLGDQFH RI Professor George Gilliam.

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the unwritten yet carefully understood mandate of preserving the racial status quo.

TKH MLFKHDX[ )LOP CRUSRUDWLRQ D FRPSDQ\ IRXQGHG E\ WKH SURPLQHQW African-American Oscar Micheaux, produced and distributed The House Behind the Cedars LQ SWURQJO\ REMHFWLQJ WR WKH FRQWHPSRUDU\ LGHD RI ZKLWH ÂżOPPDNHUV WR SRUWUD\ EODFNV DV ÂłGHJUDGHG FDULFDWXUHV Â´ MLFKHDX[ DFFRUGLQJ WR KLVWRULDQ CKDUOHQH RHJHVWHU DVVXPHG WKH WDVN RI ÂłKRQHVWO\ SRUWUD\LQJ AIULFDQ Americans on the screen,â&#x20AC;? and The House Behind the Cedars VRXJKW WR GR MXVW that. TKH ÂżOP SURYLGHV DQ LQWHUHVWLQJ VWXG\ IRU WKRXJK LW LV FRQVLGHUHG ÂłORVW Â´ GRFXPHQWV E\ ERWK WKH BRDUG RI CHQVRUV DQG OVFDU MLFKHDX[ DQG WKH QRYHO7 on which the story is based allow researchers to discern a fairly accurate picture of WKH ÂżOPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FRQWHQW TKH ÂżOP FHQWHUV RQ D PXODWWWR ZRPDQ ZKRVH OLJKW VNLQ DOORZV KHU WR pass for white in society. She uses this physical trait to her advantage, becoming HQJDJHG WR D ZHDOWK\ ZKLWH PDQ IURP NRUWK CDUROLQD YHW DOO WKH ZKLOH D EODFN ORYHU ZKR NQRZV KHU WUXH LGHQWLW\ FRQWLQXHV WR SXUVXH KHU 8QKDSS\ ZLWK KHU ÂżDQFpH DQG QHHGLQJ WR DWWHQG WR KHU VLFN PRWKHU WKH ZRPDQ GHFLGHV WR EUHDN RII WKH UHODWLRQVKLS DQG UHWXUQ KRPH TKH FRQFOXVLRQ RI WKH ÂżOP LV VXPPDUL]HG E\ WKH CKDLUPDQ RI WKH BRDUG RI CHQVRUV EYDQ R CKHVWHUPDQ LQ VWDWLQJ ÂłEYHQ after the woman has severed her relations with the man he is pictured as still seeking her society, nor does his quest end until she has become the wife of a dark-skinned suitor.â&#x20AC;?8 IQ SURGXFLQJ WKLV ÂżOP MLFKHDX[ VRXJKW WR KXPDQL]H African-Americans and worked tirelessly to challenge the preconceived notions RI UDFH UHODWLRQV DGYRFDWHG E\ WKH BRDUG RI CHQVRUV TKXV RQH FDQ KDUGO\ EH VXUSULVHG WKDW WKH BRDUG RI CHQVRUV UHMHFWHG KLV ÂżOP in toto.9 IQ D OHWWHU WR MLFKHDX[ CKDLUPDQ CKHVWHUPDQ FODLPHG ÂłÂľTKH HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV â&#x20AC;&#x2122; DVLGH IURP SUHVHQWLQJ WKH JULHYDQFH RI WKH QHJUR LQ somewhat infelicitous sub-titles, touches even more dangerous ground, â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the LQWHUPDUULDJH RI WZR UDFHV Â´ HH FRQWLQXHG ÂłTKH ÂżOP ZKDWHYHU LWV JRRG SRLQWV should not be displayed in the state, â&#x20AC;&#x201C; especially in negro houses for which it LV LQWHQGHG Â´ TKLV SURQRXQFHPHQW FDPH DIWHU WZR YLHZLQJV RI WKH ÂżOP E\ WKH BRDUG RQ MDUFK DQG MDUFK CKHVWHUPDQ LQIRUPHG MLFKHDX[ WKDW WKH ÂżUVW YLHZLQJ IRXQG WKH ÂżOP XQDQLPRXVO\ UHMHFWHG in toto, while the second Âą D YLHZLQJ WKDW LQFOXGHG YDULRXV VWDWH RIÂżFLDOV LQ DGGLWLRQ WR WKH ERDUG Âą KDG only one dissenting vote against an in toto UHMHFWLRQ Micheaux, familiar in dealing with censorship restrictions, responded in kind by noting that no other censorship board in the country had proposed

CKDUOHQH RHJHVWHU ÂłBODFN )LOPV WKLWH CHQVRUV Â´ LQ Movie Censorship and American Culture HG )UDQFLV G CRXYDUHV WDVKLQJWRQ SPLWKVRQLDQ IQVWLWXWLRQ PUHVV IELG SHH CKDUOHV W CKHVWQXWW The House Behind the Cedars AWODQWD 8QLYHUVLW\ RI GHRUJLD PUHVV EYDQ R CKHVWHUPDQ WR OVFDU MLFKHDX[ LQ ÂłGHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQGHQFH DQG CRQWURYHUVLDO )LOPVÂ´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ )LOH ÂłTKH HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV Â´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD 9 Ibid. Ibid. The Politics of Race on the Silver Screen: Where Hollywood Met Paternalism

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HOLPLQDWLRQV LQ WKH ÂżOP PRUHRYHU RXWULJKW UHMHFWLRQ DQG WKDW WKH ÂżOP ZDV currently â&#x20AC;&#x153;being played all over and not a thought of antagonism has ever been suggested as a result of seeing [it].â&#x20AC;?11 Further, Micheaux notes that the book RQ ZKLFK WKH ÂżOP LV EDVHG ÂłLV LQ DOO WKH OLEUDULHV RI WKH ZRUOG DQG KDV EHHQ UHDG by over a thousand white people to every one colored person.â&#x20AC;?12 Seeking to dissuade the Board from the idea that he had a concerted agenda, Micheaux concludes his letter by stating that he is â&#x20AC;&#x153;not interested in racial intermarriage EXW DSSUHFLDWLQJ \RXU >WKH BRDUG RI CHQVRUVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;@ GHVLUH WR EH IDLU WR XV DP >VLF@ calling on you tomorrow morning regarding the same.â&#x20AC;?13 A subsequent letter to the Board from Micheaux reveals that many alternations and eliminations ZHUH PDGH WR WKH ÂżOP LQ RUGHU IRU WKH BRDUG WR SHUPLW LWV GLVVHPLQDWLRQ DFURVV WKH CRPPRQZHDOWK IQ DGGLWLRQ WR HQWLUHO\ UHPRYLQJ WKH VHFRQG UHHO RI WKH ÂżOP VXFK SURYRFDWLYH VXEWLWOHV DV WKH ÂłSUHWW\ ZRPDQ DORQJ WKH ERUGHUOLQH RI the raceâ&#x20AC;? and another implying a black manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s marriage to a white woman were OHIW RQ WKH FXWWLQJ URRP Ă&#x20AC;RRU 14 AFFRUGLQJ WR - DRXJODV SPLWK ÂłIW LV GLIÂżFXOW WR imagine what remained of the original story, but the board licensed The House behind [sic] the Cedars, and Micheaux exhibited it in black theatres in the Old Dominion.â&#x20AC;? ASDUW IURP H[HPSOLI\LQJ WKH BRDUG RI CHQVRUV GHVLUH WR DYRLG DQ\ challenge to the status quo, the demanded alteration of The House Behind the Cedars GLVSOD\V WKH SRWHQWLDO SRZHU RI WKH ÂżOP LQGXVWU\ WR DOWHU VLUJLQLDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V precariously balanced race relations. In initially forbidding the distribution of WKH ÂżOP WKH BRDUG ZDV QRW VHHNLQJ WR ZKROO\ HOLPLQDWH WKH ÂżOPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V PHVVDJH EXW rather limit its exposure to popular audiences, particularly African-Americans. IQGHHG WKH QRYHO RI WKH VDPH QDPH E\ CKDUOHV W CKHVWQXWW ZDV ZHOO NQRZQ throughout the country at the time. A review in the Boston Evening Transcript KHUDOGHG WKH ZRUN DV KDYLQJ D ÂłVWURQJ FRQFOXVLRQ Âą WKH UDFH SUHMXGLFH FRQTXHUHG late by love â&#x20AC;&#x201C; [that] may be taken as symbolical of what the author regards as the eventual solution of the race question. His book is admirably worth reading.â&#x20AC;? Albeit, a newspaper above the Mason-Dixon line was far more likely at the time to consider the altering of racial relations, but one would be safe to assume the ideas expressed within the novel easily penetrated the literary circles of the Old Dominion. Though exact statistics are impossible to determine, The House Behind the Cedars ZDV D ZLGHO\ UHDG QRYHO DQ DWWULEXWH FRQÂżUPHG E\ The New York Times LQ OLVWLQJ WKH ZRUN DV RQH RI WKH ÂłBRRNV IRU WKH SHDVRQÂ´ LQ 17 The

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11 OVFDU MLFKHDX[ WR BRDUG RI CHQVRUV MDUFK LQ ÂłGHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQGHQFH DQG CRQWURYHUVLDO )LOPVÂ´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ )LOH ÂłTKH HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV Â´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD 12 OVFDU MLFKHDX[ WR BRDUG RI CHQVRUV MDUFK 13 Ibid 14 HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV UHFRQVWUXFWHG MHPR LQ ÂłGHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQGHQFH DQG CRQWURYHUVLDO )LOPVÂ´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ )LOH ÂłTKH HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV Â´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD J. Douglas Smith, Managing White Supremacy CKDSHO HLOO TKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI NRUWK CDUROLQD PUHVV ÂłRHY RI TKH HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV Â´ Boston Evening Transcript, October 31, BRRNV RI WKH DD\ VHFWLRQ 17 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Books for the Season,â&#x20AC;? New York Times, DHFHPEHU BR The Academical Heritage Review

BRDUG RI CHQVRUV ZDV QRW FKDUJHG ZLWK WKH WDVN RI SURKLELWLQJ FHUWDLQ LGHRORJLHV in their entirety but rather limiting their exposure to the masses. According WR KLVWRULDQ CKDUOHQH RHJHVWHU MLFKHDX[â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V ÂżOPV H[SRVHG ÂłWKH IDOVH ORJLF DW WKH FRUH RI UDFLVP LI ZKLWHV FDQ VR HDVLO\ EH GHFHLYHG E\ ÂľSDVVLQJâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; EODFNV WKH discrimination based on skin color loses all meaning.â&#x20AC;?18 Though Micheaux DQG CKHVWQXWW ERWK FDUULHG WKH VDPH PHVVDJH WKH SRZHU RI WKH VLOYHU VFUHHQ to rapidly proliferate certain sentiments was a foreboding possibility that the BRDUG VLPSO\ FRXOG QRW DIIRUG HLVWRULDQ LDXUD WLWWHUQ .HOOHU DVVHUWV WKDW WKH VLUJLQLD BRDUG RI CHQVRUV ZHQW IXUWKHU WKDQ PRVW RWKHU ERDUGV DFURVV WKH country, â&#x20AC;&#x153;making sure that its moviegoers saw only false stereotypical African American images: blacks as maids, butlers, fools, or criminals.â&#x20AC;?19 Though SHUKDSV WKLV FULWLFLVP LV D ELW H[DJJHUDWHG WKH VLUJLQLD BRDUG XQGHQLDEO\ VRXJKW to keep the portrayal of blacks within strictly set parameters, parameters that safely allowed the continuation of a society carefully built on paternalistic race relations. TKH GHVLUH RI WKH BRDUG RI CHQVRUV WR UHVLVW DQ\ FKDQJH LQ WKH VWDWXV TXR LV IXUWKHU LOOXVWUDWHG E\ LWV UHVSRQVHV WR D W GULIÂżWKâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V Birth of a Nation. Though WKH ÂżOP KDG EHHQ ZLGHO\ VKRZQ WKURXJKRXW WKH FRXQWU\ IRU VHYHQ \HDUV SULRU WKH Boardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s existence, the continuation of its distribution was habitually called into TXHVWLRQ EYHQ DV ODWH DV RQH \HDU EHIRUH WKH BRDUG ZDV HOLPLQDWHG D FRQWURYHUV\ DURVH ZKHQ WKH VLUJLQLD GLYLVLRQ RI WKH NAACP UHTXHVWHG WKH BRDUG WR UHMHFW WKH ÂżOPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V VFUHHQLQJ SULYLOHJHV WULWLQJ WR WKH BRDUG WKH NAACP FLWHG WKH ÂżOP DV ÂłDQ DFNQRZOHGJHG DQWL NHJUR SURGXFWLRQ DQG ÂłDQWL GHPRFUDWLF Â´ IWV GLVSOD\ WKH\ FRQWLQXHG ZRXOG KLQGHU WKH EHWWHULQJ RI UDFLDO UHODWLRQV LQ VLUJLQLD and that the present was â&#x20AC;&#x153;no time to turn back the clock of progress.â&#x20AC;? GLYHQ WKH BRDUGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V VWDWHG PDQGDWH WR FHQVRU ÂżOPV WKDW ZRXOG LQFLWH WKHLU YLHZHUV WR FRPPLW FULPH DQG WKXV GLVUXSW WKH VRFLDO RUGHU WKH NAACPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DSSHDO UHJDUGLQJ WKH RIIHQVLYH GHSLFWLRQ RI AIULFDQ APHULFDQV LQ WKH ÂżOP ZDV certainly reasonable. Oscar Micheaux himself echoed these sentiments when ZULWLQJ WR WKH BRDUG LQ FODLPLQJ ÂłTKHUH KDV EHHQ EXW RQH SLFWXUH WKDW KDV LQFLWHG WKH FRORUHG SHRSOH WR ULRW DQG WKDW VWLOO GRHV WKDW SLFWXUH LV ÂľBIRTH O) A NATION â&#x20AC;&#x2122;Â´21 YHW WKH BRDUG SHUSHWXDOO\ UHIXVHG WR SURKLELW WKH ÂżOPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V VFUHHQLQJ for its true mission of maintaining the racial status quo far exceeded its explicit purpose. IQ WKH BRDUG ZDV QRW DORQH LQ SUHVHQWLQJ D FDUHIXOO\ FRQWUROOHG LPDJH RI AIULFDQ APHULFDQV RQ WKH VFUHHQ IRU PDQ\ VLUJLQLDQV Ă&#x20AC;HG WR WKH VWDQGDUGV RI WKH ROG CRQIHGHUDF\ RQFH WKH NAACPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FKDOOHQJH ZDV PDGH public. The Richmond News Leader ran an editorial vehemently condemning DQ\ DEURJDWLRQ RI GULIÂżWKâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V ÂżOP FODLPLQJ WKDW LWV JORULÂżFDWLRQ RI WKH .ODQ 18 RHJHVWHU ÂłBODFN )LOPV WKLWH CHQVRUV Â´ 19 LDXUD WLWWHUQ .HOOHU Freedom of the Screen LH[LQJWRQ TKH 8QLYHUVLW\ PUHVV RI .HQWXFN\ NAACP WR VLUJLQLD MRWLRQ PLFWXUH CHQVRUV )HEUXDU\ LQ ÂłGHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQGHQFH DQG CRQWURYHUVLDO )LOPVÂ´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ ÂłBLUWK RI D NDWLRQ Â´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD 21 MLFKHDX[ )LOP CRUSRUDWLRQ WR VLUJLQLD MRWLRQ PLFWXUH CHQVRUV MDUFK LQ ÂłGHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQGHQFH DQG CRQWURYHUVLDO )LOPVÂ´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ ÂłTKH HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV Â´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD The Politics of Race on the Silver Screen: Where Hollywood Met Paternalism

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ZDV MXVW DQG WKDW WKH RUJDQL]DWLRQ ÂłGLG PXFK WR HUDGLFDWH WKH LQMXVWLFHV RI Reconstruction regimes and to restore the South to local self-government.â&#x20AC;?22 DLVWDVWHIXOO\ ULGLFXOLQJ WKH NAACPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DWWHPSW WR GHQ\ KLVWRU\ WKH HGLWRULDO FRQGHPQV WKH VLWXDWLRQ WKDW LQ ÂłVXFK IDFWV OLNH SUR SRXWKHUQ ÂżOPV DUH QR ORQJHU IDVKLRQDEOHÂ´ DQG WKDW ÂłKLVWRU\ LQ ÂżOPV DV ZHOO DV LQ ERRNV PXVW EH UH ZULWWHQ WR ÂżW WKH SUHYDLOLQJ RUWKRGR[\ Â´23 A MUV LHZLV C TDXUPDQ ZHQW VR IDU DV WR FODLP WKH ÂżOP ZDV D ÂłJUHDW FODVVLFÂ´ LQ D OHWWHU WR WKH BRDUG SXEVHTXHQWO\ ODEHOLQJ WKH NAACP DV D FRPPXQLVW RUJDQL]DWLRQ VKH DVVHUWHG SODLQO\ WKDW â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Birth of a Nation IS history [italics added].â&#x20AC;?24 Her sentiments were widely PLUURUHG WKURXJKRXW WKH CRPPRQZHDOWK DQG XQVXUSULVLQJO\ D W GULIÂżWKâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V classic continued to perpetuate stereotyped caricatures of African-Americans ZHOO LQWR WKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\ SXFK HIIRUW WR PDLQWDLQ WKH IUDJLOH HGLÂżFH RI racial relations epitomized the Boardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s actions throughout its existence. SRRQ WKHUHDIWHU WKH 8 S SXSUHPH CRXUW FLWLQJ WKH IUHH H[SUHVVLRQ clause of the First Amendment, struck down censorship statues across the FRXQWU\ WKUHDWHQLQJ WKH OHJDOLW\ RI WKH VLUJLQLD BRDUG RI CHQVRUV AV LW KDG PDQ\ WLPHV EHIRUH VLUJLQLD EHFDPH RQH RI WKH ODVW EDVWLRQV SUHVHUYLQJ WKH dying traditions of the past, yet even its tight grip on censorship was eventually relinquished by prevailing national sentiments. The General Assembly stripped the Board of any remaining power and withdrew all funding effective June As other racial barriers were quickly collapsing across the South, VLUJLQLDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V KROG RQ WKH VLOYHU VFUHHQ ZDV DEROLVKHG )UHH WKRXJKW ÂżQDOO\ HPHUJHG unhampered by the dictates of pre-established societal norms. In retrospect, students of history can easily look upon the actions of the BRDUG RI CHQVRUV DV ZKROO\ XQMXVW DQG UHSUHKHQVLEOH EXW D PLOGHU DQG PRUH MXGLFLDO DSSURDFK PXVW H[DPLQH WKH BRDUG VLPSO\ IRU ZKDW LW ZDV Âą DQ DWWHPSW to preserve the remnants of a dying way of life. Throughout the twentieth century, traditional race relations encountered many challenges and alterations that radically transformed the political and social spheres of both blacks and whites. The actions of the Board can best be seen as some of the last vestiges RI WKH ROG ÂłVLUJLQLD WD\ Â´ AV WUDGLWLRQ JDYH ZD\ WR PRGHUQLW\ HIIRUWV WR LPSHGH WKH Ă&#x20AC;RZ RI SURJUHVV HYHQWXDOO\ FROODSVHG DV PDQDJHG UDFH UHODWLRQV IDGHG LQWR history. The power of the silver screen combined with the social forces of the day to combat censorship and the perpetuation of a wholly inaccurate status quo.

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22 â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Silent Film,â&#x20AC;? Richmond News Leader )HEUXDU\ EGLWRULDO SHFWLRQ 23 Ibid. 24 MUV LHZLV C TDXUPDQ WR VLUJLQLD MRWLRQ PLFWXUH CHQVRUV )HEUXDU\ LQ ÂłGHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQGHQFH DQG CRQWURYHUVLDO )LOPVÂ´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ ÂłBLUWK RI D NDWLRQ Â´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD Qtd. in Freedom of the Screen WLWWHQ .HOOHU The Academical Heritage Review

BIBLIOGRAPHY “Books for the Season,” New York Times, DHFHPEHU BR CKHVWQXWW CKDUOHV W The House Behind the Cedars AWODQWD 8QLYHUVLW\ RI GHRUJLD PUHVV EYDQ R CKHVWHUPDQ WR OVFDU MLFKHDX[ LQ ³GHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQGHQFH DQG CRQWURYHUVLDO )LOPV´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ )LOH ³TKH HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV ´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV UHFRQVWUXFWHG MHPR LQ ³GHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQ GHQFH DQG CRQWURYHUVLDO )LOPV´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ )LOH ³TKH HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV ´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD MLFKHDX[ )LOP CRUSRUDWLRQ WR VLUJLQLD MRWLRQ PLFWXUH CHQVRUV MDUFK LQ ³GHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQGHQFH DQG CRQWURYHUVLDO )LOPV´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ ³TKH HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV ´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD MUV LHZLV C TDXUPDQ WR VLUJLQLD MRWLRQ PLFWXUH CHQVRUV )HEUXDU\ LQ ³GHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQGHQFH DQG CRQWURYHUVLDO )LOPV´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ ³BLUWK RI D NDWLRQ ´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD NAACP WR VLUJLQLD MRWLRQ PLFWXUH CHQVRUV )HEUXDU\ LQ ³GHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQGHQFH DQG CRQWURYHUVLDO )LOPV´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ ³BLUWK RI D NDWLRQ ´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD OVFDU MLFKHDX[ WR BRDUG RI CHQVRUV LQ ³GHQHUDO CRUUHVSRQGHQFH DQG CRQWUR YHUVLDO )LOPV´ BR[ AFFHVVLRQ )LOH ³TKH HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV ´ SWDWH RHFRUGV CHQWHU LLEUDU\ RI VLUJLQLD RHJHVWHU CKDUOHQH ³BODFN )LOPV WKLWH CHQVRUV ´ LQ Movie Censorship and American Culture HGLWHG E\ )UDQFLV G CRXYDUHV WDVKLQJWRQ SPLWK VRQLDQ IQVWLWXWLRQ PUHVV ³RHY RI TKH HRXVH BHKLQG WKH CHGDUV ´ Boston Evening Transcript, October BRRNV RI WKH DD\ VHFWLRQ Smith, J. Douglas. Managing White Supremacy CKDSHO HLOO TKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI NRUWK CDUROLQD PUHVV Smith, J. Douglas. “Patrolling the Boundaries of Race: motion picture censor VKLS DQG -LP CURZ LQ VLUJLQLD ´ Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television VRO IVVXH AXJXVW “The Silent Film,” Richmond News Leader )HEUXDU\ EGLWRULDO SHFWLRQ WLWWHUQ .HOOHU LDXUD Freedom of the Screen LH[LQJWRQ TKH 8QLYHUVLW\ PUHVV RI .HQWXFN\ The Politics of Race on the Silver Screen: Where Hollywood Met Paternalism

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UNCLE SAM – “I’LL CARRY MINE TOO!”

GOVERNMENT REFORMATION OF GENDER IDEOLOGY THROUGH DOMESTIC FOOD SUPPLY POLICY IN WORLD WAR II

Ashley L. Brown

Mainstreet,

8SA A PLGGOH class woman hurries between shops, her mind busy on the list of items her IDPLO\ LV FRXQWLQJ RQ KHU WR EX\ WRGD\ BHWZHHQ WKH EXWFKHUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DQG WKH ÂżYH and-dime, she is arrested by the image of another woman â&#x20AC;&#x201C; her shoulders are VTXDUHG KHU PRXWK FRPSUHVVHG DQG VHW HHU H\HV Ă&#x20AC;DVK RXW IURP WKH SRVWHU GLUHFWO\ GHWHUPLQHGO\ FRQÂżGHQWO\ FKDOOHQJLQJ GDULQJ DQ\RQH WR KDOW KHU 8QGHU KHU ULJKW DUP EURZQ SDSHU ZUDSSHG SDFNDJHV LQ KHU RWKHU D EURZQ bag of groceries, conspicuously overfull of packages, carrots, and greens â&#x20AC;&#x201C; she is also doing her shopping for the week. The hand that clutches the bag sports a wedding ring â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a wife then, and likely a mother by the age in her IDFH BHKLQG KHU D FROXPQ RI VROGLHUV PDUFK EXON\ SDFNV RQ WKHLU EDFNV ULĂ&#x20AC;HV VOXQJ RYHU VKRXOGHUV WKH ULPV RI WKHLU KHOPHWV HFKRLQJ WKH MDXQW\ EULP RI WKH womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hat. Their somber grayscale stands in dark contrast to the smart, JUHHQ DQG \HOORZ VXLW RI WKH ZRPDQ A VORJDQ XQLWHV WKH ÂżJXUHV EROG ZKLWH OHWWHUV VXUURXQGLQJ WKH ZRPDQ DQG IDOOLQJ MXVW EHORZ WKH VROGLHUVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; DUPV ÂłIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;OO carry mine too!â&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the words are sent as a triumphant exclamation to the boys above, a resolute reassurance to herself, and a bold challenge to the viewer. 1 TKH OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ SRVWHU QR ZDV GHVLJQHG GXULQJ WKH SHFRQG WRUOG WDU WR HQFRXUDJH UXEEHU FRQVHUYDWLRQ WKURXJK UHGXFHG GULYLQJ WKH FDSWLRQ DW WKH ERWWRP UHDGV ÂłWUXFNV DQG WLUHV PXVW ODVW WLOO YLFWRU\Â´ EXW LW LV HPEOHPDWLF RI D PXFK ODUJHU FDPSDLJQ RQ WKH 8QLWHG SWDWHV KRPH IURQW TKH ZDU was recognized as a period of history requiring both extraordinary actions by the government and extraordinary responses from citizens. The exigencies of war made it necessary for every citizen to participate in the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s war effort â&#x20AC;&#x201C; whether by becoming a soldier or war worker, buying war bonds, or complying ZLWK WKH GRPHVWLF HFRQRPLF SROLFLHV VHW E\ SULFH FRQWUROV RU UDWLRQLQJ WKHQ planning these policies, the government recognized that women functioned as DUELWHUV RI IDPLO\ OHYHO FRQVXPSWLRQ DQG PRUH VSHFLÂżFDOO\ DV SULPDU\ VKDSHUV RI household food economy. Thus, the success of government domestic economic policies (especially related to food, which were emphasized as necessary for ZLQQLQJ WKH ZDU UHVWHG ZLWK WKH DFWLRQV RI ZRPHQ TR HQFRXUDJH FLYLOLDQ cooperation with government policy, the government attempted to shape gender policy during the war years by simultaneously appealing to women both as symbols of domestic peace and prosperity and as masculine national soldiers in an all-encompassing war. The high degree to which the government was VXFFHVVIXO KDV ODVWLQJ FRQVHTXHQFHV IRU JHQGHU LGHRORJ\ LQ WKH 8QLWHG SWDWHV AVKOH\ L BURZQ LV D PHPEHU RI WKH CODVV RI SKH ZURWH ZLWK WKH JXLGDQFH RI GRFWRUDO candidate Amy Rebecca Jacobs.

8QLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ DLYLVLRQ RI PXEOLF IQTXLULHV Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;OO FDUU\ PLQH WRR WUXFNV DQG WLUHV PXVW ODVW WLOO YLFWRU\ SHULHV OWI SRVWHU QR WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO RHWULHYHG IURP NRUWKZHVWHUQ 8QLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH IURP http://www.library.northwestern. HGX JRYLQIR FROOHFWLRQV ZZLL SRVWHUV LPJ ZZ MSJ Uncle Sam--â&#x20AC;?Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll Carry Mine Too!â&#x20AC;? Government Reformation of Gender Ideology Through Domestic Food Supply Policy in World War II

2 1

OWI Poster No. 28. 8nited 6tates. 2fĂ&#x20AC;ce of :ar ,nformation. 'ivision of 3ublic ,nquiries. Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll carry mine too! / trucks and tires must last till victory. 6eries 2:, poster, no. . :ashington, '& *32, .

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OWI SRVWHU QR FOHDUO\ LOOXVWUDWHV WKLV JRYHUQPHQW PHVVDJH A PRGHO American woman â&#x20AC;&#x201C; white, healthy, well groomed and made up, well dressed â&#x20AC;&#x201C; is engaged in the traditional, domestic female activity of shopping for her family. To the wartime viewer, she represented comforting familiarity; visually, she is the most relatable element, presented in color and lower on the page, her gaze dynamically connecting her to the viewer. At the same time, however, she is linked to the war and government war efforts. She stands as straight as the soldiers marching behind her, and the bulk of her purchases are echoed in the heavy packs the soldiers shoulder. The slogan surrounding her makes implicit this connection â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the woman will take up the responsibility of a soldier and carry hers too. But she did not arrive at this decision on her own; she is a good citizen and is responding to a democratic appeal with fervor and patriotism. She stands like a soldier and carries like a soldier because her government has called The Academical Heritage Review

on her to do so â&#x20AC;&#x201C; her activity can have as much impact on the war as the activity RI WKH VROGLHUV VKH HPXODWHV WLWKRXW KHU DV ZLWKRXW WKHP WKH ZDU LV ORVW WKLOH WKH SRVWHU LQ VRPH ZD\V FRQFHSWXDOO\ HTXDWHV WKH VROGLHUV DQG WKH ZRPDQ like other government messages during the war, it also reinforces the practical separation of the two. The visual separation of the soldiers and the woman in the poster is symbolic of the separation of the home front and the war. The soldiers stand dramatically against the sky, but in the background; they are present but distant, their features indistinct. The viewer relates far more easily to the ZRPDQ LQ WKH IRUHJURXQG DQG KHU GRPHVWLF DFFRXWUHPHQW WKLOH V\PEROLFDOO\ related to the packs and guns of the soldiers, her belongings are unmistakably the stuff of peace â&#x20AC;&#x201C; it is not the same to carry broccoli as to carry a bayonet, nor is a decorated hat the same as a helmet. For all that she is like a soldier and must serve the war effort, her government is still clearly calling her to retain the comfortable, prewar domesticity. TKH 8QLWHG SWDWHV LQ WRUOG WDU II RSHUDWHG XQGHU WKH EHOLHI WKDW YLFWRU\ required unanimous, harmonious contributions from all parts, members, and types in the nation. This was a â&#x20AC;&#x153;total war,â&#x20AC;? touching everyone â&#x20AC;&#x201C; with no such person as a bystander, no such place as behind the lines â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and these beliefs â&#x20AC;&#x153;gave people the message that a war of such magnitude required mobilization of noncombatants [â&#x20AC;Ś] what happened on the production front was the key to YLFWRU\ RQ WKH EDWWOHÂżHOG Â´2 A necessary consequence of this mentality is what Karen Anderson has called â&#x20AC;&#x153;cultural priority accorded to military and industrial activities;â&#x20AC;? the needs of the military and government are to be unquestioned and valued above all other needs.3 Because those needs were greatly expanded, civilian needs had to be sublimated to the national purpose. Goods, labors, and services had to be redistributed. The power of the central government had to be expanded into areas it had never sought to control and for duties it had never needed to perform, for instance, domestic economic constraints. One sector of these in particular, the domestic food supply policies, were, according to Perry R. Duis, especially invasive and challenged the â&#x20AC;&#x153;insularityâ&#x20AC;? prized by a middle class already buffeted by the Depression years. 4 To take such transformative actions, which stood in opposition to traditional American emphasis on limited government and private freedoms, and still maintain a democratic nation, the national government realized it would have to undertake its campaigns â&#x20AC;&#x153;not in Hitlerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s way, but in our way [â&#x20AC;Ś] we have to explain to the people why.â&#x20AC;? Potentially

MDXUHHQ HRQH\ CUHDWLQJ RRVLH WKH RLYHWHU CODVV GHQGHU DQG PURSDJDQGD GXULQJ WRUOG WDU II APKHUVW MDVV TKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI MDVVDFKXVHWWV PUHVV .DUHQ AQGHUVRQ WDUWLPH WRPHQ SH[ RROHV )DPLO\ RHODWLRQV DQG WKH SWDWXV RI WRPHQ DXULQJ WRUOG WDU II CRQWULEXWLRQV LQ WRPHQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SWXGLHV NXPEHU WHVWSRUW CRQQ GUHHQZRRG PUHVV PHUU\ R DXLV ÂłNR TLPH IRU PULYDF\ WRUOG WDU II DQG CKLFDJRâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V )DPLOLHV Â´ IQ TKH WDU LQ APHULFDQ CXOWXUH SRFLHW\ DQG CRQVFLRXVQHVV DXULQJ WRUOG WDU II HG LHZLV A EUHQEHUJ DQG SXVDQ E HLUVFK CKLFDJR TKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI CKLFDJR PUHVV 8QLWHG SWDWHV )HGHUDO SHFXULW\ AJHQF\ OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH SHUYLFHV TKH )RRG )URQW A SHULHV RI EOHYHQ LHFWXUHV WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO NRWH DHOLYHUHG LQ TKH 8S DHSDUWPHQW RI AJULFXOWXUH AXGLWRULXP MDUFK Âą ASULO Uncle Sam--â&#x20AC;?Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll Carry Mine Too!â&#x20AC;? Government Reformation of Gender Ideology Through Domestic Food Supply Policy in World War II

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distasteful policies, deemed by the government necessary to the national war effort, became the focus of propaganda campaigns aimed at manipulating public opinion in the most democratic way possible: direct government involvement in creating new patterns of social thought, so that changes seemed to spring seamlessly from the populous. For food policy, the social manipulation required reinterpretation of traditional gender roles and modes of domesticity. Media representations of women would be vital in the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s endeavor to explicitly craft a new kind of acceptable gender ideology. Maureen Honey discussed â&#x20AC;&#x153;the power of the media to reinforce,â&#x20AC;? and the a characteristic particularly potent when â&#x20AC;&#x153;economic, VRFLDO DQG SROLWLFDO IRUFHV FRPELQHGÂ´ LQ WRUOG WDU II WR FUHDWH JRYHUQPHQW demands that women begin â&#x20AC;&#x153;conceptualizing themselves as nontraditional workers.â&#x20AC;? Honey examined the impact of propaganda images and the authority of these images â&#x20AC;&#x153;to frame the parameters of what people consider appropriate goals and behavior for themselves.â&#x20AC;? 7 According to Maureen Honeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research, the pre-war gender ideology dictated that young women might be worldly, self-reliant, and strong, â&#x20AC;&#x153;but only as a prelude to marriage.â&#x20AC;?8 NRQ FRQIRUPLVWV ZKR GLG QRW WUDQVLWLRQ WR the superior role of wife, homemaker, and mother risked becoming the â&#x20AC;&#x153;manhating, arrogant, sadistic, domineering older womanâ&#x20AC;? who played the villain in many popular prewar media.9 But with the wartime necessity to have everyone mobilized for war, the government had to suggest a new way of thinking about womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s roles as they became needed for wartime tasks. Honey has found a shift in media portrayal of women away from the â&#x20AC;&#x153;destructive career wifeâ&#x20AC;? model toward a view of â&#x20AC;&#x153;working wives as able to handle their home responsibilities without harming their families.â&#x20AC;? WRPHQ FRXOG H[SDQG RXW RI WKH WUDGLWLRQDO domestic sphere without compromising their femininity. At the same time, many scholars have noted how American women became symbols of the American way of life that soldiers and civilians fought to SURWHFW C\QWKLD LHH HHQWKRUQ GHVFULEHG WKH V\PEROLF LPSRUWDQFH RI DWWUDFWLYH female bodies represented in advertising media. These signs of â&#x20AC;&#x153;conventional gender identitiesâ&#x20AC;? gave a sense of stability during the upheaval of war, which removed male breadwinners and thrust women into work relegated to lower

Such social engineering tactics were widely employed during the war. See especially

2 4

FKDSWHUV E\ GHRUJH H RRHGHU -U LDU\ MD\ GDU\ GHUVWOH -RKQ W DRZHU SXVDQH E HLUVFK DQG AODQ BULQNOH\ LQ TKH WDU LQ APHULFDQ CXOWXUH SRFLHW\ DQG CRQVFLRXVQHVV DXULQJ WRUOG WDU II HG LHZLV A EUHQEHUJ DQG SXVDQ E HLUVFK CKLFDJR TKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI CKLFDJR PUHVV SHH DOVR EOHDQRU SWUDXE ÂłGRYHUQPHQW PROLF\ TRZDUG CLYLOLDQ WRPHQ DXULQJ WRUOG WDU IIÂ´ PKD DLVV EPRU\ 8QLYHUVLW\ DQG -DUYLV IQ TKH MDOH BRG\ DW WDU APHULFDQ MDVFXOLQLW\ DXULQJ WRUOG WDU II DH.DOE IOO NRUWKHUQ IOOLQRLV 8QLYHUVLW\ PUHVV HRQH\ CUHDWLQJ RRVLH WKH RLYHWHU CODVV GHQGHU DQG PURSDJDQGD GXULQJ WRUOG WDU II IELG 9 Ibid., 71. Ibid., 79. The Academical Heritage Review

classes, thus challenging her sexual desirability and racial purity.11 Amy Bentley claims that â&#x20AC;&#x153;safeguarding women and families and their prescribed place in society became a central motif in explaining to Americans what the war was all about.â&#x20AC;?12 Though Americans longed for the domestic tranquility symbolized by a housewifeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s shiny, new kitchen,13 circumstances produced â&#x20AC;&#x153;the long deferment of that dreamâ&#x20AC;? and gave importance to images of the traditional, idealized domestic womanhood during the war.14 By capitalizing on this fascination with traditional domestic imagery, the government was able to create appealing campaigns for its national war purposes. CKULVWLQD S -DUYLVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; DQDO\VLV RI ZDUWLPH ERG\ SROLWLF KHOSV H[SODLQ WKH shape of government appeals to women. The idea of an all-encompassing war collapsed civilian and military success; bodies of male soldiers were seen as a â&#x20AC;&#x153;barometer for the nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health.â&#x20AC;? TKH â&#x20AC;&#x153;KHDOWK\ ÂżW ZHOO GLVFLSOLQHGâ&#x20AC;? PDOH bodies of soldiers driving the â&#x20AC;&#x153;war machineâ&#x20AC;? abroad also became the ideal for the â&#x20AC;&#x153;civilian war machine.â&#x20AC;? In a society of military priority, the traditionally â&#x20AC;&#x153;feminineâ&#x20AC;? was subordinated further; it was mutually exclusive from the masculine nature of the military, and thus did not serve the national purpose. If women were necessary to the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s total war effort, the traditional, domestic ideal would not do; another model must be presented â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a type of woman who was able to take on â&#x20AC;&#x153;masculineâ&#x20AC;? characteristics and work for the national purpose. However, this was not the comforting type of image to which the American public looked during the war years. Government representations of the idealized American woman had to address both civilian standards and national purposes; consequently the models developed by the government emphasized that a traditional, domestic, middle-class woman could take on new tasks and responsibilities for the country and still be a recognizable symbol of peacetime. â&#x20AC;&#x153;RATIONING IS A CONSEQUENCE OF TOTAL WAR!â&#x20AC;? Rationing,

and

accompanying

price

controls

were

economic

11 Race was not ignored by the government during the war years; in fact, cooperation between all Americans, regardless of race, was a central aim of wartime policy. TKH UHVHDUFK IRU WKLV SURMHFW KRZHYHU UHYHDOHG WKDW LQ WKH DUHD RI GRPHVWLF food policy, there was an overwhelming focus on white, middle class women in the propaganda and associated campaigns. For more information about images, DGYHUWLVLQJ DQG UDFH GXULQJ WKH ZDU VHH C\QWKLD L HHQWKRUQ FURP SXEPDULQHV WR SXEXUEV SHOOLQJ D BHWWHU APHULFD Âą AWKHQV OKLR OKLR UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV FRU PRUH LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW JRYHUQPHQWâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V VRFLDO HQJLQHHULQJ SROLF\ DQG UDFH GXULQJ WKH ZDU VHH FKDSWHUV LQ TKH WDU LQ APHULFDQ CXOWXUH SRFLHW\ DQG CRQVFLRXVQHVV DXULQJ WRUOG WDU II 12 AP\ BHQWOH\ EDWLQJ IRU VLFWRU\ FRRG RDWLRQLQJ DQG WKH PROLWLFV RI DRPHVWLFLW\ CKLFDJR UQLYHUVLW\ RI IOOLQRLV PUHVV 13 Ibid.,13. 14 DXLV â&#x20AC;&#x153;NR TLPH IRU PULYDF\ WRUOG WDU II DQG CKLFDJRâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FDPLOLHV â&#x20AC;? CKULVWLQD S -DUYLV â&#x20AC;&#x153;CODVVLÂżHG BRGLHV SFUHHQLQJ SFXOSWLQJ DQG SH[XDOL]LQJ SHUYLFHPHQ â&#x20AC;? IQ TKH MDOH BRG\ DW WDU APHULFDQ MDVFXOLQLW\ DXULQJ WRUOG WDU II DH.DOE IOO NRUWKHUQ IOOLQRLV UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV IELG Uncle Sam--â&#x20AC;?Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll Carry Mine Too!â&#x20AC;? Government Reformation of Gender Ideology Through Domestic Food Supply Policy in World War II

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consequences of the all-encompassing, total, national war. The measures were GHVLJQHG E\ JRYHUQPHQW DJHQFLHV WR OLPLW LQĂ&#x20AC;DWLRQ PLQLPL]H WKH EODFN PDUNHW WUDGH RI JRRGV DQG WR HTXDOL]H GLVWULEXWLRQ RI VFDUFH PDWHULDOV WLWKRXW VXFK FRQWUROV LW ZDV IHDUHG WKDW WKH LQĂ&#x20AC;DWLRQ ZRXOG VRDU DV LW KDG GXULQJ WKH FLUVW WRUOG WDU DQG WKH â&#x20AC;&#x153;SRRU ZRXOG FUHDWH VRFLDO XQUHVW HYHQ WR WKH SRLQW RI LQKLELWLQJ the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s efforts to wage total war.â&#x20AC;?17 TKH OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ OPA SXW LW EOXQWO\ LQ D ERRNOHW â&#x20AC;&#x153;RDWLRQLQJ LV D FRQVHTXHQFH RI TRWDO WDU!â&#x20AC;?18

The model female shopper. UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ Rationing safeguards your share WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO

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All consumers were encouraged to participate in the rationing system as part of the total war effort, but the government made special appeals to women because they were popularly believed to be in charge of day-to-day household HFRQRPLF GHFLVLRQV VXFK DV SXUFKDVLQJ IRRG TKLV QRWLRQ ZDV FRQÂżUPHG LQ E\ DQ DGYLVRU\ JURXS RI VRFLDO VFLHQWLVWV IURP WKH NDWLRQDO AFDGHP\ RI SFLHQFH whose research explicitly named women as the â&#x20AC;&#x153;gatekeepers of family food consumptionâ&#x20AC;? and the main arbiters of the household economy. 19 Both common sense and rational science demanded that the government recognize womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role in the household economy, and images produced by the government during these years readily acknowledge the female shopper. In one 1942 OPA poster, the message of assurance to the American people is that â&#x20AC;&#x153;Rationing safeguards your 17 Bentley, Eating for Victory: Food Rationing and the Politics of Domesticity 18 UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ The Story of Wartime Rationing. 91. 19 Bentley, Eating for Victory: Food Rationing and the Politics of Domesticity, 24. The Academical Heritage Review

VKDUHâ&#x20AC;? RQ DQ RYHUĂ&#x20AC;RZLQJ JURFHU\ VKHOI ZKHUH LW ZDLWV IRU WKH VKRSSHU RI \RXU household. This shopper appears on the left of the poster â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a white, middle class woman, with high heels, neat suit, and coiffed hair, holding a shopping basket and contemplating the shelves before her. Another poster from 1944 celebrates the image of the female shopper as symbolic of â&#x20AC;&#x153;the patriotic cooperation of the public [â&#x20AC;Ś] with the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s price control program.â&#x20AC;?21 WRPHQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V UROH DV â&#x20AC;&#x153;JDWHNHHSHUâ&#x20AC;? ZDV QRW OLPLWHG KRZHYHU WR SXUFKDVLQJ TKH JRYHUQPHQW DOVR UHDOL]HG WKH UROH ZRPHQ KDG LQ LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFLQJ WKH WDVWHV DQG KDELWV RI WKHLU IDPLOLHV WKHQ WKH NXWULWLRQ DLYLVLRQ RI WKH OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH SHUYLFHV LVVXHG D SDPSKOHW LQ IRU â&#x20AC;&#x153;FRRG DHPRQVWUDWLRQV LQ WDUWLPH â&#x20AC;? WKH JRDO ZDV WR LQWURGXFH WKH APHULFDQ KRXVHZLIH DQG KHU IDPLO\ WR new ways of thinking about eating meat. Pre-war favorites like steaks and roasts ZHUH UDWLRQHG DQG KDUG WR ÂżQG QRZ LW ZDV D ZRPDQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SDWULRWLF GXW\ WR â&#x20AC;&#x153;VKDUH WKH PHDWâ&#x20AC;? DQG ÂżQG QHZ WKLQJV WR VHUYH KHU IDPLO\ TKH SDPSKOHW SURYLGHG IHPDOH

demonstrators with sample menus with such delicacies as â&#x20AC;&#x153;savory bean stewâ&#x20AC;? and â&#x20AC;&#x153;stuffed heart,â&#x20AC;? and scripts to follow in order to sell women on these new ways of thinking about dinner. The implication is clear: if government can win women RYHU WKHLU LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH RQ KRXVHKROG KDELWV ZRXOG HQVXUH ZLGHVSUHDG FRPSOLDQFH with rationing policy. One script for the demonstrator emphasized the domestic ZD\ WKLV LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH ZRXOG EH PDQLIHVWHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;WH VKDOO WDNH XS WKH KHDUWV ÂżUVW DQG arrange them on this platter. [â&#x20AC;Ś] Arrange the potatoes and carrots around the KHDUW WKHQ \RX LQWURGXFH \RXU IDPLO\ WR D QHZ IRRG PDNH LW ORRN DV DWWUDFWLYH as possible.â&#x20AC;?22 WRPHQ PD\ EH DEOH WR DIIHFW IDPLO\ WDVWHV DQG PHDO KDELWV EXW if the new meal is not an attractive and tasty product of domestic effort, the IDPLO\ ZLOO UHMHFW WKH FKDQJH TKRXJK WKH JRDO ZDV D UDGLFDO FKDQJH LQ FRQVXPHU behavior, women were remarkably successful in controlling family buying and eating habits. Such control is well within the traditional domestic sphere of these middle-class women, and is an action to which their government can easily call WKHP COHDUO\ WKH OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH SHUYLFHV DFNQRZOHGJHV WKDW VWXIIHG YHDO RU SRUN KHDUW ZRXOG QRW EH WKH IDPLO\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V ÂżUVW FKRLFH EXW LI D female consumer purchased something for her family, it was within her control to make them accept it. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Heart is one of the nonrestricted meats,â&#x20AC;? meaning APHULFDQ ZRPHQ KDG D GXW\ WR SXUFKDVH LW UDWKHU WKDQ UDWLRQHG PHDWV WRPHQ were widely encouraged by government rationing propaganda to â&#x20AC;&#x153;make the best use of the meats availableâ&#x20AC;? and to change buying and eating habits in response to shortages of rationed goods.23 The government recognized that women made UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ RDWLRQLQJ VDIHJXDUGV \RXU VKDUH WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO RHWULHYHG IURP NRUWKZHVWHUQ UQLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH IURP http://www.library.northwestern. HGX JRYLQIR FROOHFWLRQV ZZLL SRVWHUV LPJ ZZ MSJ 21 UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ CRVW RI OLYLQJ SULFH FRQWURO EHJDQ KHUH WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO RHWULHYHG IURP NRUWKZHVWHUQ UQLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ OLEUDU\ QRUWKZHVWHUQ HGX JRYLQIR FROOHFWLRQV ZZLL SRVWHUV LPJ ZZ MSJ 22 UQLWHG SWDWHV FHGHUDO SHFXULW\ AJHQF\ OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH SHUYLFHV NXWULWLRQ DLYLVLRQ HDQGERRN IRU FRRG DHPRQVWUDWLRQV LQ WDUWLPH WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO 23 Ibid., 22. Uncle Sam--â&#x20AC;?Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll Carry Mine Too!â&#x20AC;? Government Reformation of Gender Ideology Through Domestic Food Supply Policy in World War II

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most food purchasing and cooking decisions in the household, and so their goal of changing consumer purchasing habits was accomplished by advertisements to women. WKLOH ZRPHQ ZHUH FDOOHG RQ E\ WKH JRYHUQPHQW WR H[HUFLVH WKHLU control over household economies, they were also encouraged to act in more public ways, outside the familiar scope of stove and table, by policing rationing compliance. In an effort to make the invasive process of rationing as democratic DV SRVVLEOH WKH OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ VRXJKW WR HQDFW â&#x20AC;&#x153;QDWLRQDOO\ coordinated and popularly implemented social regulationâ&#x20AC;? through volunteer panels and price boards.24 VROXQWHHUV IRU WKH VWDWH DQG ORFDO ERDUGV ZHUH drawn from â&#x20AC;&#x153;unions, womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s clubs, and consumer groupsâ&#x20AC;? and were largely comprised of women. IQ CRQQHFWLFXW D â&#x20AC;&#x153;W\SLFDO VWDWH â&#x20AC;? WKH PHPEHUV RI WKH WDU PULFH DQG RDWLRQLQJ BRDUG ZHUH â&#x20AC;&#x153;GUDZQ IURP HYHU\ ZDON RI OLIHâ&#x20AC;? DQG LQFOXGHG KRXVHZLYHV WHDFKHUV DQG QXUVHV MXVW XQGHU UOWLPDWHO\ VRPH RI WKH PRVW VXFFHVVIXO ORFDO ERDUGV ZHUH coordinated by women, often with previous organizational experience from various peacetime womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s volunteer groups.27 Martin Hart-Landburg has described the â&#x20AC;&#x153;tremendous responsibilitiesâ&#x20AC;? of these volunteer-run panels, ZKR ZHUH FKDUJHG ZLWK WKH HGXFDWLRQ RI â&#x20AC;&#x153;DOO UHWDLO EXVLQHVVHV QRW MXVW WKRVH selling food, about the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s price regulations,â&#x20AC;? as well as â&#x20AC;&#x153;investigating cases of alleged business non-complianceâ&#x20AC;? and enacting all â&#x20AC;&#x153;legal sanctions available to the local boards.â&#x20AC;?28 These important consumer groups were â&#x20AC;&#x153;one of WKH VWURQJHVW PDQLIHVWDWLRQV RI WKH LQWHUYHQWLRQLVW NHZ DHDO VWDWH â&#x20AC;? DQG ORFDO involvement was vital, especially the membership of women.29 GRYHUQPHQW DSSHDOV IRU ZRPHQ WR XVH WKHLU LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH WR IROORZ government policy came in a variety of forms that emphasized womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s power WR PDNH RU EUHDN WKH SROLFLHV OQH KHDGOLQH LQ WKH NHZ YRUN TLPHV GHFODUHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;CRIIHH RDWLRQLQJ OQ HRQRU S\VWHPâ&#x20AC;? DV â&#x20AC;&#x153;HDFK KRXVHZLIH >ZDV@ RQ KHU honorâ&#x20AC;? to limit their coffee purchases in the week before formal rationing began â&#x20AC;&#x201C; encouraged, but not compelled to follow government directive. Still, it was clear that this call for women to limit household consumption was necessary if the formal rationing procedures were to have effect. Another example of a voluntary, democratic action encouraged by the government was the systematic advertisement of the Home Front Pledge. Through posters, advertisements, and radio announcements, women were urged to sign the Pledge, a formal vow to abide by the rationing and price controls set forth by the government for the

2 8

24 Martin Hart-Landsberg, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Popular Mobilization and Progressive Policy Making: LHVVRQV IURP WRUOG WDU II PULFH CRQWURO SWUXJJOHV LQ WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV â&#x20AC;? Science & Society QR WLQWHU IELG UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ The Story of Wartime Rationing, 23. 27 Hart-Landsberg, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Popular Mobilization and Progressive Policy Making: Lessons IURP WRUOG WDU II PULFH CRQWURO SWUXJJOHV LQ WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV â&#x20AC;? 28 IELG 29 MHJ -DFREV â&#x20AC;&#x153;â&#x20AC;&#x2122;HRZ AERXW SRPH MHDW"â&#x20AC;&#x2122; TKH OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ CRQVXPSWLRQ PROLWLFV DQG SWDWH BXLOGLQJ IURP WKH BRWWRP US â&#x20AC;? The Journal of American History QR DHF â&#x20AC;&#x153;CRIIHH RDWLRQLQJ RQ HRQRU S\VWHP â&#x20AC;? NHZ YRUN TLPHV NRY The Academical Heritage Review

Advertisement for the Home Front Pledge. UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ DHVLJQHG E\ FUHG CRRSHU KEEP the/ home front pledge WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ MRQWKO\ CDWDORJ S

war effort. Taking the Pledge â&#x20AC;&#x153;symbolically converted womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s private food production into part of the public realmâ&#x20AC;? by making â&#x20AC;&#x153;it clear to women that their larger public responsibility concerned food.â&#x20AC;?31 A poster published by the OPA illustrates this intent of the Home Front Pledge. In the center, a serious-looking, attractive, blonde white woman raises her right hand. Her dress is striped red, KHU IULOOHG DSURQ ZKLWH DQG VKH LV FLUFXPVFULEHG E\ D EOXH ÂżOOHG FLUFOH Âą WKH literal and symbolic center of patriotism. The aproned, domestic â&#x20AC;&#x153;sphereâ&#x20AC;? of the woman is broken only by a small icon below her shoulder for the OPAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s â&#x20AC;&#x153;Food Fights for freedomâ&#x20AC;? campaign, also in red, white, and blue â&#x20AC;&#x201C; because of the FRQQHFWLRQ IRUJHG E\ SDWULRWLVP LQ D WRWDO ZDU WKH JRYHUQPHQW PD\ LQWHUMHFW LQWR ZRPHQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V WUDGLWLRQDO UROHV TKH UHVXOWV RI VXFK LQWHUMHFWLRQ DUH VSHOOHG RXW 31 Bentley, Eating for Victory: Food Rationing and the Politics of Domesticity Uncle Sam--â&#x20AC;?Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll Carry Mine Too!â&#x20AC;? Government Reformation of Gender Ideology Through Domestic Food Supply Policy in World War II

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above and below the woman in her circle. â&#x20AC;&#x153;KEEP the Home Front Pledgeâ&#x20AC;? the JRYHUQPHQW FRPPDQGV â&#x20AC;&#x153;PD\ QR PRUH WKDQ CHLOLQJ PULFHV PD\ \RXU >UDWLRQ@ Points in full.â&#x20AC;?32 These are not suggestions; they are duty â&#x20AC;&#x201C; patriotic, female GXW\Âą HQDFWHG E\ D FRPIRUWLQJ GRPHVWLF ÂżJXUH LQ WUDGLWLRQDO IHPLQLQH ZD\V â&#x20AC;&#x153;FOOD WILL FIGHT THE WAR AND WIN THE PEACEâ&#x20AC;? As production was a vital part of the total war effort, the physical KHDOWK RI FLWL]HQV EHFDPH HPEOHPDWLF RI QDWLRQDO VWUHQJWK CRQFHUQV ZLWK GUDIW UHMHFWLRQ VWDWLVWLFV HDUO\ LQ WKH ZDU OHG WR WKH FUHDWLRQ RI D QDWLRQDO QXWULWLRQ program.33 Just as women were seen to be the â&#x20AC;&#x153;gatekeepersâ&#x20AC;? of the household food economy, they were the â&#x20AC;&#x153;gatekeepersâ&#x20AC;? of nutrition, and were similarly invaluable to the programâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s success. The Secretary of Agriculture summarized WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI ZRPHQ WR WKH HQWLUH HQGHDYRU â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKH ODVW VWHS LQ WKH ÂľFRRG IRU FUHHGRPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; FDPSDLJQ LV ODUJHO\ XS WR WKH NDWLRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V KRXVHZLYHV DQG QXWULWLRQ ZRUNHUV >ÂŤ@ QXWULWLRQLVWV DQG KRXVHZLYHV RI APHULFD KDYH WR FRPSOHWH WKH MRE â&#x20AC;?34 COHDUO\ ZLWKRXW WKH FRRSHUDWLRQ RI ZRPHQ DV QXWULWLRQ HGXFDWRUV DQG DV housewives who abide by the guidelines, the national nutrition campaign would fail. Because the national nutrition program would largely be carried out in kitchens across America as women learned to make better, more patriotic choices for their family, it made sense that the government encouraged women to head the efforts to educate fellow citizens about the new nutritional guidelines. In a 1942 handbook for community organization published by the Federal Security Agency, women are portrayed as an instrumental part of the local organizational SURFHVV DQG DUH D IRFXV RI WKH ERRNOHWâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V â&#x20AC;&#x153;SXJJHVWLRQV IRU DHYHORSLQJ NXWULWLRQ PURJUDPV LQ WDUWLPH â&#x20AC;? BXW WKHLU LQYROYHPHQW LV QRW SRUWUD\HG DV XQFRQGLWLRQDO WRPHQ LQ WKH ERRNOHWâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V K\SRWKHWLFDO VPDOO DQG PHGLXP VL]HG WRZQV FDQ LQLWLDWH D FRPPXQLW\ KHDOWK SURMHFW E\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;FDOO>LQJ@ XS KHU IULHQG MUV SPLWK â&#x20AC;? RU SXVK past all the well-meaning talk in the community to provide a practical plan to address the problem. But in the large, hypothetical town of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Industria,â&#x20AC;? there LV QRW DQ\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;MUV â&#x20AC;? IQ FRQWURO IQVWHDG WKH UHDGHU VHHV WKH ZRUN RI WKH PDOH

â&#x20AC;&#x153;H[HFXWLYH VHFUHWDU\ RI WKH ORFDO CRXQFLO RI SRFLDO AJHQFLHVâ&#x20AC;? DQG WKH PDOH

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32 UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ GHVLJQHG E\ FUHG CRRSHU KEEP the/ home front pledge Washington, DC: GPO, 19 , OfÂżce of Price Administration Monthly Catalog, 692. Retrieved from Northwestern University Library, World War II Poster collection, Available from: http://digital.library.northwestern. edu/wwii-posters/img/ww1647-77.jpg. 33 FRU PRUH D PRUH GHWDLOHG DQDO\VLV RI WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI GUDIW UHMHFWLRQ VWDWLVWLFV see: &KULVWLQD 6 -DUYLV Âł&ODVVLÂżHG %RGLHV 6FUHHQLQJ 6FXOSWLQJ DQG 6H[XDOL]LQJ 6HUYLFHPHQ Â´ ,Q The Male Body at War: American Masculinity During World War II 'H.DOE ,OO 1RUWKHUQ ,OOLQRLV 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV 34 UQLWHG SWDWHV FHGHUDO SHFXULW\ AJHQF\ OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH Services, The Food Front: A Series of Eleven Lectures UQLWHG SWDWHV FHGHUDO SHFXULW\ AJHQF\ OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH SHUYLFHV NXWULWLRQ DLYLVLRQ DEMOCRACY Means ALL of US: How Communities Can Organize To Study and Meet Community Needs With Special Suggestions for Developing Nutrition Programs In Wartime WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO The Academical Heritage Review

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Superintendant of Schools.â&#x20AC;? Likewise, when a well-established program in another hypothetical city needs to evaluate and gather statistics, the women and men of the board turn this sophisticated measure over to a male expert.37 WKDW ZHUH FLWL]HQV WR JDWKHU IURP WKLV KDQGERRN" COHDUO\ ZRPHQ ZHUH EHOLHYHG WR EH important for developing community health and nutrition programs, but their involvement was limited to smaller-scale operations. Patriotic demands of war required that the middle class women portrayed be mindful of the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nutritional demands and to monitor the level to which their communities were FRPSO\LQJ TKLV PDGH HDFK ZRPDQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V NLWFKHQ D UHĂ&#x20AC;HFWLRQ RI D ZLGHU SXEOLF GXW\ DQG ZLGHQHG WKH LPSDFW RI KHU DFWLRQV CRPPXQLW\ RUJDQL]DWLRQ WR DQ H[WHQW IHOO PRUH ÂżUPO\ ZLWKLQ WKH SULYDWH GRPHVWLF UHDOP Âą XQWLO WKH JURXSV JUHZ WR a certain scope, where there was the expectation that women would relinquish organizational control to men.38 WRPHQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V PDLQ LQYROYHPHQW ZDV WR VSULQJ IURP WKH KRPH DQG WKHLU stringent observances of government nutritional guidelines. One poster from WKH DHSDUWPHQW RI AJULFXOWXUH E[WHQVLRQ OIÂżFH LOOXVWUDWHV WKLV GRPHVWLF focus. A sedate, almost plain-faced woman with curled hair and an apron is photographed in the poster, washing vegetables in a neat white kitchen. The caption below answers the unspoken â&#x20AC;&#x153;what can I do?â&#x20AC;? of the everywoman viewer: â&#x20AC;&#x153;YOU CAN PLAN DQG SUHSDUH EDODQFHG PHDOV IRU \RXU IDPLO\ â&#x20AC;?39 WRPHQ QHHG QRW QHFHVVDULO\ VWHS RXW RI WKHLU FRPIRUWDEOH GRPHVWLF UROHV DQG DFWLYLWLHV Âą the war validated these very activities as patriotic actions necessary for victory. Another government-produced dialog echoes this idea: â&#x20AC;&#x153;We must make sure RXU DUPHG IRUFHV DQG AOOLHV JHW PHDWâ&#x20AC;? DQG RWKHU IRRGV WKH\ QHHG WR ÂżJKW DQG â&#x20AC;&#x153;we can all plan good meals for our familiesâ&#x20AC;? to keep up strength on the home front â&#x20AC;&#x201C; while maintaining traditionally feminine roles. But sometimes, womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s actions, while ostensibly remaining within ZRPHQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V WUDGLWLRQDO GRPHVWLF UROHV DUH JUDQWHG QDWLRQDO VLJQLÂżFDQFH ZHOO beyond the kitchen or household. Part of this had to do with the militarization of IRRG DQG IRRG SROLF\ GXULQJ WKH ZDU â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKHUH RXU PHQ DUH ÂżJKWLQJ OUR FOOD IS FIGHTINGâ&#x20AC;? GHFODUHG D SRVWHU IURP WKH OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ IQ D patriotic color scheme, silhouetted paratroopers with white and blue parachutes DUH VHHQ Ă&#x20AC;RDWLQJ GRZQ EHKLQG WKH UHG SDUDFKXWH RI D IRUHJURXQG FUDWH ODEHOHG

Ibid., 11. 37 IELG 38 WLOOLDP CKDIH GRHV QRW EHOLHYH WKDW WKH IDFW WKDW ZRPHQ ZHUH WKXV OLPLWHG UHSUHVHQWV DQ absolute adherence to traditional gender roles: â&#x20AC;&#x153;despite absence of progress toward sexual equality during the war, the behavioral changes that did occur played an important role in EUHDNLQJ SUHYLRXV SDWWHUQV DQG VH[ UROH H[SHFWDWLRQV â&#x20AC;? SHH WLOOLDP CKDIH â&#x20AC;&#x153;WRUOG WDU II DV D PLYRWDO E[SHULHQFH IRU APHULFDQ WRPHQ â&#x20AC;? . 39 8QLWHG 6WDWHV 'HSDUWPHQW RI $JULFXOWXUH ([WHQVLRQ 6HUYLFH You Can Plan and prepare balanced meals for your family 6HULHV 0DNH $PHULFD 6WURQJ QR. :DVKLQJWRQ '& *32 5HWULHYHG IURP 1RUWKZHVWHUQ 8QLYHUVLW\ /LEUDU\ :RUOG :DU ,, 3RVWHU &ROOHFWLRQ $YDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ. OLEUDU\.QRUWKZHVWHUQ.HGX JRYLQIR FROOHFWLRQV ZZLL SRVWHUV LPJ ZZ .MSJ. UQLWHG SWDWHV FHGHUDO SHFXULW\ AJHQF\ OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH SHUYLFHV NXWULWLRQ DLYLVLRQ Handbook for Food Demonstrations in Wartime (Washington, DC: GPO, 1943), 22. (emphasis added) Uncle Sam--â&#x20AC;?Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll Carry Mine Too!â&#x20AC;? Government Reformation of Gender Ideology Through Domestic Food Supply Policy in World War II

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â&#x20AC;&#x153;What can I do?â&#x20AC;? was a question commonly addressed in government messages UQLWHG States. Department of Agriculture, Extension Service. You Can Plan and prepare balanced meals for your family. SHULHV MDNH APHULFD SWURQJ QR WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO

E\ WKH FDSWLRQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;FOOD â&#x20AC;?41 Food is the focus, clearly, because â&#x20AC;&#x153;food will win the ZDU DQG ZULWH WKH SHDFH â&#x20AC;? DV RQH JRYHUQPHQW RIÂżFLDO SXW LW 42 AQRWKHU OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ SRVWHU DOVR IURP SXWV LW PRUH SODLQO\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;FRRG IV A WHDSRQ â&#x20AC;? OUGHUV DUH DGGHG EHORZ Âą â&#x20AC;&#x153;DRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;W WDVWH IW >ÂŤ@ IROORZ WKH QDWLRQDO wartime nutrition program.â&#x20AC;?43 In the center of the page, a plate empty but for a few bones, picked clean, a rumpled napkin, and an empty glass. The posterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s color scheme is an unsettling green and yellow commonly found in other posters that militarize the consequences of civilian behaviors, commonly of

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41 UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ Where our men are Âżghting/ Our Food Is Fighting, Series: OWI poster, no. 35 WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO RHWULHYHG IURP NRUWKZHVWHUQ UQLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ OLEUDU\ QRUWKZHVWHUQ HGX JRYLQIR FROOHFWLRQV ZZLL SRVWHUV LPJ ZZ MSJ 42 UQLWHG SWDWHV FHGHUDO SHFXULW\ AJHQF\ OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH SHUYLFHV The Food Front: A Series of Eleven Lectures, 43 UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ DLYLVLRQ RI PXEOLF IQTXLULHV Food is a weapon / Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t Waste It! SHULHV OWI SRVWHU QR WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO RHWULHYHG IURP NRUWKZHVWHUQ UQLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ OLEUDU\ QRUWKZHVWHUQ HGX JRYLQIR FROOHFWLRQV ZZLL SRVWHUV LPJ ZZ MSJ The Academical Heritage Review

the â&#x20AC;&#x153;loose lips sink shipsâ&#x20AC;? variety.44 The use of foreboding visuals is echoed in another nutrition poster. This one is less cluttered, more iconic. A red circle on a white background â&#x20AC;&#x201C; â&#x20AC;&#x153;guard your familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s healthâ&#x20AC;? in order to guard the nation againstJapan! NRQH RI WKHVH SRVWHUV GHSLFW ZRPHQ EXW QRQH QHHG WR GR VR BRWK WKH ÂżJKWLQJ IRRG SRVWHUV FDUU\ WKH VDPH VORJDQ DFURVV WKH ERWWRP Âą â&#x20AC;&#x153;BX\ WLVHO\ Âą CRRN CDUHIXOO\ â&#x20AC;? DQG WKH SHWLWLRQ IRU ZRPHQ WR JXDUG WKHLU IDPLOLHV FRQFOXGHV E\ XUJLQJ ZRPHQ WR â&#x20AC;&#x153;OHDUQ DERXW QHZ ZDUWLPH IRRGV LQ D NXWULWLRQ CODVV â&#x20AC;? TKHVH PHVVDJHV KRZHYHU ULIH ZLWK HOHPHQWV RI ZDU DUH QRW KRZHYHU essentially un-feminine. It is natural, according to traditional gender ideology, for women to be involved in their familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s feeding and health and to â&#x20AC;&#x153;guardâ&#x20AC;? the family in times of crisis. These actions are so feminine that they supersede the QHHG WR KDYH D YLVLEOH IHPDOH ÂżJXUH

Traditional femininity was visible with warlike messages. LHIW UQLWHG SWDWHV BXUHDX RI Home Economics. Join the ranks/ Fight Food Waste in the home. SHULHV FLJKW FRRG WDVWH LQ WKH HRPH WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO RLJKW UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ Save waste fats for explosives/ Take Them To Your Meat Dealer SHULHV OWI SRVWHU QR WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO, 1943.

44 SHH UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ BXUHDX RI PXEOLF IQTXLULHV If you talk too much / This Man May Die, Series, OWI poster, no. 6 WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO

RHWULHYHG IURP NRUWKZHVWHUQ UQLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH from: http://www.library.northwestern.edu/govinfo/collections/wwii-posters/img/ ZZ MSJ TKH SRVWHU QRW RQO\ KDV DQ LGHQWLFDO FRORU VFKHPH EXW D VLPLODU OD\RXW ZLWK a round porthole replacing the round empty plate of the nutrition poster. For another typical XVH RI WKH JUHHQ \HOORZ FRORU VFKHPH IRU â&#x20AC;&#x153;GDQJHUâ&#x20AC;? ZDUQLQJV VHH DOVR UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ DLYLVLRQ RI PXEOLF IQTXLULHV A careless wordâ&#x20AC;Ś / A Needless Sinking, SHULHV OWI SRVWHU QR WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO RHWULHYHG IURP NRUWKZHVWHUQ UQLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ OLEUDU\ QRUWKZHVWHUQ HGX JRYLQIR FROOHFWLRQV ZZLL SRVWHUV LPJ ZZ MSJ UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ Guard your familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health!, SHULHV OWI SRVWHU QR WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO RHWULHYHG IURP NRUWKZHVWHUQ UQLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ OLEUDU\ QRUWKZHVWHUQ HGX JRYLQIR FROOHFWLRQV ZZLL SRVWHUV LPJ ZZ MSJ Uncle Sam--â&#x20AC;?Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll Carry Mine Too!â&#x20AC;? Government Reformation of Gender Ideology Through Domestic Food Supply Policy in World War II

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In other advertisements made by the government, the desired actions are different and women are prominently visible. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Join the ranksâ&#x20AC;? intones one 1942 poster from the Bureau of Home Economics. This is a government recruitment to â&#x20AC;&#x153;FIGHTâ&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x201C; â&#x20AC;&#x153;food waste,â&#x20AC;? that is. WKLOH WKH â&#x20AC;&#x153;EX\LQJâ&#x20AC;? DQG â&#x20AC;&#x153;FRRNLQJâ&#x20AC;? LQ WKH DERYH SRVWHUV ZHUH ZLWKLQ ZRPHQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V WUDGLWLRQDO UROHV ÂżJKWLQJ LQ WKH UDQNV ZDV QRW TR reassure viewers that accepting this non-traditional call from the government ZRXOG DLG WKH FRPSOHWH QDWLRQDO ZDU HIIRUW ZLWKRXW VLJQLÂżFDQWO\ FKDOOHQJLQJ traditional gender ideology, the poster depicts those in the ranks as hyperfeminized, attractive, young white women. Another image illustrates the need to distinguish between masculine warfare and feminine domestic tasks. Across the top, a long-nailed, delicate female hand holds the handle of a frying pan, tipping it to pour grease away. The stream of â&#x20AC;&#x153;waste fatsâ&#x20AC;? continues downward until it explodes outward in the center of the page, propelling a cluster of bombs through the rest of the image.47 WKLOH LW ZRXOG VHHP WKDW WKH ZRPDQ LV SURGXFLQJ explosives, a violent, unmistakable act of war, the advertisement is constructed to confound that assumption. Literally separating the pan from the bombs is the KHDGOLQH â&#x20AC;&#x153;SDYH ZDVWH IDWV IRU H[SORVLYHVâ&#x20AC;? Âą DQ LQWHUMHFWLRQ IURP WKH JRYHUQPHQW that limits the action of the female hand to the panâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s domestic sphere. To â&#x20AC;&#x153;saveâ&#x20AC;? is well within the bounds of the female-controlled household economy â&#x20AC;&#x201C; if it has larger, militaristic implications during a time of war, it does not compromise the femininity of the hand shown, nor should it compromise the femininity of the American women enacting the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policies.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;IN COOPERATION WITHâ&#x20AC;Śâ&#x20AC;? TKRXJK JRYHUQPHQW LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH H[SDQGHG GUDPDWLFDOO\ GXULQJ WKH ZDU years, the national government was not the only purveyor of gendered messages. If the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s campaign to create new patters of femininity for the war was to succeed, the gender ideology embraced by the government would need to be embraced widely across society. This was accomplished in the areas of commercial advertising and public opinion. One of the many consequences of war, according to the government, ZDV WKH QHFHVVLW\ WR UHJXODWH DGYHUWLVLQJ IRU WKH GXUDWLRQ RI WKH FRQĂ&#x20AC;LFW WKLOH ostensibly conserving printing resources or radio airtime, the government ZDV PDNLQJ DPSOH URRP IRU WKH Ă&#x20AC;RRG RI SURSDJDQGD DGYHUWLVHPHQWV DQG HGXFDWLRQDO PDWHULDOV HPHUJLQJ IURP WKH PDQ\ ZDUWLPH SURJUDPV WKDWHYHU advertising space or time these programs did not use was granted to private companies and advertisers, mostly by choice of the government. Even if a newspaper or magazine had discretion over advertisements, strict government

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UQLWHG SWDWHV BXUHDX RI HRPH EFRQRPLFV Join the ranks/ Fight Food Waste in the home, SHULHV FLJKW FRRG WDVWH LQ WKH HRPH WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO RHWULHYHG IURP NRUWKZHVWHUQ UQLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ OLEUDU\ QRUWKZHVWHUQ HGX JRYLQIR FROOHFWLRQV ZZLL SRVWHUV LPJ ZZ MSJ 47 UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ Save waste fats for explosives/ Take Them To Your Meat Dealer SHULHV OWI SRVWHU QR WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO RHWULHYHG IURP NRUWKZHVWHUQ UQLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ OLEUDU\ QRUWKZHVWHUQ HGX JRYLQIR FROOHFWLRQV ZZLL SRVWHUV LPJ ZZ MSJ The Academical Heritage Review

UHJXODWLRQV DQG WKH ORRPLQJ WKUHDW RI WDNHRYHU E\ WKH OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ kept most editors in line with government desires. Often, though, advertisers made the decisions easy for editors. Henthorn has GLVFXVVHG WKH EHQHÂżWV WR FRPSDQLHV IRU FRPSO\LQJ ZLWK JRYHUQPHQW DGYHUWLVLQJ suggestions and using their advertising dollars to create a rash of patriotic ads supporting war workers, advising war bonds, or educating citizens about civil defense programs. Such actions aided in â&#x20AC;&#x153;holding their market sharesâ&#x20AC;? and â&#x20AC;&#x153;NHHSLQJ D EXVLQHVV QDPH DOLYH IRU WKH GXUDWLRQ RI WKH FRQĂ&#x20AC;LFW â&#x20AC;? HVSHFLDOO\ ZKHQ civilian manufacture had be reduced by war, making the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s products and labels scarce on shelves. 48 A good example of the symbiotic relationship between government and private company is found in a 1943 ad from Libby canned goods. â&#x20AC;&#x153;In cooperation ZLWK WKH OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ â&#x20AC;? WKH FRPSDQ\ SODFHG D ODUJH DG LQ WKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW WR DGYHUWLVH â&#x20AC;&#x153;OIÂżFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ RQ SRLQW UDWLRQLQJ!â&#x20AC;? A banner along the top third of the page features those words in the speech bubble of an enormous, smiling female head. The Libby girl is young, attractive, white, with impeccable hair, teeth, and eyebrows â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the very model of neat, middleclass femininity often seen in government-produced ads. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Look!â&#x20AC;? she shouts. â&#x20AC;&#x153;OIÂżFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ >â&#x20AC;Ś@ Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;P VXUHO\ JRLQJ WR VDYH LW!â&#x20AC;? LLEE\ NQRZV VKH ZLOO VDYH it because women are the consumers who will utilize the rationing system. The bottom two thirds of the ad is taken up by a series of twelve images and captions H[SODLQLQJ SRLQW UDWLRQLQJ WKHVH LPDJHV DOVR UHĂ&#x20AC;HFW WKH WKRXJKW WKDW ZRPHQ would be active participants in rationing as women are shown in all levels of the process.49 The rest of the household is neither pictured nor important to this manufacturerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ad targeted at the main household consumer. In many ways, this privately-produced ad conveys many of the same messages about gender and household roles as government-produced ads. In another ad from Borden Milk, the female shopper also ensures that the family follows the national nutrition program. The ad features the cartoon cow family of Elsie, Elmer, and little Beulah in the grocery store. During the trip, mother Elsie chooses nutritionally VRXQG LWHPV LQFOXGLQJ ZKROHVRPH BRUGHQ PLON! DQG DORQJ WKH ZD\ HGXFDWHV KHU IDPLO\ DERXW KHU SDWULRWLF FKRLFHV YDQJ KDV GLVFXVVHG WKH â&#x20AC;&#x153;DGYHUWLVLQJ SRWHQWLDO RI IRRG FDPSDLJQVâ&#x20AC;? IRU both newspapers and food companies, who were able to piggyback their interests onto the government need for advertisement of its programs. In fact, the process ZDV EHQHÂżFLDO WR DOO LQYROYHG PULQW PHGLD EHQHÂżWWHG E\ EHLQJ DEOH WR MXVWLI\ VDOHV RI VXFK DG VSDFH WR WKH JRYHUQPHQW DQG SULYDWH FRPSDQLHV EHQHÂżWWHG 48 C\QWKLD L HHQWKRUQ From Submarines to Suburbs: Selling a Better America, 1939 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1959 AWKHQV OKLR OKLR UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV 49 â&#x20AC;&#x153;LRRN! OIÂżFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ RQ SRLQW UDWLRQLQJ!â&#x20AC;? AGYHUWLVHPHQW E\ LLEE\ MFNHLOO LLEE\ Washington Post FHE â&#x20AC;&#x153;SWRS JUXPEOLQJ EOPHU Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;P MXVW EDODQFLQJ \RXU GLHW!â&#x20AC;? AGYHUWLVHPHQW E\ TKH BRUGHQ CRPSDQ\ CROOLHUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DHF IQ -RKQ B -RQHV All-Out for Victory: Magazine Advertising and the World War II Home Front LHEDQRQ NH UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV RI NHZ EQJODQG MHL OLQJ YDQJ â&#x20AC;&#x153;CUHDWLQJ WKH .LWFKHQ PDWULRW MHGLD PURPRWLRQ RI FRRG RDWLRQLQJ DQG NXWULWLRQ CDPSDLJQV RQ WKH APHULFDQ HRPH FURQW DXULQJ WRUOG WDU II â&#x20AC;? American Journalism QR Uncle Sam--â&#x20AC;?Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll Carry Mine Too!â&#x20AC;? Government Reformation of Gender Ideology Through Domestic Food Supply Policy in World War II

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too. In keeping the Libby or Borden names visible in these ads, perhaps war FRQVXPHUV ZRPHQ ZRXOG VSHQG VRPH UDWLRQ SRLQWV Âą DQG PRUH LPSRUWDQWO\ dollars â&#x20AC;&#x201C; on Libby canned goods or Borden milk, or at least not forget the brand QDPHV DIWHU WKH ZDU NRW RQO\ GLG JRYHUQPHQW DJHQFLHV UHFHLYH IUHH DGYHUWLVLQJ this way, but through regulations that ensured privately produced ads carried the same implicit gender messages of government ads, private advertising helped to reinforce the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wartime gender ideology, making these new messages more powerful. It was not only womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s domestic roles as principle agents of rationing and nutrition that was reinforced. â&#x20AC;&#x153;I am the O-P-A!â&#x20AC;? exclaimed a well-dressed emblem of middle-class womanhood at the top of a 1943 ad celebrating ZRPHQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V UROH DV HFRQRPLF HQIRUFHUV â&#x20AC;&#x153;EYHU\ KRPH LQ APHULFD LV DQ OIÂżFH RI Price Administration. Every housewife is an Honorary Director of O.P.A. It is up WR USâ&#x20AC;Ś HDFK DQG HYHU\ RQH RI XVâ&#x20AC;Ś WR IXQFWLRQ DV PURWHFWRUV RI APHULFDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V CLYLOLDQ EFRQRP\ â&#x20AC;? B\ MRLQLQJ ZLWK WKH OPA DQG HPEUDFLQJ SULFH FRQWUROV ZRPHQ JDLQHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;D ZD\ WR GR VRPHWKLQJ DERXW SULFHV LQVWHDG RI ÂľMXVW WDONLQJâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; DERXW WKHP â&#x20AC;? If war meant an increased emphasis on womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s power to determine the success of economic policy through their purchasing and regulatory behaviors, the XOWUD IHPLQL]HG ÂżJXUH Âą KHU VW\OLVK KDW SHUKDSV IURP WKH GHSDUWPHQW VWRUH WKDW designed the ad â&#x20AC;&#x201C; makes it clear the message from the government that women could do this without compromising their feminine image. In addition to portrayals in popular media, another manifestation of the UHDFK RI JRYHUQPHQW LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH LV UHĂ&#x20AC;HFWHG LQ ZULWLQJ DERXW JRYHUQPHQW SROLF\ TKH ODQJXDJH RI QHZVSDSHU DUWLFOHV UHĂ&#x20AC;HFWV VKLIWV LQ WKLQNLQJ DERXW ZRPHQ DQG traditional domestic food-related behaviors as a direct result of government advertising. For example, stocking up, a time-honored and thrifty tradition of the American housewife, was re-christened â&#x20AC;&#x153;hoardingâ&#x20AC;?â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and, according to The Citizenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Handbook for War, â&#x20AC;&#x153;in wartime, hoarders are on the same level as spies.â&#x20AC;? Though this kind of change seems sensationalistic, it was actually well received, as evidenced by the large number of newspaper references to â&#x20AC;&#x153;hoardersâ&#x20AC;? who threatened to undermine the system. Even womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s normal stores of goods could be called â&#x20AC;&#x153;hoardsâ&#x20AC;? when converting to rationing. â&#x20AC;&#x153;LITTLE DOES SHE REALIZEâ&#x20AC;Śâ&#x20AC;? BHFDXVH ZRPHQ ZHUH WKH SULQFLSOH REMHFWV RI JRYHUQPHQW DGYHUWLVLQJ for rationing and other food policy, they were viewed as the principle agents for GHWHUPLQLQJ WKH VXFFHVV RI WKHVH SURJUDPV TKH\ ZHUH DOVR WKH ÂżUVW WR EH EODPHG for any program failures. From the beginning, the government made it clear

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â&#x20AC;&#x153;I am the O-P-A!â&#x20AC;? Advertisement. Washington Post SHS B NRWH CRS\ULJKW TKH HHFKW CR UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI CLYLOLDQ DHIHQVH What Can I Do: The Citizenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Handbook for War, IOOXVWUDWHG E\ GOX\DV WLOOLDPV WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO â&#x20AC;&#x153;CRIIHH RDWLRQLQJ RQ HRQRU S\VWHP â&#x20AC;? New York Times NRY The Academical Heritage Review

that women would decide whether or not rationing â&#x20AC;&#x153;worked.â&#x20AC;? Even when the process did break down, the government response was to make expressly clear with whom the fault lay.

Americans were continually reminded of the importance of food for the war effort. UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI WDU IQIRUPDWLRQ Where our men are Âżghting/ Our Food Is Fighting. SHULHV OWI SRVWHU QR WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO In one OPA poster, two cartoons show women at the butcher without and with rationing; in the former, the butcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s shop is bare as one woman leaves with many packages and the other gets only a single tiny chop, while in the later, both are happier and both leave the full VKRS ZLWK PHDW SHH UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ Rationing means a fair share for all of us. WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO RHWULHYHG IURP NRUWKZHVWHUQ UQLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ OLEUDU\ QRUWKZHVWHUQ HGX JRYLQIR FROOHFWLRQV ZZLL SRVWHUV LPJ ZZ MSJ AQ OPA ERRNOHW WLWOHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH SWRU\ RI WDUWLPH RDWLRQLQJâ&#x20AC;? LOOXVWUDWHV WKH SRLQW YHU\ VLPLODUO\ ZLWK WZR FDUWRRQV RI ZRPHQ ZLWK rationing the packages are again distributed equally. In the same booklet, the illustrations for â&#x20AC;&#x153;hoarding,â&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x153;aggravated shortages,â&#x20AC;? and who â&#x20AC;&#x153;would get the best and mostâ&#x20AC;? all show female ÂżJXUHV UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ The Story of Wartime Rationing, p.

Uncle Sam--â&#x20AC;?Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll Carry Mine Too!â&#x20AC;? Government Reformation of Gender Ideology Through Domestic Food Supply Policy in World War II

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Throughout the second half of 1944, war weary consumers became increasingly vocal against the multitude of rationing regulations and restrictions. In fall RI WKDW \HDU ZKHQ LW VHHPHG WKH ZDU ZDV QHDU DQ HQG WKH OIÂżFH RI PULFH Administration yielded to the â&#x20AC;&#x153;intense pressureâ&#x20AC;? and removed many items â&#x20AC;&#x201C; including sugar â&#x20AC;&#x201C; from rationing. AIWHU ERWK WKH EXURSHDQ DQG PDFLÂżF WKHDWUHV heated up again, it became clear that the buying spree that had accompanied deregulation of goods was unsustainable. As a result, the government decided at the end of 1944 to invalidate the outstanding ration stamps for that year, return VRPH LWHPV WR UDWLRQ DQG WR UDLVH WKH SRLQW YDOXH RI EXWWHU Âą MXVW LQ WLPH WR EH â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKH ZURQJ NLQG RI CKULVWPDV SUHVHQWâ&#x20AC;? IRU XQSUHSDUHG UHWDLOHUV DQG KRXVHZLYHV To respond to the harsh backlash in the most democratic way possible, the OPA SXEOLVKHG D QXPEHU RI WH[WV LQ FHEUXDU\ GHVLJQHG WR DQVZHU WKH TXHVWLRQV UDLVHG E\ DHFHPEHU SROLFLHV â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH SWRU\ RI WDUWLPH RDWLRQLQJâ&#x20AC;? SXWV WKH FKDQJH in the context of the whole war, where rationing had been used for years to correct for civilian demand that exceeded supply. In other words, consumers had not done their share to abide by rationing; not the government, but women consumers were to blame. AQRWKHU OPA SXEOLFDWLRQ WKH Ă&#x20AC;\HU â&#x20AC;&#x153;HDUG FDFWVâ&#x20AC;? IURP ZDV SXEOLVKHG WR H[SODLQ WKH RULJLQV RI WKH SROLF\ FKDQJH DQG VWDWH RI â&#x20AC;&#x153;CLYLOLDQ Supplies of Rationed Items.â&#x20AC;? The section â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Facts About Sugar,â&#x20AC;? names several causes for the current shortage; the main factor was the increase in military GHPDQG DV FRQĂ&#x20AC;LFW LQWHQVLÂżHG BXW PLOLWDU\ DQG HYHQ DJULFXOWXUDO DQWHFHGHQWV VXFK DV SRRU KDUYHVWV DUH QRW JLYHQ DV PXFK SDJH VSDFH RU DV PDQ\ ZRUGV DV WKH ÂżUVW DQG PRVW FRQGHPQDWRU\ VHFWLRQ ZKHUH â&#x20AC;&#x153;FLYLOLDQVâ&#x20AC;? DUH EODPHG TKH demand of civilians exceeded the permitted amounts, especially since some of them â&#x20AC;&#x201C; women, almost certainly â&#x20AC;&#x201C; â&#x20AC;&#x153;applied for more sugar than they actually needed for canning.â&#x20AC;? Rationing was designed to distribute to citizens after military consumption; military use is sacrosanct and â&#x20AC;&#x153;until the war is over, WKH QDWLRQDO ZDU HIIRUW KDV ÂżUVW FODLP XSRQ DOO FRPPXQLW\ UHVRXUFHV â&#x20AC;? Even if military demands increase dramatically and cause a shortage, the fault must lie ZLWK â&#x20AC;&#x153;FLYLOLDQâ&#x20AC;? FDXVHV Âą ZLWK WKH ZRPHQ ZKR RYHU SXUFKDVH VXJDU DQG DOORZ the rationing system to fail. Even if the government policy of overtly blaming women for rationing failures was not well established until toward the end of the war, public opinion ZDV ÂżOOLQJ WKDW UROH IURP D PXFK HDUOLHU GDWH TKH QXPEHU DQG LQWHQVLW\ RI WKH blames leveled on women consumers stand as a testament to the degree to which government ideology was successfully accepted. â&#x20AC;&#x153;How many housewives complain about the prices of food and spend a comparatively ridiculous sum for

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Bentley, Eating for Victory: Food Rationing and the Politics of Domesticity, 19. â&#x20AC;&#x153;MDQ\ RHVWDXUDQWV SKXW IRU NHZ YHDU â&#x20AC;? New York Times, December 31, 1944: 1. SHH UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ CKHVWHU BRZOHV AGPLQLVWUDWRU The Story of Wartime Rationing WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO FHE HVSHFLDOO\ SDJHV 87-9 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; all of which speak directly to the supply/demand problems that caused the December decision. UQLWHG SWDWHV FHGHUDO SHFXULW\ AJHQF\ OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH SHUYLFHV NXWULWLRQ DLYLVLRQ DEMOCRACY Means ALL of US: How Communities Can Organize To Study and Meet Community Needs With Special Suggestions for Developing Nutrition Programs In Wartime WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO The Academical Heritage Review

D SDWFK RI D KDW!â&#x20AC;? H[FODLPHG D NHZ YRUN TLPHV DUWLFOH SXFK KRXVHZLYHV were ignorant of the harsh realities of war and intricacies of modern food productionâ&#x20AC;&#x201C; â&#x20AC;&#x153;she doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t knowâ&#x20AC;? the nature of things; â&#x20AC;&#x153;little does she realizeâ&#x20AC;? that her complains are harmful to the rationing program and war effort. Another harsh reprimand is delivered in â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Gentler Sexâ&#x20AC;? column of WKH WDVKLQJWRQ SRVW Âą â&#x20AC;&#x153;IW MLJKW BH WRUVH â&#x20AC;? LQWRQHV WKH KHDGOLQH DV D GLDORJ unfolds below. A complain is raised, presumably from the voice of the women RI APHULFD Âą â&#x20AC;&#x153;YHV RQO\ SRXQGV RI EXWWHU D \HDU QRZ IRU HDFK RI XV! TKUHH pounds less than last year!â&#x20AC;? It might be worse, a second, somber voice reminds Âą â&#x20AC;&#x153;BXWWHU LV DOPRVW XQNQRZQ LQ FUDQFH GUHHFH PRODQG PRVW RI WKH ND]L occupied countries of Europe, as most of the cows have been slaughtered to IHHG ND]L DUPLHV â&#x20AC;? TKH GLDORJ FRQWLQXHV APHULFDQ ZRPHQ FDQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;W JHW D PHDO DW a restaurant; Greek people canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t get bread. And so on. The article concludes dramatically: â&#x20AC;&#x153;YHV OLIH LV WRXJK KHUH ZLWK DOO WKH UDWLRQLQJ DQG WD[HV DQG EXUHDXFUDWV DQG ERVVLQHVV WKDW DUH ZH FRPLQJ WR" WKDWâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V WKH PDWWHU ZLWK CRQJUHVV" WKDWâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V WKH PDWWHU ZLWK WKH PUHVLGHQW" [â&#x20AC;Ś] Turn the rascals out! In Germany people ride on streetcars in silence, not daring to discuss public affairs for fear they may EH RYHUKHDUG E\ WKH GHVWDSR >â&#x20AC;Ś@ YHV OLIH LV WRXJK KHUH Âą EXW LW might be tougher. It might be so tough we couldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t complain about what was going on and blame somebody for it.â&#x20AC;? WDU ZDV D WLPH RI H[WUHPHV DQG SXEOLF RSLQLRQ UHTXLUHG WKDW ZRPHQ Âą OLNH DOO APHULFDQV Âą XQGHUVWDQG WKDW WRPHQ ZHUH SUHVHQWHG ZLWK WKH GLFKRWRP\ RI all-encompassing war â&#x20AC;&#x201C; â&#x20AC;&#x153;literally a choice between gunpowder and sugar.â&#x20AC;? If women chose poorly, they not only failed as Americans, as citizen-soldiers of a QDWLRQ DW ZDU EXW WKH\ IDLOHG DOVR LQ WKHLU VSHFLÂżF REOLJDWLRQV DV ZRPHQ WR XVH WKHLU LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH DV JDWHNHHSHUV WR UHJXODWH WKH IDPLO\ DQG WR ZLHOG WKH ZHDSRQ RI IRRG LQ WKLV QDWLRQDO ÂżJKW II D GHVLUDEOH IHPLQLQH ZRPDQ ZDV FRPSOLDQW with government regulations, how else could society react toward women who allowed these policies to fail? The overwhelming and overall success of the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s domestic IRRG SROLF\ FDPSDLJQV GXULQJ WKH SHFRQG WRUOG WDU ZRXOG QRW KDYH EHHQ possible without the cooperation of women. Government agencies understood ZRPHQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH DQG UROH LQ KRXVHKROG HFRQRPLHV DQG FUDIWHG WKHLU advertisements and campaigns themselves to be appealing to traditional gender LGHRORJLHV DQG QRWLRQV RI DSSURSULDWH GRPHVWLF EHKDYLRU IRU ZRPHQ WDUWLPH food policy in many ways kept â&#x20AC;&#x153;womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s traditional roles regarding foodâ&#x20AC;? intact, while at the same time forcing these roles to be â&#x20AC;&#x153;expanded in interesting ways that pointed to larger communitarian war obligations.â&#x20AC;? As a result, womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s â&#x20AC;&#x153;UUJHV HRXVHZLYHV HDOW TDEOH WDVWH â&#x20AC;? New York Times SHSWHPEHU MDOYLQD LLQGVD\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;IW MLJKW BH WRUVH â&#x20AC;? TKH GHQWOHU SH[ Washington Post -DQXDU\ 1943: B3. UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI CLYLOLDQ DHIHQVH What Can I Do: The Citizenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Handbook for War, IOOXVWUDWHG E\ GOX\DV WLOOLDPV WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO Bentley, Eating for Victory: Food Rationing and the Politics of Domesticity, 34. Uncle Sam--â&#x20AC;?Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll Carry Mine Too!â&#x20AC;? Government Reformation of Gender Ideology Through Domestic Food Supply Policy in World War II

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WUDGLWLRQDO DFWLRQV ZLWK UHVSHFW WR IRRG WRRN RQ QHZ VLJQLÂżFDQFH DV IRRG DQG nutrition became weapons of war. In order to make appeals that exceeded traditional bounds of female behavior acceptable to women and to the public, the government emphasized womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s retention of traditional domesticity while IXOÂżOOLQJ WKHVH QHZ WDVNV ZKLFK ZHUH QRW WKDW QHZ RU GLIIHUHQW EXW LQVWHDG built on prewar gender ideology. The domestic cooperation of women was WKXV LPEXHG ZLWK VXFK VLJQLÂżFDQFH DQG ZDV VR QHFHVVDU\ IRU WKH JRYHUQPHQW initiatives, that women almost exclusively were charged with the success or failure of campaigns by both the government and popular opinion. After the war, there was little need for government-produced images that widened womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s traditional roles to include masculine, war-like actions. The prevailing media images in the postwar years came from manufacturers and other businesses that sought to usher in peacetime with a wave of prosperity EXLOW DURXQG WUDGLWLRQDO GRPHVWLF LGHRORJ\ DQG WKH DVVRFLDWHG SXUFKDVHV WLWK wages higher than ever before and Americans weary of the austerity of war, the culture of American prosperity took hold rapidly and Americans purchased the shiny new cars and kitchens made available after the release of manufacturing limitations. Gender ideology, though changed in wartime, became more conservative after the crisis had passed, ultimately giving rise to the era of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;feminine mystique.â&#x20AC;? The incredible success of the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wartime DWWHPSW WR H[SDQG WKH GHÂżQLWLRQV RI DFFHSWDEOH IHPDOH GRPHVWLF EHKDYLRU however, brings the question of the degree to which these expansions were kept in postwar years.

4 0 The Academical Heritage Review

BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, Karen. Wartime Women: Sex Roles, Family Relations, and the Status of Women During World War II. Contributions in Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Studies, Number 20. WHVWSRUW CRQQ GUHHQZRRG PUHVV Bentley, Amy. Eating for Victory: Food Rationing and the Politics of Domesticity. CKLFDJR UQLYHUVLW\ RI IOOLQRLV PUHVV CKDIH WLOOLDP â&#x20AC;&#x153;WRUOG WDU II DV D PLYRWDO E[SHULHQFH IRU APHULFDQ WRPHQ â&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x153;CRIIHH RDWLRQLQJ RQ HRQRU S\VWHP â&#x20AC;? New York Times. NRY DXLV PHUU\ R â&#x20AC;&#x153;NR TLPH IRU PULYDF\ WRUOG WDU II DQG CKLFDJRâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FDPLOLHV â&#x20AC;? In The War in American Culture: Society and Consciousness During World War II. Edited by Erenberg, Lewis A. and Hirsch, Susan E. CKLFDJR TKH UQLYHUVLW\ RI CKLFDJR PUHVV Âą Hart-Landsberg, Martin. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Popular Mobilization and Progressive Policy MDNLQJ LHVVRQV IURP WRUOG WDU II PULFH CRQWURO SWUXJJOHV LQ WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV â&#x20AC;? Science & Society QR WLQWHU 399-428. HHQWKRUQ C\QWKLD L From Submarines to Suburbs: Selling a Better America, 1939 - 1959. AWKHQV OKLR OKLR UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV Honey, Maureen. Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender, and Propaganda during World War II APKHUVW MDVV TKH UQLYHUVLW\ of Massachusetts Press, 1984. â&#x20AC;&#x153;I am the O-P-A!â&#x20AC;? Advertisement. Washington Post. SHS B -DFREV MHJ â&#x20AC;&#x153;â&#x20AC;&#x2122;HRZ AERXW SRPH MHDW"â&#x20AC;&#x2122; TKH OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ CRQVXPSWLRQ PROLWLFV DQG SWDWH BXLOGLQJ IURP WKH BRWWRP US â&#x20AC;? The Journal of American History QR DHF Jarvis, In The Male Body at War: American Masculinity During World War II Âą DH.DOE IOO NRUWKHUQ IOOLQRLV UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV LLQGVD\ MDOYLQD â&#x20AC;&#x153;IW MLJKW BH WRUVH â&#x20AC;? TKH GHQWOHU SH[ Washington Post. -DQ B â&#x20AC;&#x153;LRRN! OIÂżFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ RQ SRLQW UDWLRQLQJ!â&#x20AC;? AGYHUWLVHPHQW E\ LLEE\ MFNHLOO LLEE\ Washington Post. FHE â&#x20AC;&#x153;MDQ\ RHVWDXUDQWV SKXW IRU NHZ YHDU â&#x20AC;? New York Times. 31 Dec. 1944: 1. NRUWKZHVWHUQ UQLYHUVLW\ LLEUDU\ WRUOG WDU II PRVWHU CROOHFWLRQ AYDLODEOH from: http://www.library.northwestern.edu/govinfo/collections/ wwii-posters/

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â&#x20AC;&#x153;SWRS JUXPEOLQJ EOPHU Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;P MXVW EDODQFLQJ \RXU GLHW!â&#x20AC;? AGYHUWLVHPHQW E\ TKH BRUGHQ CRPSDQ\ Collierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s DHF IQ -RQHV -RKQ B AllOut for Victory: Magazine Advertising and the World War II Home Front. LHEDQRQ NH UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV RI NHZ EQJODQG SWUDXE EOHDQRU â&#x20AC;&#x153;GRYHUQPHQW PROLF\ TRZDUG CLYLOLDQ WRPHQ DXULQJ WRUOG WDU II â&#x20AC;? DLVVHUWDWLRQ EPRU\ UQLYHUVLW\ The War in American Culture: Society and Consciousness During World War II. EGLWHG E\ EUHQEHUJ LHZLV A DQG HLUVFK SXVDQ E CKLFDJR TKH UQLYHUVLW\ RI CKLFDJR PUHVV UQLWHG SWDWHV FHGHUDO SHFXULW\ AJHQF\ OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH SHUYLFHV NXWULWLRQ DLYLVLRQ DEMOCRACY Means ALL of US: How Communities Can Organize To Study and Meet Community Needs With Special Suggestions for Developing Nutrition Programs In Wartime WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO UQLWHG SWDWHV FHGHUDO SHFXULW\ AJHQF\ OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH SHUYLFHV NXWULWLRQ DLYLVLRQ Handbook for Food Demonstrations in Wartime. WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO UQLWHG SWDWHV FHGHUDO SHFXULW\ AJHQF\ OIÂżFH RI DHIHQVH HHDOWK DQG WHOIDUH Services. The Food Front: A Series of Eleven Lectures. UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI CLYLOLDQ DHIHQVH What Can I Do: The Citizenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Handbook for War. IOOXVWUDWHG E\ GOX\DV WLOOLDPV WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO 1942. UQLWHG SWDWHV OIÂżFH RI PULFH AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ CKHVWHU BRZOHV AGPLQLVWUDWRU The Story of Wartime Rationing WDVKLQJWRQ DC GPO FHE â&#x20AC;&#x153;UUJHV HRXVHZLYHV HDOW TDEOH WDVWH â&#x20AC;? New York Times. SHS YDQJ MHL OLQJ â&#x20AC;&#x153;CUHDWLQJ WKH .LWFKHQ PDWULRW MHGLD PURPRWLRQ RI FRRG RDWLRQLQJ DQG NXWULWLRQ CDPSDLJQV RQ WKH APHULFDQ HRPH FURQW DXULQJ WRUOG WDU II â&#x20AC;? American Journalism QR

4 2 The Academical Heritage Review

PEACE, POLITICS AND PISHTACOS: US-PERUVIAN RELATIONS 1950S-1960S

Allison Kay Campbell

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In July 1961,

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the 87th CRQJUHVVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V CRPPLWWHH RQ GRYHUQPHQW OSHUDWLRQV SUHVHQWHG D UHSRUW RQ WKH UHVXOWV RI WKH US aid program in Peru, in the wake of a devastating drought in the Andes Mountains three years prior. This relief program was designed to supply the Peruvians with food, as well as provide road, irrigation, and further economic DQG DJULFXOWXUDO SURMHFWV TKH LQVWLWXWLRQ RI WKLV DLG SURJUDP ZKLOH ZHOO LQWHQGHG EHFDPH D VLJQLÂżFDQW IDLOXUH DQG D EORZ WR US PHUXYLDQ UHODWLRQV The report and consequent hearing sought to answer a seemingly simple yet HPEDUUDVVLQJ TXHVWLRQ WKDW KDSSHQHG WKDW PDGH WKLV UHOLHI SURJUDP VSLUDO LQWR D FDWDVWURSKH IDLOLQJ WR IXOÂżOO LWV JRDOV" TKH DQVZHU KRZHYHU UHTXLUHV QRW RQO\ D FRPSOLFDWHG LQYHVWLJDWLRQ RI US PHUXYLDQ JRYHUQPHQW UHODWLRQV and policy, but an examination of the deep cultural beliefs and background of the affected people in the drought region as well. TKH KLJKODQG AQGHV MRXQWDLQV ZHUH VWUXFN ZLWK D GURXJKW LQ UHVXOWLQJ LQ WKH ODFN RI VXIÂżFLHQW IRRG IRU VXUYLYDO TKH US JRYHUQPHQW RIIHUHG VXUSOXV JUDLQV DQG IRRG WR WKH PHUXYLDQ JRYHUQPHQW WKURXJK WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV AJHQF\ IRU IQWHUQDWLRQDO DHYHORSPHQWâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V USAID FRRG IRU PHDFH SURJUDP Launching a $14 million effort, Food for Peace sought to prevent starvation, especially for children by installing school lunch programs. To further relieve PHUXYLDQ VHWEDFNV WKH US JRYHUQPHQW VXSSRUWHG SURMHFWV WR DLG FXOWLYDWLRQ DQG LPSURYH WKH HFRQRP\ FRU WKH SXUSRVH RI D UHÂżQHG LQYHVWLJDWLRQ WKLV VXUYH\ ORRNV VSHFLÂżFDOO\ DW USAIDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FRRG IRU PHDFH SURJUDP DQG LWV HQGHDYRUV LQ WKH LDNH TLWLFDFD PODWHDX UHJLRQ SDUWLFXODUO\ LQ PXQR WKLOH DOO WKH HIIRUWV LQ PHUX FRQWULEXWHG WR GHÂżQLQJ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WKH US DQG WKH LQGLJenous people, the Food for Peace program was the point of convergence from ZKLFK WKH JUHDWHVW LQĂ&#x20AC;X[ RI PRQH\ DQG VXSSOLHV FDPH IRU US UHOLHI SURMHFWV TKH US PHUXYLDQ JRYHUQPHQW LQWHUDFWLRQV DUH DQ LPSRUWDQW VRXUFH IRU GHULYLQJ VWDWLVWLFDO HYLGHQFH DQG DVVHVVLQJ RYHUDOO HIÂżFLHQF\ RI WKH DLG SURgram for the indigenous people. However, even more critical to determining the source of the failure are the attitudes and social implications regarding these institutions. The local tribes reacted in varied manners to foreign people bringing in foreign products, and some even acted under fear. Some tribes in WKH LDNH TLWLFDFD PODWHDX DFWXDOO\ RXWULJKW UHMHFWHG WKLV DLG DQG SXOOHG WKHLU children out of school when the Food for Peace lunch programs began. InvesWLJDWLQJ WKLV SKHQRPHQRQ RI FKRRVLQJ WR VWDUYH UDWKHU WKDQ DFFHSW US SURGucts reveals a longstanding cultural belief that portrays Americans and, in fact, light skinned people in general, as manipulative, horrifying monsters. To this day, some Peruvian tribes believe in â&#x20AC;&#x153;pishtacos,â&#x20AC;? mythical creatures that exploit the tribes and take their children to harvest their fat and organs. A modern day Peruvian version of the bogeyman, pishtacos are commonly described as having blonde hair and blue eyes, and a horrifying compulsion to kidnap, maim and kill Peruvians, particularly children. Dating back to the earliest interactions with Spanish conquistadors, the pishtaco P\WK KDV HYROYHG DQG H[SDQGHG RYHU WLPH VDULDWLRQV H[LVW LQ WKH GHVFULSWLRQ of these pishtacos, but one thing is common about all: extreme fear. Such ingrained fear that, in fact, starvation holds greater appeal than interacting The Academical Heritage Review

with Americans. TKLV HVVD\ DLPV WR H[DPLQH WKH UHDVRQV WKH CRQJUHVVLRQDO LQYHVWLJDtion of Peruvian drought relief failed, based upon not only political grounds, EXW DOVR WKH FXOWXUDO IRXQGDWLRQV RI WKH IDLOXUH TKLV LQTXLU\ IROORZV WKH US PHUXYLDQ UHODWLRQV RQ D IRUPDO SROLWLFDO EDVLV E\ IROORZLQJ CRQJUHVVLRQDO UHSRUWV DQG KHDULQJV CRQJUHVV SXEOLVKHG LWV ÂżQGLQJV LQ WKH V DQG WKHVH discoveries are taken into account to establish the political stance, including intentions, goals, and records of implementation. These primary sources delve into the American agenda for providing this aid, and additionally inGLFDWH WKH US SHUVSHFWLYH RQ WKH UHVXOWV RI WKLV HIIRUW VDULRXV QHZVSDSHUV supplement the government documents to provide a broader picture of the HYHQWV WKDW RFFXUUHG DHVSLWH WKHLU LQKHUHQW ELDV ERWK PHGLD VRXUFHV DQG RIÂżFLDO GRFXPHQWV SURYLGH DV FORVH WR REMHFWLYH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV DV WKH\ FDQ ZKLOH revealing the American attitude toward this policy. To better understand the drought relief, the newspaper sources provide an account of the steps and progressâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;or lack thereofâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;in the Food for Peace program. They present an American perspective of her interaction with Peru, which, although biased, describes what America saw as important at that time, and how she felt was the best way to deal with that the crisis at hand. This article is also supplemented by a six-month stay in Peru. Inspired by my time there, I seek to branch out from the American explanation for WKH GURXJKW UHOLHI DQG VKRZ LW ZDV QRW MXVW D SROLWLFDO IDLOXUH I ZLOO ORRN EHyond American interpretations and investigate how the Peruvian recipients SHUFHLYHG WKHVH HIIRUWV IQ WKH V KLJKODQG PHUXYLDQV KDG OLWWOH LQWHUDFWLRQ with their own government, let alone foreign ones with different physical appearances, cultures, and beliefs. This perception must be taken into account WR WUXO\ XQGHUVWDQG WKLV US PHUXYLDQ LQWHUDFWLRQ TKH KLJKODQGHUVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; OLPLWHG contact with and suspicion of their own government was only compounded when confronted by foreigners arriving unexpected, uninvited and ultimately unwanted. To investigate beyond the governmental concerns, this essay strives to provide insight on the concerns of the actual people for whom the relief was intended. The cultural concerns over pishtacos cause the indigenous people WR DFW DQG IHHO VWURQJO\ DJDLQVW US LQWHUYHQWLRQ DQG P\ JRDO LV WR UHĂ&#x20AC;HFW RQ WKLV UHVLVWDQFH I ÂżUVW KHDUG DERXW SLVKWDFRV ZKHQ I ZDV PLVWDNHQ IRU RQH LQ PXHUWR OFRSD PHUX LQ TKH WULEDO UHDFWLRQV ZHUH ERWK WHUULI\LQJ DQG perplexing, and even more horrifying once I investigated the pishtaco implication tradition. Pishtacos are still a real concern, although somewhat less of a fright than in the past. Thus, in the context of this isolated event, I seek to explore why the tribes think pishtacos exist, and how this is ultimately a critique of imperialism and modernization and casts a different light on their reactions WR DLG DWWHPSWV E\ WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV IQ WKLV SRUWLRQ RI P\ LQYHVWLJDWLRQ I ORRN DW KRZ WKH LGHD RI SLVKWDFRV GHYHORSHG DQG IXUWKHUPRUH KRZ WKLV VKDSHV US DQG PHUXYLDQ UHODWLRQV NHZVSDSHUV GR QRW UHSRUW WKLV IRONORUH VR YDULRXV studies and observations by anthropologists have been consulted to form this cultural argument and present the Andean beliefs in the manner understood by Peruvians themselves. TKH UDLQ\ VHDVRQ FDPH ODWH LQ FDXVLQJ GLVWUHVV WR PHUXâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V QDWXPeace, Politics and Pishtacos: US-Peruvian Relations 1950s-1960s

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ral resources. Agriculture undoubtedly faced the greatest setbacks, but other aspects of Peruvian production were offset as well. Peru found itself threatHQHG E\ SRZHU VKRUWDJHV DQG FRPSDQLHV OLNH WKH CHUUR GH PDVFR CRUSRUDWLRQ ZHUH IRUFHG WR KDOW SURGXFWLRQ CHUUR GH PDVFR KDG WR WHPSRUDULO\ VKXW down copper and lead mines, and could not restore full production until mid February.1 IQ FRQGLWLRQV ZRUVHQHG WR HYHQ JUHDWHU SURSRUWLRQV B\ WKH HQG RI MDUFK WKH GLUHFWRU RI US OSHUDWLRQV MLVVLRQ USOM -RKQ R NHDOH UHSRUWHG D GD\ GURXJKW LQ WKH LDNH TLWLFDFD DUHD LQ SRXWKHUQ PHUX USOM ZDV WKH ÂżHOG RIÂżFH LQ PHUX RI WKH IQWHUQDWLRQDO CRRSHUDWLRQ AGPLQLVWUDWLRQ ICA DQG DLUHFWRU NHDOH UHSRUWHG WKH GURXJKW â&#x20AC;&#x153;ZDV H[SHFWHG WR VHULRXVO\ reduce the harvest in that area,â&#x20AC;? and furthermore â&#x20AC;&#x153;the effects of the drought would begin to be felt in about 4 months and, in order to avoid social disorder, a food relief program should be instituted.â&#x20AC;? Taking precautionary measures, NHDOH UHTXHVWHG WKH DLG WR VWDUW EHIRUH WKH ZRUVW HIIHFWV RI WKH GURXJKW KLW TKDW VDPH GD\ WKH US DPEDVVDGRU WR PHUX DQG WKH SHFUHWDU\ RI SWDWH GLVFXVVHG VHQGLQJ DLG QRWLQJ â&#x20AC;&#x153;VSHHG\ JHQHURXV DQG HIÂżFLHQW US DLG FRXOG VHUYH DV D GHPRQVWUDWLRQ RI ZKDW WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV FRXOG GR â&#x20AC;? ALGLQJ WKH PHUXYLDQ SHRSOH ZDV YLHZHG DV DGYDQWDJHRXV QRW MXVW RQ D KXPDQ ULJKWV OHYHO EXW LQ the political spectrum as well. The ambassador and Secretary of State realized WKH EHQHÂżWV RI WKH SURJUDP H[WHQGHG EH\RQG LPPHGLDWH UHOLHI DQG FRXOG VHUYH WR GHPRQVWUDWH US VXSUHPDF\ DQG LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH LQ WKH ZRUOG TKXV WKH SURJUDP EHJDQ LQ ODWH ASULO 2 NHDOHâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SUHGLFWLRQ SURYHG DFFXUDWH DQG WKH GURXJKW KLW VRXWKHUQ PHUXâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DJULFXOWXUDO SURGXFWLRQ KDUG IQ DHFHPEHU NHDOH UHSRUWHG WKH FRQditions had reached â&#x20AC;&#x153;catastrophic proportions,â&#x20AC;?3 Supplies and commodities were limited, and Peruvians suffered greatly as they fought off starvation. AQLPDOV ZHUH QHJOHFWHG DV PHUXYLDQV VWUXJJOHG WR IHHG MXVW WKHLU RZQ IDPLOLHV B\ -DQXDU\ WKH JRYHUQPHQW UHSRUWHG RYHU DOSDFD GHDWKV LQ MXVW one of the affected areas in southern Peru.4 These animal deaths destroyed a usable food source and furthermore destroyed the ability to obtain their valuable wool. The drought brought detrimental effects to the population in many DVSHFWV RI GDLO\ OLIH EH\RQG MXVW IRRG DQG DFWLRQ QHHGHG WR EH WDNHQ TXLFNO\ WR allow recovery. TKH US JRYHUQPHQW SRXUHG IXQGV DQG LQYHVWPHQWV LQWR WKH UHJLRQ WR prevent further damage to the southern highlands of Peru. America launched AOOLVRQ .D\ CDPSEHOO LV D PHPEHU RI WKH CODVV RI SKH VSHQW VL[ PRQWKV researching in Peru before writing with the guidance of Professor Thomas Klubock. 1

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â&#x20AC;&#x153;CHUUR GH PDVFR RHVXPHV CRSSHU LHDG OXWSXW LQ PHUX â&#x20AC;? Wall Street Journal (1923 - Current Âżle) FHEUXDU\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO HRXVH CRPPLWWHH RQ GRYHUQPHQW OSHUDWLRQV United States Aid Operations in Peru WK CRQJ VW VHVV H RHS 3 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Peru Faces Drought,â&#x20AC;? The Washington Post and Times Herald (19541959) DHFHPEHU KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID 4 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Drought Kills Alpacas.â&#x20AC;? The Washington Post and Times Herald (19541959) -DQXDU\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID The Academical Heritage Review

a $14 million program surpassing the total amount of aid America had given Peru in the previous 13 years. The primary concern was to feed the affected SHRSOH LQ WKH VRXWK ZKLFK EHFDPH WKH ODUJHVW USAID IRFXV RI JLYHQ DLG TKH PDMRULW\ RI PRQH\ VSHQW LQ WKLV SURJUDP ZDV GHGLFDWHG WR GURXJKW UHOLHI IQ WKH US VHQW WRQV RI DVVRUWHG JUDLQV DQG WRQV RI GU\ PLON WR help offset the hunger. MRUH VSHFLÂżFDOO\ LQ WKH PXQR DUHD LQ WKH US gave Peru a $2 million loan with a goal to â&#x20AC;&#x153;settle several thousand peasants who were left destitute.â&#x20AC;?7 TKH UQLWHG SWDWHV LQYHVWHG PRUH WLPH DQG DLG WR WKLV FDXVH WKDQ HYHU EHIRUH TKH US KDG YDULRXV LQWHUHVWV DW VWDNH LQ WKLV SURJUDP which will be further discussed later in this analysis. But regardless of moWLYH WKH US FRQWLQXRXVO\ ZRUNHG WR UHPHG\ WKH VXIIHULQJ RI WKH LQGLJHQRXV Peruvian people. USOM VHQW RYHU D KXQGUHG WKRXVDQG WRQV RI JUDLQ WR PHUX WR KHOS IHHG the Peruvians, but did not limit the grain usage solely to consumption. The surplus food was allotted under any of three ways: (1) free distribution to drought victims; (2) distribution in payment for work performed on â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;relief projects approved jointly by the GOP [Government of Peru] and the U.S. operations mission to Peru;â&#x20AC;&#x2122; (3) sale, with the proceeds to be used to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Âżnance public works projects which will be of permanent beneÂżt to the area and which will provide employment to the inhabitants.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;8 TKLV DLG FRQFHSW RIIHUHG ÂżUVW DQG IRUHPRVW D PHWKRG RI IHHGLQJ WKH KXQJU\ II the need arose, there were other options for distributing the leftover donated JUDLQV HLWKHU DV SD\PHQW IRU UHOLHI ZRUN RU IRU VHOOLQJ DQG XVLQJ WKH SURÂżWV to improve the economy of the affected Peruvians. This program had noble intentions to aid the drought stricken people, but the methods of carrying out WKH SURJUDP OHG WR LWV IDLOHG DQG Ă&#x20AC;DZHG LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ The initial failure of the drought relief program was the lack of means RU SHRSOH WR RYHUVHH WKH DLG LQ D ZD\ WKDW ZRXOG DVVXUH WKH USâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V JRDOV ZHUH PHW TKH CRQJUHVVLRQDO CRPPLWWHH RQ GRYHUQPHQW OSHUDWLRQV IRXQG â&#x20AC;&#x153;LW ZDV QHYHUWKHOHVV WHVWLÂżHG E\ VHYHUDO ZLWQHVVHVâ&#x20AC;ŚWKDW QRW D VLQJOH SURMHFW KDG EH IRUZDUGHG WR ICA W >WDVKLQJWRQ@ IRU LWV DSSURYDO â&#x20AC;? 9 WKHQ DQ DXGLWRU ÂżQDOO\ investigated this, he found â&#x20AC;&#x153;as a result of poor advance planning and inadHTXDWH U S VXSHUYLVLRQ PXFK RI WKH IRRG WKDW ZDV EURXJKW LQ UHPDLQHG XQdistributed at the end of the drought.â&#x20AC;? EYHQ WKRXJK WKH US JRYHUQPHQW VHQW VXIÂżFLHQW DLG UHVRXUFHV WKH ODFN RI WKRURXJK H[HFXWLRQ SODQQLQJ DQG IROORZ XS

United States Aid Operations in Peru, 8. â&#x20AC;&#x153;U S GLYHV PHUX FRRG WR MHHW DURXJKW CULVLV â&#x20AC;? The Washington Post and Times Herald (1954-1959) MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID 7 â&#x20AC;&#x153;PHUX GHWV U S LRDQ â&#x20AC;? The Washington Post and Times Herald (1954-1959), April KWWS ZZZ.SURTXHVW.FRP DFFHVVHG $SULO . (Document ID 8 United States Aid Operations in Peru, 8. 9 Ibid., 9. Ibid., 1. Peace, Politics and Pishtacos: US-Peruvian Relations 1950s-1960s

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FDXVHG WKH HIIRUW WR IDLO WLWKRXW DQ\ GLUHFW VXSHUYLVLRQ RI WKH SURJUDP PDVsive abuses of the implementation followed. FUDQN .HPOHU ZDV VHQW WR DXGLW WKH GURXJKW UHOLHI LQ PHUX IRU ICA with the task of investigating the progressâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;or lack thereofâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;made by the aid SURJUDP .HPOHU IRXQG DLUHFWRU NHDOH â&#x20AC;&#x153;GLYHVWHG KLPVHOI RI UHVSRQVLELOLW\ IRU this program by turning over its administration almost entirely to the Peruvian Government,â&#x20AC;?11 FRPSOHWHO\ DQG XWWHUO\ IDLOLQJ WR IXOÂżOO KLV UROH RI GLUHFWLQJ the work for America. Furthermore, Kemler discovered horrifying statistics DERXW WKH DLG H[HFXWLRQ WKLOH APHULFD SURMHFWHG WKH SURJUDP SXUSRVH ZDV to feed the hungry, at least a third of the donated grain was sold and circulated through commercial channels.12 The Peruvian government used the given SURGXFWV IRU SHUVRQDO SURÂżW LQVWHDG RI QHFHVVDU\ DLG WR WKH PRVW QHHG\ TKH CRQJUHVVLRQDO UHSRUW VWDWHG OHVV WKDQ VL[ SHUFHQW RI WKH GRQDWHG IRRG ZDV FLUculated among the southern highlands13, and The Washington Post claimed HYHQ OHVV D PHUH ÂżYH SHUFHQW UHDFKHG WKH DIIHFWHG DUHD 14 WKHQ WKH GURXJKW ZDV RIÂżFLDOO\ GHFODUHG RYHU SHUFHQW RI WKH IRRG VWLOO ZDV QRW GLVWULEXWHG The food allocation was clearly either abused or ignored, and few people actually received the food for its intended purposes. BH\RQG WKRVH ÂżJXUHV RWKHU IDLOXUHV LQ WKH SURJUDP ZHUH GLVFRYHUHG In Puno, for instance, eight houses were constructed without program approvDO DQG WKHQ VROG DW D ORZHU FRVW WR SURPLQHQW PHPEHUV RI WKH WRZQ TKH US loaned Peru two million dollars to build a road with goals to â&#x20AC;&#x153;open isolated arHDV IRU DJULFXOWXUDO GHYHORSPHQW DQG FRORQL]DWLRQ â&#x20AC;? RQO\ WR ÂżQG WKH FRQVWUXFtion ran out of funds, therefore creating a useless road that ended on the side RI D PRXQWDLQ LQ WKH PLGGOH RI QRZKHUH TKH CRQJUHVVLRQDO UHSRUW DOVR GU\O\ QRWHG WKDW WKH LUULJDWLRQ V\VWHP EXLOW DW PDPSDV GH NRFR VLPSO\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;GRHV QRW LUrigate.â&#x20AC;? Haste and poor management led to the demise of the road, and the ZRUWKOHVV LUULJDWLRQ V\VWHP IDLOHG IURP â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKH VWXEERUQQHVV ZLWK ZKLFK USOM DLUHFWRU NHDOH FRQWLQXHG WKH SURMHFW HYHQ DIWHU KH KDG UHFHLYHG FRPSHWHQW WHFKQLFDO DGYLFH WKDW WKH SURMHFW ZDV QRW IHDVLEOH â&#x20AC;? IQ LJQRULQJ UHFRPPHQGDWLRQ IURP WKH H[SHUWV NHDOH LUUDWLRQDOO\ FRQWLQXHG WKH SURSRVHG SURMHFW DW PDPSDV GH NRFR DQG DV D UHVXOW FUHDWHG VRPHWKLQJ WKDW QHLWKHU GHPRQVWUDWHG coherent planning nor appropriate conduct. TKH LQYHVWLJDWLQJ FRPPLWWHH WXUQHG WR US DPEDVVDGRU WR PHUX TKHRdore Achilles for answers why this aid became such a disaster that spiraled out of control. In the presence of the committee, Achilles â&#x20AC;&#x153;demonstrated important gaps in his knowledge of the activities of his subordinates.â&#x20AC;? 17 Achilles, 11 12 13 14

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Ibid., 2. Ibid., 1. Ibid, 2. â&#x20AC;&#x153;OQO\ RI FORRG ALG RHDFKHG PHUX VLFWLPV RXVN DLVSXWH RHFDOOHG BLJZLJV GRW Houses,â&#x20AC;? The Washington Post, Times Herald (1959-1973) MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID United States Aid Operations in Peru, 2. Ibid, 2, 3. 17 United States Aid Operations in Peru, 4. The Academical Heritage Review

however, shifted any allegations of his personal wrongdoing to his advisors, DQG ZDV GHHPHG E\ WKH HRXVH D â&#x20AC;&#x153;ÂľYLFWLP RI GHFHLWâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; E\ DLGHV ZKR NHSW KLP XQawareâ&#x20AC;? of all these incidents and abuses. One chairman of a subcommittee, Porter Hardy Jr., nevertheless remained skeptical of Achillesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; efforts. Hardy UHIXVHG WR EHOLHYH AFKLOOHV â&#x20AC;&#x153;FRXOG KDYH EHHQ ÂľVR EOLQGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;? WR WKH FRQVLVWHQW H[ploitation of food aid and money. Throughout his investigation, Hardy could QRW ÂżQG DQ\ DXWKRULW\ ÂżJXUH â&#x20AC;&#x153;ZKR ZDV FRQFHUQHG RYHU FOHDQLQJ XS ZKDW KH FDOOHG WKH PHVV LQ PHUX II DQ\WKLQJ KH VDLG ÂľWKH\ WULHG WR JORVV RYHU RU FRQceal it.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;?18 TKXV ZKLOH WKH SURJUDP GLUHFWLRQ EHWZHHQ SURYHG IXWLOH QR person in charge would accept the blame for his actions. AXGLWLQJ SURYHG WKH USOM DLG SURJUDP IUXLWOHVV ZLWK OLWWOH SURJUHVV DJULFXOWXUDOO\ DQG XWWHU GLVDVWHUV RQ ZRUN SURMHFWV WR LPSURYH LUULJDWLRQ DQG the economy. Reports indicate a shift of blame from person to person, withRXW DQ\RQH FOHDUO\ DGPLWWLQJ HUURUV NHDOH GLYHUWHG KLV UROH WR WKH PHUXYLDQ JRYHUQPHQW NR RQH VXSHUYLVHG RU DSSURYHG SURJUDPV TKH DPEDVVDGRU was clueless and unhelpful. Excuse after excuse was laid for this disaster on WKH SROLWLFDO OHYHO TKH LQYHVWLJDWLRQ VKRZHG HPEDUUDVVLQJ UHVXOWV IURP USOMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V UHOLHI HIIRUWV DQG CRQJUHVV ZDV QRW VDWLVÂżHG ZLWK WKH GHPRQVWUDWHG UHVXOWV TKDW \HDU WKHQ WKH US AJHQF\ IRU IQWHUQDWLRQDO DHYHORSPHQW launched a concerted effort to make a difference in the southern highlands WR DLG PHUXYLDQV TKURXJK WKH FRRG IRU PHDFH SURJUDP USAID GLUHFWHG WKH PDLQ IRFXV EDFN WR IHHGLQJ WKH KXQJU\ UDWKHU WKDQ SHULSKHUDO SURMHFWV VHUYLQJ LUUHOHYDQW SROLWLFDO DJHQGDV CKDLUPDQ HDUG\ VWLOO IHDUHG WKH QHZ PLOlion program would provide the same results as the initial efforts to aid Peru. 19 EYHQ VR WKH US JRYHUQPHQW FRQWLQXHG UHOLHI HIIRUWV WKURXJK FRRG IRU PHDFH WKLOH WKH WK CRQJUHVV LQYHVWLJDWHG WKH GUDPDWLF IDLOXUHV RI WKH USOMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V HIIRUWV LQ -XO\ USAID KDG DOUHDG\ EHJXQ WR DVVLVW PHUXYLDQV LQ WKH DIIHFWHG GURXJKW DUHDV TKH CRQJUHVVLRQDO LQYHVWLJDWLRQ VXUYH\HG WKH WLPH SHULRG IURP DQG WKHUHIRUH D ODSVH LQ WLPH KDG DOUHDG\ RFFXUUHG EHIRUH USAID KDG LPSOHPHQWHG WKHLU SURJUDP IQ PLG MD\ FRRG IRU Peace director George McGovern signed an agreement with Pedro Beltran, PeUXâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V PULPH MLQLVWHU WR VHQG DLG YLD IRRG FRPPRGLWLHV WR IHHG FKLOGUHQ each month. DLUHFWRU MFGRYHUQ DGGHG WKH US ZRXOG â&#x20AC;&#x153;VXSSO\ VXUSOXV IDUP commodities to needy peoples free of charge,â&#x20AC;? and that he hoped the Food for Peace plan would spur similar programs in other Latin American countries in the future.21 WLWK FRRG IRU PHDFH WKH US FRXOG WDNH D QHZ GLUHFWLRQ WRZDUG effective drought relief, this time in an organized and straightforward manner. President Dwight D. Eisenhower created the Agricultural Trade DeYHORSPHQW AFW LQ ZKLFK -RKQ F .HQQHG\ UHQDPHG FRRG IRU PHDFH GXU18 â&#x20AC;&#x153;E; PERU ENVOY HELD A ÂľVICTIM OF DECEITâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; â&#x20AC;? New York Times (1923-Current Âżle) MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID 19 Ibid. â&#x20AC;&#x153;PHUX WR GHW U S FRRG â&#x20AC;? New York Times (1923-Current Âżle) MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID 21 â&#x20AC;&#x153;FRRG AFFRUG IV SLJQHG E\ U S DQG PHUX â&#x20AC;? The Washington Post, Times Herald (1959-1973) MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID Peace, Politics and Pishtacos: US-Peruvian Relations 1950s-1960s

4 9

ing his administration. Eisenhower signed the legislation into law with intentions to â&#x20AC;&#x153;lay the basis for permanent expansion of our exports of agricultural SURGXFWV ZLWK ODVWLQJ EHQHÂżWV WR RXUVHOYHV DQG SHRSOHV RI RWKHU ODQGV â&#x20AC;? PODFLQJ WKH UHOLHI XQGHU USAIDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V GHSDUWPHQW .HQQHG\ WRRN FRRG IRU PHDFH WR D greater level, emphasizing its importance for keeping â&#x20AC;&#x153;billions of people from KXQJHU PDOQXWULWLRQ DQG VWDUYDWLRQ ZKLOH FUHDWLQJ WKRXVDQGV RI MREV LQ WKH US DQG DEURDG â&#x20AC;? IPSURYLQJ XSRQ USOMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V HIIRUWV FRRG IRU PHDFH VWXFN WR D more focused goal concentrating on food and health, and established direction and administration under trained Americans. Kennedy envisioned the program with the goal that â&#x20AC;&#x153;food is strength, and food is peace, and food is freedom, and food is a helping to people around the world whose good will and friendship we want.â&#x20AC;? Food for Peace took the aid to Peru in a new direction, with a focus not only to effectively aid the people under clear agendas, but to establish friendly relations with Peru and other foreign countries. 22 The desire for â&#x20AC;&#x153;good will and friendshipâ&#x20AC;? with Peru as Kennedy menWLRQHG ZDV QRW D QRYHO LGHD WR KLV DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ TKH ÂżUVW ZDYH RI UHOLHI DLG noted it would be advantageous to establish healthy relations between the countries as well. Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s motives directly implied benevolent purposes, although both rounds of aid sought to inspire closer relations with Peru. This begs the question whether there were ulterior motives to this campaign. The House reports do not directly relay this message, but one witnessâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; testimony DQG YDULRXV QHZVSDSHU DUWLFOHV VXSSRUW WKH QRWLRQ WKDW US UHOLHI SDUWLFXODUO\ FRRG IRU PHDFH KHOSHG ÂżJKW FRPPXQLVP MFGRYHUQ ZDV D VWURQJ DGYRFDWH RI WKH IRRG DLG WR SURPRWH APHULFDQ YDOXHV QRWLQJ IRRG â&#x20AC;&#x153;ÂľLV RXU PRVW YDOXDEOH PDWHULDO UHVRXUFH DQG RXU FOHDUHVW DGYDQWDJH LQ DQ\ FRPSHWLWLRQ ZLWK WKH CRPmunist world.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;?23 WLWK WKH GLUHFWRU RI WKH SURJUDP EODWDQWO\ SUDLVLQJ WKH ÂżJKW DJDLQVW FRPPXQLVP WKURXJK KLV ZRUN LW LV GLIÂżFXOW WR DUJXH WKH FRRG IRU PHDFH program did not have an additional agenda. This program did receive acclaim IURP PHUXYLDQV WKRXJK IQ D OHWWHU WR PUHVLGHQW .HQQHG\ D PDQ IURP TUXMLOOR LQ NRUWKHUQ PHUX VXSSRUWHG WKH US LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ RI DLG UHPDUNLQJ â&#x20AC;&#x153;LI \RXU aid is given through the government commissions of each country, it will be aid for the enrichment of those men who form part of the Government, and that is the reason communism is growing in Latin America.â&#x20AC;?24 He believed American distribution of aid, over Peruvian efforts, would be most effective to help out the needy and prevent communism. FXUWKHUPRUH D VWDWHPHQW IURP FDWKHU RREHUW .HDUQV YHULÂżHV DQ LQWHUHVW LQ US HIIRUWV DJDLQVW FRPPXQLVP .HDUQV WKH UHSUHVHQWDWLYH RI FRRG IRU Peace to the Peruvian government, worked with the Food for Peaceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s implemen-

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22 â&#x20AC;&#x153;The History of Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Food Aid,â&#x20AC;? USAID: Fifty Years of Food for Peace. KWWS ZZZ XVDLG JRY RXUBZRUN KXPDQLWDULDQBDVVLVWDQFH IIS WK KLVWRU\ KWPO DFFHVVHG ASULO 23 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Food for the Hungry,â&#x20AC;? The Washington Post, Times Herald (19591973) -DQXDU\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID 24 Juan de Onis SSHFLDO WR TKH NHZ YRUN TLPHV â&#x20AC;&#x153;PHUXâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DHOD\ RQ SFKRRO LXQFKHV SWLUV U S CRQFHUQ RQ ALG PODQ â&#x20AC;? New York Times (1923-Current Âżle) -XO\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG MD\ DRFXPHQW ID The Academical Heritage Review

tation of school lunches in the Puno region of southern Peru. Kearns mentioned FRPPXQLVW JURXSV KROGLQJ WHDFKHU VWULNHV LQ PXQR DQG D ÂżYH \HDU HIIRUW WR ÂżJKW off the communists, â&#x20AC;&#x153;such a well-run organizationâ&#x20AC;? that appeared â&#x20AC;&#x153;to be limited in their work to principally education.â&#x20AC;? The communist efforts seemed to be DWWDFNLQJ WKH H[DFW DUHD RI IRFXV RI WKH USAID WKH HGXFDWLRQ RI FKLOGUHQ .HDUQV PRUHRYHU ZHQW LQWR GHWDLOHG DFFRXQW DERXW WKH YDULRXV HIIRUWV E\ WKH USAID to throw off the alleged communist threat. The efforts included, but were not limited to, sending representatives to each village, raising the standard of living, establishing a credit cooperative, providing loans, starting newspapers, instituting social and economic programs three times a week, supplying transistor radios, and lastly, school lunch programs. Kearns declared, â&#x20AC;&#x153;we started the program and we have been quite successful, to such an extent now that the CRPPXQLVWV LQ WKH VWDWH RI PXQR DUH FRPSOHWHO\ VSOLW XS DQG WKH\ KDYH UHDOO\ lost their drive.â&#x20AC;?27 IQWHUHVWLQJO\ HQRXJK WKLV WRSLF LV RQH RI WKH ÂżUVW VXEMHFWV discussed when Kearns is brought in to discuss efforts by Food for Peace. TKH FRRG IRU PHDFH SURJUDP ZDV UHDG\ WR MXPS ULJKW LQWR JLYLQJ DLG LQ WKH HDUO\ V FRU D RQH \HDU VXSSO\ WKH US GRQDWHG WRQV RI ZKHDW Ă&#x20AC;RXU FRUQPHDO SRZGHUHG PLON DQG YHJHWDEOH RLO WR SURYLGH FKLOGUHQ LQ PXQR ZLWK VFKRRO OXQFKHV DORQJ ZLWK JUDQW PRQH\ WR EX\ DGHTXDWH NLWFKHQ supplies.28 TKH US KDG WKH UHVRXUFHV DQG FDWKHU .HDUQV ZDV LQ FKDUJH RI GLVtributing the food. However, the plan faced one problem: there was no food to distribute. The Peruvian government never transported the food to Puno. Although hitting a rough spot, the program eventually succeeded in givLQJ WKH OXQFKHV WR WKH FKLOGUHQ TKHVH OXQFKHV SURYHG LQFUHGLEO\ EHQHÂżFLDO DV Kearns decreed, the children are deÂżnitely underfed. Many times they come to school without any breakfast whatsoever. Many times they do not have a glass of cold water. They only get grain that is cooked in a frying pan. It is like popped corn. Even at that, it is not sufÂżcient to keep the children very healthy. In addition to TB, they are subject to all the diseases.29 At this moment in history, the American relief effort actually succeeded in its overall goals to aid the Peruvian people. The effects of this program were phenomenal in improving physical and overall mental health of the children. By WKH HQG RI WKH FRRG IRU PHDFH HIIRUW UHVXOWHG LQ D SHUFHQW LQFUHDVH LQ DWtendance rate at the schools with the lunch program in Puno. Students could CRPPLWWHH RQ GRYHUQPHQW OSHUDWLRQV Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations: United States Aid Operations in Latin America, 87th CRQJ VW VHVV NRY DQG DHF IELG 27 Ibid. 28

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29 Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, 1. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Food for Thinking,â&#x20AC;? The Washington Post, Times Herald (1959-1973), DHFHPEHU KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID Peace, Politics and Pishtacos: US-Peruvian Relations 1950s-1960s

5 1

now focus on their academics rather than being distracted by constant hunger. B\ PLG WKH SURJUDP KDG VXFK VXFFHVV WKDW WKH US GHFLGHG WR DXJPHQW WKH OXQFKHV WR KHOS RXW DQ DGGLWLRQDO FKLOGUHQ LQ WKH XSFRPLQJ \HDU 31 TKHVH UHVXOWV ZHUH SDUWLFXODUO\ VLJQLÂżFDQW LQ PXQR â&#x20AC;&#x153;ZKHUH KXQJHU LV D ZD\ RI life and 89 per cent of the inhabitants are illiterate.â&#x20AC;?32 The lunches proved to take the program in the right direction by giving Peruvians relief on a practical level, and giving aid to the people who truly needed it. Of the multiple attempts to aid the Peruvian people from starvation, USAIDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FRRG IRU PHDFH SURJUDP ÂżQDOO\ VKRZHG WKH NLQG RI UHVXOWV WKH US KDG hoped to achieve. School attendance was up, as were the health standards. Although things seemed to be going well, the program still faced setbacks. Some IQGLDQV LQ WKH AQGHV DFWXDOO\ UHMHFWHG WKH DLG JLYHQ WR WKHP DQG ZKHQ WKH OXQFK program began for their children they even withdrew them from school.33 WDV WKLV DQRWKHU IDLOXUH RQ WKH SDUW RI APHULFDQ HIIRUWV" WKDW SURPSWHG WKH IQGLDQV WR FKRRVH VWDUYDWLRQ RYHU DFFHSWLQJ IRRG IURP APHULFDQV DQG WR UHMHFW education in favor of avoiding donated food? These are the questions that shift the focus from political and practical application of the aid program to the cultural and social implications; the EHQHÂżWV RI WKH IRRG DV RSSRVHG WR WKH DFFHSWDQFH RI WKH EHDUHUV RI WKDW IRRG The Andean people held a deeply ingrained fear of accepting this aid, dating back to their earliest relationships with the Spanish and other interactions with OLJKW VNLQQHG SHRSOH TKH IQGLDQV UHMHFWHG WKLV DLG IRU RQH UHDVRQ WKH IHDU RI pishtacos. Before delving into the relationship with pishtacos concerning the Food for Peace efforts, a general understanding must be established about these mythical creatures and their place in Peruvian culture. Looking at a Peruvian HQF\FORSHGLD IURP SLVKWDFRV DUH GHVFULEHG DV Frightening and legendary type of Andean bandit, which assaults isolated women and men. Beheads its victims in order to eat their meat like pork rinds and sell their fat. Or buries them, sometimes alive, to have fertile land or solid foundations. Towns say they have government authorization to commit their injustices; they can punish whoever reports/denounces them. 2. Andean towns apply the same name to those who carry out the slaughter and beneÂżts of

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31 â&#x20AC;&#x153;U S WR BRRVW SFKRRO LXQFK ALG WR PHUX â&#x20AC;? The Washington Post, Times Herald (1959-1973) MDUFK KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID 32 Dom Bonafede, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Incas Represent Past Glory, Present Disgrace of Peru :Silent and Helpless Explosive Force,â&#x20AC;? The Washington Post, Times Herald (1959-1973), AXJXVW KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID 33 NDQF\ SFKHSHU HXJKHV Death Without Weeping, UQLYHUVLW\ RI CDOLIRUQLD PUHVV BHUNHO\ CDOLIRUQLD The Academical Heritage Review

cattle for markets.34 The encyclopedia notes this creature is â&#x20AC;&#x153;legendary,â&#x20AC;? but in the Andean mounWDLQV WKH IHDU RI SLVKWDFRV ZDV D PXFK PRUH JULP UHDOLW\ WKLOH VRPH PHUXYLDQV considered the pishtacos to be harmless folkloric creatures, the Andean Indians believed in the existence of these beings and that the pishtacos posed a real threat to their wellbeing and overall existence. Indians refused to send their children to classes because of a rumor DERXW WKH LQWHQWLRQV RI WKH USAID HVSHFLDOO\ ZLWK WKH XVDJH RI IRRG IQ WKH V EXJHQH HDPPHO YLVLWHG PHUXYLDQ YLOODJHV DQG KHDUG VWRULHV â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKDW DLUSODQH MHW HQJLQHV FRXOG QRW EH VWDUWHG XS ZLWKRXW KXPDQ IDW DQG WKDW IQGLDQ FKLOGUHQ were stolen to provide it.â&#x20AC;? This scare stemmed from increasing contact with foreigners and the concurrent rise of modern and unknown technology, such as DLUSODQHV Ă&#x20AC;\LQJ RYHUKHDG TKH FRQWHPSRUDU\ WHFKQRORJ\ ZDV P\VWHULRXV DQG HTXDOO\ SHUSOH[LQJ WR WKH KLJKODQG PHUXYLDQ ZKR UHMHFWHG LW LQ IDYRU RI WKHLU long-standing traditional lifestyles. Less than a decade after Hammelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s observations in the villages, gossip EHJDQ DERXW WKH US UHOLHI SURJUDPV A UXPRU VWDUWHG FLUFXODWLQJ WKDW WKH FRRG IRU PHDFH SURJUDP ZDV VSHFLÂżFDOO\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;GHVLJQHG WR IDWWHQ XS AQGHDQ EDELHV IRU WKH U S ALU FRUFHâ&#x20AC;? VR WKH US FRXOG XVH WKH FKLOGUHQ WR JUHDVH WKHLU HQJLQHV CRQtinuing the technological skepticism, the highland Peruvians saw the increasing DSSHDUDQFH RI DLUSODQHV DV D GLUHFW WKUHDW WR WKHLU SHRSOH TKH IQGLDQV ÂżUPO\ believed the foreign aid was anything but, and was more likely part of a nefariRXV PDVWHU SODQ IRU WKH US WR H[SORLW WKHLU FKLOGUHQ TKH LGHD RI KDUPLQJ WKHLU children fostered an even deeper resentment of the aid programs, because the supposed target of the aid was the most vulnerable and precious segment of their population: the children. The exploitation of the children also meant that everyone and anyone could be affected for seemingly arbitrary reasons. And WKDW UDQGRP FKDQFH RI EHLQJ WDUJHWHG IXUWKHU LQĂ&#x20AC;DPHG WKH IHDU LQ WKH ZRUULHG people. Stories of pishtacos developed hundreds of years ago, with the arrival of the Spaniards in Peru. The myth developed over the years, but â&#x20AC;&#x153;was born from a thousand stories about white people, perhaps starting with the horrifyLQJ GLVFRYHU\ WKDW EXURSHDQ VROGLHUV RQ WKH EDWWOHÂżHOG ZHUH XVLQJ ERG\ IDW IURP Indian corpses as a medicine to heal their own wounded.â&#x20AC;?37 Although since then the Spanish have clearly stopped using human fat in their medicine, this obser34 Diccionario enciclopedio del Peru. EGLWRULDO -XDQ MHMLD BDFD LLPD PHUX

TUDQVODWHG E\ AOOLVRQ CDPSEHOO â&#x20AC;&#x153;PLVKWDFR WHPLGR \ OHJHQGDULR WLSR GH EDQGROHUR DQGLQR TXH DVDOWD D PXMHUHV X KRPEUHV VROLWDULRV DHJÂ HOOD D VXV YtFWLPDV SDUD comer su carne en forma de chicharrones y vender la grasa. O bien, las entierra, a YHFHV FRQ YLGD SDUD KDFHU IHFXQGD OD WLHUUD R GDU VROLGH] D ODV FRQVWUXFFLRQHV Y VH GLFH HQ ORV SXHEORV TXH WLHQH DXWRUL]DFLyQ GHO JRELHUQR SDUD FRPHWHU VXV WURSHOtDV de manera que puede castigar a quien lo denuncia. 2. Entre los pueblos andinos DSOtFDVH HO PLVPR QRPEUH D ORV TXH HIHFW~DQ OD PDWDQ]D \ HO EHQHÂżFLR GHO JDQDGR para la provisiĂłn de los mercados.â&#x20AC;? Hughes, Death Without Weeping, Ibid.

37 MDU\ WHLVPDQWHO Cholas and pishtacos: stories of race and sex in the Andes, TKH UQLYHUVLW\ RI CKLFDJR PUHVV CKLFDJR IL Peace, Politics and Pishtacos: US-Peruvian Relations 1950s-1960s

5 3

vation by the Indians still remained ingrained in their minds. The arrival of the SSDQLVK ZDV WKH ÂżUVW HQFRXQWHU WKH IQGLDQV KDG ZLWK SHRSOH RI GLIIHUHQW UDFHV and features. Therefore, pishtacos are commonly described to have light eyes and light skin. This depiction developed from what the Indians saw different in the foreignersâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;certainly the fear of the unknown. Therefore, like all tales, the pishtaco story has expanded and evolved RYHU WLPH VDULRXV GHVFULSWLRQV DUH RIIHUHG WR SRUWUD\ WKH SLVKWDFRV ZKLFK DUH commonly â&#x20AC;&#x153;a generic white male enacting gruesome violence upon an Indian victim.â&#x20AC;?38 It might even be best to consider that â&#x20AC;&#x153;if anything, they resemble APHULFDQ VODVKHU ÂżOPV LQ ZKLFK WKH QRUPDOLW\ RI HYHU\GD\ OLIH LV VXGGHQO\ UHQW asunder by events that simply cannot be happening.â&#x20AC;?39 Pishtacos are painted in broad brush; an embodiment of all of the evils that have, or could, befall the Indians. They are not limited to white people, but most commonly are, and possess the characteristics of a culture and custom outside the norm of the Indian culture. Pishtacos come with the rise of modern technologies and institutions. They are people of different appearances, but also pishtacos are associated with modern technology and national institutions like the government. The government always held a limited role in the lives of the Indians, so institutional programs, along with new machinery like cars and airplanes were likely to be received with skepticism anyway. Their role in society, however, was not taken OLJKWO\ TKH AQGHDQ WULEHV ZHUH WHUULÂżHG RI WKH KRUURU WKH SLVKWDFRV FRXOG LQĂ&#x20AC;LFW AQWKURSRORJLVW MDU\ WHLVPDQWHO RSHQV KHU GLVFXVVLRQ RI SLVKWDFRV ZLWK the explanation that â&#x20AC;&#x153;the pishtaco is a serial killer with a penchant for dismembering and disemboweling his victims; he has other bad habits as well.â&#x20AC;?41 The frightening pishtaco was seen to strike without reason, and anyone could be his victim. The appearance of any outsider, like government or aid workers, compounded by the increased presence of advanced technology, like aid trucks, was a clear warning of the likelihood of pishtaco misdeeds soon to follow. TKH UDFLDO GLVWLQFWLRQ ZDV QRW MXVW D EDUULHU EHWZHHQ ZKLWHV DQG WKH AQGHDQ WULEHV MHVWL]RV RU SHRSOH RI PL[HG UDFH GHÂżQHG WKHPVHOYHV LQ WKH VRFLDO VWUDWD DV ZHOO TKLV FODVV VWUDWLÂżFDWLRQ KDV DOVR DGGHG WR WKH DGYDQFHPHQW RI WKH SLVKWDFR OHJHQG TKH PHVWL]RV ZDQWHG WR ÂżUPO\ HVWDEOLVK WKH GLVWLQFWLRQ between themselves and the Indians, and made great efforts to solidify this difference. One way to hold an advantage over the Indians was through pishtacos. Mestizos manipulated this belief to their advantage, establishing a power over WKH IQGLDQV TKH PHVWL]RV DPSOLÂżHG EHOLHIV LQ SLVKWDFRV E\ PDNLQJ WKHLU â&#x20AC;&#x153;DFWLRQVâ&#x20AC;? D UHDOLW\ DXULQJ LQLWLDO HIIRUWV E\ USAID WKHUH ZDV VRPH RSSRVLWLRQ WR WKLV VXSSRUW LQ FRQVHUYDWLYH DUHDV ZKHUH FRRG IRU PHDFH ZDV FDUULHG RXW UVLQJ fear to achieve their own goals, local mestizos reported to the author [Oliver-Smith] with much hilarity that they would kill a dog or pig and leave its

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38 WHLVPDQWHO Cholas and pishtacos: stories of race and sex in the Andes, 39 IELG Anthony Oliver-Smith, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Pishtaco: Institutionalized Fear in Highland Peru,â&#x20AC;? The Journal of American Folklore VRO NR OFW DHF 41 WHLVPDQWHO Cholas and pishtacos: stories of race and sex in the Andes, The Academical Heritage Review

entrails with a blood drenched skirt or hat on a mountain trail to convince the Indians that a pishtaco was lurking about and would murder them if they did not work harder to behave themselves.42 The mestizos, driven by self promotion, manipulated the ignorance of the indigenous people to prey upon fears to the advantage of the mestizos. In the case of Food for Peace in Puno, conservative mestizos did not want an invasion of American culture and aid in their land. By scaring the Indians about pishtacos RQ WKH SURZO PHVWL]RV FRXOG LQGLUHFWO\ DWWDFN WKH US DLG YLD WKH IQGLDQV DQG HQVXUH WKDW WKH US SURJUDP ZRXOG EH GRRPHG Indians had heard about the horrors of what a pishtaco would do. They would come in and kill people to use their fat for their mysterious machinery. TKHUHIRUH ZKHQ USAID RIIHUHG WR IHHG WKH VWDUYLQJ DQG RIIHU FKLOGUHQ KHDOWK\ PHDOV WKH IQGLDQV ZHUH KRUULÂżHG IQGLDQV GLG QRW ZDQW WKH SLVKWDFRV WR JLYH them food to fatten them up. They were particularly worried about their children, so they logically removed them from school as to refrain from tempting WKHP OQO\ DIWHU FRQVLVWHQW MXVWLÂżFDWLRQV ZHUH RIIHUHG E\ WUXVWHG ÂżJXUHV GLG the Indians begin to consider the program benevolent. Despite the mestizosâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; efforts, â&#x20AC;&#x153;after much coaxing and explaining by the teachers and the priest from the provincial capital, the program was accepted and the children are now getting their one nourishing meal.â&#x20AC;?43 TKH US HIIRUWV PD\ KDYH LQLWLDOO\ EHHQ VWDOOHG EXW RQFH WKH\ ÂżQDOO\ XQGHUVWRRG WKH APHULFDQV RU WKHVH VSHFLÂżF SHRSOH DW OHDVW were not pishtacos out to exploit them, they embraced the program. OQFH FRRG IRU PHDFH ÂżQDOO\ VKRZHG SURJUHVV WKH US H[SDQGHG HIIRUWV WR JLYH DLG WR FKLOGUHQ TKURXJK USAID â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKHUH KDV EHHQ LQFUHDVHG VFKRRO DWtendance, better scholastic achievement and a drastic reduction in absenteeism. School lunches, for example, have helped double attendance in Peruâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rural schools.â&#x20AC;?44 This program expanded to other countries, nicknamed Operation NLxRV TKH -RKQVRQ DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ WRRN OSHUDWLRQ NLxRV WKURXJK CHQWUDO DQG South America to feed thousands. They sent out a mobile kitchen to show the best ways to obtain the greatest nutritional value from food. The mobile kitchen traveled all around South America teaching proper dietary approaches, with a ÂżQDO GHVWLQDWLRQ LQ PHUX The campaign launched greater food knowledge and D EHWWHU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI IRRG DQG WKH USâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V GHVLUH WR SURYLGH DLG DQG DVVLVWDQFH Initial efforts on the Peruvian drought aid turned out to be disastrous. FRRG ZDV QRW GLVWULEXWHG TXLFNO\ DQG WKH HFRQRPLF SURMHFWV IDLOHG PLVHUDEO\ TKLV RYHUVLJKW ZDV EODPHG ODUJHO\ RQ WKH DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ EDFK ÂżJXUH LQ FKDUJH seemed to have someone else to blame, and politics seemed to get in the way of 42 OOLYHU SPLWK â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH PLVKWDFR IQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HG FHDU LQ HLJKODQG PHUX â&#x20AC;? 43 IELG 44 HRZDUG R RXVN MD â&#x20AC;&#x153;U S ALG DQG HHDOWK II FRRG IRU PHDFH PURJUDP RHGXFHV VDVW SXSSOLHV DQG HHOSV WKH WRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V HXQJU\ â&#x20AC;? New York Times (1923-Current Âżle) MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID Special to The New York Times â&#x20AC;&#x153;MUV -RKQVRQ DHGLFDWHV D GRRG NHLJKERU Kitchen,â&#x20AC;? New York Times (1923-Current Âżle) -XO\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID Peace, Politics and Pishtacos: US-Peruvian Relations 1950s-1960s

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aid. However, upon examining one particular incident in Puno combined with FXVWRPV DQG EHOLHIV WKH IDLOXUH RI US DLG VHHPHG WR VWHP IURP FXOWXUDO EDVHV DW least as much as political ones. Therefore, can this cultural argument be applied IRU DOO WKH US DWWHPSWV DW DLG LQ WKH ZDNH RI WKH GURXJKW" RDWKHU WKDQ SROLWLFDO reasons, a cultural explanation can much more accurately clarify many of the issues with establishing a relief effort. Looking at the political implications for the program failures, there cerWDLQO\ DUH PDQ\ ODSVHV LQ RYHUVLJKW WKDW DOORZHG WKH USAID SURJUDP WR IDLO TKHUH ZDV VLJQLÂżFDQW PLVFRPPXQLFDWLRQ RYHU WKH SURMHFW JRDOV DQG RYHUDOO LQWHQWLRQV RI WKH US TKHUH ZDV ODFN RI GLUHFWLRQ IRU WKH SURJUDP DQG LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ DXWKRULW\ ZDV FHGHG WR WKH PHUXYLDQ JRYHUQPHQW CRQJUHVVLRQDO UHSRUWV blame the Peruvian government for failure to adequately distribute the grains DQG DLG DQG HVSHFLDOO\ WKDW RQH â&#x20AC;&#x153;FDQQRW DVVXPH WKDW WKH WHUP ÂľGURXJKW DUHDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; LV V\QRQ\PRXV ZLWK ÂľGURXJKW YLFWLPV â&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;? TKH USâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V IUXVWUDWLRQV ZLWK WKH PHUXYLDQ JRYHUQPHQW FDQQRW EH IXOO\ MXVWLÂżHG KRZHYHU AOO EODPH FDQQRW EH VKLIWHG WR the Peruvian government for this political failure, because there was a lack of FODULW\ RI LQWHQW DQG XQGHUVWDQGLQJ EHWZHHQ PHUX DQG US RIÂżFLDOV RQ KRZ WKH US ZDQWHG WR GLVWULEXWH WKH DLG TKH PHUXYLDQ JRYHUQPHQW WKHUHIRUH FRXOG QRW be expected to â&#x20AC;&#x153;correctlyâ&#x20AC;? implement the aid if they were not informed on how WKLV SURJUDP ZDV VXSSRVHG WR FDUU\ RXW TKH US JDYH DOO WKH SRZHU WR WKH PHUXYLDQ JRYHUQPHQW DQG ZDV GLVSOHDVHG ZKHQ WKH US DJHQGD ZDV QRW FRUUHFWO\ IROORZHG II WKH US KDG VXFK UHJXODWLRQV IRU WKH SURJUDP WR IROORZ WKHQ VKH should have participated in the aid effort. EYHQWXDOO\ WKLV SUREOHP ZDV VROYHG ZKHQ WKH US MRLQHG WKH DLG HIIRUW LQ LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ QRW MXVW GRQDWLRQ TKLV ZDV WKHQ VHHQ DV D VXFFHVV EHFDXVH LW IXOÂżOOHG WKH USâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V HVWDEOLVKHG JRDOV TKLV ZDV SRVVLEOH EHFDXVH WKH US ÂżQDOO\ took a stance and role in their own program. But what ultimately was the root FDXVH RI WKH IDLOXUH" TKH SURJUDP REMHFWLYHV RI FRXUVH H[WHQGHG ZHOO EH\RQG WKH SDUWLFXODU DLG HIIRUWV TKH CRQJUHVVLRQDO UHSRUWV DQG KHDULQJV PDNH PXOtiple references to the advantages of the program in preventing communism. FDWKHU .HDUQV DIÂżUPDWLYHO\ VWDWHV WKDW WKH FRRG IRU PHDFH SURJUDP DFWLYHO\ countered and conquered the communist efforts. But was there even a communist threat? Three different views can be taken with regard to the failure, WKH ÂżUVW WZR UHJDUGLQJ D FRPPXQLVW WKUHDW DQG WKH WKLUG WKDW VXJJHVWV D ZKROO\ different cause. In a world historical context, these events occurred during the CROG WDU ZKHQ WKH US ZDV FRQVWDQWO\ PDNLQJ HIIRUWV WR PDLQWDLQ WKH XSSHU KDQG RYHU KHU HQHP\ WKH FRPPXQLVW SRYLHW UQLRQ TKLV FRXQWHU FRPPXQLVW effort encompassed a broad spectrum of activities and operations. Especially in WKH V WKH US DLPHG WR VTXDVK DQ\ SRVVLEOH HQFURDFKPHQW RI FRPPXQLVP which was a serious concern of the government, and thus caused lost focus on the aid effort itself. This perspective of a perceived threat causing lost focus is a possibility since communism as a whole was a consistent perceived threat to WKH US A second perspective is that there actually were communist efforts against the Food for Peace program in Puno. Father Kearns describes opposition efforts to the program, and does label those adversaries as communists. United States Aid Operations in Peru The Academical Heritage Review

.HDUQV PHQWLRQHG WKH FRPPXQLVWV WULHG WR VDERWDJH WKH US HIIRUWV DQG WKDW WKH\ KDG VWURQJ RUJDQL]DWLRQ ZLWKLQ WKH PXQR DUHD TKHUH ZHUH WZR FRXS Gâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;pWDWV LQ WKH PHUXYLDQ JRYHUQPHQW LQ WKH HDUO\ V VR WKLV UHVLVWDQFH FRXOG LQGLFDWH early efforts at organization to overthrow the government. All of these arguments, however, are broad and do not seem plausible. First off, Kearns blanket ODEHOV DOO WKH RSSRVLWLRQ DV FRPPXQLVWV DQG GRHV QRW JR LQWR VSHFLÂżFV DERXW VSHFLÂżF FRPPXQLVW DJHQGDV RU RUJDQL]DWLRQ ZLWK FRPPXQLVW LQWHQWLRQV TKH RQO\ JRDO RI WKH RSSRVLWLRQ WKDW .HDUQV PHQWLRQHG ZDV WR KLQGHU US HIIRUWV DW aid. Additionally, the indigenous people of this region had limited interaction with the government and technology in general, so it does not seem plausible that they would decide to organize themselves into a communist movement. TKH FRXS Gâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;pWDWV LQ WKH V OHG WR PLOLWDU\ FRQWURO QRW FRPPXQLVW JRYHUQPHQWV DQG LQ WKH V WKH OHDGHUVKLS RI WKH JRYHUQPHQW ZDV FKRVHQ YLD GLUHFW HOHFWLRQV UVLQJ WKH FRXSV WR VXSSRUW WKH DVVXPSWLRQ RI FRPPXQLVW LQWHQWLRQV is not consistent with the timing of the coups and the surge of communist acWLYLWLHV LQ WKH UHJLRQÂ˛WKH FRXSV SUHGDWHG WKH ULVH LQ FRPPXQLVW LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH DQG had different intentions altogether. Further, it fails to take into account the situation at that time with the indigenous peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the limited contact with, DQG ODFN RI LQWHUHVW LQ WKH JRYHUQPHQW E\ WKH LQGLJHQRXV SHRSOH NRQH RI WKH anthropologists studied even mentioned communist sentiments by the Andean highland tribes. However, the tribes did describe their fear and resentment of the pishtacos. Therefore, actual communist group involvement seems a very unlikely possibility, which leads to the third argument that the saboteurs of the USAID SURJUDP ZHUH DFWXDOO\ WKH IQGLDQV LQĂ&#x20AC;DPHG E\ WKH PHVWL]RV DFWLQJ DV agent provocateurs. WKHUHDV WKHUH LV QR HYLGHQFH RI FRPPXQLVW RSSRVLWLRQ WR FRRG IRU Peace in Puno, mestizos openly admitted their efforts to control the Indians and maintain the dominant power in that region. Therefore, once again, instead of political reasons, this program initially failed because of cultural implications. Anthropologists recorded mestizos boasting their ascendancy over the Indians, and their desire to preserve the conservative lifestyle in Puno. It appears very likely that the actions of these mestizos were what incited the Indians and led to the opposition by supposed â&#x20AC;&#x153;communistsâ&#x20AC;? that aimed to sabotage the Food IRU PHDFH SURJUDP FDWKHU .HDUQV DQG WKH US JRYHUQPHQW FRXOG KDYH HDVLO\ written off the mestizos as communists, which is perfectly conceivable during WKH CROG WDU HUD EXW DOVR LQGLFDWHV D ODFN RI VRFLDO DQG FXOWXUDO XQGHUVWDQGLQJ and views everything from a purely political perspective. This argument seems WKH PRVW OLNHO\ DQVZHU LQ GHWHUPLQLQJ WKH RULJLQ RI RSSRVLWLRQ WR WKH USAID LQ Puno. AVLGH IURP PHVWL]R UHMHFWLRQ RI FKDQJH DQG D GHVLUH WR UHWDLQ D VRFLR cultural status quo, other cultural implications also played a role in the initial GHPLVH RI WKH USAID FLUVW RI DOO WKH SURJUDP ZDV FRPSOHWHO\ QHZ DQG IRUHLJQ WR WKH PHUXYLDQ SHRSOHÂ˛DV ZHUH WKH SHRSOH LQWHQGLQJ WR LPSOHPHQW LW WLWK DQ LQĂ&#x20AC;X[ RI IRUHLJQ LGHDV DQG UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ WKH PHUXYLDQV ZHUH OLNHO\ WR EH VNHSWLFDO RI WKH SURJUDP TKH US GLG QRW LQLWLDOO\ HVWDEOLVK D FOHDU DJHQGD VR WKH PHUXYLDQV ZHUH FRQIXVHG DQG VXVSLFLRXV RI WKH US DLG HIIRUWVÂ˛GLVRUJDQL]HG DQG ZLWKRXW FOHDUO\ GHÂżQHG LQWHQWLRQV TKH US JRYHUQPHQW DOVR JDYH PXFK SRZHU Peace, Politics and Pishtacos: US-Peruvian Relations 1950s-1960s

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to the Peruvian government, and with the highland Andean Indians suspect of government in general, there was plenty of room for misunderstanding and program failure. The rapid increase in the presence of strange new technology and the drastically different physical appearance of the Americans played into traditionDO IHDUV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKH SLVKWDFR P\WK DQG WKH Â¿UH ZDV IXHOHG HYHQ PRUH E\ WKH PHVWL]RV TKH IQGLDQV ZHUH WHUULÂ¿HG RI DOO WKH FKDQJHV EURXJKW DERXW LQ their community, especially when the changes, like evil pishtacos, appeared to be targeting their children. Strange people bringing in strange food, and taking a special interest in the children caused the Indians to be extremely suspicious RI US LQWHQWLRQV SLQFH WKLV W\SH RI SURJUDP ZDV DOVR QHZ WKH IQGLDQV ZHUH FRPSOHWHO\ XQIDPLOLDU ZLWK WKH FRQFHSW RI EHQHYROHQW DLG HIIRUWV NRW XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKDW WKH US ZDQWHG WR KHOS WKH IQGLDQV FRXOG HDVLO\ KDYH PLVUHDG WKH situation and developed a twisted view of the giving of food, not as a shield DJDLQVW VWDUYDWLRQ EXW DV DQ HIIRUW WR WUDGHÂ²US JUDLQV DQG VFKRRO OXQFKHV LQ UHWXUQ IRU IDWWHQHG IQGLDQ FKLOGUHQ WLWK VR PDQ\ QHZ FRQFHSWV LQWURGXFHG LQWR WKHLU ZRUOG WKH SHRSOH RI PXQR ZHUH RYHUZKHOPHG DQG ERXQG WR VHH WKH USAID SURJUDP LQ D PXFK GLIIHUHQW OLJKW WKDQ WKH US LQWHQGHG TKH IDLOXUH RI WKH USâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V HIIRUWV DW GURXJKW UHOLHI EHJDQ DQG HQGHG RQ FXOWXUDO JURXQGV WKLOH WKH US UHFRUGHG WKH SURJUDPV DV SROLWLFDO HIIRUWV WKH GHPLVH PXVW EH VHHQ RQ D FXOWXUDO EDVLV PROLWLFDO UHDVRQV FDQ MXVWLI\ WKH RXWHU VKHOO RI WKH XQVXFFHVVIXO HIIRUWV EXW WKH FXOWXUDO H[SODQDWLRQV GHÂ¿QH WKH FRUH of the problem. The mythical beliefs, foreign concepts, and class distinctions formed this cultural basis, which created a disastrous interaction between the US DQG PHUX HRZHYHU RQFH WKH US GHÂ¿QHG KHU UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK PHUX DQG FOHDU REMHFWLYHV ZHUH SUHVHQWHG WKH WZR FRXQWULHV ZHUH DEOH WR HVWDEOLVK DQ XQderstanding of one another and institute a successful relief program. The cultural complications which initially halted the aid efforts ended up being the key to making the program prosper in the end.

5 8 The Academical Heritage Review

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bonafede, Dom. “Incas Represent Past Glory, Present Disgrace of Peru: Silent DQG HHOSOHVV E[SORVLYH FRUFH ” TKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW TLPHV HHUDOG AXJXVW KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID “CHUUR GH PDVFR RHVXPHV CRSSHU LHDG OXWSXW LQ PHUX ” WDOO SWUHHW -RXUQDO CXUUHQW ¿OH FHEUXDU\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DH OQLV -XDQ “PHUX’V DHOD\ RQ SFKRRO LXQFKHV SWLUV U S CRQFHUQ RQ ALG PODQ ” SSHFLDO WR TKH NHZ YRUN TLPHV NHZ YRUN TLPHV CXU UHQW ¿OH -XO\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID DLFFLRQDULR HQFLFORSHGLR GHO PHUX LLPD PHUX EGLWRULDO -XDQ MHMLD BDFD “DURXJKW .LOOV AOSDFDV ” TKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW DQG TLPHV HHUDOG -DQXDU\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID “E; PERU ENVOY HELD A µVICTIM OF DECEIT’ ” NHZ YRUN TLPHV CXUUHQW ¿OH MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DF FHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID “FRRG AFFRUG IV SLJQHG E\ U S DQG PHUX ” TKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW TLPHV HHU DOG MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID “FRRG IRU WKH HXQJU\ ” TKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW TLPHV HHUDOG -DQXDU\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID “FRRG IRU TKLQNLQJ ” TKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW TLPHV HHUDOG DHFHP EHU KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID HRXVH CRPPLWWHH RQ GRYHUQPHQW OSHUDWLRQV HHDULQJV EHIRUH D SXEFRPPLW WHH RI WKH CRPPLWWHH RQ GRYHUQPHQW OSHUDWLRQV UQLWHG SWDWHV ALG OSHUDWLRQV LQ LDWLQ APHULFD WK CRQJ VW VHVV NRY DQG DHF HRXVH CRPPLWWHH RQ GRYHUQPHQW OSHUDWLRQV UQLWHG SWDWHV ALG OSHUDWLRQV LQ PHUX WK CRQJ VW VHVV H RHS “MUV -RKQVRQ DHGLFDWHV D GRRG NHLJKERU .LWFKHQ ” SSHFLDO WR TKH NHZ YRUN TLPHV NHZ YRUN TLPHV CXUUHQW ¿OH -XO\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFX PHQW ID Peace, Politics and Pishtacos: US-Peruvian Relations 1950s-1960s

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OOLYHU SPLWK AQWKRQ\ OFW DHF “TKH PLVKWDFR IQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HG FHDU LQ HLJKODQG PHUX ” TKH -RXUQDO RI APHULFDQ FRONORUH VRO NR “OQO\ RI FORRG ALG RHDFKHG PHUX VLFWLPV RXVN DLVSXWH RHFDOOHG BLJ ZLJV GRW HRXVHV ” TKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW TLPHV HHUDOG MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID “PHUX FDFHV DURXJKW ” TKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW DQG TLPHV HHUDOG DHFHPEHU KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID “PHUX GHWV U S LRDQ ” TKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW DQG TLPHV HHUDOG ASULO KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID “PHUX WR GHW U S FRRG ” NHZ YRUN TLPHV CXUUHQW ¿OH MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFX PHQW ID RXVN HRZDUG R “U S ALG DQG HHDOWK II FRRG IRU PHDFH PURJUDP RHGXFHV VDVW SXSSOLHV DQG HHOSV WKH WRUOG’V HXQJU\ ” NHZ YRUN TLPHV CXUUHQW ¿OH MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DF FHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID SFKHSHU HXJKHV NDQF\ DHDWK WLWKRXW WHHSLQJ UQLYHUVLW\ RI CDOLIRUQLD PUHVV BHUNHO\ CDOLIRUQLD “TKH HLVWRU\ RI APHULFD’V FRRG ALG ” USAID FLIW\ YHDUV RI FRRG IRU PHDFH KWWS ZZZ XVDLG JRY RXUBZRUN KXPDQLWDULDQBDVVLVWDQFH IIS WK KLVWRU\ KWPO DFFHVVHG ASULO “U S GLYHV PHUX FRRG WR MHHW DURXJKW CULVLV ” TKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW DQG TLPHV HHUDOG MD\ KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID “U S WR BRRVW SFKRRO LXQFK ALG WR PHUX ” TKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW TLPHV HHUDOG MDUFK KWWS ZZZ SURTXHVW FRP DFFHVVHG ASULO DRFXPHQW ID WHLVPDQWHO MDU\ CKRODV DQG SLVKWDFRV VWRULHV RI UDFH DQG VH[ LQ WKH DQGHV TKH UQLYHUVLW\ RI CKLFDJR PUHVV CKLFDJR IL

6 0 The Academical Heritage Review

OF HEATHENS, HEAVENS AND HORS D’OEUVRES: COLONIAL CAPITALISM, ANTHROPOLOGY AND FILIPINO RACE-MAKING AT THE 1904 ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION

Marshall Johnson

On April 30, DW HLJKW Râ&#x20AC;&#x2122;FORFN LQ the morning, the central gates between Lindel Boulevard and Pike opened to

WKH JHQHUDO SXEOLF RI SW LRXLV IRU WKH ÂżUVW WLPH ÂżOWHULQJ HDJHU IDLUJRHUV RQWR WKH POD]D RI SW LRXLV DQG WRZDUGV WKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH MRQXPHQW D foot tall column of plaster and marble topped by a varnished sculpture of Lady Peace alighting on the globe.1 This monument, a testament to the centennial DQQLYHUVDU\ RI WKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH VHUYHG DV ERWK D OLWHUDO DQG ÂżJXUDWLYH beacon to the curious masses, beckoning individuals from all walks of life â&#x20AC;&#x201C; whether the bespectacled anthropologist or the casual parasol-donning KRXVHPDLG Âą WR JD]H XSRQ WKH H[KLELWLRQV DQG LQQRYDWLRQV RI WKH SW LRXLV LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ WLWK D IHGHUDO JUDQW RI WKH Exposition, located on the relatively level grounds of the far western city land in Forest Park, served as an overarching demonstration of the progress and potential of industrial civilization through intricate, international displays of mechanical prowess and technological development. 2 FRU FHQWV YLVLWRUV DW WKH PDODFH RI TUDQVSRUWDWLRQ FRXOG LQVSHFW RYHU DXWRPRELOHV RI FUHQFK and American make â&#x20AC;&#x201C; self-propelled machines showcasing the domestic and benign uses of electricity, gas and steam; for the same price, fairgoers could examine the medical wonders of the baby incubator, a revolutionary mechanical device designed to preserve premature newborns; in addition, for a paltry ten cents, visitors could ride L.A. Thompsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Scenic Railway, â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKH ORQJHVW DQG ÂżQHVW LQ WKH ZRUOG â&#x20AC;? DORQJ D SDQRUDPLF WKUHH PLOH WRXU of the St. Louis countryside.3 From painstaking reproductions of the Great AQWKUDFLWH CRDO MLQH WR WKH DZH LQGXFLQJ LOOXPLQDWLRQ RI WKH FHQWUDO fairgrounds from a wireless telegraph tower, the technological marvels of the St. Louis Exposition served to introduce fairgoers, at face-value, to a new, DOLHQ WRPRUURZ FKDUDFWHUL]HG QRW E\ VXEMXJDWLRQ DQG IRUHLJQ GHVSRWLVP EXW UDWKHU WR D IXWXUH XQLÂżHG E\ SULQFLSOHV RI LQQRYDWLRQ LQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQ DQG benevolent international cooperation.4 Such bold originality even crossed over into the realm of the concession stand, with the Exposition popularizing the ice cream cone, Dr. Pepper soda pop, the hamburger and â&#x20AC;&#x153;Fairy Flossâ&#x20AC;? (later UHQDPHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;FRWWRQ FDQG\â&#x20AC;? DV WKH VRRQ WR EH VWDSOHV RI APHULFDQ IRRG IDUH SXEVHTXHQWO\ LQ DQ DGGUHVV WR WKH U S HRXVH RI RHSUHVHQWDWLYHV LQ HDUO\ MLVVRXUL RHSUHVHQWDWLYH RLFKDUG BDUWKROGW ZRXOG SURFODLP â&#x20AC;&#x153;>T@KH UQLYHUVDO MDUVKDOO -RKQVRQ LV D PHPEHU IR WKH CODVV RI HH ZURWH ZLWK WKH JXLGDQFH RI Professor Thomas Klubock.

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1 Louisiana Purchase Exposition. Daily OfÂżcial Program: June 16, 1904 (St. LRXLV MO LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ -DPHV GLOEHUW WKRVH FDLU" E[SHULHQFH MHPRU\ DQG WKH HLVWRU\ RI WKH GUHDW SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ CKLFDJR TKH UQLYHUVLW\ RI CKLFDJR PUHVV 3 Daily OfÂżcial Program 4 Celebrating the Louisiana Purchase (1904 Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fair) >MRXUQDO RQ OLQH@ DYDLODEOH IURP KWWS H[KLELWV VOSO RUJ OSH GDWD LPE DVS"WKUHDG The Academical Heritage Review

E[SRVLWLRQ RI ZLOO EH WKH VHQVDWLRQDO FOLPD[ RI WKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\ the grandest victory of peace and civilization, the greatest triumph human genius has yet achieved. To millions of its visitors it will be an academy of learning, an inspiration, and an inexhaustible source of genuine delight, and WKH PHPRULHV RI WKH IYRU\ CLW\ ZLOO OLYH DQG EHDU IUXLW LQ DOO DJHV \HW WR FRPH â&#x20AC;? Both in public pronouncements and private correspondence, the key ÂżJXUHV LQ SODQQLQJ WKH E[SRVLWLRQ VSRNH ZLWK DQ LQĂ&#x20AC;DWHG YRFDEXODU\ RI VHOI importance in which the underlying purpose was to both summarize the best RI WHVWHUQL]HG FLYLOL]DWLRQ DQG PRUHRYHU WR H[SODLQ WKH SRVLWLYH G\QDPLFV RI FRQWLQXHG SURJUHVV IRU WKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\ ZLWK WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV DW WKH FHQWHU RI LW DOO AV FUHGHULFN - V SNLII DLUHFWRU RI E[KLELWV H[SODLQHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;A PRGHUQ UQLYHUVDO E[SRVLWLRQ ZHOO PLJKW EH FDOOHG DQ HQF\FORSHGLD RI society, as it contains, in highly specialized array, societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s words and works. It is a collection of the wisdom and achievements of the world, brought together for the inspection of the world â&#x20AC;&#x201C; for examination and study by its H[SHUWV IW FRQVWLWXWHV D FRPSDFW FODVVLÂżHG LQGH[HG FRPSHQGLXP â&#x20AC;? Such a vast intellectual undertaking, then, would be expected to incorporate SXEOLF GLVSOD\V RI QHZ VFLHQWLÂżF NQRZOHGJH E\ HPHUJLQJ GLVFLSOLQHV VXFK DV DQWKURSRORJ\ DORQJVLGH HVWDEOLVKHG ÂżHOGV RI VWXG\ AW WKH PDULV Exposition, the French invited numerous scholarly, professional, trade, and benevolent associations and interest groups to hold congresses, providing a PDMRU YHQXH IRU DLULQJ DQG GHEDWLQJ WKHRUHWLFDO SUDFWLFDO DQG SXEOLF SROLF\ issues.7 AV VFKRODUV NDQF\ PDUH]R DQG DRQ FRZOHU SURYLGH LQ Anthropology Goes to the Fair, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The 1878 Paris congresses led, for example, to international copyright laws, the international postal union, and international adoption of the Braille system.â&#x20AC;?8 Such institutional and intellectual discussions ultimately legitimized the introduction of new, alternative displays of extramural entertainment involving â&#x20AC;&#x153;exoticâ&#x20AC;? peoples at international exhibitions, in which indigenous communities from Africa, Latin America and Polynesia â&#x20AC;&#x201C; often billed as â&#x20AC;&#x153;savagesâ&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x201C; could be inspected and gawked at for a fee. MHDQZKLOH VSHDNLQJ EHIRUH WKH U S SHQDWH RQ -DQXDU\ Senator Albert Beveridge, Republican of Indiana, defended both a mentality of global expansion and a war on the other side of the world that seemingly refused to end by American command.9 AOWKRXJK WKH SUHYLRXV NRYHPEHU KDG VHHQ GHQHUDO EOZHOO OWLV GHFODUH ERWK YLFWRU\ DQG WKH HQG RI PDMRU combat operations in the Philippine Islands, the subsequent two months ZHUH FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ WKH LQWHQVLÂżFDWLRQ RI UHVLVWDQFH DV FLOLSLQRV DGRSWHG D JXHULOOD VWUDWHJ\ WR ÂżJKW RII WKH APHULFDQ LQYDGHUV UQGHWHUUHG E\ WKH recent upsurge in violence, however, Beveridge argued that Americans had â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ DW SW LRXLV â&#x20AC;? The New York Times, February AFFHVVHG ASULO KWWS TXHU\ Q\WLPHV FRP PHP DUFKLYH IUHH SGI"BU UHV F E DB E BE A BC A C D CF Whose Fair? , NDQF\ - PDUH]R DQG DRQ D FRZOHU Anthropology Goes to the Fair: The 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition LLQFROQ UQLYHUVLW\ RI NHEUDVND PUHVV 8 Ibid. 9 Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, & the Philippines CKDSHO HLOO TKH UQLYHUVLW\ RI NRUWK CDUROLQD PUHVV Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

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â&#x20AC;&#x153;world dutiesâ&#x20AC;? as â&#x20AC;&#x153;a people imperial by virtue of their power, by right of their institutions, by authority of their Heaven-directed purposes.â&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x153;WRXOG QRW WKH SHRSOH RI WKH PKLOLSSLQHV SUHIHU WKH MXVW KXPDQH FLYLOL]LQJ JRYHUQPHQW RI WKLV Republic to the savage, bloody rule of pillage and extortion from which we have UHVFXHG WKHP"â&#x20AC;? BHYHULGJH DVNHG PHPEHUV RI WKH U S SHQDWH 11 The answer, St. LRXLV H[KLELWLRQ RUJDQL]HUV KRSHG ZRXOG EH IRXQG DW WKH IRUWKFRPLQJ Louisiana Purchase Exposition. CRPPLVVLRQHG RQ ASULO WKUHH PRQWKV DIWHU BHYHULGJHâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SHQDWH AGGUHVV WKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ CRPSDQ\ LPEC VHW RXW WR HUHFW DQ H[KLELWLRQ PRUH VSHFWDFXODU WKDQ CKLFDJRâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V WRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FDLU 12 LPEC SURSRVHG WR EXLOG D â&#x20AC;&#x153;UQLYHUVLW\ RI WKH FXWXUHâ&#x20AC;? WKDW ZRXOG KLJKOLJKW WKH HUD of peace and benevolence that followed in the wake of the Spanish-American WDU DQG WKH â&#x20AC;&#x153;UHFHQWO\ FRQFOXGHGâ&#x20AC;? PKLOLSSLQH IQVXUUHFWLRQ 13 Anthropological exhibits showcasing the â&#x20AC;&#x153;primitiveâ&#x20AC;? peoples of the world â&#x20AC;&#x201C; commonly referred to as â&#x20AC;&#x153;human zoosâ&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x201C; would provide middle-class fairgoers with unparalleled DQG XQSUHFHGHQWHG LQVLJKW LQWR WKH FLYLOL]DWLRQV RI WKH XQFLYLOL]HG VLPLODUO\ E\ KRVWLQJ VXFK NDWLYH FRPPXQLWLHV H[KLELWLRQ GLUHFWRUV DUJXHG WKDW WKH SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ ZRXOG RIIHU WKHVH LQGLJHQRXV VSHFLPHQV D SUHFLRXV RSSRUWXQLW\ WR H[SHULHQFH ÂżUVW KDQG WKH EHQHYROHQW DVVLPLODWLRQ RI WKH UQLWHG States. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Here [at the St. Louis Exposition] the once bloody warrior Geronimo completed his own mental transformation from savage to citizen and for the ÂżUVW WLPH VRXJKW WR DVVXPH ERWK WKH ULJKWV DQG UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV RI WKH KLJKHU VWDJH â&#x20AC;? ZURWH W- MFGHH KHDG RI WKH DHSDUWPHQW RI AQWKURSRORJ\ DW WKH Exposition. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Here, indeed, was illustrated in epitomeâ&#x20AC;Śa considerable part of that course of intellectual development which raised man from dull-minded and self-centered tribal existence into the active and constructive and broadminded life of modern humanity.â&#x20AC;?14 IQ VKRUW MFGHH DUJXHV WKH SW LRXLV Exposition served to lift the displayed indigenous peoples out of the mire of â&#x20AC;&#x153;savagery,â&#x20AC;? and into the realm of intellectual and religious enlightenment, thus tracing the more general development of human society from â&#x20AC;&#x153;barbarismâ&#x20AC;? to â&#x20AC;&#x153;civilization.â&#x20AC;? By focusing on the â&#x20AC;&#x153;human exotic,â&#x20AC;? exposition directors, as historian Robert Rydell notes in All the Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a Fair, â&#x20AC;&#x153;turned [a] portrait of the world into an anthropologically validated racial landscape that made the [then recent] acquisition of the Philippine Islands and continued overseas economic expansion seem as much a part of the manifest destiny of the nation as the Louisiana Purchase itself.â&#x20AC;? It is the chief goal of this paper, then, to augment the works of Rydell, Parezo and Fowler through a closer H[SORUDWLRQ RI WKH PDQQHU LQ ZKLFK H[KLELWLRQ GLUHFWRUV DW WKH SW LRXLV LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ LQ FRQMXQFWLRQ ZLWK U S SROLF\PDNHUV VXFK DV GRYHUQRU GHQHUDO RI WKH PKLOLSSLQHV WLOOLDP HRZDUG TDIW XWLOL]HG WKH

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IELG 11 IELG 12 Anthropology Goes to the Fair 13 Ibid., 19. 14 W - MFGHH â&#x20AC;&#x153;AQWKURSRORJ\ DW WKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ â&#x20AC;? Science Anthropology Goes to the Fair, 21. The Academical Heritage Review

public display of indigenous Filipino peoples as a means by which to reinforce government-sponsored perceptions of race and religion within the popular American consciousness. The end goal, this paper argues, was to encourage IXWXUH U S HFRQRPLF LQYHVWPHQW LQ WKH PKLOLSSLQHV LQ WKH DIWHUPDWK RI D clear, decisive American victory. â&#x20AC;&#x153;That [the Philippine question] may not, and probably will not, be solved by conferring statehood upon the new territory is SUREDEOH â&#x20AC;? SHFUHWDU\ RI WDU TDIW VWDWHG LQ KLV SXEOLF DGGUHVV DW WKH RSHQLQJ of the Exposition. The exhibitâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aim, he said, was â&#x20AC;&#x153;to make the people who come here to commemorate the vindication of one great effort of American enterprise and expansion, [and] understand the conditions which surround the beginning of another.â&#x20AC;? APHULFDQ H[SRVLWLRQ RIÂżFLDOV DWWHPSWHG WR MXVWLI\ D SURORQJHG U S institutional and economic presence in the Philippines through the public GLVSOD\ RI GLIIHUHQW QRQ CKULVWLDQ WULEHV QDPHO\ WKH IJRURWV DQG MRURV

DW WKH PKLOLSSLQH RHVHUYDWLRQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKH RYHU VKDGRZLQJ IHDWXUH RI WKH WRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V Fair.â&#x20AC;?17 Such displays, in which half-naked men and women were instructed by exhibition directors to slay and cook a provided dog at a designated hour, VHUYHG WR UHPLQG WHVWHUQ DXGLHQFHV RI WKH LQFDSDELOLW\ RI WKH QRQ CKULVWLDQ Filipino for self-governance. Equally, the regimented and westernized PLOLWDU\ SURFHVVLRQV RI WKH â&#x20AC;&#x153;HQOLJKWHQHGâ&#x20AC;? CKULVWLDQ FLOLSLQR LQ WKH PKLOLSSLQH FLUVW PURYLQFLDO BDWWDOLRQ UHĂ&#x20AC;HFWHG D GHÂżQLWLYH FRQFOXVLRQ RI WKH PKLOLSSLQH IQVXUUHFWLRQ LQ ZKLFK D VDIH HFRQRPLF HQYLURQPHQW IRU U S LQYHVWPHQW prevailed. Through the military drills and marches of the khaki-clad Filipino soldiers, exhibition directors strove to symbolize the thorough assimilation of the once-rebellious Filipino insurgent â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a depiction essential to ensuring SRWHQWLDO U S FRPPHUFLDO LQYHVWPHQW LQ WKH PKLOLSSLQHV AV UHOD\HG E\ WKH St. Louis Post-Dispatch LQ ASULO WKH FLOLSLQR VFRXWVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; â&#x20AC;&#x153;VROGLHUO\ EHDULQJ intelligent countenances and obliging ways won praise from the visitorsâ&#x20AC;?; WKH\ ZHUH â&#x20AC;&#x153;SROLWH DV FUHQFKPHQ DQG VSHDN SSDQLVK Ă&#x20AC;XHQWO\ DV WKHLU QDWLYH dialect.â&#x20AC;?18 Most striking of all, however, were the signs of assimilation: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Many VSHDN EQJOLVK DQG DOO DUH XQLIRUPHG LQ .KDNL OLNH WKH VROGLHUV RI UQFOH SDP â&#x20AC;?19 As such, the bifurcation of the indigenous Filipino along racialUHOLJLRXV OLQHV DW WKH SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ VHUYHG WR DGYDQFH DQ XQGHUO\LQJ U S DJHQGD DPRQJ ERWK JRYHUQPHQW DQG H[KLELWLRQ RIÂżFLDOV QDPHO\ WR V\PEROL]H ZLWKRXW UHDVRQDEOH GRXEW WKH SHDFHIXO DVVLPLODWLRQ RI WKH CKULVWLDQ Filipino through the coordinated military displays of the Philippine Scouts; LQ DGGLWLRQ WR JXDUDQWHH SURORQJHG U S LQVWLWXWLRQDO LQYROYHPHQW LQ WKH PKLOLSSLQHV WKURXJK WKH XQFLYLOL]HG GLVSOD\V RI QRQ CKULVWLDQ SHRSOHV DW WKH PKLOLSSLQH RHVHUYDWLRQ AOIUHG C NHZHOO FKLHI RI WKH DLYLVLRQ RI E[SORLWDWLRQ ZKLFK RYHUVDZ FRQFHVVLRQV DQG RWKHU IRUPV RI FRPPHUFH SDLQWV D VLPLODU depiction of this underlying dichotomy in anthropological exhibitions at the SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ Kramer, Blood of Government 17 Eric Breitbart, A World On Display: Photographs from the St. Louis Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fair, 1904 AOEXTXHUTXH UQLYHUVLW\ RI NHZ MH[LFR PUHVV 18 Kramer, The Blood of Government 19 Ibid. Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

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â&#x20AC;&#x153;AERXW WKH WLPH WKH WRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FDLU CLW\ LV ZDNLQJ DW HDUO\ PRUQLQJ RQH KXQGUHG EDUH OLPEHG IJRURWV RIWHQ VDFULÂżFH and eat a dog on the Philippine reservation. At the same hour, scarcely two hundred yards away, a bugle sounds a reveille, and four hundred well-trained soldiers in the blue [and khaki] RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV DUP\ KXVWOH IURP WKHLU WHQWV TKHVH DUH the Philippine Scoutsâ&#x20AC;Ś.All of these people live on the same islands in the Philippines. The Igorot represent the wildest race of savages, the scouts stand for the results of American rule â&#x20AC;&#x201C; extremes of the social order in the islands.â&#x20AC;? IQ FRQMXQFWLRQ WKHVH DQWKURSRORJLFDO GLVSOD\V FUHDWHG WKH LPSUHVVLRQ of an ideal socio-political environment in the Philippines â&#x20AC;&#x201C; â&#x20AC;&#x153;an immense DGYHUWLVHPHQW IRU FLYLOLDQ UXOH â&#x20AC;? VR WR VSHDN Âą LQ ZKLFK WHVWHUQ FRPPHUFLDO LQYHVWPHQW ZRXOG WKULYH DQG Ă&#x20AC;RXULVK 21 The result, this paper argues, was an emphasis on the Philippines as a safe, modern zone of economic production and, to a lesser extent, consumption â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a depiction that would ultimately prove consistent with Secretary Taftâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own hopes for the reduction or elimination RI U S WDULIIV RQ PKLOLSSLQH SURGXFWV DV WKH PHDQV WR JUHDWHU WUDGH DQG VWDWH UHYHQXHV SLPLODUO\ IRU WKH PLOOLRQV RI PLGGOH FODVV APHULFDQ YLVLWRUV WKH St. Louis Louisiana Purchase Exposition served as a common ground for the PDVV FRQVXPSWLRQ RI FRPPRGLÂżHG HQF\FORSHGLF NQRZOHGJH WKDW KDG XQWLO recently, been restricted only to the highest echelons of society: visitors could essentially place themselves somewhere within McGeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vast tableau of human evolution and maturation.22 As David Francis, President of the Exposition, H[SUHVVHG LW â&#x20AC;&#x153;>TKH FDLU@ ZLOO DLP GHÂżQLWHO\ DW DQ H[KLELWLRQ RI PDQ DV ZHOO as the work of manâ&#x20AC;ŚIt will comprehend man in his full twentieth century development exhibiting not alone his material, but his social advance.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;?23 The Fair, then, would further the evolution of a collective national identity DPRQJ PLGGOH FODVV YLVLWRUV WKURXJK WKH JHQHUDO UHDOL]DWLRQ RI DOO WKDW WKLWH Americans were not; for the small number of Filipino fairgoers and exhibit SDUWLFLSDQWV RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG WKH WRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FDLU ZRXOG PHUHO\ UHSUHVHQW \HW DQRWKHU KRXU RI WHVWHUQ GLVHQFKDQWPHQW LQ ZKLFK WKH LQWHUVHFWLRQV RI anthropology, capitalism and mass ethno-cultural identity would be used to MXVWLI\ WKH FRQWLQXHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;WXWHODJHâ&#x20AC;? RI DQ DOOHJHGO\ DVVLPLODWHG SHRSOH FROORZLQJ WKH SUHFHGHQW VHW E\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;BXIIDOR BLOOâ&#x20AC;? CRG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V IDPHG WLOG WHVW VKRZV RI WKH V APHULFDQ DQG LQWHUQDWLRQDO H[SRVLWLRQ RUJDQL]HUV ZHUH quick to recognize the lucrative nature of public exhibitions capitalizing on both the strange and exotic. At Omahaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 1898 Trans-Mississippi Exposition, ZKLFK SURPRWHUV ELOOHG DV WKH â&#x20AC;&#x153;LDVW GUHDW CRQJUHVV RI WKH RHG MDQ â&#x20AC;? organizers attempted to assemble â&#x20AC;&#x153;allâ&#x20AC;? Indian tribes of the mythic American WHVW â&#x20AC;&#x153;IRU WKH ÂżUVW DQG ODVW WLPH â&#x20AC;?24 WKHQ ÂżVFDO UHDOLW\ VHW LQ KRZHYHU WKH LDVW

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AOIUHG NHZHOO Philippine Exposition: Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fair St. Louis, 1904

21 Kramer, The Blood of Government 22 Whose Fair? , 31. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid., 7. The Academical Heritage Review

GUHDW CRQJUHVV GLPLQLVKHG WR DSSUR[LPDWHO\ IRXU KXQGUHG SHRSOH IURP WKH Plains and Southwest tribes; and yet, through calculated portrayals in keeping with popular perceptions of the American Indian â&#x20AC;&#x201C; namely, long-held notions of the head-dressed â&#x20AC;&#x153;savageâ&#x20AC;? cemented in popular lore through serialized dime-novels and widespread media coverage of military engagements in Texas, Montana and South Dakota â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the exposition ultimately proved to be a VXEVWDQWLDO ÂżQDQFLDO VXFFHVV Exhibition coordinators subsequently saw the GLVSOD\ RI OLYLQJ QDWLYH SHRSOHV DV HVVHQWLDO WR WKHLU DELOLW\ WR WXUQ D SURÂżW In 1889, St. Louis held a modest trade exposition in which an enterprising SURPRWHU FRQYLQFHG WKH IQGLDQ SHUYLFH WR OHW KLP EULQJ SDQ CDUORV ASDFKHV â&#x20AC;&#x153;in all their pride and strengthâ&#x20AC;? to perform â&#x20AC;&#x153;their weird dances, ceremonies, and incantationsâ&#x20AC;? and to demonstrate â&#x20AC;&#x201C; through staged reenactments of life on the American frontier â&#x20AC;&#x201C; â&#x20AC;&#x153;their modes of savage warfare.â&#x20AC;? By providing the American and international communities with safe, pageant-like depictions of NDWLYH OLIH H[KLELWLRQ GLUHFWRUV ZHUH DW RQFH DEOH WR FDSLWDOL]H RQ WKH XQGHUO\LQJ WHVWHUQ IHWLVKL]DWLRQ RI UDFH DQG HWKQLFLW\ ZKLOH VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ IXUWKHULQJ established notions of the Anglo superior and the uncivilized, brown-skinned VXERUGLQDWH E[KLELWV RI â&#x20AC;&#x153;NDWLYH SHRSOHVâ&#x20AC;? ZRXOG FRPH WR LQFOXGH VLGHVKRZ DWWUDFWLRQV SUHVHQWHG E\ LQGLYLGXDO HQWUHSUHQHXUV DQG â&#x20AC;&#x153;RIÂżFLDOâ&#x20AC;? H[KLELWV RI VXEMXJDWHG LQGLJHQRXV FRPPXQLWLHV VSRQVRUHG DQG PRUH LPSRUWDQWO\ interpreted by their colonialist masters. After 1893, when accusations of genocide against Belgian King Leopold IIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FRORQLDO UHJLPH LQ WKH CRQJR FUHH SWDWH JDLQHG ZLGH FLUFXODWLRQ DQG JOREDO attention, the international community made minor, yet visible, motions to condemn imperialist institutions blatantly exploiting the resources and peoples of foreign colonies through the establishment of civilian humanitarian groups and associations. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Among its supporters, it kept alive a tradition, a way RI VHHLQJ WKH ZRUOG D KXPDQ FDSDFLW\ IRU RXWUDJH DW SDLQ LQĂ&#x20AC;LFWHG RQ DQRWKHU KXPDQ EHLQJ â&#x20AC;? KLVWRULDQ AGDP HRFKVFKLOG ZULWHV RI WKH CRQJR UHIRUPDWLRQ movement in King Leopoldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Ghost â&#x20AC;&#x153;QR PDWWHU ZKHWKHU WKDW SDLQ LV LQĂ&#x20AC;LFWHG on someone of another color, in another country, at another end of the earth.â&#x20AC;?27 IQ UHVSRQVH WR WKH ZRUN RI RUJDQL]DWLRQV VXFK DV E D MRUHOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V CRQJR RHIRUP AVVRFLDWLRQ Âą ZKLFK XOWLPDWHO\ IDLOHG WR VHH WKH GHÂżQLWLYH GLVVROXWLRQ RI BHOJLDQ VODYH ODERU LQ WKH CRQJR FUHH SWDWH EHIRUH WKH AVVRFLDWLRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V GHPLVH LQ Âą FRORQLDO SRZHUV RIÂżFLDOO\ H[KLELWHG LQGLJHQRXV VXEMHFWV XQGHU WKH JXLVH RI HGXFDWLRQDO HQGHDYRUV WR GHPRQVWUDWH KRZ PXFK EHWWHU RII NDWLYHV ZHUH under the benevolent care of imperialist overlords. The enterprise of colonial H[SDQVLRQ WKHQ VXGGHQO\ WRRN RQ VXSHUÂżFLDO QRWLRQV RI WKLWH UHVSRQVLELOLW\ and obligation towards the betterment of the uneducated indigenous inferior WR MXVWLI\ WKH RFFXSDWLRQ RI IRUHLJQ WHUULWRULHV AV LPPRUWDOL]HG LQ RXG\DUG .LSOLQJâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V IDPRXV SRHP â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH WKLWH MDQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V BXUGHQ â&#x20AC;? DGYRFDWHV RI LPSHULDOLVP DUJXHG WKDW WKH PDMRU WHVWHUQ SRZHUV KDG D PRUDO CKULVWLDQ GXW\ to uplift the â&#x20AC;&#x153;sullen peoples [of the world],â&#x20AC;? the unenlightened masses of â&#x20AC;&#x153;half Ibid. Ibid. 27 Adam

Hochschild, King Leopoldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Ghost NHZ YRUN HRXJKWRQ MLIĂ&#x20AC;LQ CRPSDQ\ Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

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devil and half-child.â&#x20AC;?28 As a result, governments used international expositions to demonstrate the intellectual and cultural evolution of the uncivilized masses WKURXJK EHQHYROHQW WHVWHUQ DVVLPLODWLRQ DQG WXWHODJH â&#x20AC;&#x153;GRYHUQPHQW DJHQFLHV ZHUH FRQVFLRXVO\ SURPXOJDWLQJ SURSDJDQGD WR MXVWLI\ FRORQLDOLVP DQG IRUFHG acculturation policies,â&#x20AC;? write Parezo and Fowler in Anthropology Goes to the Fair â&#x20AC;&#x153;BRWK WKH RIÂżFLDO DQG XQRIÂżFLDO H[KLELWLRQV XVHG WKH VDPH VWHUHRW\SHV Âą EHQLJKWHG ÂľSULPLWLYHVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ZKR FRXOG RQO\ EH UDLVHG WR FLYLOL]DWLRQ E\ ÂľHQOLJKWHQHGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; benevolent white men.â&#x20AC;?29 TKH VSHFWDFOH RI KXPDQLW\ RQ VKRZ KRZHYHU ZDV MXVW RQH H[DPSOH RI the manner in which larger social customs were quickly becoming the hallmark RI PRGHUQ PDVV FXOWXUH PDULV ZKLFK KRVWHG ÂżYH ZRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V IDLUV EHWZHHQ DQG ZDV D PXFK FRSLHG VLWH IRU LPDJLQJ WKH PRGHUQ H[KLELW ZRUOG WKDW ZRXOG XOWLPDWHO\ EH UHDOL]HG LQ SW LRXLV LQ WKHVH â&#x20AC;&#x153;VSHFWDFXODU UHDOLWLHV â&#x20AC;? LQ ZKLFK WHVWHUQ DXGLHQFHV FDQGLGO\ FRQIURQWHG WKH FXOWXUDO LGLRV\QFUDVLHV and foreign social customs of the myriad races of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;primitiveâ&#x20AC;? world, helped GHÂżQH WKH PHDQLQJ RI DQ HDUO\ PDVV FXOWXUH LQ ERWK FUDQFH DQG WKH JUHDWHU WHVWHUQ ZRUOG AW WKH E[SRVLWLRQ UQLYHUVHOOH WKH FUHQFK JRYHUQPHQW SURPLQHQWO\ IHDWXUHG NDWLYHV IURP LWV IDU Ă&#x20AC;XQJ FRORQLDO HPSLUH â&#x20AC;&#x153;OQ WKH Esplande des Invalides side by side with the latest inventions and with the whole civilized world as spectatorsâ&#x20AC;Ś[were] twelve types of African, besides -DYDQHVH TRQNLQHVH CKLQHVH -DSDQHVH DQG RWKHU RULHQWDO SHRSOHV OLYLQJ LQ native houses, wearing native costumes, eating native foods, practicing native arts and rites.â&#x20AC;?31 As Timothy Mitchell argues, the popular image of the Orient was constructed through the interconnected means of representing the world that appeared in museums, exhibitions, schooling, tourism, stores, fashions, DQG WKH FRPPRGLÂżFDWLRQ RI HYHU\GD\ OLIH â&#x20AC;&#x153;EYHU\WKLQJ VHHPHG WR EH VHW XS before one as though it were a model or picture or something. Everything was DUUDQJHG EHIRUH DQ REVHUYLQJ VXEMHFW LQWR D V\VWHP RI VLJQLÂżFDWLRQ GHFODULQJ LWVHOI WR EH D PHUH REMHFW D PHUH ÂľVLJQLÂżHUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; RI VRPHWKLQJ IXUWKHU â&#x20AC;?32 Spectator and consumer, then, were intrinsically intertwined, both giving and taking VLJQLÂżFDQFH IURP WKH FODVV JHQGHU DQG VH[XDOLW\ RI WKH RWKHU TKURXJK WKH shared perceptions of difference â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and thus, superiority â&#x20AC;&#x201C; that formed among WHVWHUQ VSHFWDWRUV ZKHQ LQWHUDFWLQJ ZLWK OLYLQJ QDWLYH SHRSOHV D JURZLQJ homogenization of the classes formed in which individual fairgoers gradually came to associate themselves as part of a greater national and cultural identity GHÂżQHG LQ SDUW E\ WKH DHVWKHWLF FXOWXUDO FXVWRPV DQG VRFLDO ULWHV RI WHVWHUQ civilization: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The elimination of class distinction through education, the emergence of nationalism, and the spreading of classical education which hitherto had only been possible for the aristocracy were believed to have RFFXUUHG ZLWK WKH KHOS RI WKH PXVHXPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FROOHFWLRQV CODVV GLVWLQFWLRQ EHFDPH RXG\DUG .LSOLQJ â&#x20AC;&#x153;â&#x20AC;?WKLWH MDQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V BXUGHQ â&#x20AC;?â&#x20AC;? Modern History Sourcebook: Rudyard Kipling, The White Manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Burden, 1899 >MRXUQDO RQ line]; available from: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/kipling.html. 29 Parezo and Fowler, Anthropology Goes to the Fair, 7. Whose Fair? , 29. 31 Parezo and Fowler, Anthropology Goes to the Fair, 7. 32 Inderpal Grewal, Home and Harem DXUKDP DXNH UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV 28

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The Academical Heritage Review

paradoxically, by mid-nineteenth century, the method for removal of class differences.â&#x20AC;?33 SLPSO\ SXW WKURXJK WKH HGXFDWLRQDO DQG VFLHQWLÂżF GLVSOD\V RI museums and exhibitions at the turn-of-the-century â&#x20AC;&#x201C; which would serve WR UHSUHVHQW WKH XQGHUO\LQJ FRPPRGLÂżFDWLRQ DQG PDVV GLVVHPLQDWLRQ RI LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG VFLHQWLÂżF NQRZOHGJH DW WKH WLPH Âą WKH YDVW PLGGOH FODVV PDVVHV RI WKH WHVWHUQ ZRUOG FDPH WR LGHQWLI\ WKHPVHOYHV DV D SDUW RI D GLVWLQFW national consciousness, whether it be German, British, French or American. NRQHWKHOHVV WKHVH OLYLQJ H[KLELWV RIÂżFLDO RU XQRIÂżFLDO DW U S DQG international expositions became locales of social and racial interaction. Here, amid the brilliant technological displays and immaculately detailed exhibitions, American and European fairgoers met native peoples and interacted with them LQ IDFH WR IDFH HQFRXQWHUV VKDULQJ VPDOO \HW XOWLPDWHO\ VLJQLÂżFDQW PRPHQWV of cross-cultural exchange. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Through mass culture,â&#x20AC;? intellectual Alison Landsberg argues, â&#x20AC;&#x153;people have the opportunity to enter into a relationship ZLWK WKH ÂľIRUHLJQHU â&#x20AC;&#x2122; GUDGXDOO\ WKH\ OHDUQ WR IHHO HPRWLRQDOO\ FRQQHFWHG WR what is intellectually a great remove.â&#x20AC;?34 These moments of exchange were based upon a genuine sense of curiosity regarding the exotic and foreign; the living exhibits at fairs were exciting, disturbing, compelling and ultimately educational for attendants and for native demonstrators and performers alike (although the observations that indigenous peoples took away from the expositions were more often than not in keeping with highly-calculated JRYHUQPHQW LOOXVLRQV CRQWHPSODWLQJ WKH LQGLJHQRXV FLOLSLQR UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ DW WKH IRUWKFRPLQJ SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ CRORQHO E - MFCOHUQDQG IRUPHU JRYHUQRU RI CHEX UHFRPPHQGHG LQ WKDW â&#x20AC;&#x153;UHSUHVHQWDWLYH PHQ Âą OHDGHUV â&#x20AC;&#x201C; [be] sent to St. Louis from the Philippinesâ&#x20AC;Śfrom the different islands.â&#x20AC;? Such displays, he argued, would â&#x20AC;&#x153;enable the American and Filipino to study and to know each other, something very much to be desired.â&#x20AC;? CROODERUDWLQJ HLVSDQLFL]HG DQG QRQ CKULVWLDQ FLOLSLQRV WKHQ ZHUH LPDJLQHG QRW RQO\ DV displays but also as spectators undergoing assimilation: witnessing St. Louis and its technological wonders would contribute to their tutelage in duty and OR\DOW\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;>T@KH LPSUHVVLRQV PDGH RQ WKH PRUH LQWHOOLJHQW QDWLYHV â&#x20AC;? MFCOHUQDQG advised, â&#x20AC;&#x153;will be used to better advantage on their return home.â&#x20AC;? SXEVHTXHQWO\ DV WHVWHUQ DXGLHQFHV JDWKHUHG WR JD]H XSRQ WKH OLYLQJ LQGLJHQRXV GLVSOD\V DW H[SRVLWLRQV DQG ZRUOG IDLUV WKH NDWLYH SDUWLFLSDQWV ultimately provided American and European fairgoers with an opportunity WR QRW RQO\ FRQWULEXWH WR WKH JURZLQJ FRPPRGLÂżFDWLRQ RI LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG VFLHQWLÂżF IDFW EXW DOVR WR UDOO\ DURXQG WKRVH RWKHU YLVLWRUV WKDW ZHUH XQLÂżHG in their dissimilarity from the â&#x20AC;&#x153;savagesâ&#x20AC;? on display. As German philosopher WDOWHU BHQMDPLQ DUJXHV â&#x20AC;&#x153;WRUOG H[KLELWLRQV DUH WKH VLWHV RI SLOJULPDJHV WR WKH commodity fetishâ&#x20AC;Ś[ serving] as sites for self-discovery [and] camp meetings for a dominating middle class.â&#x20AC;?37 WRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V IDLU FXOWXUH SURYLGHG D XQLTXH DQG ODUJHO\ XQSUHFHGHQWHG HQYLURQPHQW LQ ZKLFK PDVV WHVWHUQ PLGGOH FODVV DXGLHQFHV suddenly became acutely aware of their own economic and racial identity, 33 37

Ibid., 118. IELG .UDPHU The Blood of Government, 3212-3219. IELG Gilbert, Whose Fair? , 17. Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

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thus signifying the underlying manner in which the mass commercialization of information and knowledge at museums, fairs and expositions increasingly came to intersect with the development of a conscious national middle-class LGHQWLW\ IQ KLV DQDO\VLV RI WKH E[KLELWLRQ RI TKRPDV RLFKDUGV VXJJHVWV that displays of imperial power were a precondition of consumerism, for they â&#x20AC;&#x153;proved once and for all that the best way to sell things to the English was to sell them the culture and ideology of England, its plans for commercial dominance, its dreams of Empire, its social standards, and its conduct.â&#x20AC;?38 The LPSOLFDWLRQ LV WKDW WKURXJK OLYLQJ LQGLJHQRXV H[KLELWV WHVWHUQ DXGLHQFHV confronted the very essence of what it meant to be American or British through the realization of all that they were not â&#x20AC;&#x201C; namely, African, Latin American or Polynesian. And yet, unsurprisingly, there developed the inherent custom around these exhibits to partition, or â&#x20AC;&#x153;wall off,â&#x20AC;? indigenous peoples, especially â&#x20AC;&#x153;ZKHUH WKH SUR[LPLW\ RI ZKLWH ZRPHQ DQG VXEMHFW SHRSOHV WKUHDWHQHG WR H[WHQG ÂľWKH FRORQLDO HQFRXQWHUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; EH\RQG WKH VDIH FRQÂżQHV RI WKH SHULPHWHU IHQFH RI WKH ÂľQDWLYH YLOODJH â&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;?39 CURVV FXOWXUDO DQG LQWHUUDFLDO H[FKDQJH WKHQ ZDV required to remain at arms-distance, effectively limiting the potential for the dual concerns of exhibition directors and government policy-makers: namely, RXWEUHDNV RI YLROHQFH RU VH[XDO DIÂżQLW\ EHWZHHQ IDLUJRHUV DQG LQGLJHQRXV â&#x20AC;&#x153;VSHFLPHQV â&#x20AC;? AV WKH DJH ROG DGDJH JRHV WHVWHUQ IDLUJRHUV ZHUH UHTXLUHG WR â&#x20AC;&#x153;look with their eyes; not with their hands.â&#x20AC;? This late nineteenth-century exposition culture was not necessarily WKH VDPH HYHU\ZKHUH WKLOH DOO RI WKH PDMRU LQWHUQDWLRQDO H[KLELWLRQ HYHQWV RI the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were held in European and American cities, a key distinction between the two continents resides in the fact that almost every European fair was housed in an already-thriving, metropolitan FDSLWDO FLW\ PDULV VLHQQD LRQGRQ MDGULG DQG VR IRUWK IQ WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG WDVKLQJWRQ D C ZRXOG QHYHU KRVW D ZRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V IDLU LQVWHDG there was a distinct westward march into the very heartland of Middle America: PKLODGHOSKLD ÂżUVW WKHQ BXIIDOR CKLFDJR SW LRXLV OPDKD DQG SDQ FUDQFLVFR â&#x20AC;&#x153;American events were also generally historical commemorations,â&#x20AC;? historian James Gilbert writes in Whose Fair? , â&#x20AC;&#x153;but set at the edge of the advancing IURQWLHU DQG FHOHEUDWLQJ WKH SK\VLFDO H[SDQVLRQ RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV â&#x20AC;?41 American fairs, then, left a distinct cultural footprint in the newly claimed, conquered and settled continent as the middle-class masses converged from across the country to celebrate the commemoration of important historical events (such DV WKH FUHQFK RHYROXWLRQ CROXPEXVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V ÂżUVW YR\DJH WR WKH APHULFDV DQG RI FRXUVH WKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH FUHTXHQWO\ LQ RUGHU WR FDSLWDOL]H XSRQ WKH exciting upward thrust of turn-of-the-century America, the contemporary QDUUDWLYH RI U S IDLUV VWUHVVHG WKH VDPH UKHWRULFDO TXHVWLRQ HRZ FRXOG D QHZ QDWLRQ Âą MXVW UHFHQWO\ EDSWL]HG E\ WKH ÂżUH RI UHYROXWLRQ DQG DQG FLYLO ZDU ZLWK LWV â&#x20AC;&#x153;XSVWDUW FLWLHV WKURZQ XS LQ D EXLOGLQJ EXUVW RI RQO\ ÂżIW\ \HDUV RU VRâ&#x20AC;? Âą KRSH to host the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s greatest exhibitions?42 This was precisely the challenge that

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38 39 41 42

Grewal, Home and Harem, 88. Gilbert, Whose Fair? , 29. IELG Ibid.

Ibid., 18.

The Academical Heritage Review

U S H[KLELWLRQ GLUHFWRUV VHW RXW WR XQGHUWDNH WR YDOLGDWH DQG SXW RQ GLVSOD\ the mentality of technological and urban development that characterized the LQGXVWULDO ERRP RI WKH SRVW CLYLO WDU UQLWHG SWDWHV AV VXFK WKH FHOHEUDWLRQ RI UXUDO ERRPWRZQV VXFK DV CKLFDJR RU SW LRXLV ZDV RIWHQ DV LPSRUWDQW DV APHULFDQ QDWLRQDOLVP ZLWKLQ WKH FRQWH[WXDO VLJQLÂżFDQFH RI H[SRVLWLRQV IQ WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV WKHQ LQWHUQDWLRQDO H[KLELWLRQV UHSUHVHQWHG D unique meeting ground in the proverbial no-manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s land between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fairs served to depict the unprecedented (and RIWHQ WHQVH LQWHUVHFWLRQ RI PHWURSROLWDQ DQG FRORQLDO KLVWRU\ UHSUHVHQWHG LQ large, by the growth of American historical pageantry. As exhibition directors DQG U S SROLF\ PDNHUV FRQYHUJHG WR EURDGFDVW KHJHPRQLF PHVVDJHV DERXW UDFH FDSLWDOLVP DQG U S QDWLRQDO VXSHULRULW\ APHULFDQ IDLUJRHUV XQNQRZLQJO\ gathered to celebrate and contribute to both an emerging national, middleclass identity, and the rapid urban development of the recently-rural American heartland. As David Glassberg has shown in his book on American historical SDJHDQWU\ KLVWRULFDO FRPPHPRUDWLRQV LQ SW LRXLV GXULQJ WKH ÂżUVW GHFDGHV of the twentieth century revealed an ongoing effort to solidify civic spirit: â&#x20AC;&#x153;EVSHFLDOO\ LPSRUWDQWâ&#x20AC;ŚZDV WKH SW LRXLV PDJHDQW RI PDUNLQJ WKH th anniversary of the founding of the city. It was designed to offset the failure of WKH FLW\ WR NHHS XS ZLWK LWV FRPSHWLWRU DQG ODUJHU QHLJKERU CKLFDJR DQG WR HUDVH the lingering effects of the bad publicity provoked earlier by Lincoln Steffensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expose articles on urban corruption in McClureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Magazine LQ â&#x20AC;?43 For city politicians and businessmen, hosting exhibitions and encouraging the public demonstrations of benevolent civic organizations (such as the Daughters RI WKH APHULFDQ RHYROXWLRQ WKH UQLWHG DDXJKWHUV RI WKH CRQIHGHUDF\ DQG WKH MLVVRXUL HLVWRULFDO SRFLHW\ VHUYHG WR UHSDLU D WDUQLVKHG LPDJH RI RQH RI Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest Midwestern boomtowns. Pageantry, then, was often used to revive dwindling city reputations and tarnished political organizations through a public commitment to progress and civic regeneration. As historian Ralph Davol provides in Handbook of American Pageantry, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The pageant is good propaganda for winning devotion to a benevolent cause.â&#x20AC;?44 That cause was most often urban order as a pathway to â&#x20AC;&#x153;progress.â&#x20AC;? Discussions among St. Louis businessmen and political bureaucrats about hosting a national exposition â&#x20AC;&#x153;[commemorating] this most important event in the history of America, the purchase from France of the vast LRXLVLDQD THUULWRU\ â&#x20AC;? EHJDQ DV HDUO\ DV Previously in 1889, governor and future Head of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, David R. Francis, OHDG D GHOHJDWLRQ WR WDVKLQJWRQ D C WR FDPSDLJQ WR KROG WKH H[SRVLWLRQ FHOHEUDWLQJ WKH IRXU KXQGUHGWK DQQLYHUVDU\ RI CROXPEXVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V â&#x20AC;&#x153;GLVFRYHU\ RI WKH NHZ WRUOGâ&#x20AC;? IRU SW LRXLV ULYDO FLW\ DQG SRVW CLYLO WDU ERRPWRZQ CKLFDJR XOWLPDWHO\ ZRQ WKH EDWWOH WR KRVW WKH CROXPELDQ E[SRVLWLRQ GXH WR LWV YDVWO\ VXSHULRU ÂżQDQFLDO VLWXDWLRQ OQ -XQH WKHQ EHIRUH D JDWKHULQJ RI PHWURSROLWDQ HOLWH SW LRXLV CRQJUHVVPDQ RLFKDUG BDUWKROGW DGYRFDWHG D 43 Ibid., 21. 44 Ibid. Board of Lady

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LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ WR UHMXYHQDWH WKH FLW\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V VDJJLQJ HFRQRP\ LQ WKH ZDNH RI WKH LRQJ DHSUHVVLRQ DQG WKH LQIDPRXV FUDVK RI WKH VLHQQD SWRFN Market. â&#x20AC;&#x153;There is one event in the history of this city, second in importance only to the Declaration of Independence,â&#x20AC;? he declared, â&#x20AC;&#x153;â&#x20AC;Śand that is the Louisiana Purchase. St. Louis should celebrate its centennial by [hosting] a great international exposition, second to none ever held in the world.â&#x20AC;?47 The prospect of hosting an international exposition rivaling the massive success ZLWQHVVHG LQ CKLFDJR D GHFDGH EHIRUH ZDV VLPSO\ WRR PXFK IRU WKH ORFDO SROLWLFDO elite to pass by: the simple fact that St. Louis would become an international household name â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and, thus, of international investor and consumer interest Âą GLFWDWHG D VWURQJ XQLÂżHG PRYHPHQW DPRQJ FLW\ ERXUJHRLVLH WR OREE\ IRU WKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ Such elevation was badly needed in turn-of-the-century St. Louis. After WKH CLYLO WDU WKH FLW\ JUHZ H[SRQHQWLDOO\ DV D PDMRU UDLO FHQWHU DQG ULYHU SRUW ZLWK D ZLGH YDULHW\ RI PDQXIDFWXUHUV DQG ZKROHVDOH EDQNLQJ DQG ÂżQDQFLDO businesses associated with commerce and transportation.48 B\ SW LRXLV was Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fourth largest city, hosting a population of approximately UHVLGHQWV DQG \HW SROLWLFDO DQG VRFLDO XQUHVW VWHPPLQJ IURP D UHFHQW YLROHQW DQG FRVWO\ WUDQVLW ZRUNHUVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; VWULNH Âą LQ FRQMXQFWLRQ ZLWK D GHFDGH RI political cronyism, patronage and widespread bribery â&#x20AC;&#x201C; placed an increasingly negative image of St. Louis directly within the national media spotlight.49 By KRVWLQJ WKH LPE FLW\ SROLWLFLDQV KRSHG WR SUHVHQW â&#x20AC;&#x153;>D@ NHZ SW LRXLVâ&#x20AC;? WR WKH UHVW RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV DQG WKH JUHDWHU LQWHUQDWLRQDO FRPPXQLW\ KLJKOLJKWLQJ â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKH >HIIHFWV@ RI IUHH GHYHORSPHQW XQGHU ÂľAQJOR SD[RQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; LQGLYLGXDOLVP RI WKH territory.â&#x20AC;? SXFK DQ HPSKDVLV RQ WKH HWKQLFDOO\ GULYHQ VXFFHVV RI WKH WKLWH American, called for a close alliance between exhibition directors, city policy-makers and, above all else, leading intellectuals in the then-emerging anthropologic discipline. The adoption of world fairs and international expositions throughout the nineteenth century as an essential means of furthering governmentsponsored agendas (whether the establishment of a unique, homogenized QDWLRQDO LGHQWLW\ RU WKH OHJLWLPL]DWLRQ RI FRORQLDO H[SDQVLRQ RYHUVHDV

ultimately went hand-in-hand with the development and maturation of DQWKURSRORJ\ DV D JHQHUDOO\ DFFHSWHG VWXG\ RI WKH VRFLDO VFLHQFHV AV WMFGHH IXWXUH KHDG RI WKH DHSDUWPHQW RI AQWKURSRORJ\ DW WKH E[SRVLWLRQ addressed in his 1899 article, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Trend of Human Progress:â&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH VFLHQWLÂżF VWXG\ RI MDQ JUHZ RXW RI UHVHDUFK DPRQJ ORZHU RUJDQLVP DQG DW ÂżUVW WKH OLQHV DQG PHWKRGV RI LQTXLU\ LQ biology and anthropology were alike. Gradually the searcher perceived that the genus Homo, albeit animal, is something moreâ&#x20AC;Ś[and] prolonged experience forced the conviction that

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47 Ibid. IELG 49 Ibid. â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ DW SW LRXLV â&#x20AC;? The New York Times, February AFFHVVHG ASULO KWWS TXHU\ Q\WLPHV FRP PHP DUFKLYH IUHH SGI"BU UHV F E DB E BE A BC A C D CF The Academical Heritage Review

mankind must be viewed by the scientist, no less than by the idealist, as an essentially intellectual entity, and the possessor RI VRFLDO DQG PRUDO FKDUDFWHUV UHĂ&#x20AC;HFWLQJ IXQGDPHQWDO intellectuality.â&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x153;FRU WKH REMHFW PDWWHU RI WKH VFLHQFH LV QRW VR PXFK PDQ DV PHQ â&#x20AC;? McGee argues,â&#x20AC;? not the somatikos so much as the ethnos and demos, not the person so much as the family, the clan, the tribe, the municipality, the state, the nation, the culture-group â&#x20AC;&#x201C; indeed any assemblage, or all assemblages, of men.â&#x20AC;? The implication of McGeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s argument is simple: anthropology UHSUHVHQWHG WKH QHFHVVDU\ GHYHORSPHQW RI D QHZ VFLHQWLÂżF VWXG\ LQ ZKLFK man â&#x20AC;&#x201C; for all of his intellectual capability and technical craftsmanship DQG KLV DIÂżQLW\ IRU QHWZRUNV RI WULEDO FRPPXQLFDWLRQ DQG WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI GLVWLQFW VRFLDO FRPPXQLWLHV Âą UHFHLYHV H[SOLFLW WKHRUHWLFDO DQG VFLHQWLÂżF examination outside RI WKH ÂżHOG RI ELRORJLFDO VWXG\ IRFXVLQJ RQ WKH PRUH abstract development of ethnicity and culture. Just as the study of history faced stark opposition from intellectual authorities at the turn of the twentieth century, proponents of anthropological thought constantly struggled for wider VRFLDO DQG VFLHQWLÂżF UHFRJQLWLRQ RIWHQ IDFLQJ VWURQJ FULWLFLVP WKDW WKH VWXG\ RI DQWKURSRORJ\ ZDV â&#x20AC;&#x153;XQGLVFLSOLQHG XQHGXFDWHG DQG XQVFLHQWLÂżF DQGâ&#x20AC;Ś>WKH@ WKHRUHWLFDO DQG VFLHQWLÂżF SDSHUV >RI WKH ÂżHOG@ TXHVWLRQDEOH LQDSSURSULDWH DQG politically suspect.â&#x20AC;? The nature of the discipline of anthropology at the turn of the twentieth century â&#x20AC;&#x201C; namely, an overarching dependence on sweeping theoretical generalizations regarding the development of race and ethnicity ZLWKRXW D VXEVWDQWLDO HPSKDVLV RQ HPSLULFDO GDWD DQG ÂżHOGZRUN Âą ZDV IURZQHG XSRQ E\ OHDGLQJ LQWHOOHFWXDOV LQ WKH ÂżHOGV RI ELRORJ\ FKHPLVWU\ DQG WKH JUHDWHU independent sciences as anthropology seemed to be more akin to speculation than concrete experimentation. For individuals like McGee, international H[SRVLWLRQV DQG WRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FDLUV VHUYHG DV LGHDO VLWHV IRU WKH SXEOLF OHJLWLPL]DWLRQ DQG SURIHVVLRQDOL]DWLRQ RI DQWKURSRORJ\ DV D WUXH VFLHQWLÂżF VWXG\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;VDOLGDWLRQ ZDV DFKLHYHG E\ XVLQJ WKH ÂľSULPLWLYHâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; DV D IRLO IRU ÂľHQOLJKWHQHG FLYLOL]DWLRQ â&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;? Parezo and Fowler write. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The anthropology that McGee and most of his fellow anthropologists brought to the exposition centered on concepts of unilineal HYROXWLRQ GHYHORSHG VLQFH WKH V LQ EXURSH DQG WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV â&#x20AC;? Anthropologic theory at the time was dominated by the grandiose â&#x20AC;&#x153;stage schemesâ&#x20AC;? of Herbert Spencer, Lewis Henry Morgan and their sycophants -RKQ WHVOH\ PRZHOO DQG LHVWHU WDUG Followers of this intellectual â&#x20AC;&#x153;JDWKHULQJ â&#x20AC;? ZKLFK LQFOXGHG D \RXQJ W- MFGHH VHOHFWLYHO\ DQG IUHHO\ DGGHG ideas regarding biological evolution from Darwin, Huxley and Haekel, mixing social and biological evolutionary concepts with their own preconceptions about races and their respective â&#x20AC;&#x153;placesâ&#x20AC;? in the grand evolutionary schematic of the world. McGeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most noteworthy â&#x20AC;&#x153;researchâ&#x20AC;? expeditions consisted of W - MFGHH â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH TUHQG RI HXPDQ PURJUHVV â&#x20AC;? American Anthropologist IELG PDUH]R DQG FRZOHU Anthropology Goes to the Fair, 42. IELG IELG Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

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WKUHH EULHI WULSV WR WKH TRKRQR Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;RGKDPV PLPD BDMRV YDTXLV CRFSDV DQG SHULV SRQRUD MH[LFR LQ DQG McGee ultimately produced a massive three-hundred-page ethnography designed to both portray him as a KHURLF ÂżJXUH ZKR RYHUFDPH H[WUDRUGLQDU\ GDQJHUV LQ WKH YHLQ RI IDPHG DQG HTXDOO\ PLVJXLGHG H[SORUHU RI WKH CRQJR FUHH SWDWH HHQU\ MRUWRQ SWDQOH\ DQG GHSLFW WKH LQGLJHQRXV SHULV SHRSOH DV WKH TXLQWHVVHQWLDO â&#x20AC;&#x153;VDYDJHVâ&#x20AC;? RI NRUWK America located at the very bottom rung of the human evolutionary ladder. The end result was, according to German academic and pioneer of modern DQWKURSRORJ\ FUDQ] BRDV D â&#x20AC;&#x153;QDwYH VWDJH VFKHPH UHSOHWH ZLWK MLQJRLVWLF Spencerian celebrations of Americanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s evolutionary process,â&#x20AC;? a methodology that even late nineteenth-century scholars regarded as verging on the absurd. For anthropological practitioners like McGee, the core concepts of this new VFLHQWLÂżF GLVFLSOLQH FRQWDLQHG DQ HVVHQWLDOLVW VHW RI DVVXPHG XQLYHUVDO FXOWXUDO SK\VLFDO DQG â&#x20AC;&#x153;UDFLDOâ&#x20AC;? SURFHVVHV WKDW XOWLPDWHO\ VHUYHG WR UHĂ&#x20AC;HFW WKH PDQQHU in which the American way of life was the unquestioned height of civilized development. The early twentieth-century was a time marked by intense racism LQ WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV DJDLQVW IQGLDQV EODFNV AVLDQV DQG SRXWKHUQ EXURSHDQV DV VXFK D FOHDU UHODWLRQVKLS HPHUJHG EHWZHHQ D \RXQJ DQWKURSRORJLFDO ÂżHOG DQG H[LVWLQJ QRWLRQV RI HPSLUH WKLOH VRPH DQWKURSRORJLVWV ZRXOG XOWLPDWHO\ ÂżJKW DJDLQVW HVWDEOLVKHG UDFLDO DQG HWKQLF SUHMXGLFHV VXFK DV WKH DIRUHPHQWLRQHG FUDQ] BRDV PDQ\ RWKHUV FDPH WR SXEOLFO\ VXSSRUW VXFK DQ LGHRORJ\ WKURXJK government contracts and employment opportunities, using antiquated ideas DERXW KXPDQ SK\VLFDO DQG FXOWXUDO HYROXWLRQ WR MXVWLI\ WHVWHUQ H[SDQVLRQ abroad. Anthropologists like McGee considered themselves abstract theoreticians, as they valued the importance of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;big pictureâ&#x20AC;? over disciplinary specialization or the collection and critical analysis of empirical details. As such, McGeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach has been charitably described as â&#x20AC;&#x153;a strongly speculative technique, bold in search of unifying hypotheses, but sometimes slender in supporting data.â&#x20AC;? One contemporary said of McGeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work that KH ZDV D KLJKO\ RULJLQDO DQG RFFDVLRQDOO\ EULOOLDQW WKLQNHU EXW KLV ÂżHOGZRUN showed â&#x20AC;&#x153;a clear lack of detailed and critical inquiry which is so essential in the formation of hypotheses and in the rigid testing of them step by step.â&#x20AC;? As VXFK MFGHH XOWLPDWHO\ UHSUHVHQWHG PXFK RI ZKDW ZDV REVWUXFWLQJ WKH ÂżHOG RI anthropological study from achieving the authoritarian status and recognition that it truthfully deserved: the failure to utilize strict systems of data collection DQG DQDO\VLV LQ WKH HIIRUW WR SURYH RU GLVSURYH ZHOO GHÂżQHG K\SRWKHVHV SXFK H[SHULPHQWDO RPLVVLRQV ZRXOG FRQWLQXH WR JDUQHU ZLGHU VFLHQWLÂżF FULWLFLVP regardless of whether the underlying thought processes of individuals such as MFGHH UHĂ&#x20AC;HFWHG HLWKHU LQJHQXLW\ RU EULOOLDQFH TKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\ WKHQ has been aptly characterized by Marvin Harris as an age â&#x20AC;&#x153;in which the license to generalize on the basis of fragmentary evidence was claimed by second- and

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IELG IELG IELG IELG IELG The Academical Heritage Review

third-rate people.â&#x20AC;? BRUQ LQWR D SRRU .HQWXFN\ KRXVHKROG LQ DQWKURSRORJLVW WLOOLDP John McGee was also a government bureaucrat, self-trained geologist, inventor, agriculturalist, conservationalist and policy-maker. He had published more WKDQ WKUHH KXQGUHG DUWLFOHV LQ VHYHUDO ÂżHOGV E\ As historians Parezo and Fowler provide in Anthropology Goes to the Fair, â&#x20AC;&#x153;His over-weaning ambition, desire for personal visibility, and need to popularize and legitimize anthropology as the highest form of enlightened science, has had a lasting HIIHFW RQ KRZ WKH SXEOLF YLHZHG NDWLYH SHRSOHV IRU \HDUV IROORZLQJ WKH LPE and after anthropology had changed its theoretical paradigm.â&#x20AC;? In his own PLQG MFGHH ZDV Âą OLNH PUHVLGHQW TKHRGRUH RRRVHYHOW Âą WKH GHÂżQLWLYH OLYLQJ example of the self-made man. The story of the formation and organization RI WKH KXPDQ GLVSOD\V DW WKH SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ WKHQ LV LQWULQVLFDOO\ WLHG ZLWK WKDW RI W- MFGHH DV KH SURJUHVVHG IURP FRPSOHWLQJ D JHRORJLF DQG WRSRJUDSKLF VXUYH\ LQ QRUWKHDVWHUQ IRZD LQ WR KLV LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQWLDO LI QRW Ă&#x20AC;DZHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;VFLHQWLÂżFâ&#x20AC;? FRQWULEXWLRQV WR WKH RUJDQL]DWLRQ RI HWKQLF UDFLDO GLVSOD\V DW WKH E[SRVLWLRQ MFGHHâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V YHUVLRQ RI VFLHQFH ZRXOG EH WKH central theme for the entire exposition, seen by millions of American and international visitors and, ultimately, carried away in the form of long-lasting racial stereotypes: â&#x20AC;&#x153;His ideas about biological development, racial vigor, and FXOWXUDO SURJUHVV ZHUH LQ DFFRUG ZLWK PDQ\ RI WKH ELDVHV DQG SUHMXGLFHV RI WKH exposition organizers and many other white Americans of the day. His vision became, in effect, the fairâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s underlying organizational scheme.â&#x20AC;? Subsequently, while the organizers of the Louisiana Purchase E[SRVLWLRQ FOHDUO\ XQGHUVWRRG WKDW H[RWLF GLVSOD\V ZHUH D PDMRU GUDZ IRU audiences and, therefore, essential money-makers, they did not want to SUHVHQW DQ\ PHUH H[RWLF VLGHVKRZ TKH\ ZDQWHG WKHLU LQGLJHQRXV NDWLYH â&#x20AC;&#x153;VSHFLPHQâ&#x20AC;? WR EH LQWHUSUHWHG LQ D PRGHUQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;VFLHQWLÂżFâ&#x20AC;? PDQQHU DQG WKHLU exposition to be â&#x20AC;&#x153;a vast museum of anthropology and ethnology, of man and his works.â&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x153;The motive of the department [of anthropology at the LPE] was to diffuse and incidentally to increase knowledge of man and his works,â&#x20AC;? MFGHH DVVHUWHG LQ KLV DUWLFOH â&#x20AC;&#x153;AQWKURSRORJ\ DW WKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH Exposition.â&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x153;Hence, the primary purpose was essentially educational; and the work of the department was distinctive, if not unique, in that it embraced research in a degree comparable with that accorded to original work in modern institutions of higher learning.â&#x20AC;? As elsewhere in anthropological exhibits, the RUGHU DQG KLHUDUFK\ RI UDFHV ZDV ÂżUVW DVVXPHG DQG WKHQ DVVHUWHG HIIHFWLYHO\ following the preconception among white middle-class audiences that they were inherently superior to those being displayed before them (whether due WR UDFH HWKQLFLW\ VWDWXUH RU DQ\ RWKHU DUELWUDU\ FKDUDFWHULVWLF TKLV XQLYHUVDO hierarchal thinking was no better or more obviously illustrated than in the vast Philippine Reservation and the various other anthropological displays

IELG IELG IELG IELG GLOEHUW Whose Fair? â&#x20AC;&#x153;AQWKURSRORJ\ DW WKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ â&#x20AC;? Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

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GLVSHUVHG WKURXJKRXW WKH SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ The Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fair Bulletin (published by the Division of Press and PXEOLFLW\ VWDWHG WKDW WKH DQWKURSRORJLFDO H[KLELWLRQV RI WKH SW LRXLV Louisiana Purchase Exposition would show the human evolution from the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Dark Ages of tooth and claw and stone tools, and culminating in the modern enlightenment illustrated in the Great Exhibit Palaces and the International congresses.â&#x20AC;? RDWKHU WKDQ ÂżWWLQJ DEVWUDFW NQRZOHGJH LQWR HYROXWLRQDU\ categories, exhibition sections like the Philippine Reservation proposed to contain and categorize the entire world of human diversity into an evolutionary VFKHPH LQ ZKLFK RQFH DJDLQ WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV RFFXSLHG WKH KLJKHVW PRVW privileged position. Describing the exhibits of the Philippine Reservation, The New York Times QRWHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH QDWLYHV RI WKH >PKLOLSSLQH@ LVODQGV SUHVHQWLQJ HYHU\WKLQJ IURP WKH SULPLWLYH IJRURW DQG WKH NHJULWR WR WKH KLJK W\SH EHDXWLIXO PDLGHQ RI WKH VLVD\DQ YLOODJH DQG WKH ZRQGHUIXOO\ GULOOHG VROGLHU RI WKH VFRXWV DQG FRQVWDEXODU\ PLOLWDU\ GHWDFKPHQWV PRUH WKDQ MXVWLI\ the liveliest imagination.â&#x20AC;? The implication, then, is that the undercurrent RI APHULFDQ DVVLPLODWLRQ UDLVHG WKH RQFH VDYDJH CKULVWLDQ FLOLSLQR LQVXUJHQW LQWR WKH UDQNV RI â&#x20AC;&#x153;KLJKHU KXPDQLW\ â&#x20AC;? UHFDVWLQJ WKH GLPLQXWLYH EURZQ NDWLYH LQ WKH NKDNL FODG PROG RI WKH ZHOO WUDLQHG U S VROGLHU McGee intended to combine â&#x20AC;&#x153;the vigorous vitality symbolized by the UQLYHUVDO H[SRVLWLRQ â&#x20AC;? ZLWK WKH â&#x20AC;&#x153;YLULOH VXEMHFW RI KXPDQ SURJUHVV â&#x20AC;? The LPE would be the site of in-depth, theoretically cutting-edge inquiry, providing â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKH ZRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V ÂżQHVW RSSRUWXQLW\ IRU IUDPLQJ WKH VFLHQFH >RI DQWKURSRORJ\@ DQG VHWWLQJ LW RQ D ÂżUP EDVLV â&#x20AC;? As such, while exhibition directors agreed WR LQFOXGH VWDWLF PXVHXP H[KLELWV LQ WKH ÂżQDO OD\RXW RI WKH E[SRVLWLRQ the departmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s real underlying focus would be the global village of living evolutionary types. In the eyes of the exposition planners, then, the term evolution was a key â&#x20AC;&#x201C; if not controversial â&#x20AC;&#x201C; word, and anthropological displays ZHUH LQWHQGHG WR GHSLFW GHYHORSPHQW QRW MXVW WKH RUGHU RI WKLQJV AV DDYLG R FUDQFLV SUHVLGHQW RI WKH E[SRVLWLRQ ZURWH LQ Century Magazine in -XQH WZR SUHYDLOLQJ QRWLRQV GHWHUPLQHG WKH GLVSOD\ RUGHU DW WKH FDLU WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RI LQGHÂżQLWH H[SDQVLRQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;HYROXWLRQ LI \RX SOHDVH â&#x20AC;? KH VDLG DQG WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI SURFHVV WKH â&#x20AC;&#x153;HYROXWLRQ RI UDZ PDWHULDO WR WKH ÂżQLVKHG SURGXFW WKH VXEVHUYLHQFH RI QDWXUDO IRUFHV WR WKH XVH RI PDQNLQG â&#x20AC;? 71 To better understand this underlying thematic scheme of evolutionary progress, one must engage in a closer examination of the true characteristic tent pole of WKH SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ WKH PKLOLSSLQH RHVHUYDWLRQ AV YLVLWRU MUV CKDUOHV LXVN UHPDUNHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;AQG WKHQ WKHUH LV WKH PKLOLSSLQH E[SRVLWLRQ DQG DOO those curious peoples whom zealous scientists have gone in search of to the far FRUQHUV RI WKH HDUWK DQG EURXJKW WR SW LRXLV DV ÂľAQWKURSRORJLFDOVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; DQG ODEHOHG

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GLOEHUW Whose Fair? â&#x20AC;&#x153;NDWLYH FLOLSLQRV LQ D NDWXUDO EQYLURQPHQW T\SLFDO LLIH RI WKH IVODQGV RHYHDOHG LQ the St. Louis Fair Exhibit,â&#x20AC;? The New York Times -XO\ AFFHVVHG ASULO KWWS TXHU\ Q\WLPHV FRP JVW DEVWUDFW KWPO"UHV A DE DB F AE A C A C D CF VFS VT PKLOLSSLQH E[SRVLWLRQ VW S

Kramer, Anthropology Goes to the Fair

â&#x20AC;&#x153;AQWKURSRORJ\ DW WKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ â&#x20AC;? 71 Gilbert, Whose Fair? The Academical Heritage Review

interesting.â&#x20AC;?72 WLWK DQ DSSURSULDWHG EXGJHW RI RQH DQG D KDOI PLOOLRQ GROODUV WKH forty-seven-acre Philippine Reservation was placed on a wooded, rolling XSODQGV DUHD RI FRUHVW PDUN MXVW EH\RQG WKH PDODFH RI AJULFXOWXUH 73 Devoted to displaying the recently conquered and â&#x20AC;&#x153;mostlyâ&#x20AC;? assimilated indigenous HWKQLF JURXSV RI WKH PKLOLSSLQH IVODQGV DQ LVODQG SRVVHVVLRQ RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV SXUFKDVHG IURP SSDLQ DV D VHWWOHPHQW WR WKH SSDQLVK APHULFDQ WDU RI WKH PRVW SURPLQHQW HOHPHQW RI WKH H[KLELW ZDV ZKDW KDV EHHQ described by historian James Gilbert as an â&#x20AC;&#x153;anthropological zoo.â&#x20AC;? These KXPDQ H[KLELWV VHUYHG DV LQWULFDWH UHSURGXFWLRQV RI QDWLYH YLOODJHV IURP ÂżYH principle cultural groups brought over from the archipelago. â&#x20AC;&#x153;These villages and the native people selected to inhabit them were carefully scrutinized by anthropologists who regulated everything from diet to dancing to maintain ZKDW WKH\ GHÂżQHG DV DXWKHQWLFLW\ â&#x20AC;? ZULWHV GLOEHUW 74 These exhibits of indigenous people and cultures, then, extended the general organizational scheme of the entire fair, illustrating in detail â&#x20AC;&#x153;the consequences of applying complex hierarchical categories to human civilizations as well as industrial products.â&#x20AC;? TKH GLVSOD\ RI VRPH GLYHUVH FLOLSLQR SHRSOHV UHSUHVHQWHG this underlying principle of human evolution: fairgoers could progress from KXQWLQJ GHPRQVWUDWLRQV E\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;SULPLWLYH â&#x20AC;? WKLQO\ FORWKHG NHJULWR DUFKHUV WR regimented arms displays by Filipino scouts. In a telling photographic display of the fair, titled â&#x20AC;&#x153;Evolution of a Bontoc Igorot Man,â&#x20AC;? the viewer looks upon D VHULHV RI WKUHH SURÂżOHG SKRWRJUDSKV LQ ZKLFK D VKLUWOHVV ORQJKDLUHG NDWLYH with a hunched posture gradually takes on the appearance of a regimented Filipino scout, complete with short-cropped hair, sergeantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s insignia and a FRQÂżGHQW VWUDLJKW FDUULDJH TKH LQWHQWLRQ RI VXFK D YLVXDO LV LQGLVSXWDEOH WKH progression of a lowly, uncivilized â&#x20AC;&#x153;savageâ&#x20AC;? to enlightened soldier through the JUDFH RI WHVWHUQ WXWHODJH IQ ZULWLQJ RI SKRWRJUDSK\ DW WKH IDLU DXWKRU EULF BUHLWEDUW VWDWHV â&#x20AC;&#x153;MDQ\ SW LRXLV WRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FDLU SKRWRJUDSKV VKRZ IURQW DQG side-view close-ups to identify ethnic groups, or, in some cases, supposedly showing the transformation of an Igorot into a civilized member of the PKLOLSSLQH CRQVWDEXODU\ WR SHUSHWXDWH UDFLVW VWHUHRW\SHV â&#x20AC;? Fairgoers, then, were meant to walk away with a simple, clear-cut impression: American benevolent rule was essential to the progression of the Philippine people from XQFLYLOL]HG VORWK WR HQOLJKWHQHG CKULVWLDQ Popular exhibits in the Philippine Reservation included a full-size reconstruction of the entrance to the city of Manila (the battleground of CRPPRGRUH GHRUJH DHZH\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V IDPHG QDYDO YLFWRU\ RYHU WKH SSDQLVK PDFLÂżF STXDGURQ PDQXIDFWXUHG SURGXFWV DQG UDZ PDWHULDOV HWKQRORJLFDO artifacts, photographic displays (such as the aforementioned â&#x20AC;&#x153;Evolution of D BRQWRF IJRURW MDQâ&#x20AC;? PRGHO VFKRROV DQG RYHU FLOLSLQR QDWLYHV ZKR lived in four â&#x20AC;&#x153;authenticâ&#x20AC;? villages surrounding Arrowhead Lake. Houses for the MRUR VLVD\DQ IJRURW DQG TDJDORJ ZHUH FRQVWUXFWHG WR UHSUHVHQW WKH SHRSOHVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; 72 73 74

Parezo and Fowler, Anthropology Goes to the Fair OfÂżcial Program: June 16, 1904, 8. Ibid., 28. Ibid. Breitbart, A World on Display Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

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traditional customs, habits, and conditions of daily life. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The villages would be free to the public,â&#x20AC;? writes Breitbart in A World on Display â&#x20AC;&#x153;EXW ÂľVSHFLDO entertainments,â&#x20AC;&#x2122; such as ceremonial dances, would have separate admission fees.â&#x20AC;?77 For visitors who crossed over the reproduction of the Manila Bridge FRPPRQO\ NQRZQ DV WKH BULGJH RI SSDLQ WKHUH ZDV PXFK WR VHH WKH HOHJDQW EXURSHDQ VW\OH VLVD\DQ ZRPHQ LQ WKHLU LQWULFDWH IRUPDO JRZQV WKH FRORUIXOO\ dressed and animated Bagobos; the band concerts and precision marching GULOOV RI WKH PKLOLSSLQH CRQVWDEXODU\ WKH LQIDPRXVO\ KDOI QDNHG IJRURWV DQG RI FRXUVH WKH â&#x20AC;&#x153;ZHDNOLQJV RI ORZ VWDWXUH â&#x20AC;? WKH NHJULWRV 78 For many audience PHPEHUV WKH DSSUR[LPDWHO\ WKLUW\ WKUHH NHJULWR â&#x20AC;&#x153;VSHFLPHQVâ&#x20AC;? JDWKHUHG DW the St. Louis Exposition represented the supposed â&#x20AC;&#x153;missing linkâ&#x20AC;? from the evolutionary ladder of man. Fairgoers gawked at their loincloths and primitive spears, and remarked at the impossibility that they â&#x20AC;&#x201C; white, middle-class APHULFDQV Âą FRXOG HYHU KDYH HYROYHG IURP VXFK D SULPLWLYH ÂżJXUH â&#x20AC;&#x153;>T@KH NHJULWRV DUH YHU\ LQWHUHVWLQJ TKH ORZHVW JUDGH RI KXPDQ FUHDWXUHV XQGHU WKH MXULVGLFWLRQ RI WKH PUHVLGHQW RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV WKH\ DUH PRUH GHEDVHG LQ PRUDOV PRUH IHHEOH RI LQWHOOHFW WKDQ WKH DLJJHU IQGLDQV RI CDOLIRUQLDâ&#x20AC;Śâ&#x20AC;? The rare and intriguing spectacle of such displays â&#x20AC;&#x201C; in which bare-breasted TDJDORJ ZRPHQ ZRYH GUHVVHV IRU FRPPHUFLDO XVH VLVD\DQ GZDUIV GDQFHG FHUHPRQLRXVO\ LQ WHVWHUQ VW\OH FORWKLQJ DQG BRQWRF IJRURW KXQWHUV VNLQQHG and prepared a household dog for eating (which Missouri governor Hunt would WHDUIXOO\ UHIHU WR DV â&#x20AC;&#x153;D VDG VSHFWDFOH ZKLFK WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV QHYHU ZLWQHVVHG EHIRUH â&#x20AC;? Âą ZRXOG PDNH WKH PKLOLSSLQH RHVHUYDWLRQ D SRSXODU LI VHQVDWLRQDOLVW phenomenon among fairgoers.79 As one newspaper headline observed: â&#x20AC;&#x153;All roads led to the Filipinos.â&#x20AC;? In a public statement provided by exhibition directors, visitors to the PKLOLSSLQH RHVHUYDWLRQ ZHUH HQFRXUDJHG WR FRQVLGHU WKH LQQXPHUDEOH EHQHÂżWV of an American form of tutelage in the wake of the moral degeneracy of Spanish colonial rule: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Those who visit the Philippine exhibit must stop to consider that four hundred years ago the inhabitants were a most primitive people, separated into many small tribes, before they can really appreciate the meaning and the value of the picture set before them.â&#x20AC;?81 Exhibits proclaimed the decadence and thievery that characterized the Spanish colonial system, asserting that the LQVWLWXWLRQ SURÂżWHG RQO\ ORFDO JRYHUQRUV DQG PDGH QR DWWHPSW WR HGXFDWH RU morally enlighten the indigenous peoples of the Philippines. The underlying message for St. Louis audiences, then, was simple: American benevolent rule ZDV YDVWO\ VXSHULRU WR SSDQLVK FRORQLDOLVP VLVLWRUV ZHUH WROG KRZ FLOLSLQRV ZHUH QRZ â&#x20AC;&#x153;JRLQJ WR D GLIIHUHQW VFKRRO ZLWK PRVW EHQHÂżFLDO UHVXOWVâ&#x20AC;ŚTKHUH has been a palpable, visible advancement, and the time is coming when the purchase of the Philippine Islands will seem as wise to our descendants as does the Louisiana Purchase seem to us who live today.â&#x20AC;?82 The very layout of the entrance into the Philippine Reservation

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IELG IELG 79 Parezo and Fowler, Anthropology Goes to the Fair, 181-182. Breitbart, A World on Display 81 Parezo and Fowler, Anthropology Goes to the Fair 82 Ibid. The Academical Heritage Review

UHĂ&#x20AC;HFWHG WKLV XQGHUO\LQJ PHVVDJH RI APHULFDQ VXSHULRULW\ RYHU WKH SSDQLVK colonialist system: visitors entered the area over the Bridge of Spain and ZDONHG LQWR D WDOOHG CLW\ ZKHUH WKH\ LPPHGLDWHO\ HQFRXQWHUHG WKH WDU Departmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s armament exhibit and a replica of Manilaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ramparts.83 The implication for visitors to the Reservation, then, was that they were effectively leaving the remnants of Spanish governance and antiquity behind them as WKH\ HQWHUHG WKH WDOOHG CLW\ WKH YDVW GLVSOD\ RI U S PLOLWDU\ ÂżUHSRZHU Âą LQ accordance with the display of Manilaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ramparts â&#x20AC;&#x201C; welcomed fairgoers into WKH YHU\ ERVRP RI APHULFDQ LQGXVWULDO PLJKW WKURXJK WKH LQIHUHQFH RI U S YLFWRU\ LQ WKH UHFHQWO\ FRQFOXGHG SSDQLVK APHULFDQ WDU SXFK D SK\VLFDO layout was not merely designed for casual fairgoers; rather, it was also LQWHQGHG IRU QRQ CKULVWLDQ FLOLSLQR SDUWLFLSDQWV â&#x20AC;&#x153;FLOLSLQRV SHH IPSUHVVLYH Array,â&#x20AC;? reads one headline in the St Louis Post Dispatch, describing a parade RI PDUFKLQJ U S WURRSV LQWR WKH PKLOLSSLQH RHVHUYDWLRQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH FLOLSLQRV ZHUH allowed to see everything,â&#x20AC;? the article states, â&#x20AC;&#x153;and to be properly impressed with the great display of soldiery.â&#x20AC;?84 UQIRUWXQDWHO\ QDWLYH DXGLHQFHV GLG QRW always entertain such displays of American industrial and military prowess: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Moros are lending themselves less readily to the ways of the American. It is believed in many quarters that the assimilation of the Igorot men, the KHDGKXQWHUV ZLOO QRW EH GLIÂżFXOW EXW WKH DVVLPLODWLRQ RI WKH MRURV DV D UDFH will be impossible.â&#x20AC;? FRU ERWK H[SRVLWLRQ DQWKURSRORJLVWV DQG U S SROLF\ PDNHUV DOLNH WKH RSHQLQJ RI WKH SW LRXLV FDLU ZDV PHW ZLWK D ELWWHU VZHHW response: on one hand, the relatively large, if not record-breaking, numbers RI DWWHQGDQFH UHĂ&#x20AC;HFWHG D VWURQJ APHULFDQ LQWHUHVW LQ WKH SURFHHGLQJV RI WKH Philippine question and, for McGee, a greater fascination with anthropology as a genuine science; on the other hand, the sensationalist displays of â&#x20AC;&#x153;savageryâ&#x20AC;? ultimately proved more interesting to fairgoers than the carefully calculated portrayals of Filipino assimilation and the greater ethnological â&#x20AC;&#x153;evolutionâ&#x20AC;? of PDQ AV CKDUOHV SSDKU DQ RIÂżFLDO LQ WKH NHZ YRUN AQWL IPSHULDOLVW LHDJXH DVWXWHO\ SURSKHVL]HG LQ WKH PRQWKV SUHFHGLQJ WKH E[SRVLWLRQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;>I@Q DOO such collections, the desire for the peculiar and picturesque is likely to get the better of the desire for the fairly representative.â&#x20AC;? For exhibition directors and government policy-makers, then, the LQFOXVLRQ RI D PRGHO WHVWHUQ VW\OH FLOLSLQR VFKRRO ZDV HVVHQWLDO WR VXEGXLQJ the outspoken criticism from prominent members of the American AntiLPSHULDOLVW LHDJXH LQFOXGLQJ IDPHG DXWKRU SDPXHO COHPHQV IRUPHU PUHVLGHQW GURYHU COHYHODQG DQG VWHHO EDURQ AQGUHZ CDUQHJLH â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH >IQGLDQ@ School is designed not merely as a consummation, but as a prophecy,â&#x20AC;? wrote -RKQ HDQVRQ LQ KLV KLVWRU\ RI WKH IDLU â&#x20AC;&#x153;NRZ WKDW RWKHU SULPLWLYH SHRSOHV DUH SDVVLQJ XQGHU WKH EHQHÂżFHQW LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH DQG SURWHFWLRQ RI WKH SWDUV DQG SWULSHV it is needful to take stock of past progress as a guide to the future.â&#x20AC;?87 As such, with previous government-sponsored Indian schools as a template, exhibition GLUHFWRUV FRQVWUXFWHG D â&#x20AC;&#x153;MRGHO SFKRROKRXVHâ&#x20AC;? WR UHĂ&#x20AC;HFW WKH PDQQHU LQ ZKLFK 84 87

IELG Kramer, The Blood of Government, 3312-3318. PDUH]R DQG FRZOHU Anthropology Goes to the Fair, 187. .UDPHU The Blood of Government Breitbert, A World on Display Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

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WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV ZDV QRW RSSUHVVLQJ EXW LQVWHDG â&#x20AC;&#x153;WXWRULQJâ&#x20AC;? FLOLSLQR VWXGHQWV imparting American ways and moving Filipinos forward in â&#x20AC;&#x153;evolutionary time.â&#x20AC;?88 The schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s primary showcase was a series of classes held by Pilar Zamora, a Tagalog normal-school teacher, which fairgoers could observe from a raised platform behind the seated students.89 According to exposition president David R. Francis, the model schoolhouse exhibit was popular among SW LRXLV YLVLWRUV RIWHQ GUDZLQJ DWWHQGHHV LQ D VLQJOH GD\ VLPLODUO\ D UHJLVWHU RI YLVLWLQJ WHDFKHUV HYHQWXDOO\ FRQWDLQHG VRPH QDPHV And yet, the model Filipino schoolhouse dramatized tutelage along VWULFWO\ ELIXUFDWHG OLQHV WKDW UHĂ&#x20AC;HFWHG FRORQLDO UDFLDO IRUPDWLRQV AV SURYLGHG by historian Paul A. Kramer in The Blood of Government: â&#x20AC;&#x153;An initial class ZDV KHOG H[FOXVLYHO\ IRU FKLOGUHQ IURP WKH VLVD\DQ YLOODJH DQG D VHFRQG IRU FKLOGUHQ IURP GLYHUVH QRQ CKULVWLDQ YLOODJHV TKH PKLOLSSLQH FRORQLDO VWDWH it seemed, was a single engine of assimilation that separated groups on HLWKHU VLGH RI HLVSDQLF CDWKROLF LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH DQG PRYHG HDFK RI WKHP IRUZDUG in different directions.â&#x20AC;?91 TKH OLJKW VNLQQHG VLVD\DQV WKHQ FRPSOHWH ZLWK their European-style clothing and elegant, Anglo facial features, were given HGXFDWLRQDO SULRULW\ RYHU WKH QRQ CKULVWLDQ SDUWLFLSDQWV DW WKH IDLU E[KLELWLRQ GLUHFWRUV LQ FRRUGLQDWLRQ ZLWK U S SROLF\ PDNHUV ZDQWHG WR VWUHVV WKH underlying importance of Filipino assimilation through the public display RI SRLVHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKLWH IULHQGO\â&#x20AC;? VLVD\DQV DQG WKH LPPDFXODWH PLOLWDU\ GULOOV RI the Hispanicized Filipino scouts. The implication for audiences was simple: CKULVWLDQLW\ VHUYHG DV D FKLHI RUJDQL]DWLRQDO IDFWRU LQ WKH PKLOLSSLQHV PDUNLQJ the superiority of those indigenous ethnic groups which had supposedly VXEVFULEHG PRVW WKRURXJKO\ WR IRUPV RI WHVWHUQ HQOLJKWHQPHQW DQG WXWHODJH â&#x20AC;&#x153;The problem,â&#x20AC;? the St. Louis Post Dispatch ZRXOG ZULWH LQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;LV KRZ DQG where to draw the color line on the Filipinos who have been brought to the fair.â&#x20AC;?92 Potential for Americanization was a dominant theme in the model school, seen as a sign of readiness for self-rule, and the school drew national attention from President Theodore Roosevelt who visited at the end of NRYHPEHU ZDPRUD LQVWUXFWHG WKH IJRURW VWXGHQWV Âą RQH RI ZKRP ZDV VWDU SXSLO AQWHUR D ÂżIWHHQ \HDU ROG IJRURW ZKR KDG JDLQHG ZLGH PHGLD DWWHQWLRQ VLQFH KLV DUULYDO DW WKH IDLU Âą WR VLQJ D FKRUXV RI â&#x20AC;&#x153;M\ CRXQWU\ ÂľTLV RI TKHH â&#x20AC;?93 As Parezo and Fowler provide, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The president was reported as commenting on how quickly the Igorots had advanced after being exposed to American FLYLOL]DWLRQ ÂľIW LV ZRQGHUIXO SXFK DGYDQFHPHQW DQG LQ VR VKRUW D WLPH!â&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;?94 NRQHWKHOHVV UHSRUWHUV RIWHQ SXW IDQFLIXO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV RQ FURVV FXOWXUDO HQFRXQWHUV PDNLQJ QDWLYHV Âą JHQHUDOO\ QRQ CKULVWLDQ FLOLSLQRV Âą WKH EXWW RI QXPHURXV FXOWXUDO MRNHV UHJDUGLQJ â&#x20AC;&#x153;SULPLWLYHV â&#x20AC;? A St. Louis Post-Dispatch cartoon showcased a small black man with wild, abundant hair, earrings, wide

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88 Kramer, The Blood of Government, 3377-3383. 89 Ibid. IELG 91 Ibid., ll. 3383-3389. 92 Ibid., ll. 2978-2982. 93 Parezo and Fowler, Anthropology Goes to the Fair, 174. 94 Ibid. The Academical Heritage Review

lips and large feet, clothed in a white skirt and holding a club, being confronted by an outraged Humane Society member who shielded a cowering dog. According to one reporter, the Igorotsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; â&#x20AC;&#x153;barbaric minds can suggest nothing more humane than to tie the poor dog to a stake, hit him in the face four or ÂżYH WLPHV ZLWK D JQDUOHG EROH RI D EDQ\DQ WUHH DQG WKHQ VNLQ KLP IRU EDNLQJ â&#x20AC;? FRU DOO RI WKH LQVWDQFHV LQ ZKLFK JRYHUQPHQW DQG H[KLELWLRQ RIÂżFLDOV KHUDOGHG WKH HQOLJKWHQPHQW DQG DVVLPLODWLRQ RI WKH QRQ CKULVWLDQ NDWLYH DW WKH IDLU WKH Igorot village compound nonetheless came to be known as â&#x20AC;&#x153;Dogtownâ&#x20AC;? among IDLUJRHUV TKH PRGHO FLOLSLQR VFKRROKRXVH XOWLPDWHO\ HVWDEOLVKHG D FRQĂ&#x20AC;LFWLQJ UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI WKH LQGLJHQRXV PKLOLSSLQH NDWLYH ZLWKLQ WHVWHUQ DXGLHQFHV RQ RQH KDQG WKH ZHOO VSRNHQ VLVD\DQ SHRSOHV Âą DORQJ ZLWK WKH LPPDFXODWHO\ WUDLQHG FLOLSLQR VFRXWV Âą UHĂ&#x20AC;HFWHG WKH VXFFHVV RI APHULFDQ DVVLPLODWLRQ LQ WKH PKLOLSSLQHV DQG \HW WKH â&#x20AC;&#x153;VDYDJHâ&#x20AC;? DQG â&#x20AC;&#x153;XQFLYLOL]HGâ&#x20AC;? GLVSOD\V RI WKH NHJULWR and Igorot exhibits merely implied that this process of American tutelage was strangely incomplete. As Kramer argues in The Blood of Government, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Indeed, in the eyes of many viewers, there were not two lines of parallel SURJUHVV Âą RQH CKULVWLDQ DQG RQH QRQ CKULVWLDQ Âą EXW D VLQJOH RQH ZLWK Americans civilizing what had previously been an entirely savage Philippine population.â&#x20AC;?97 The implication among American audiences was simple: the Philippine Insurrection was not, and could not be quelled until all ethnic groups of the islands were properly enlightened and civilized. CRQWUDU\ WR WKH LGHDOL]HG H[SHFWDWLRQV RI H[KLELWLRQ GLUHFWRUV outbreaks of violence between white spectators and â&#x20AC;&#x153;assimilatedâ&#x20AC;? Filipino scouts did occur, and would serve to undermine the manner in which Filipino exhibition participants were expected to learn the â&#x20AC;&#x153;valueâ&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and, more LPSRUWDQWO\ VRFLR UDFLDO FRVWXPHV Âą RI APHULFDQ FXOWXUH ZKLOH LQ WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV TRZDUG WKH HQG RI -XQH D QXPEHU RI PKLOLSSLQH SFRXWV KDG been observed strolling throughout the fairgrounds in the intimate company of young, white , female admirers and accepting their invitations to various social gatherings. As the St. Louis Post Dispatch QRWHG ZLWK DEMHFW KRUURU this social development between races meant that Filipino troops at St. Louis were â&#x20AC;&#x153;now accepted asâ&#x20AC;Śsocial equal[s] in a widening circleâ&#x20AC;? and considered â&#x20AC;&#x153;superior in attraction to the other uniformed men at the Fair.â&#x20AC;?98 Indeed, the article speculated ominously, â&#x20AC;&#x153;it will not be strange if some of the Philippine soldiers, when they sail away, leave American brides behind, as American soldiers returning from the Philippines leave Philippine brides behind.â&#x20AC;? 99 In stating the underlying essence of the dilemma, the Post-Dispatch shed rare and surprising insight on the colonial question more broadly. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The problem,â&#x20AC;? it observed, â&#x20AC;&#x153;isâ&#x20AC;Ś[t]o what extent, if any, shall the tanned tribesmen of the tropics be permitted to associate with their white assimilators? If they are to be permitted to sip sparingly of the social delights, how is it to be expressed upon them that thus far they may go and no farther?â&#x20AC;? The answer to this question IELG IELG 97 Kramer, The Blood of Government IELG 99 Ibid. IELG Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

8 1

would ultimately be found within the minor, if rather startling, eruptions of YLROHQFH EHWZHHQ PKLOLSSLQH SFRXWV DQG SRXWKHUQ WKLWH PDOH IDLUJRHUV â&#x20AC;&#x153;FRU >WKLWH SRXWKHUQ PHQ@ WKH YLVLRQ RI SFRXW WURRSV ZLWK ZKLWH women did not carry colonial messages of assimilation,â&#x20AC;? writes Kramer, â&#x20AC;&#x153;EXW VLJQDOHG DODUPLQJ UXSWXUHV RI -LP CURZ UDFLDO VWULFWXUHV â&#x20AC;? In taking the exhibition and colonial regimeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s underlying message of benevolent assimilation seriously, members of the Philippine Scouts were unconsciously violating the principal precept of white Southern male self-possession: the monopolization of white women by white men as a means of controlling both the women contingent and the non-white men perceived to threaten this racial-sexual status quo. This threat would ultimately be met by open YLROHQFH OQ -XO\ WZHQW\ U S PDULQHV VWDWLRQHG RQ WKH IDLUJURXQGV VHW RXW at midnight to attack the Scout encampment and â&#x20AC;&#x153;teach the Filipinos to let white women alone,â&#x20AC;? only to be intercepted by the fairâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s guards, with whom WKH\ VFXIĂ&#x20AC;HG TKH IROORZLQJ HYHQLQJ WKH PHQ UHJURXSHG DQG DWWDFNHG VHYHUDO Scouts in the company of white women near the midway display entitled â&#x20AC;&#x153;Mysterious Asia.â&#x20AC;? According to one report, the resulting melee eventually LQYROYHG PHQ Such outbreaks of racial violence, while no doubt fueled by the consumption of liquor, nonetheless display the manner in which the XQGHUO\LQJ FRORQLDO PHVVDJHV RI WKH SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ ZHUH XOWLPDWHO\ LQ FRQĂ&#x20AC;LFW ZLWK ORQJ HVWDEOLVKHG VRFLDO QRUPV LQ WKH PHWURSROLWDQ VSKHUH AOWKRXJK H[KLELWLRQ GLUHFWRUV DQG U S SROLF\ PDNHUV DOLNH FKDPSLRQHG WKH proclamations of assimilation, enlightenment and equality, the truth of the matter was that these messages were ultimately thinly-veiled conventions used to tailor audience perceptions to an acceptance of Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s newborn colonial empire. Subsequently, essential to solidifying public opinion in favor of expansionism was the ability of exhibition directors and anthropologists to establish an impression of peaceful indigenous productivity and labor. ASSRLQWHG LQ WKH TDIW CRPPLVVLRQ YLHZHG HFRQRPLF GHYHORSPHQW in the Philippine Islands â&#x20AC;&#x201C; along with education and the establishment of UHSUHVHQWDWLYH LQVWLWXWLRQV Âą DV RQH RI WKH WKUHH SLOODUV RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV program of tutelage. Governor-General Taft, Presidents McKinley and President Roosevelt perceived the islands as a potential economic investment in the vein of British Malaya, the Dutch East Indies or French Indochina; VXEVHTXHQWO\ OLNH PLQGHG U S SROLF\ PDNHUV KDG DPELWLRXV SODQV WR FRQVWUXFW railroad and highway networks throughout the archipelago, modernize harbor facilities (predominantly through inland railway connections that ZRXOG WUDQVSRUW FRDO GHSRVLWV GLUHFWO\ WR FRDVWDO U S UHIXHOLQJ VWDWLRQV Âą D key consideration in Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inevitable economic push into the new open PDUNHWV RI -DSDQ RSHQ JUHDWHU PDUNHWV IRU PKLOLSSLQH JRRGV WKURXJK WKH lowering or elimination of restrictive tariff policies, and to stimulate foreign LQYHVWPHQW LQ PLQLQJ IRUHVWU\ DQG FDVK FURS FXOWLYDWLRQ IQ VRPH percent of the islandsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; total land area was public property, and it was hoped

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IELG IELG IELG The Academical Heritage Review

DPRQJ FDSLWDOLVW PLQGHG U S EXUHDXFUDWV WKDW D VXEVWDQWLDO SRUWLRQ RI WKLV landmass could be sold to aspiring American investors in a situation that bore more than a passing resemblance to that witnessed in Guatemala as EDQDQD EDURQ MLQRU .HLWKâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V UQLWHG FUXLW CRPSDQ\ VHL]HG FRQWURO RI YDVW portions of native land. These plans for economic stimulation in the islands, however, were ultimately thwarted by powerful agricultural considerations LQ WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV CRQJUHVV GRPHVWLF LQWHUHVWV WKDW ZRXOG HIIHFWLYHO\ GLFWDWH WKH HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI WKH LDQG AFW MXFK WR WKH FKDJULQ RI TDIW and expansionist-minded members of the Republican Party, this new policy GLFWDWHG WKDW D OLPLW RI KHFWDUHV RI PKLOLSSLQH SXEOLF ODQG FRXOG EH VROG RU OHDVHG WR APHULFDQ LQGLYLGXDOV DQG WKDW RQO\ KHFWDUHV FRXOG EH JUDQWHG to American corporations. TKH IRUWKFRPLQJ SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ then, became a proverbial battleground, in which Taft hoped to sway public opinion in favor of increased economic liberties in the Philippines through the HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI DQ LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQWLDO FRQWLQJHQW RI SULYDWH U S LQYHVWRUV Essential to this undertaking was the portrayal of a peaceful, economic-friendly Philippines in which the local population was industrious and mild-mannered. As provided by Parezo and Fowler, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Mountains of raw materials were shown being turned into products of native manufacture. NDWLYH WRROV ZHUH LQWHUSUHWHG DV XVHIXO EXW XQUHÂżQHG FRQYH\LQJ WKH PHVVDJH that the Philippines needed American expertise to develop prosperous market economies.â&#x20AC;? Depicting the moral uplift of the indigenous Filipino under American guidance, then, went hand-in-hand with the portrayal of DQ LQGXVWULRXV DQG SDFLÂżHG FLOLSLQR ODQGVFDSH Âą D GXDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ WKDW ZDV HPERGLHG LQ WKH SHDFHIXO LQGXVWULRXV QDWXUH RI WKH VLVD\DQ H[KLELW â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH VLVD\DQV VLW LQ WKH RSHQ ORZHU VWRU\ RI WKHLU KRXVHV FDUU\LQJ RQ WKHLU industriesâ&#x20AC;ŚIf an American visitor asks a question the answer is given readily and courteously but their eyes are seldom raised from their workâ&#x20AC;Ś TKH VLVD\DQ DUH KRPH SHRSOH â&#x20AC;? Both the casual fairgoer and the intrigued SRWHQWLDO LQYHVWRU WR WKH SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ QHHGHG WR VHH D GLVSOD\ of the Philippine Islands that at once demonstrated the enlightenment of a â&#x20AC;&#x153;RQFH VDYDJHâ&#x20AC;? SHRSOH WKURXJK PRGHO CKULVWLDQ VFKRROLQJ DQG HGXFDWLRQ ZKLOH DOVR SRUWUD\LQJ WKH LVODQGV DV D SRVLWLYH LQYHVWPHQW FOLPDWH IRU U S FRPPHUFLDO LQWHUHVWV FRU PDQ\ U S SROLF\ PDNHUV WKH UHDO XQGHUO\LQJ REMHFWLYH RI WKH SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ ZDV QRW QHFHVVDULO\ WR OHJLWLPL]H WKH U S RFFXSDWLRQ RI WKH PKLOLSSLQHV UDWKHU LW ZDV WR VHDO APHULFDQ DQG international investment in the islands and to promote free trade in order to WXUQ WKH FRORQLDO SRVVHVVLRQ LQWR D ÂżQDQFLDO FRPPRGLW\ AV GRYHUQRU GHQHUDO TDIW VWDWHG GXULQJ D WULS WR SW LRXLV LQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKLV E[SRVLWLRQ FRPHV DW D FULWLFDO SRLQW LQ WKH KLVWRU\ RI WKH PKLOLSSLQHV WH DUH DW D SRLQW ZKHUH WKHUH SUHYDLOV misinformation, misunderstanding, and an unconscious misrepresentation UHJDUGLQJ XV NRWKLQJ I WKLQN FDQ EULQJ WKH WZR SHRSOHV WRJHWKHU WR SURPRWH friendly and trade relations between the States and the Archipelago so well as RRQDOG E DRODQ Philippines: A Country Study WDVKLQJWRQ D C U S G P O IELG PDUH]R DQG FRZOHU Anthropology Goes to the Fair IELG Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

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such an exhibit as I hope we will be able to make at your exposition.â&#x20AC;? Taft believed that such an exhibit would put Philippine resources before the eyes of American consumers and investors, and would simultaneously UHSUHVHQW WKH LVODQGV DV D SDFLÂżHG DQG SRVLWLYH LQYHVWPHQW FOLPDWH LQ QHHG RI ORZHUHG WDULIIV B\ PKLOLSSLQH APHULFDQ VWDWHOHVVQHVV ZDV QR ORQJHU WKH XQGHUO\LQJ SUREOHP WKDW IDFHG WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV DOWKRXJK WKH FRORQLDO state still faced many formidable obstacles. There was ongoing Filipino PLOLWDU\ UHVLVWDQFH DQG WHQVLRQ EHWZHHQ FLYLOLDQ RIÂżFLDOV DQG WKH U S AUP\ IQ WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV DQWL LPSHULDOLVW FULWLFV FRQWLQXHG WR UDLVH TXHVWLRQV DERXW APHULFDQ SROLF\ LQ WKH PKLOLSSLQHV DQG CRQJUHVV UHPDLQHG UHOXFWDQW WR HQDFW WDULIIV SUHIHUHQWLDO WR WKH FRORQ\ CRQIURQWHG ZLWK WKHVH LVVXHV DQG HDJHU to promote successful civilian rule and the end of war in the islands, Taft, PUHVLGHQW RRRVHYHOW DQG SHFUHWDU\ RI WDU RRRW EHOLHYHG WKDW WKH SW LRXLV Louisiana Purchase Exposition offered an ideal opportunity to promote public investment in the islands (and thus potentially elevate the Philippines to an HFRQRPLF VWDWXV RQ SDU ZLWK WKDW RI CXED ZKLOH VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ GHPRQVWUDWLQJ a symbolic control of the islands that American troops were still carving out. FRU H[KLELWLRQ RIÂżFLDO DQG FROOHFWRU IRU WKH CRPPHUFLDO MXVHXP GXVWDYR NLHGHUOHLQ WKH SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ ZDV ÂżUVW DQG IRUHPRVW an â&#x20AC;&#x153;industrialâ&#x20AC;? and â&#x20AC;&#x153;commercialâ&#x20AC;? undertaking, a â&#x20AC;&#x153;great show of Philippine natural wealthâ&#x20AC;? and â&#x20AC;&#x153;Philippine economic and social lifeâ&#x20AC;? in which the islands were to be presented as a modern zone of production and, to a lesser H[WHQW FRQVXPSWLRQ DQG FLOLSLQRV ZRXOG EH GHSLFWHG DV SURÂżFLHQW ODERUHUV and consumers. APRQJ KLV LQWHQGHG SXEOLFV NLHGHUOHLQ SULRULWL]HG â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKH capitalist and enterprising pioneerâ&#x20AC;? through the creation of a â&#x20AC;&#x153;pueblo-market placeâ&#x20AC;? in which â&#x20AC;&#x153;the various Philippine industries [would] be presented in full process.â&#x20AC;?111 NDWLYH PDQXIDFWXUHUV ZRXOG PDNH VLQDPD\ WLQDPSLSL SLxD DQG MXVL FORWK ZKLOH RWKHUV ZRXOG GHPRQVWUDWH WKH PDNLQJ RI â&#x20AC;&#x153;KDWV DQG PDWV DQG RWKHU ÂżQH EUDLGHG ZDUHâ&#x20AC;ŚFRUGDJH HVVHQWLDO RLOV FLJDUV DQG FLJDUHWWHV SRWWHU\ wood carving, gold and silver smith work, etc.â&#x20AC;?112 Of more importance to aspiring industrial capitalists, however, were proposed plantations of rice and WREDFFR DEDFD FRFRQXW DQG SLxD SODQWV WKDW ZRXOG EH â&#x20AC;&#x153;FRQWLQXDOO\ ZRUNHG by the natives, before the visitors.â&#x20AC;?113 By advertising the potential cash crops of the islands â&#x20AC;&#x201C; namely, coffee, tobacco, pineapple and coconut oil â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Taft and OLNH PLQGHG U S RIÂżFLDOV KRSHG WR SHUVXDGH SRWHQWLDO APHULFDQ EXVLQHVVHV WR LQYHVW LQ WKH FXOWLYDWLRQ DQG VKLSPHQW RI FRPPRGLÂżHG FLOLSLQR PDWHULDOV and resources; and, conversely, to consider the establishment of PhilippineAPHULFDQ H[SRUW UHODWLRQV LQ ZKLFK U S PHFKDQL]HG IDUP HTXLSPHQW OXPEHU and railroad machinery would help pump much needed economic vitality LQWR WKH ZDU WRUQ DUFKLSHODJR â&#x20AC;&#x153;I VLQFHUHO\ KRSH WKDW WKH LQFRPLQJ CRQJUHVV will be alive, as it should be, to the importance of our foreign trade and of HQFRXUDJLQJ LW LQ HYHU\ IHDVLEOH ZD\ â&#x20AC;? PUHVLGHQW TDIW ZRXOG VWDWH LQ KLV

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.UDPHU The Blood of Government IELG IELG 111

Ibid.

IELG 113 Ibid. The Academical Heritage Review

Inaugural Address. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The possibility of increasing this trade in the Orient, in the Philippines, and in South America are known to everyone who has given the matter attention. The direct affect of free trade between this country and the Philippines will be marked upon our sales of cottons, agricultural machinery, and other manufactures.â&#x20AC;?114 Of paramount importance to Taft was WKLV XQGHUO\LQJ GULYH WR HVWDEOLVK D SURWHFWLYH WDULII UHIRUP LQ WKH U S WKDW would encompass the recently acquired Philippine territory. Such a policy would serve to protect American industries in the Philippines from foreign FRPSHWLWLRQ QDPHO\ -DSDQHVH DQG BULWLVK ZKLOH VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ VHUYLQJ WR V\PEROL]H WKH PDQQHU LQ ZKLFK WKH LVODQGV KDG ÂżQDOO\ IDOOHQ XQGHU WKH GHÂżQLWLYH FRORQLDO VXSHUYLVLRQ RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV It becomes apparent, then, that the carefully calculated portrayal of LQGLJHQRXV FLOLSLQR SHRSOHV DW WKH SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ ZDV XOWLPDWHO\ XVHG DV D PHDQV E\ ZKLFK WR ERWK HQFRXUDJH U S LQYHVWPHQW LQ WKH QXPHUDEOH natural resources of the Philippine Islands, and to legitimize the establishment RI D SURWHFWLYH WDULII UHIRUP LQ WKH U S TKH ELIXUFDWLRQ RI WKH LQGLJHQRXV FLOLSLQR DORQJ CKULVWLDQ UDFLDO UHOLJLRXV OLQHV VHUYHG WR DGYDQFH DQ XQGHUO\LQJ U S DJHQGD DPRQJ ERWK JRYHUQPHQW DQG H[KLELWLRQ RIÂżFLDOV QDPHO\ WR V\PEROL]H ZLWKRXW UHDVRQDEOH GRXEW WKH SHDFHIXO DVVLPLODWLRQ RI WKH CKULVWLDQ FLOLSLQR through the coordinated military displays of the Philippine Scouts, and the SXEOLF VFKRROLQJ VHVVLRQV RI WKH AQJOR IULHQGO\ VLVD\DQ SHRSOH LQ DGGLWLRQ WR JXDUDQWHH SURORQJHG U S LQVWLWXWLRQDO LQYROYHPHQW LQ WKH PKLOLSSLQHV WKURXJK WKH XQFLYLOL]HG GLVSOD\V RI QRQ CKULVWLDQ SHRSOHV DW WKH PKLOLSSLQH RHVHUYDWLRQ â&#x20AC;&#x201C; most notably, the Bontoc dog-eating ceremonies; the controversial nearnudity of the Igorot village; as well as the very â&#x20AC;&#x153;primitiveâ&#x20AC;? and â&#x20AC;&#x153;diminutiveâ&#x20AC;? QDWXUH RI WKH NHJULWR SHRSOHV Âą ZKLFK ZRXOG EH XVHG WR GLVSOD\ WKH PDQQHU LQ ZKLFK WKH SHRSOH RI WKH LVODQGV ZHUH VWLOO â&#x20AC;&#x153;XQÂżWâ&#x20AC;? IRU VHOI JRYHUQDQFH IQ FRQMXQFWLRQ WKHVH DQWKURSRORJLFDO GLVSOD\V FUHDWHG WKH LPSUHVVLRQ RI DQ LGHDO VRFLR SROLWLFDO HQYLURQPHQW LQ WKH PKLOLSSLQHV LQ ZKLFK WHVWHUQ FRPPHUFLDO LQYHVWPHQW ZRXOG WKULYH DQG Ă&#x20AC;RXULVK The result, this paper has argued, was an emphasis on the Philippines as a safe, modern zone of economic production and, to a lesser extent, consumption â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a depiction that would ultimately prove consistent with Secretary Taftâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own hopes for the reduction or elimination RI U S WDULIIV RQ PKLOLSSLQH SURGXFWV DV WKH PHDQV WR JUHDWHU WUDGH DQG VWDWH revenues. *

Local St. Louis attorney Edward Schneiderhahn would attend the LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FORVLQJ FHUHPRQ\ RQ DHFHPEHU â&#x20AC;&#x153;AW promptly [midnight] President Francis turned the switch that controlled the SRZHU DQG WKH OLJKW TKH Ă&#x20AC;RRG RI OLJKW JUHZ IDLQWHU DQG IDLQWHU DQG RI D VXGGHQ DOO ZDV GDUNQHVV TKH FDVFDGHV ZHUH VLOHQW TKH VFHQH ZDV GHDG TKH WRUOGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V WLOOLDP H TDIW â&#x20AC;&#x153;IQDXJXUDO AGGUHVV RI WLOOLDP HRZDUG TDIW The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy >MRXUQDO RQ OLQH@ DYDLODEOH IURP KWWS DYDORQ ODZ \DOH HGX WKBFHQWXU\ WDIW DVS .UDPHU The Blood of Government Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

8 5

Fair was no more. It passed into history forever.â&#x20AC;? WLWK WKH FRQFOXVLRQ RI WKH SW LRXLV LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ PDQ\ RI WKH SDUWLFLSDWLQJ ÂżJXUHV Âą LQFOXGLQJ DQWKURSRORJLVW W- MFGHH GRYHUQRU GHQHUDO WLOOLDP H. Taft, various other exhibition directors and organizers, and, of course, WKH SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQGLJHQRXV FLOLSLQRV Âą ZRXOG YLHZ WKH LQWHUQDWLRQDO exhibition as something akin to a failure. As the LPE closed its gates for the ODVW WLPH KHDG RI WKH DHSDUWPHQW RI AQWKURSRORJ\ DW WKH IDLU W- MFGHH GLG not feel that he had achieved his grand vision of displaying anthropologyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knowledge or proving his synthetic theory. He felt that this shortcoming was not necessarily the fault of his vision, theories, assumptions, or methods of SUHVHQWDWLRQ UDWKHU KH ZRXOG DVVHUW WKDW KH KDG IDLOHG EHFDXVH WKH LPEC KDG not given him enough money to bring representatives of all the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s peoples to St. Louis.117 But all was not a loss, for the LPE demonstrated the centrality RI DQWKURSRORJ\ WR DQ\ IXWXUH DGYDQFHV LQ WHVWHUQ NQRZOHGJH DQG VFLHQWLÂżF study. To McGee, the St. Louis Exposition ultimately â&#x20AC;&#x153;gave renewed and fuller PHDQLQJ WR WKH RSLQLRQ RI >WKH@ PRSH WKDW ÂľWKH SURSHU VWXG\ RI PDQNLQG LV man.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;?118 Similarly, although Governor-General Taftâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aspirations for a tariff reform would ultimately be brought to fruition a half-decade later through WKH PD\QH AOGULFK TDULII IROORZLQJ KLV HOHFWLRQ DV WKH th President of WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV WKH SW LRXLV E[SRVLWLRQ ZRXOG EH UHPHPEHUHG DPRQJ H[KLELWLRQ GLUHFWRUV DQG U S SDUWLFLSDQWV DV D ÂżQDQFLDO PLVÂżUH WKHQ WLFNHW sales were tallied, the exposition board was forced to confront a net loss of some 119 OI PRUH FRQFHUQ WR U S SROLF\ PDNHUV ZDV WKH VWDUWOLQJ ODFN RI American interest in the investment climate of the Philippines depicted at the IDLU D VKRUWFRPLQJ WKDW ZRXOG VSXU WDU DHSDUWPHQW RIÂżFLDOV WR VWDWH WKDW WKH\ ZHUH â&#x20AC;&#x153;YHU\ PXFK GLVDSSRLQWHGâ&#x20AC;? ZLWK VXFK D SURÂżW PDNLQJ YHQWXUH WKDW KDG been deemed â&#x20AC;&#x153;industrialâ&#x20AC;? in nature and scope. VLHZHG IURP WKH SHUVSHFWLYH RI PKLOLSSLQH FRORQLDO RIÂżFLDOV WKH H[SRVLWLRQ IDLOHG WR DFFRPSOLVK LWV WZR principal political goals: to convince the American public of civilian control and the terms of assimilation; and to promote Philippine exports through tariff reform. Simply put, the expositionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s display of racial bifurcation was ultimately lost upon American audiences who merely saw the â&#x20AC;&#x153;uncivilizedâ&#x20AC;? nature of the QRQ CKULVWLDQ FLOLSLQR DV D UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI WKH FRQWLQXHG ZDU HIIRUW LQ WKH Philippines. As provided by Kramer in The Blood of Government, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The racial formation that had organized colonial collaboration in the Philippines â&#x20AC;&#x201C; long on assimilation, tutelage, and bifurcated state â&#x20AC;&#x201C; broke down in a context of commercial display and metropolitan racial formations.â&#x20AC;?121 Such a divided ethno-racial presentation would be replicated among independence-minded Filipinos of the early twentieth-century, as they suddenly believed that a sovereign Philippine statehood could only be DFFRPSOLVKHG WKURXJK D GLVWLQFW VHYHUDQFH IURP WKH QRQ CKULVWLDQ PDVVHV IQ

8 6

117 118 119 121

Parezo and Fowler, Anthropology Goes to the Fair IELG MFGHH â&#x20AC;&#x153;AQWKURSRORJ\ DW WKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ â&#x20AC;? Kramer, The Blood of Government Ibid. Ibid., 3388-3394.

The Academical Heritage Review

an editorial in Philippine newspaper El Renacimiento HQWLWOHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;AQRWKHU ÂľRHWLURâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Exposition?â&#x20AC;? author Lauro Mataas â&#x20AC;&#x153;openly censure[d]â&#x20AC;? the plan to exhibit Aetas, Igorots, and Moros, which would not only â&#x20AC;&#x153;obscure all the successes that our artists and our industrialists can achieve at the St. Louis Exposition,â&#x20AC;? but also â&#x20AC;&#x153;ruin all our hopes of political progress, [and] advancement in liberal institutions beneath American domination.â&#x20AC;?122 Similarly, the response RI PDQ\ FLOLSLQR SDUWLFLSDQWV WR WKHLU JHQHUDO H[SHULHQFHV DW WKH SW Louis Exposition â&#x20AC;&#x201C; regardless of racial-religious standing or background â&#x20AC;&#x201C; would come to echo that of Benito Legarda, one of the chairs of the Honorary PKLOLSSLQH CRPPLVVLRQ DW WKH IDLU FDU IURP LPSURYLQJ WKH PKLOLSSLQHV American rule had set it back considerably, introducing â&#x20AC;&#x153;[an] enormous debt that has been piled on us,â&#x20AC;? while â&#x20AC;&#x153;a prohibitive tariff has shut out all commerce and dwarfed our revenue.â&#x20AC;?123 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Americans have not kept their promises to the Filipinos,â&#x20AC;? he stated. Millions of dollars of promised mining concessions and natural resource investments had failed to materialize, and where honorable APHULFDQ RIÂżFLDOV KDG EHHQ SURPLVHG LQ DFWXDOLW\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;WKH\ DUH QRW DV D UXOH RI either a high or a very desirable classâ&#x20AC;Śnot of credit to their home country, and RI QR EHQHÂżW WR WKH PKLOLSSLQHV â&#x20AC;?124 After the lights of the fairgrounds had dimmed in the early morning RI DHFHPEHU RQH FDQQRW KHOS EXW WKLQN RI WKH GLVDSSRLQWPHQW WKDW weighed heavily on the shoulders of all indigenous participants in the St. Louis LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ FDFLQJ WKH SURVSHFW RI D ORQJ FROG MRXUQH\ KRPH DFURVV WKH PDFLÂżF LQGLYLGXDOV OLNH LHJDUGD PXVW KDYH YLHZHG WKH JHQHUDO outcome of the fair not necessarily as an unprecedented disappointment; rather, they may have viewed the general proceedings and conclusion of the St. Louis Exposition as simply yet another hour of American disenchantment.

122 Ibid., 3241-3248. IELG IELG Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Apacible, Galicano. â&#x20AC;&#x153;To the American People, an Appeal.â&#x20AC;? Address. Toronto. -XQH Emilio Aguinaldo - Dubious Hero? UQLYHUVLW\ RI MLFKLJDQ DLJLWDO LLEUDU\ MD\ WHE ASU AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS PDFDSLOL ÂżOLSLQR EORJVSRW FRP B B BDUFKLYH KWPO Board of Lady Managers. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Report of Board of Lady Managers to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.â&#x20AC;? SW LRXLV MLVVRXUL Breitbart, Eric. A World on Display: Photographs from the St. Louis Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fair, 1904 AOEXTXHUTXH NHZ MH[LFR UQLYHUVLW\ RI NHZ MH[LFR Press, 1997. Celebrating the Louisiana Purchase (1904 Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fair). Saint Louis Public LLEUDU\ WHE ASU AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS H[KLELWV VOSO RUJ OSH GDWD LPE DVS"WKUHDG CKH MDQ W . Muslim Separatism: The Moros of Southern Philippines and the Malays of Southern Thailand NHZ YRUN O[IRUG UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV Dolan, Ronald E. Philippines: A Country Study WDVKLQJWRQ D C U S G.P.O., 1993. Fuer, A.B. America at War: The Philippines, 1898-1913 WHVWSRUW PUDHJHU PXEOLVKHUV Gilbert, James. Whose Fair? : Experience, Memory, and the History of the Great St. Louis Exposition CKLFDJR TKH UQLYHUVLW\ RI CKLFDJR PUHVV Hancock, H. Irving. Uncle Samâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Boys in the Philippines; or, Following the Flag Against the Moros PKLODGHOSKLD HHQU\ AOWHPXV CRPSDQ\ Harper, Frank. Just Outside of Manila DHQYHU CRORUDGR HLVWRULFDO SRFLHW\ 1991. Hochschild, Adam. King Leopoldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Ghost NHZ YRUN HRXJKWRQ MLIĂ&#x20AC;LQ CRPSDQ\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;IJRUURWHV DW WKLWH HRXVH â&#x20AC;? The New York Times AXJXVW AFFHVVHG ASULO KWWS TXHU\ Q\WLPHV FRP PHP DUFKLYHIUHH SGI"UHV D E DA E A C A E C D CF

8 Grewal, Inderpal. Home and Harem: Nation, Gender, Empire, and the Cultures of Travel DXUKDP DXNH UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV 8 The Academical Heritage Review

.LSOLQJ RXG\DUG â&#x20AC;&#x153;â&#x20AC;?WKLWH MDQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V BXUGHQ â&#x20AC;?â&#x20AC;? Modern History Sourcebook: Rudyard Kipling, The White Manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Burden, 1899. FRUGKDP UQLYHUVLW\ WHE ASU AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ fordham.edu/halsall/mod/kipling.html. Kramer, Paul A. The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, & the Philippines. CKDSHO HLOO NRUWK CDUROLQD TKH UQLYHUVLW\ RI NRUWK CDUROLQD PUHVV DLJLWDO Louisiana Purchase Exposition. Daily OfÂżcial Program: June 16, 1904. St. LRXLV LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ PULQW â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis.â&#x20AC;? The New York Times, FHEUXDU\ AFFHVVHG ASULO KWWS TXHU\ Q\WLPHV FRP PHP DUFKLYHIUHH SGI"BU UHV F E DB E BE A BC A C D CF MDELQL ASROLQDULR â&#x20AC;&#x153;A FLOLSLQR ASSHDO WR WKH PHRSOH RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV â&#x20AC;? The North American Review Mabini, Apolinario. The Philippine Revolution. Trans. Leon Ma. Guerrero. RHSXEOLF RI WKH PKLOLSSLQHV NDWLRQDO HLVWRULFDO CRPPLVVLRQ MFGHH W - â&#x20AC;&#x153;AQWKURSRORJ\ DW WKH LRXLVLDQD PXUFKDVH E[SRVLWLRQ â&#x20AC;? Science MFGHH W - â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH TUHQG RI HXPDQ PURJUHVV â&#x20AC;? American Anthropologist 1.3 -XO â&#x20AC;&#x153;NDWLYH FLOLSLQRV LQ D NDWXUDO EQYLURQPHQW T\SLFDO LLIH RI WKH IVODQGV Revealed in the St. Louis Fair Exhibit.â&#x20AC;? The New York Times, July 17, AFFHVVHG ASULO KWWS TXHU\ Q\WLPHV FRP JVW DEVWUDFW KWPO"UHV A DE DB F AE A C A C D CF VFS VT PKLOLSSLQH E[SRVLWLRQ VW S NHZHOO AOIUHG Philippine Exposition: Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fair St. Louis, 1904 SDPSKOHW PDUH]R NDQF\ - DQG DRQ D FRZOHU Anthropology Goes to the Fair: The 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition LLQFROQ UQLYHUVLW\ RI NHEUDVND PUHVV Philippines Exposition Board. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Report of the Philippine Exposition Board to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.â&#x20AC;? St. Louis, Missouri: St. Louis GUHHOH\ PULQWHU\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;President Planning Filipino Home Rule.â&#x20AC;? The New York Times -XQH AFFHVVHG ASULO KWWS TXHU\ Q\WLPHV FRP JVW DEVWUDFW KWPO"U HV D E D AE A C A C D CF VFS VT Of Heathens, Heavens, and Hors Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oeuvres: Colonial Capitalism, Anthropology, and Filipino Race-Making at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

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PKLOLSSLQH E[SRVLWLRQ VW S Silbey, David J. A War of Frontier and Empire: The Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 NHZ YRUN HLOO DQG WDQJ TDIW WLOOLDP H â&#x20AC;&#x153;CLUFXODU LHWWHU RI GRYHUQRU TDIW â&#x20AC;? MDQLOD BXUHDX RI PXEOLF PULQWLQJ TDIW WLOOLDP H â&#x20AC;&#x153;IQDXJXUDO AGGUHVV RI WLOOLDP HRZDUG TDIW â&#x20AC;? AGGUHVV The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy YDOH LDZ SFKRRO WHE MD\ AYDLODEOH IURP http://avalon. ODZ \DOH HGX WKBFHQWXU\ WDIW DVS. â&#x20AC;&#x153;To Install Philippine Exhibit.â&#x20AC;? The New York Times SHSWHPEHU AFFHVVHG ASULO KWWS TXHU\ Q\WLPHV FRP JVW DEVWUDFW KWPO"U HV E E D DEE A C A F C D CF VFS VT PKLOLSSLQH E[SRVLWLRQ VW S

9 0 The Academical Heritage Review

NASCENT GLOBALIZATION AND IMPERIALISM:

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS AND THE DEMISE OF THE INDIAN COTTAGE INDUSTRY 1757-1865

Michael Sagan

9 1

Between the

British rise to power in BHQJDO IROORZLQJ WKH BDWWOH RI PODVVH\ LQ DQG WKH SHULRG LPPHGLDWHO\ IROORZLQJ WKH HQG RI WKH APHULFDQ CLYLO WDU LQ WKH IQGLDQ HFRQRP\ fundamentally changed. Similar to other countries, Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s commerce became increasingly linked to foreign nations during this period. However, unlike the independent nations of Europe and the Americas, Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ties to the developing world economy were mediated almost exclusively by trends in, and decisions made by Great Britain. The decline of cottage industry and the closely related rise in commercial agriculture and illustrates the dynamic shift in Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s HFRQRPLF LQIUDVWUXFWXUH EHWZHHQ DQG XQGHU BULWLVK FRORQLDO UXOH In the era preceding the Battle of Plassey, Indian industry and agriculture were focused on production for domestic and, in many cases, local markets. The absence of transportation networks connecting the rural interior to the international markets have led many scholars, including Sumit Sarkar, to believe that the Indian economy would have maintained this status quo well into the 19th century.1 During the pre-British era, international trade certainly occurred, but it was at a much smaller scale than would become the case in the mid-19th century.2 For instance, surplus grain might be sent to a nearby region in which harvests had been poor, but for the most part, the only villager in most rural Indian communities well-integrated into broader markets was the weaver.3 WKLOH VRPH RI WKH JRRGV WKDW ZRXOG ODWHU EH DGRSWHG E\ IQGLDQ FRPPHUFLDO DJULFXOWXUDOLVWV VXFK DV MXWH FRWWRQ VXJDUFDQH DQG LQGLJR ZHUH already under cultivation for local use they did not dominate pre-colonial agricultural production.4 In rural India modern capital markets existed only RQ WKH VPDOOHVW RI VFDOHV VLOODJHUVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; VSHFLDOL]DWLRQ LQ GLIIHUHQW WUDGHV GLG QHFHVVLWDWH WKH H[FKDQJH RI JRRGV EXW WKH Ă&#x20AC;XFWXDWLRQV RI ODUJHU QDWLRQDO DQG international markets did not directly affect the lives of most Indians. MHUFKDQWV LQWHQW RQ SURFXULQJ ÂżQH IQGLDQ PXVOLQV DQG RWKHU WH[WLOHV had situated their commercial operations in urban coastal communities. Doing so facilitated shipments to Europe and helped foreign traders unfamiliar with the Indian hinterland deal directly with manufacturers in order to commission the production of types of fabric popular in the regions where they planned to sell their wares. In addition to the English, the French, Portuguese, Danes,

MLFKDHO SDJDQ LV D PHPEHU RI WKH CODVV RI HH ZURWH ZLWK WKH JXLGDQFH RI Professor Ezra Rashkow.

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1 Sumit Sarkar, Modern India: 1855-1947 MDGUDV MDFPLOODQ IQGLD G .DXVKDO Economic History of India 1957 to 1966 NHZ DHOKL .DO\DQL PXEOLVKHUV 2 Kaushal, Economic History of India 1957 to 1966, 29. 3 Harasankar Bhattacharyya, Aspects of Indian Economic History 1750-1950, 2nd ed. CDOFXWWD PURJUHVVLYH PXEOLVKHUV 4 Kaushnal, Economic History of India 1957 to 1966, BKDWWDFKDU\\D Aspects of Indian Economic History 1750-1950 IELG The Academical Heritage Review

and Dutch maintained trading posts along the Indian coast in order to procure Indian goods such as spices and textiles.7 In other words, prior to the British EDVW IQGLD CRPSDQ\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V UXOH ZKLOH FRDVWDO IQGLD KDG IDLUO\ VWURQJ ERQGV WR WKH wider world, much of India operated in a fairly high degree of isolation from outside patterns of economic behavior. Even coastal areas that were integrated into world markets were not necessarily connected to one another or to distant markets by way of a single, hegemonic foreign power. One of the most notable changes in Indian textile production in the ODWH WK FHQWXU\ ZDV WKH GLUHFW UHVXOW RI WKH GHFOLQH RI CRQWLQHQWDO EXURSHDQ LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH LQ SRXWK AVLD FROORZLQJ PODVVH\ DQG WKH HQG RI VHULRXV FUHQFK involvement in India, the economies of Britain and India became increasingly LQWHUWZLQHG OIÂżFLDOO\ XQWLO WKH LVVXDQFH RI WKH CKDUWHU RI WKH BULWLVK EDVW IQGLD CRPSDQ\ KHOG D de jure monopoly over all British trade in India and, as British power in the region became more established, a de facto monopoly over all international trade in South Asia.8 As evidence of Britainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to dictate the terms under which foreign powers traded with India, Harasankar Bhattacharyya cites the virtual cessation of all Danish economic contact with India following that countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s declaration of war against Britain LQ 9 CRPSDQ\ RIÂżFLDOV LQWHJUDWHG WKHPVHOYHV LQWR WKH QHWZRUNV RI IQGLDQ merchants which had once dominated the Indian textile trade and gradually acquired total economic control. AV WKH RQO\ PDMRU EX\HU RI PDQXIDFWXUHG JRRGV LQ SRXWK AVLD WKH EDVW IQGLD CRPSDQ\ H[HUFLVHG D GHPDQG VLGH PRQRSRO\ NQRZQ LQ HFRQRPLF WHUPV as a monopsony.11 Just as the monopolist can charge consumers higher prices than would prevail in a competitive market, the monopsonist is able to pay lower than â&#x20AC;&#x153;naturalâ&#x20AC;? prices in order to purchase goods. Therefore, while the Indian ZHDYHU VXIIHUHG WKH BULWLVK PHUFKDQW DQG FRQVXPHU EHQHÂżWHG ZLWK ORZHU SULFHV DQG KLJKHU SURÂżWV WKDQ ZRXOG KDYH H[LVWHG LQ DEVHQFH RI WKH CRPSDQ\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V hegemonic control over India. Indian cottons remained popular internationally and virtually all Indian goods were shipped to Britain for processing and shipping to other regions of the world.12 AOWKRXJK WKH EDVW IQGLD CRPSDQ\ WLHG Indian textile production more directly tied to international markets, Britain invariably intermediated this connection. A IXUWKHU EDQH IRU IQGLDQV GXH WR WKH GLUHFW CRPSDQ\ LQYROYHPHQW in the Indian economy was its emphasis on the textile industry over all other PDQXIDFWXULQJ SXUVXLWV SLQFH WH[WLOHV VROG ZHOO DEURDG WKH CRPSDQ\ SURPRWHG weaving at the expense of the developing other forms of industry.13 These conditions meant that a decrease in British demand for Indian cottons would have a disproportionately dramatic effect on Indian textile producers, and, SWDQOH\ WROSHUW A New History of India WK HG NHZ YRUN O[IRUG UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV IELG 9 H.R. Ghosal, Economic Transition in the Bengal Presidency: 1793-1833, 2nd ed. CDOFXWWD MXNKRSDQK\D\ FLWHG LQ BKDWWDFKDU\\D BKDWWDFKDU\\D Aspects of Indian Economic History 1750-1950, 119. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid., 131. 13 Bhattacharyya, Aspects of Indian Economic History 1750-1950, 121. Nascent Globalization and Imperialism: Agricultural Developments and the Demise of the Indian Cottage Industry 1757-1865

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indeed, on the Indian economy as a whole. UQIRUWXQDWHO\ VXFK D GHFUHDVH LQ BULWLVK GHPDQG GLG RFFXU NRW DOO WKH BULWLVK ZHUH KDSS\ ZLWK WKH Ă&#x20AC;XLGLW\ ZLWK ZKLFK IQGLDQ ZRYHQV HQWHUHG WKH BULWLVK market. British domestic manufacturing interests were concerned about the competition from relatively inexpensive and high quality Indian manufactured goods. As a result, they pushed several pieces of legislation through Parliament aimed at protecting British industry.14 These measures ranged from simple protective tariffs to a ban on the importation of certain types of cloth. Because the various polities of India lacked true sovereignty, they could not respond LQ NLQG CRQVHTXHQWO\ IQGLDQ PHUFKDQWV ZHUH IDFHG ZLWK D GLVWLQFWO\ KRVWLOH situation. The primary buyer of the average Indian weaverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surplus was an Englishman whose government heavily taxed such goods. To make matters ZRUVH WKH CRPSDQ\ JUDGXDOO\ FRHUFHG VLON PDQXIDFWXUHUV LQWR VSLQQLQJ UDZ silk rather than completed pieces, and to regulate the amount produced by IRUFLQJ WKHP WR ZRUN LQ CRPSDQ\ IDFLOLWLHV TKH CRPSDQ\ H[WHQGHG WKLV SROLF\ WR RWKHU IDEULFV E\ FKDUJLQJ LWV RIÂżFLDOV ZLWK WKH GXW\ RI GLUHFWO\ UHJXODWLQJ WKH ZHDYHUV ZKR LQKDELWHG WKHLU MXULVGLFWLRQV 17 TKLV DOORZHG WKH CRPSDQ\ WR QRW only ensure that the bulk of Indian exports would require processing upon their arrival in Britain, but also to directly manage the quantities of textiles, raw or ÂżQLVKHG HQWHULQJ BULWLVK PDUNHWV AV D GLUHFW UHVXOW RI PDUOLDPHQWDU\ UHDFWLRQV to domestic concerns about the negative impact of competition with Indian textile producers, Indian cottage industry began its long, slow decline. Partially because of new import duties, the British textile industry rapidly GHYHORSHG LQWR D VWURQJ HFRQRPLF IRUFH IQ DQ DUWLFOH .DUO MDU[ VXJJHVWHG that these improvements in the British factory system sped the decline in Indian handicrafts.18 Due to improving mechanized technology in Britain, cottons from the Lancashire mills eventually became less expensive than Indian handloom goods in both Europe and India.19 It should be noted, that as late as 1813, Indian fabrics could be sold for less than half the price of comparable British goods, which in turn necessitated the implementation of duties in the range of sixty to seventy percent in order to make British manufactures competitive with those imported from India. In other words, even after the development of steam power, Indian producers still had a competitive edge in textile manufacture. However, unlike the early Industrial Revolution Britain, in colonial India, new IDFWRU\ MREV GLG QRW RIIVHW WKH MREV ORVW LQ PRUH WUDGLWLRQDO WH[WLOH SURGXFWLRQ WKH

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IELG IELG RRPHVK DXWW The Economic History of India Under Early British Rule: From the Rise of the British Power in 1757 to the Accession of Queen Victoria in 1837 WK HG LRQGRQ .HJDQ PDXO TUHQFK TUXEQHU DQG CR 17 Kaushal, Economic History of India 1957 to 1966, 29. 18 Karl Marx, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Future Results of British Rule in India,â&#x20AC;? Marxist.org, accessed NRYHPEHU KWWS ZZZ PDU[LVWV RUJ DUFKLYH PDU[ ZRUNV htm. WROSHUW A New History of India, HRUDFH HD\PDQ WLOVRQ The History of British India: From 1805 to 1835, vol. 1, (London: Piper, Stephenson, and Spence, FLWHG LQ DXWW WLOVRQ FLWHG LQ DXWW The Academical Heritage Review

cottage industry.21 TKH QHZ PDQXIDFWXULQJ MREV ZHUH SULPDULO\ LQ EXURSH MDU[ supported his version of this argument with data indicating that, between 1827 DQG WKH BULWLVK H[SRUW RI FHUWDLQ W\SHV RI IDEULF LQFUHDVHG IROG ZKLOH WKH SRSXODWLRQ RI WKH WH[WLOH FHQWHU DDFFD GHFUHDVHG IURP WR D PHUH 22 Other data corroborated Marxâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s observations. Sumit Sarkar, for instance, cites a study by Amiya Bagchi, which indicates that, in Bihar, the population dependant on industrial production as a way of life shrunk by nearly ÂżIW\ VL[ SHUFHQW EHWZHHQ DQG 23 WKHQ FRQVLGHULQJ WKLV VWDWLVWLF LW LV important to note that deindustrialization was not a monolithic phenomenon. Different regions achieved different degrees and rates of connectedness with Britain at different times. Areas that were connected to railroad routes early on or had long been under British economic control, were more quickly and more completely deindustrialized, while provincial regions retained more traditional patterns of employment and production.24 For example, Bihar was not a peripheral element of British India. The British gained control over Bihar IROORZLQJ WKH BDWWOH RI BX[DU LQ JDLQLQJ HIIHFWLYH HFRQRPLF FRQWURO RI WKH region. As a result, Bihar would have been one of the areas most profoundly impacted by changes in the British textile market. Apologists for European colonial empires, such as the American Morris D. Morris, make further claims that this deindustrialization historiography is of dubious merit. Morris suggests that, while India might have become a net importer of textile goods in the early 19th century, this was not necessarily due to a destruction of Indian handicraft production. Possibly, Morris claims, Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s new role in the world textile market was simply brought on by an increase in Indian consumption of cloth due to its decreasing prices as a result of new manufacturing practices in Britain and increased cotton cultivation in India.27 Indeed, Morris expands this analysis to other traditional industries suggesting that while there might have been shifts in relative dominance of British supported industries, there was not necessarily an absolute decrease in the real value of goods and services produced in the traditional sector.28 Other critics of deindustrialization have suggested that the number of individuals engaged in textile manufacturing as a percentage of the total population of their communities stayed relatively constant throughout the late 19th century.29 The historian Sumit Sarkar is of the opinion that, while urban luxury manufacturers were likely driven out of business as a result of the rise of the 21 Sarkar, Modern India: 1855-1947, 28. 22 Marx, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Future Results of British Rule in Indiaâ&#x20AC;?. APL\D .XPDU BDJFKL â&#x20AC;&#x153;DHLQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQ LQ GDQJHWLF BLKDU â&#x20AC;? LQ Essays in Honour of Prof. S.C. Sarkar NHZ DHOKL PHRSOHâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V PXEOLVKLQJ HRXVH FLWHG LQ SDUNDU 24 Sarkar, Modern India: 1855-1947, 29. WROSHUW A New History of India, MRUULV D MRUULV â&#x20AC;&#x153;TRZDUGV D RHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI NLQHWHHQWK CHQWXU\ IQGLDQ Economic History,â&#x20AC;? The Journal of Economic History KWWS ZZZ MVWRU RUJ VWDEOH 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 29 Sarkar, Modern India: 1855-1947, 29. Nascent Globalization and Imperialism: Agricultural Developments and the Demise of the Indian Cottage Industry 1757-1865

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Lancashire-produced cotton goods and the dramatic fall in court demand for ÂżQH WH[WLOHV YLOODJH PDQXIDFWXUH RI FORWK IRU ORFDO FRQVXPSWLRQ OLNHO\ EHJDQ WR IDOWHU RQO\ ZLWK WKH VSUHDG RI UDLO WUDIÂżF EULQJLQJ LPSRUWV LQWR WKH LQWHULRU MRUHRYHU ZKLOH IQGLDQ ZHDYHUV EHQHÂżWWHG IURP OHVV H[SHQVLYH VXSSOLHV WKH\ also had to compete with less expensive imports, offsetting some, if not all, gains they might have made as a result of new yarn and raw cotton production.31 A IXUWKHU GLIÂżFXOW\ ZLWK WKHVH PRUH UHYLVLRQLVW VWXGLHV LV WKDW WKHLU IRFXV LV RIWHQ on the late 19th century, while studies in favor of deindustrialization often focus on the earlier half of the century. As a result, each side of this debate is arguing D GLIIHUHQW SRLQW WKLOH LQGXVWU\ PLJKW QRW KDYH VXIIHUHG WRR JUHDWO\ LQ WKH late 19th century, this is because much of the damage to cottage industry was already done. At this point, only districts recently connected to South Asiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s new railroad and transportation networks, and thus British imports, suffered changes in patterns of cottage manufacturing.32 In the proper light, even the studies by the likes of Morris, therefore, point to a close relationship between connectedness with Britain and the nature of colonial Indian communitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; industrial structure. The introduction of British transportation networks spelled WKH ÂżQDO GHPLVH RI IQGLDQ FRWWDJH LQGXVWU\ IQGLDQ DJULFXOWXUH DOVR EHJDQ WR XQGHUJR VLJQLÂżFDQW FKDQJHV GXULQJ the period following the beginning of British hegemony. One of the earliest transitions in agricultural patterns was a decrease in the average size of holdings IURP URXJKO\ IRUW\ DFUHV LQ WR IRXUWHHQ DFUHV LQ WKH V 33 Scholars attribute this transition to an overall increase in the Indian population and also the growing number of new cultivators created by the dearth of employment in the cottage industries.34 Since the amount of new land available for cultivation increased at a slower rate than the population, land prices spiked dramatically. This trend was exacerbated as more peasants than ever were forced to become the tenants of the rising class of landlords established under the Permanent Settlement laws. AV D UHVXOW RI WKH SURYLVLRQV DQG BULWLVK FXOWXUDO LQĂ&#x20AC;XHQFH IQGLDQ landlords began demanding cash for rent rather than the in-kind payments that dominated pre-British land relations.37 Simultaneously, more peasants, including out-of-work weavers, began seeking out loans in order to establish themselves as agriculturalists, inducing moneylenders to raise interest rates.38 This had several complex impacts on Indian peasants. First, it drove them to specialize in the cultivation of crops that would fetch the highest possible price at market, rather than the mixture of food and industrial crops grown in years past.39 Rather than giving some of their crop to landlords, exchanging some with

9 6

IELG 31 Sarkar, Modern India: 1855-1947, 29. 32 Ibid. 33 Kaushal, Economic History of India 1957 to 1966, 33. IELG BKDWWDFKDU\\D Aspects of Indian Economic History 1750-1950, BKDWWDFKDU\\D Aspects of Indian Economic History 1750-1950 37 Ibid. 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid., 142. The Academical Heritage Review

their neighbors, and retaining the rest for personal use, peasants began to sell all of their harvest and buy what they needed at market. Moreover, this impelled peasants to sell their goods as soon as possible in order to avoid building up more interest-based debt rather than to wait for a favorable market price.41 Just as was the case with textiles, the agricultural markets of colonial IQGLD ZHUH PRUH VKDSHG E\ BULWLVK WKDQ E\ ZRUOG GHPDQG WKLOH IQGLDQ ULFH found its way to most regions of the world, British merchants exercised some preference to the wants and needs of British consumers, exporting the bulk of Indian wheat to England.42 As a result, Indian agricultural produce became tied to the international markets, but in a very Anglocentric way. If an agricultural JRRG LPSRUWDQW WR BULWDLQ EHFDPH GLIÂżFXOW WR REWDLQ IRU WKH EQJOLVK WR REWDLQ LW would fall upon India to provision that good. This phenomenon became particularly apparent in the shifts in patterns of FXOWLYDWLRQ RI MXWH DQG FRWWRQ LQ WKH PLGGOH RI WKH WK FHQWXU\ LOOXVWUDWH WKLV SKHQRPHQRQ BHJLQQLQJ LQ WKH V MXWH PRQRFXOWXUH EHFDPH LQFUHDVLQJO\ FRPPRQ DFURVV BHQJDO WKLOH MXWH KDG ORQJ EHHQ JURZQ LQ WKLV UHJLRQ WKH RXWEUHDN RI WKH CULPHDQ ZDU FXW RII SFRWWLVK PDQXIDFWXUHUV IURP WKHLU WUDGLWLRQDO RXVVLDQ VRXUFH RI WKH LQGXVWULDO ÂżEHU 43 TKH BULWLVK QHHG WR ÂżQG D VXEVWLWXWH IRU RXVVLDQ MXWH FRPELQHG ZLWK WKH RSHQLQJ RI UDLOURDGV DFURVV BHQJDO DQG CRPSDQ\ VXEVLGLHV OHG WR WKH VXGGHQ VSLNH LQ WKH DPRXQW RI ODQG GHGLFDWHG WR WKH FXOWLYDWLRQ RI MXWH LQ WKLV SHULRG 44 Even more dramatic was the increase in the amount of raw cotton H[SRUWHG WR BULWDLQ EHWZHHQ DQG TKH BULWLVK EHJDQ LPSRUWLQJ FRWWRQ IURP ERWK IQGLD DQG WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV LQ WKH HDUO\ V EXW DOPRVW LPPHGLDWHO\ expressed a preference for the American varieties of the crop, as they were of a PRUH XQLIRUPO\ KLJK JUDGH EHWWHU JLQQHG DQG FRXOG EH PRUH HIÂżFLHQWO\ XVHG with British machinery. This preference made itself manifest with the British LPSRUW ÂżJXUHV IRU APHULFDQ DQG IQGLDQ FRWWRQ WKLOH IQGLD H[SRUWHG PLOOLRQ SRXQGV RI FRWWRQ LQ WKH BULWLVK LPSRUWHG PLOOLRQ SRXQGV RI U S cotton. IQGHHG WKHVH ÂżJXUHV H[DJJHUDWH WKH DPRXQW RI IQGLDQ FRWWRQ LPSRUWHG into Britain, as not all raw cotton exported from India ultimately found its ways to the mills of Lancashire. Additionally, the level of Indian cotton exports would have been even lower were it not for the decline in Indian domestic demand for cotton as a result of deindustrialization.47 CRQVHTXHQWO\ WKH SULFH RI IQGLDQ cotton fell, allowing for British merchants and manufacturers to look beyond the added expense associated with its use.48 TKH RXWEUHDN RI WKH APHULFDQ CLYLO WDU DQG WKH VXEVHTXHQW UQLRQ

IELG IELG 42 Kaushal, Economic History of India 1957 to 1966, WROSHUW A New History of India, 234. 44 Ibid., 234 ; Kaushal, Economic History of India 1957 to 1966, DXWW The Economic History of India Under Early British Rule: From the Rise of the British Power in 1757 to the Accession of Queen Victoria in 1837, 272-3. IELG 47 Bhattacharyya, Aspects of Indian Economic History 1750-1950 48 Ibid., 141. Nascent Globalization and Imperialism: Agricultural Developments and the Demise of the Indian Cottage Industry 1757-1865

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EORFNDGH RI CRQIHGHUDWH SRUWV LQ UHYHUVHG WKH DIRUHPHQWLRQHG WUHQG 49 In WKH SHULRG RI XQWLO WKH YDOXH RI IQGLDQ H[SRUWV RI FRWWRQ URVH VL[ fold. This is indicative of the extent to which Indian exports were shaped by British demand. Because of the established trade relationship between Britain and India, British merchants were able easily shift their demand for cotton from American to Indian producers. Therefore, while the British might have easily WXUQHG WR RWKHU PDUNHWV WR UHSODFH RXVVLDQ MXWH DQG APHULFDQ FRWWRQ VXSSOLHV that were cut off due to the contemporary political climate, their familiarity with and understanding of Indian markets allowed them to quickly and seamlessly shift their demand eastward to India. Indian growersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; habits were, in turn, shaped by the way in which contemporary world events shaped British patterns of consumption. During this period, other crops rose to prominence across in India XQGHU VRPHZKDW GLIIHUHQW FLUFXPVWDQFHV FROORZLQJ WKH UHSHDO RI WKH CRPSDQ\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V PRQRSRO\ RQ PRVW IQGLDQ JRRGV E\ WKH CKDUWHU RI DQG WKH WHUPLQDWLRQ RI UHVWULFWLRQV RQ EXURSHDQ LPPLJUDWLRQ LQYHVWRUV QRW DIÂżOLDWHG ZLWK WKH EDVW IQGLD CRPSDQ\ UDSLGO\ HVWDEOLVKHG SODQWDWLRQ ODERU DFURVV IQGLD These individuals established estates for the cultivation of crops such as tea, coffee, and indigo. SLPLODU WR WKH SUHYLRXV VKLIW WRZDUGV MXWH DQG FRWWRQ FXOWLYDWLRQ WKH LQFUHDVH LQ production of some of these crops was also motivated at least partially by external HFRQRPLF DQG SROLWLFDO VWLPXOL GLYHQ WKH DQWL WHVWHUQ KRVWLOLW\ LQ CKLQD DV GLVSOD\HG LQ WKH UHFHQW OSLXP WDU WKH BULWLVK ZLVKHG WR GHYHORS D VDIH VRXUFH of tea to support their growing obsession with the beverage. Parliament passed OHJLVODWLRQ WR IDFLOLWDWH WKLV SURFHVV LQFOXGLQJ WKH AVVDP COHDUDQFH AFW RI which allowed European planters to acquire estates as large as three thousand acres in the mountainous province if they made a commitment to devote the land to the cultivation of tea. So successful was the Act that in the twenty-one \HDUV EHWZHHQ DQG WKH DPRXQW RI WHD SURGXFHG E\ BULWLVK SODQWDWLRQV LQ IQGLD LQFUHDVHG IURP WKRXVDQG SRXQGV WR RYHU PLOOLRQ However, the cultivation of tea differed from that of crops like cotton in its use of laborers brought in from abroad. As a result of the relatively sparse population of the good tea lands of Assam, British planters had little choice but to use foreign workers, effectively regulated to the status of slaves. For indigo British planters and landlords applied coercive force on local farmers to shift their cultivation patterns to include a great deal of this export crop. This was largely a process RI OHJLVODWHG FRPPHUFLDOL]DWLRQ RI DJULFXOWXUH BULWLVK JRYHUQPHQW RIÂżFLDOV VDZ opportunities to open new areas up to cultivation, and, as a result, passed laws to facilitate such processes. Therefore, in some cases, in order to respond to new and changing

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49 Ibid. IELG WROSHUW A New History of India, IELG IELG IELG IELG SDUNDU Modern India: 1855-1947, 31. SDUNDU Modern India: 1855-1947, 31. The Academical Heritage Review

pressures, Indian farmers shifted from producing mostly food crops and a small quantity of industrial crops for local consumption to the monoculture of crops GHVLJQHG VSHFLÂżFDOO\ WR EH VROG LQ GLVWDQW PDUNHWV DW DV KLJK D SULFH DV SRVVLEOH IQ EDVW BHQJDO ZKHQ MXWH SULFHV VKRW XS PLG FHQWXU\ IDUPHUV ZHUH RXWULJKW HDJHU WR VZLWFK IURP IDUPLQJ ULFH ZKLFK EURXJKW LQ RQO\ PRGHUDWH SURÂżWV WR WKH PRUH YDOXDEOH MXWH UQGHU WKHVH FLUFXPVWDQFHV SHDVDQWV PDGH GHFLVLRQV of their own accord in order to do the best they could under the new economic conditions brought on by British rule. In other situations, the British more directly attempted to bring about changes in Indian agricultural production. This was achieved both through direct legislative actions designed to promote the production of certain commodities and through European investorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; coercion of laborers and establishment of plantations. In any case, many of the changes in Indian agriculture arose as a result of British interpretations of changes in world commodity markets rather than these changes themselves. BHWZHHQ DQG WKH PLG V WKH IQGLDQ HFRQRP\ VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ became more globalized and more exclusively linked to Great Britain. Events DFURVV WKH JOREH LQ ORFDWLRQV VXFK DV IDU Ă&#x20AC;XQJ DV WKH VLUJLQLD SWDWH CDSLWRO DQG WKH FRUELGGHQ CLW\ OHG WR SURIRXQG VKLIWV LQ WKH SDWWHUQV RI PDQXIDFWXUH DQG cultivation in India. However, these situations rarely directly impacted Indian economic behavior. Instead, it was British reactions to events in India and across the world that led to the demise of Indian cottage industry and the rise of commercial agriculture.

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IELG Nascent Globalization and Imperialism: Agricultural Developments and the Demise of the Indian Cottage Industry 1757-1865

BIBLIOGRAPHY BDJFKL APL\D .XPDU â&#x20AC;&#x153;DHLQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQ LQ GDQJHWLF BLKDU â&#x20AC;? IQ Essays in Honour of Prof. S.C. Sarkar NHZ DHOKL PHRSOHâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V PXEOLVKLQJ HRXVH Bhattacharyya, Harasankar. Aspects of Indian Economic History: 1750-1950. QG HG CDOFXWWD PURJUHVVLYH PXEOLVKHUV Dutt, Romesh. The Economic History of India Under Early British Rule: From the Rise of the British Power in 1757 to the Accession of Queen Victoria in 1837 WK HG LRQGRQ .HJDQ PDXO TUHQFK TUXEQHU DQG CR Ghosal, H.R. Economic Transition in the Bengal Presidency: 1793-1833. 2nd HG CDOFXWWD MXNKRSDQK\D\ Kaushal, G. Economic History of India: 1757 to 1966 NHZ DHOKL .DO\DQL Publishers, 1979. Marx, Karl. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Future Results of British Rule in India.â&#x20AC;? Marxist.org. http:// ZZZ PDU[LVWV RUJ DUFKLYH PDU[ ZRUNV KWP DFFHVVHG NRYHPEHU MRUULV MRUULV D â&#x20AC;&#x153;TRZDUGV D RHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI NLQHWHHQWK CHQWXU\ IQGLDQ Economic History.â&#x20AC;? The Journal of Economic History KWWS ZZZ MVWRU RUJ VWDEOH Sarkar, Sumit. Modern India: 1885-1947. Madras: Macmillan India, 1983. WLOVRQ HRUDFH HD\PDQ The History of British India: From 1805 to 1835. VRO LRQGRQ PLSHU SWHSKHQVRQ DQG SSHQFH WROSHUW SWDQOH\ A New History of India WK HG NHZ YRUN O[IRUG UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV

1 0 0 The Academical Heritage Review

HEARTBEAT FROM THE PRESIDENCY

Timothy McGarry

1 0 1

Lyndon B.

Johnson, sitting beside his wife Lady Bird in the back seat of an open convertible, heard an H[SORVLRQ DV KLV PRWRUFDGH WXUQHG RQWR EOP SWUHHW DW SP RQ NRYHPEHU 1 A Secret Service guard spun around, pressed Lyndon Johnson to WKH Ă&#x20AC;RRU DQG WKH FDU VSHG RII DXULQJ WKH IUDQWLF ULGH WR PDUNODQG HRVSLWDO Johnson tried to piece together the fragmented conversations coming in over WKH FDUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V UDGLR USRQ DUULYLQJ DW PDUNODQG HRVSLWDO ZKLOH LQ D VPDOO EDFN room lined with white sheets, Johnson learned that President Kennedy had been fatally shot three times and was pronounced dead. Hours later, Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as the thirty-sixth PUHVLGHQW RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV .HQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V VXGGHQ GHDWK FUHDWHG XQSUHFHGHQWHG political and personal pressures for the new President.2 Johnson not only took over the presidency unexpectedly, but he was taking over a nation that was in mourning. To compound these political pressures, Johnson had to deal with his own personal remorse. In his memoir, he stated, â&#x20AC;&#x153;My President and leaderâ&#x20AC;Ś P\ FRQÂżGDQW DQG IULHQGâ&#x20AC;Ś ERWK VKRW â&#x20AC;?3 In response to these pressures, Johnson GHFLGHG WR FRQWLQXH IRUZDUG ZLWK .HQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V HVWDEOLVKHG REMHFWLYHV DV KH ÂżQLVKHG RXW WKH IDOOHQ PUHVLGHQWâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V XQÂżQLVKHG WHUP -RKQVRQ UHFRXQWHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;RLJKWO\ RU ZURQJO\ I IHOW IURP WKH ÂżUVW GD\ LQ RIÂżFH WKDW I KDG WR FDUU\ RQ IRU PUHVLGHQW Kennedy.â&#x20AC;?4 Lyndon B. Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s choice to â&#x20AC;&#x153;carry onâ&#x20AC;? with the policy initiatives RI -RKQ F .HQQHG\ ZRXOG FRPH WR GHÂżQH -RKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; OHJDF\ DV PUHVLGHQW RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV Most historians agree that Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assassination affected Johnson to the point that he sought a deliberate continuation of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policies. Debate DULVHV KRZHYHU LQ UHJDUGV WR WKH HIIHFWLYHQHVV RI WKLV SROLF\ GHFLVLRQ WDV Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s continuation plan an effective means of stabilizing a traumatized QDWLRQ RU ZDV LW KLV ÂżUVW VWHS WRZDUGV VDFULÂżFLQJ KLV SROLWLFDO PRELOLW\" MDQ\ historians argue that Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s continuation of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policies proved detrimental to his presidency. Steven Gillon, in The Kennedy Assassination-24 Hours After, argues, â&#x20AC;&#x153;JFKâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s death made the Johnson presidency possible, but it also doomed it to failure.â&#x20AC;? Michael Schuyler echoes this argument in â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Bitter Harvest: Lyndon B. Johnson and the Assassination of John F. Kennedy,â&#x20AC;? asserting that the assassination of Kennedy was â&#x20AC;&#x153;one of the most persistent and perplexing forces which emasculated the Johnson presidency.â&#x20AC;? Gillon and TLPRWK\ MFGDUU\ LV D PHPEHU RI WKH CODVV RI HH ZURWH ZLWK WKH JXLGDQFH RI PURIHVVRU DDYLG CROHPDQ TKH EXON RI WKH UHVHDUFK ZDV FRQGXFWHG DW U VDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V MLOOHU CHQWHU IRU PXEOLF Affairs.

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Schuyler are only two of a large contingency that point to the continuation of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policies as a shortcoming of Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s presidency.7 By initially tying himself to Kennedy, many historians argue that Johnson constrained himself to IXOÂżOO WKHVH SROLFLHV ODWHU LQ KLV SUHVLGHQF\ Debate over Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s continuation of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policies, particularly from those who view continuation as detrimental, focuses primarily on -RKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V IRUHLJQ SROLF\ LQ VLHWQDP VLHWQDP EHFDPH RQH RI WKH PRVW XQSRSXODU IRUHLJQ SROLF\ LQLWLDWLYHV LQ th century American history,8 and it ZDV XQGHU -RKQVRQ WKDW UQLWHG SWDWHV PLOLWDU\ LQWHUYHQWLRQ LQ VLHWQDP SHDNHG ZLWK QHDUO\ UQLWHG SWDWHV SHUVRQQHO NLOOHG SHU PRQWK LQ 9 The call IRU DQ LQFUHDVHG PLOLWDU\ SUHVHQFH LQ VLHWQDP ZDV D GHÂżQLQJ SROLF\ GHFLVLRQ of Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s presidency, and one closely tied to continuation of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s REMHFWLYHV AOWKRXJK .HQQHG\ PDGH QR FOHDU LQGLFDWLRQ RI KLV SROLF\ REMHFWLYHV IRU VLHWQDP KH GLG VXEVWDQWLDOO\ LQFUHDVH WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV PLOLWDU\ SUHVHQFH LQ VLHWQDP IURP WURRSV LQ WR WURRSV LQ 11 Johnson, upon HQWHULQJ RIÂżFH LQ FRQWLQXHG WR HVFDODWH WKLV PLOLWDU\ SUHVHQFH AQDO\VLV RI FRQWLQXDWLRQ LQ UHJDUGV WR VLHWQDP H[SODLQV WKH SROLWLFDO WXUEXOHQFH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK -RKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V ODWHU \HDUV LQ RIÂżFH \HW LW IDLOV WR DFNQRZOHGJH -RKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V early political successes. This paper will challenge the notion that Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s continuation of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policies proved to be a poor political decision, arguing instead that continuation was the ideal decision given the means by which Johnson became president. Primary sources provide valuable insight into the development of SROLWLFDO FRQWLQXLW\ GXULQJ -RKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V ÂżUVW \HDU LQ RIÂżFH IQ SDUWLFXODU WKLV SDSHU will draw on Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s audio recordings and his personal memoir, The Vantage Point, in analyzing Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policy decisions. Throughout his presidential term, Johnson secretly recorded many conversations, both over the phone DQG ZLWKLQ WKH WKLWH HRXVH DV D PHDQV WR GRFXPHQW KLV GDLO\ HQFRXQWHUV IRU 7 For further analysis of Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s shortcomings as President as they relate to FRQWLQXDWLRQ VHH PDWULFLD WLWKHUVSRRQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;ÂľLHW UV CRQWLQXH â&#x20AC;&#x2122; TKH RKHWRULF IQLWLDWLRQ RI L\QGRQ -RKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V PUHVLGHQF\ â&#x20AC;? PUHVLGHQWLDO SWXGLHV QXDUWHUO\ MDUFK AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ MVWRU RUJ SVV "FRRNLHSHW TKHUH LV H[WHQVLYH UHVHDUFK RQ -RKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V UROH LQ VLHWQDP DQG ZKLOH VRPH RI these sources are used in this paper, the issue is not discussed in thorough detail EHFDXVH WKLV SDSHU IRFXVHV RQ -RKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V ÂżUVW \HDU LQ RIÂżFH D WLPH ZKHQ VLHWQDP was a peripheral foreign policy issue for many Americans. See Mitchell Lerner, â&#x20AC;&#x153;VLHWQDP DQG WKH EOHFWLRQ A DHIHQVH RI L\QGRQ -RKQVRQ â&#x20AC;? PUHVLGHQWLDO SWXGLHV QXDUWHUO\ FDOO KWWS ZZZ MVWRU RUJ VWDEOH SGISOXV SGI"DFFHSWTC WUXH DHQQLV M SLPRQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;TKH VLHWQDP WDU â&#x20AC;? AXJXVW AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS IDFXOW\ VPX HGX GVLPRQ CKDQJH VLHW KWPO .HQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V LQWHQWLRQ IRU VLHWQDP EH\RQG KDV EHFRPH RQH RI WKH JUHDW GHEDWHV DPRQJVW th FHQWXU\ APHULFDQ KLVWRU\ VFKRODUV .HQQHG\ LVVXHG NSAM RQ OFW FDOOLQJ IRU WKH UHPRYDO RI IRUFHV E\ WKH HQG RI OHDGLQJ PDQ\ WR VSHFXODWH WKDW .HQQHG\ ZRXOG QRW KDYH FRPPLWWHG DV PDQ\ IRUFHV WR VLHWQDP as Johnson eventually did. However, Kennedy never made a formal withdrawal announcement, so all such claims are mere speculation. See David Talbot, Brothers: TKH HLGGHQ HLVWRU\ RI WKH .HQQHG\ YHDUV NHZ YRUN FUHH PUHVV -RKQ MFAGDPV â&#x20AC;&#x153;-RKQ .HQQHG\ DQG WKH CROG WDU â&#x20AC;? AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS PFDGDPV SRVF PX HGX SURJMIN KWP Heartbeat from the Presidency

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ODWHU UHIHUHQFH NRZ DYDLODEOH WR WKH SXEOLF WKURXJK WKH MLOOHU CHQWHU RI PXEOLF AIIDLUV DW WKH UQLYHUVLW\ RI VLUJLQLD WKHVH UHFRUGLQJV SURYLGH DQ LQWLPDWH XQÂ¿OWHUHG DFFRXQW RI -RKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V GHFLVLRQ PDNLQJ SURFHVV DQG DUH SDUWLFXODUO\ helpful in analyzing the frantic moments following Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assassination. The Vantage Point, Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s memoir, provides valuable insight into what -RKQVRQ WKRXJKW GXULQJ KLV Â¿UVW \HDU DV SUHVLGHQW HRZHYHU WKLV PHPRLU PXVW EH XQGHUVWRRG WKURXJK WKH OHQV RI LWV REMHFWLYHV -RKQVRQ WULHG WR MXVWLI\ WKH SROLWLFDO FRQWURYHUVLHV VSHFLÂ¿FDOO\ VLHWQDP WKDW ZRXOG FRPH WR GHÂ¿QH KLV presidency. These two primary sources, supplemented with various newspaper articles, provide the basis of this paperâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research. This paper also relies on secondary sources, notably Gillonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s The Kennedy Assassination-24 Hours After and Manchesterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s The Death of a President CROOHFWLYHO\ WKHVH VRXUFHV SURYLGH LQVLJKW LQWR WKH GHFLVLRQ PDNLQJ SURFHVV WKDW ZRXOG GHÂ¿QH -RKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V Â¿UVW \HDU DV SUHVLGHQW This paper will analyze Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s continuation of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s political REMHFWLYHV GXULQJ KLV Â¿UVW \HDU LQ RIÂ¿FH IRFXVLQJ Â¿UVW RQ WKH EDFNJURXQG RI the relationship between the two men, establishing the context for Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s decisions following Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s death. Then, focus will turn to Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s initial response to the assassination, detailing how he came to adopt policies of continuation. Finally, this paper will analyze the effectiveness of continuation, ORRNLQJ VSHFLÂ¿FDOO\ DW KRZ FRQWLQXDWLRQ VWDELOL]HG D WUDXPDWL]HG QDWLRQ HDVHG WKH SDVVDJH RI OHJLVODWLRQ DQG XOWLPDWHO\ DLGHG -RKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V UHHOHFWLRQ HIIRUWV GLYHQ WKH WXUEXOHQW QDWXUH ZLWK ZKLFK -RKQVRQ EHFDPH SUHVLGHQW RQ NRYHPEHU D FRQWLQXDWLRQ RI .HQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SROLFLHV ZDV LGHDO IURP D SUDFWLFDO DQG political perspective. JOHNSON BEFORE KENNEDYâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S ASSASSINATION

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Lyndon Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relationship with John F. Kennedy framed his decision-making process following Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assassination. The two men shared a respectful, yet distanced personal and political relationship while KHQQHG\ ZDV SUHVLGHQW TKH SURFHHGLQJV DW WKH DHPRFUDWLF NDWLRQDO CRQYHQWLRQ LQ H[HPSOLI\ WKHLU UHODWLRQVKLS BRWK PHQ UDQ IRU WKH DHPRFUDWLF presidential nomination, with Kennedy ultimately winning the bid on July 13, 12 The frantic quest for a running mate ensued. Although John F. Kennedy had considered Johnson as a candidate for vice president, his brother Robert Kennedy and advisor Ken Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Donnel were adamantly opposed to the idea. TKH\ DUJXHG WKDW FKRRVLQJ JRKQVRQ D VRXWKHUQ DHPRFUDW ZRXOG MHRSDUGL]H Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hold over the northern liberal voting base. John F. Kennedy, however, saw Johnson as a valuable balance to the liberal ticket, and offered JRKQVRQ WKH VLFH PUHVLGHQF\ ZLWKRXW FRQVXOWLQJ KLV EURWKHU RU DGYLVRU 13 USRQ hearing of this, Robert Kennedy and Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Donnel advised Kennedy to retract the offer. Robert Kennedy, in a move that would foreshadow Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s alienated HHUEHUW PDUPHW JFK TKH PUHVLGHQF\ RI JRKQ F KHQQHG\ NHZ YRUN TKH DLDO PUHVV

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position within the Kennedy administration, met with Johnson and urged him to decline the vice presidency, yet Johnson was adamant on accepting the offer. OQ JXO\ DPLGVW FRQWURYHUV\ JRKQ F KHQQHG\ PDGH SXEOLF KLV GHFLVLRQ to add Lyndon Johnson as his running mate. This uneasy beginning set the stage for the relationship that would develop between Kennedy and Johnson over the next three years. Despite the uneasy start to their political partnership, Johnson and Kennedy developed a strong personal relationship as they worked together in WKH WKLWH HRXVH IURP XQWLO IQ KLV PHPRLU JRKQVRQ FKDUDFWHUL]HG the relationship as one of â&#x20AC;&#x153;respect, admiration, and cooperation,â&#x20AC;?14 stating that, â&#x20AC;&#x153;John Kennedy and I had achieved real friendship.â&#x20AC;? On a personal level, mutual respect characterized the relationship between Johnson and Kennedy, but this rarely translated into political cooperation. TKURXJKRXW KLV SUHVLGHQF\ KHQQHG\ RIWHQ VWUXJJOHG LQ ÂżQGLQJ ZD\V WR DSSHDVH WKH ORIW\ SROLWLFDO DVSLUDWLRQV RI KLV VLFH PUHVLGHQW KHQQHG\ RQFH WROG DQ DGYLVRU â&#x20AC;&#x153;I FDQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;W DIIRUG WR KDYH P\ VLFH PUHVLGHQWâ&#x20AC;Ś JRLQJ DURXQG VD\LQJ weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re all screwed up, so weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re going to keep him happy.â&#x20AC;? In efforts to keep Johnson â&#x20AC;&#x153;happy,â&#x20AC;? Kennedy relegated him to the space program, various military programs, sent him on many foreign diplomatic trips, and appointed him chair RI WKH PUHVLGHQWâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V CRPPLWWHH IRU ETXDO EPSOR\PHQW OSSRUWXQLW\ 17 Although busy overseeing various political programs, Johnson was often ill informed of important legislative decisions.18 For example, Johnson was largely unaware of KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V HDUO\ HIIRUWV WR UHÂżQH CLYLO RLJKWV OHJLVODWLRQ IQ UHIHUHQFH WR DQ HDUO\ GUDIW RI D CLYLO RLJKWV BLOO SURSRVHG LQ JRKQVRQ WROG THG SRUHQVRQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;I GRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;W know who drafted it; Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve never seen it.â&#x20AC;?19 Sorenson would later acknowledge that Lyndon Johnson â&#x20AC;&#x153;was not frequently consulted by the president before PDMRU GHFLVLRQV ZHUH PDGH â&#x20AC;? JRKQVRQ DOWKRXJK VHUYLQJ DV KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V VLFH President, was often a political outsider within Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s administration. JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V LQWHUDFWLRQV ZLWK KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DGYLVRUV H[HPSOLÂżHG JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V ostracized political position. Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s advisors, known collectively as the ÂľHDUYDUGV â&#x20AC;&#x2122;21 ZHUH QRW GLVFUHHW LQ WKHLU LQVROHQW WUHDWPHQW RI WKH VLFH PUHVLGHQW In referencing the tensions between Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s advisors and Johnson, Tip Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;NHLOO D CRQJUHVVPDQ IURP MDVVDFKXVHWWV UHFDOOHG WKDW KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DGYLVRUV â&#x20AC;&#x153;had a disdain for Johnson that they didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t even try to hide, and they relished talking about his crudeness and mocking the vulgarity of his language. They JRKQVRQ TKH VDQWDJH PRLQW IELG GLOORQ TKH KHQQHG\ AVVDVVLQDWLRQ HRXUV AIWHU â&#x20AC;&#x153;DRPHVWLF AIIDLUV â&#x20AC;? L\QGRQ BDLQHV JRKQVRQ MLOOHU CHQWHU RI PXEOLF AIIDLUV ASULO Available from: http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/ OEMRKQVRQ HVVD\V ELRJUDSK\ 18 Gillon, The Kennedy Assassination-24 Hours After, 29. THG SRUHQVRQ CRXQVHORU A LLIH DW WKH EGJH RI HLVWRU\ NHZ YRUN HDUSHU CROOLQV IELG 21 This is the name given to Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s advisors, in reference to their connections to Ivy LHDJXH UQLYHUVLWLHV TKHLU HGXFDWLRQDO EDFNJURXQG ZDV D FRQVWDQW VRXUFH RI FRQĂ&#x20AC;LFW and insecurity for Lyndon Johnson, who received his college degree from Southwest TH[DV SWDWH THDFKHUV CROOHJH HROODQG [L Heartbeat from the Presidency

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actually took pride in snubbing him.â&#x20AC;?22 Although Kennedy made some efforts to UHVSHFW JRKQVRQ RQ D SHUVRQDO OHYHO KLV DGYLVRUV EODWDQWO\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;VQXEEHGâ&#x20AC;? WKH VLFH President, reinforcing Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s political alienation. Lyndon Johnson, although second in line of political power, was a clear outsider under the Kennedy administration. His strained personal relationship with Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s advisors and lack of political authority made Johnson a â&#x20AC;&#x153;SULVRQHU LQ KLV RZQ RIÂżFH â&#x20AC;? 23 Robert Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s initial apprehensions at the DHPRFUDWLF NDWLRQDO CRQYHQWLRQ UHJDUGLQJ JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DELOLW\ WR VHUYH DV YLFH SUHVLGHQW ZHUH MXVWLÂżHG LQ WKH VHQVH WKDW JRKQVRQ QHYHU PHVKHG ZLWK WKH Kennedy administration. KENNEDYâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S ASSASSINATION AND JOHNSONâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S INITIAL RESPONSE L\QGRQ JRKQVRQ DFFHSWHG WKH QRPLQDWLRQ IRU YLFH SUHVLGHQW LQ knowing he was one unlikely heartbeat away from the presidency. He sat in PDUNODQG HRVSLWDO RQ WKH DIWHUQRRQ RI NRYHPEHU KRZHYHU DV WKH WKLUW\ VL[WK PUHVLGHQW RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV JRKQVRQ ZKR KDG VWUXJJOHG IRU WKUHH \HDUV WR ÂżQG KLV SROLWLFDO IRRWLQJ LQ WDVKLQJWRQ QRZ VWRRG DV RQH RI WKH most powerful men in the world. The unlikely had occurred, and with it came mammoth political responsibility. Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assassination, in both context and delivery, traumatized WKH SHRSOH RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV AW WKH WLPH RI KLV DVVDVVLQDWLRQ KHQQHG\ ZDV \RXQJ FKDULVPDWLF DQG SRSXODU DV ERWK DQ LFRQLF SXEOLF ÂżJXUH DQG SROLWLFLDQ 24 Given this widespread appeal, his sudden death was reason enough for public UHPRUVH HRZHYHU WKH ULVLQJ SUHYDOHQFH RI WHOHYLVLRQ LQ WKH HDUO\ â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V LQWHQVLÂżHG WKH SXEOLF VKRFN BDVHG RQ D VWXG\ FRQGXFWHG LQ QRUWKHUQ CDOLIRUQLD an estimated ninety-two percent of Americans knew of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assassination within two hours of his death, largely a result of television broadcast. NRW only did television revolutionize the widespread dispersion of information, but it also revolutionized the way in which Americans interpreted the assassinationbringing the assassination to living rooms across the country and then covering its minute details. In an interview published in the Beaver County Times on NRYHPEHU D ZRPDQ UHFDOOHG â&#x20AC;&#x153;ÂľIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;P MXVW QXPE I ORRN DW WHOHYLVLRQ and the more I look the worse I feel.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;?27 This far-reaching public effect of the assassination put tremendous pressure on Johnson as he unexpectedly took RIÂżFH

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WLWK KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V GHDWK JRKQVRQ QRW RQO\ IDFHG WKH LPPHQVH SUHVVXUHV and responsibilities associated with the presidency; but he was also responsible for calming a mourning nation. In a survey published by the Washington Post RQ NRYHPEHU VHYHQW\ WZR SHUFHQW RI WKRVH VXUYH\HG HVWLPDWHG WKDW JRKQVRQ ZRXOG GR D ÂľJRRG WR H[FHOOHQWâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; MRE DV SUHVLGHQW ZLWK â&#x20AC;&#x153;PDQ\ FLWL]HQV admit[ting] that they were frankly expressing deep faith and hope as the reins of Government were transferred under tragic duress.â&#x20AC;?28 People around the country were looking to Johnson for guidance, hoping that a relatively unknown, untested vice president could lead the country through one of its gravest WUDJHGLHV JRKQVRQ HQWHUHG RIÂżFH IDFLQJ H[WUHPH SUHVVXUHV ZKLFK PDJQLÂżHG WKH VLJQLÂżFDQFH RI KLV HDUO\ DFWLRQV DV SUHVLGHQW Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s initial response to the assassination dictated the development RI KLV SUHVLGHQWLDO SROLFLHV RHFRJQL]LQJ WKH VLJQLÂżFDQFH RI KLV HDUO\ DFWLRQV JRKQVRQ UHFRXQWHG LQ KLV PHPRLU WKDW â&#x20AC;&#x153;MXFK RI WKH MRE RI EXLOGLQJ FRQVHQVXV had to be accomplished before John Kennedy was buried.â&#x20AC;?29 WLWKLQ ÂżYH hours of the assassination, JRKQVRQ EHJDQ PDNLQJ D Ă&#x20AC;XUU\ RI SKRQH FDOOV WR various advisors, leaders, and friends. These phone calls instantly revealed Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s overarching sense of uncertainty. In a conversation with Associate Justice Arthur Goldberg, Johnson spoke of being, â&#x20AC;&#x153;totally inadequate to [the presidency], but Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll do my best.â&#x20AC;?31 In a later conversation with Richard Maguire, WUHDVXUHU RI WKH DHPRFUDWLF NDWLRQDO CRPPLWWHH JRKQVRQ XUJHG KLP WR â&#x20AC;&#x153;CRPH in and tell me what we need to do, and how we need to do it.â&#x20AC;?32 UQGHU D QRUPDO transfer of power, Johnson would have had new policies to implement upon HQWHULQJ RIÂżFH TKHVH HDUO\ SKRQH FDOOV KRZHYHU DOOXGH WR WKH IDFW WKDW QR VXFK plan was in place. Given the uncertainty and pressures associated with taking over after Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assassination, Johnson was not in a position to press for OHJLVODWLYH RYHUKDXO ZKHQ KH WRRN RIÂżFH RQ NRYHPEHU WLWKLQ KLV ÂżUVW IHZ GD\V LQ RIÂżFH JRKQVRQ GHFLGHG WKDW D FRQWLQXLW\ RI KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SROLWLFDO REMHFWLYHV ZDV WKH LGHDO SODQ RI DFWLRQ JRKQVRQ VDW LQ RQ QXPHURXV SROLF\ EULHÂżQJV GXULQJ KLV ÂżUVW IHZ GD\V LQ RIÂżFH 33 In a conversation ZLWK RHSUHVHQWDWLYH JDFN BURRNV RQ WKH DIWHUQRRQ RI NRYHPEHU BURRNV DGYLVHG JRKQVRQ WKDW â&#x20AC;&#x153;I MXVW GRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;W NQRZ ZKDW HOVH \RX FDQ KRQRUDEO\ GR except say that youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re carrying on.â&#x20AC;?34 Johnson agreed that continuity was an ideal plan of action. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Turn our sails into the wind and weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re going places, and ZHâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;UH JRLQJ WR FDUU\ RQ â&#x20AC;? KH WROG KLV DGYLVRU WDOWHU RHXWKHU RQ NRYHPEHU DW P M CRQWLQXLW\ ZDV LGHDO LQ WKDW LW KRQRUHG PUHVLGHQW KHQQHG\ LW was the easiest policy to maintain, it aided in Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reelection efforts, and it helped stabilize a traumatized nation. In the frantic few days following the LRXLV HDUULV â&#x20AC;&#x153;PXEOLF KDV FRQÂżGHQFH LQ JRKQVRQ EXW DQWLFLSDWHV VRPH FKDQJHV â&#x20AC;? TKH WDVKLQJWRQ PRVW NRY AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS SURTXHVW XPL FRP JRKQVRQ TKH VDQWDJH PRLQW JRKQVRQ FDOOHG TUXPDQ DW SP RQ NRYHPEHU IROORZLQJ KLV ÂżUVW EULHÂżQJ ZLWK MFNDPDUD LPPHGLDWHO\ DIWHU UHWXUQLQJ IURP DDOODV IELG 31 Holland, The Presidential Recordings Lyndon Johnson, 82. 32 Ibid., 84. JRKQVRQ TKH VDQWDJH PRLQW HROODQG TKH PUHVLGHQWLDO RHFRUGLQJV L\QGRQ JRKQVRQ IELG Heartbeat from the Presidency

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assassination, Johnson settled on a course of political action that would come to GHÂżQH PXFK RI KLV SUHVLGHQF\ OQH RI WKH ÂżUVW VWHSV JRKQVRQ WRRN WRZDUGV HVWDEOLVKLQJ FRQWLQXLW\ was keeping most of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s advisors. Johnson, as a new president, had the opportunity to bring in his own advisors following the assassination. However, he opted instead to keep most of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s administration, bringing in only six new advisors. JRKQVRQ ZDQWHG WR FRQWLQXH IRUZDUG ZLWK WKH REMHFWLYHV KHQQHG\ had set forth, and he believed Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s advisors would aid in accomplishing WKRVH REMHFWLYHV B\ PDLQWDLQLQJ PRVW RI KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ JRKQVRQ set himself up to pursue a policy of continuation. The political strategy to keep Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s administration demonstrated JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V GHWHUPLQDWLRQ WR PDLQWDLQ FRQWLQXLW\ DQG DFFRPSOLVK WKH REMHFWLYHV which Kennedy left behind. The advisors were still mourning the death of Kennedy, their close friend and respected leader, when Johnson, the man they had often overlooked, asked them to stay on as his advisors. There were also several concerns surrounding the loyalty of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s former advisors to President Johnson.37 These advisors were the men that treated Johnson crudely during Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s presidency, so naturally there were inherent personal tensions. Finally, there was the concern over Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to use the staff effectively. Johnson did not have strong personal relationships with these advisors and he had only worked with them in limited capacities under Kennedy, so he would undoubtedly use them differently than Kennedy had.38 In his memoir, Johnson recounted that, â&#x20AC;&#x153;All I knew then was that I had inherited D WDOHQWHG VWDII DQG D GLVWLQJXLVKHG CDELQHW EXW I KDG LQKHULWHG QHLWKHU WKHLU loyalty nor their enthusiasm.â&#x20AC;?39 DHVSLWH DSSDUHQW GLIÂżFXOWLHV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK keeping Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s advisors, Johnson followed through with the idea because it would better ensure continuity. The decision to keep Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cabinet despite these concerns demonstrates the extent to which Johnson wished to maintain continuity early in his term. Johnson further instilled the theme of continuation through his DGGUHVV WR D JRLQW HRXVH RI CRQJUHVV RQ NRYHPEHU MXVW ÂżYH GD\V DIWHU Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assassination. Much as Harry Truman did after Franklin Rooseveltâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s GHDWK LQ JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DGGUHVV ZDV PDGH LQ DQ HIIRUW WR FDOP WKH FRXQWU\ Johnson, in a deliberate effort to maintain continuity, turned to Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s VSHHFKZULWHU THG SRUHQVRQ IRU DVVLVWDQFH LQ GUDIWLQJ WKH DGGUHVV WR CRQJUHVV Sorenson helped draft a speech that echoed Kennedy in both tone and style. JRKQVRQ LVVXHG WKH DGGUHVV RQ WKH DIWHUQRRQ RI NRYHPEHU PDNLQJ LW YHU\ clear throughout the speech that he intended to continue on the path set forth

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by Kennedy. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Today, in this moment of new resolve, I would say to all my fellow Americans, let us continue,â&#x20AC;?41 he stated. The address made Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s political position clear and permanent while also notifying the public on his intentions for continuation of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policies.. GLYHQ WKH WXUEXOHQW QDWXUH ZLWK ZKLFK JRKQVRQ HQWHUHG RIÂżFH LQ continuity was as an ideal plan of political action. Johnson immediately went about establishing continuity by keeping many of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s advisors and by LVVXLQJ D SXEOLF DGGUHVV WR D JRLQW HRXVH RI CRQJUHVV ERWK RI ZKLFK PDGH FOHDU JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V LQWHQWLRQV IRU KLV ÂżUVW \HDU LQ RIÂżFH TKHVH HDUO\ DWWHPSWV WR VHWWOH D FRXQWU\ ZRXOG SURYH WR EH JUHDW VXFFHVVHV DQG ZRXOG FRPH WR GHÂżQH JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V ÂżUVW \HDU DV SUHVLGHQW JOHNSON AND HIS PLAN OF CONTINUATION As described in his memoir, Johnson sought to â&#x20AC;&#x153;devote every hour of HYHU\ GD\ GXULQJ WKH UHPDLQGHU RI JRKQ KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V XQIXOÂżOOHG WHUP WR DFKLHYLQJ the goals he had set.â&#x20AC;?42 JRKQVRQ KHOG WUXH WR WKHVH ZRUGV GXULQJ KLV ÂżUVW \HDU LQ RIÂżFH PDNLQJ VWULGHV WR PRYH IRUZDUG ZLWK WKH LQLWLDWLYHV VHW IRUWK E\ KHQQHG\ TKLV GHFLVLRQ WR FRQWLQXH KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SROLF\ REMHFWLYHV ZRXOG SURYH EHQHÂżFLDO IRU Johnson from a practical and political perspective. From a practical standpoint, continuation of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policies was QHFHVVDU\ JLYHQ WKH XQFHUWDLQ QDWXUH LQ ZKLFK JRKQVRQ WRRN RIÂżFH FROORZLQJ Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assassination, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The nation was in a state of shock and grief,â&#x20AC;? noted Johnson in his memoir.43 This shock and grief resonated on a national and international level. At home, the American public needed stability following the unexpected change in power that resulted from the assassination. There was not only widespread shock, but also concern about an unelected president taking over a mourning nation. A series of interviews published in the Beaver County Times RQ NRYHPEHU H[HPSOLI\ WKLV DSSUHKHQVLRQ OQH LQWHUYLHZHH D local restaurant owner, expressed his, â&#x20AC;&#x153;shock, fear and uncertainty caused by losing the leader.â&#x20AC;?44 Johnson eased these concerns, and the concerns of many other Americans, by assuring the nation that he would continue forward with OHJLVODWLYH REMHFWLYHV SURSRVHG E\ KHQQHG\ FROORZLQJ WKH DVVDVVLQDWLRQ WKH VWDELOLW\ RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV JRYHUQPHQW DOVR SURYHG VLJQLÂżFDQW IURP DQ LQWHUQDWLRQDO SHUVSHFWLYH TKH DVVDVVLQDWLRQ RFFXUUHG GXULQJ WKH KHDUW RI WKH CROG WDU RQO\ RQH \HDU UHPRYHG IURP WKH QXFOHDU VFDUH RI WKH CXEDQ MLVVLOH CULVLV TKH UQLWHG SWDWHV ZDV LQ DQ LGHRORJLFDO ZDU ZLWK CRPPXQLVW FRXQWULHV SURYLGLQJ GHOLEHUDWH LQFHQWLYH WR appear stabilized following the assassination. Stabilization not only reassured RWKHU QDWLRQV WKDW WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV VWLOO KDG D VWURQJ ZRUNLQJ JRYHUQPHQW L\QGRQ JRKQVRQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;AGGUHVV WR JRLQW SHVVLRQ RI CRQJUHVV â&#x20AC;? MLOOHU CHQWHU RI PXEOLF Affairs. Available from: http://millercenter.org/scripps/archive/speeches/ detail/3381. JRKQVRQ TKH VDQWDJH PRLQW 43 Ibid., 18. â&#x20AC;&#x153;SKRFN DQG DLVEHOLHI CRXQW\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V RHDFWLRQ WR AVVDVVLQDWLRQâ&#x20AC;? BHDYHU CRXQW\ TLPHV NRY AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS QHZV JRRJOH FRP QHZVSDSHUV"LG J FYAAA AIBAJ VMLG VNVFAAAAIBAJ SJ GT MRKQVRQ XQFHUWDLQW\ KO HQ Heartbeat from the Presidency

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EXW LW SURYHG WR CRPPXQLVW FRXQWULHV WKDW DQ APHULFDQ CDSLWDOLVW V\VWHP RI government was well-suited to handle crisis. Through continuity, Johnson SURYHG WR WKH UHVW RI WKH ZRUOG WKDW WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV ZDV VWLOO SROLWLFDOO\ VWDEOH In addition to practical issues of stabilizing a traumatized nation, FRQWLQXLW\ DOVR SURYHG SROLWLFDOO\ VHQVLEOH JRKQVRQ HQWHUHG RIÂżFH ZHOO DZDUH RI WKH SROLWLFDO PRWLYHV IRU FRQWLQXLW\ TKH HOHFWLRQ ZDV SDUWLFXODUO\ VLJQLÂżFDQW IRU JRKQVRQ EHFDXVH KH HQWHUHG RIÂżFH DV DQ ÂľDFFLGHQWDO SUHVLGHQW â&#x20AC;&#x2122; meaning he was not voted president by the public, and thus lacked a certain degree of political legitimacy. Johnson, in an interview with author Doris Kearns Goodwin, said, â&#x20AC;&#x153;I became President. But for millions of Americans I was still illegitimate, a naked man with no presidential covering, a pretender to the throne, an illegal usurper.â&#x20AC;? Johnson recognized that he could legitimize KLPVHOI DV D SUHVLGHQW DQG VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ SRVLWLRQ KLPVHOI IRU WKH HOHFWLRQ LI KH FRXOG SDVV OHJLVODWLRQ GXULQJ KLV ÂżUVW \HDU LQ RIÂżFH TZR SLHFHV RI OHJLVODWLRQ LQ SDUWLFXODU D CLYLO RLJKWV UHIRUP DQG D WD[ UHIRUP ZRXOG EHFRPH JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V primary legislative targets. During his term as President, Kennedy worked hard to bring about tax FXWV VR JRKQVRQ DGGUHVVHG WD[ UHIRUP DV DQ HDUO\ OHJLVODWLYH REMHFWLYH KHQQHG\ HQWHUHG RIÂżFH LQ SUHVVLQJ IRU ORZHUHG WD[HV EDVHG RQ D KH\QHVLDQ PRGHO of economic stimulation.47 Although he served a shortened presidential term, Kennedy still successfully enacted some tax reform. He passed the Revenue AFW RI ZKLFK SURYLGHG LQYHVWPHQW WD[ FUHGLW HIIHFWLYHO\ ORZHULQJ WD[ burdens for many Americans.48 After signing this act, Kennedy stated, â&#x20AC;&#x153;This bill makes a good start on bringing our tax structure up to date and provides a favorable context for the overall tax reform program I intend to propose to the QH[W CRQJUHVV â&#x20AC;?49 As evident by this statement, Kennedy had larger political REMHFWLYHV LQ WHUPV RI WD[ UHIRUP WKDQ ZKDW KH SDVVHG LQ HH SXVKHG IRU FRQWLQXHG WD[ UHIRUP WKURXJKRXW EXW CRQJUHVV YRWHG DJDLQVW WKHVH SURSRVDOV OHDYLQJ KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V REMHFWLYHV XQÂżQLVKHG ZLWK KLV XQH[SHFWHG GHDWK LQ JRKQVRQ HQWHUHG RIÂżFH DQG VRXJKW WR SDVV WD[ UHIRUP DV D PHDQV WR FRQWLQXH IRUZDUG ZLWK KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V REMHFWLYHV EYHQ WKRXJK JRKQVRQ GLG QRW directly champion tax reform previously in his political career, his priorities TXLFNO\ VKLIWHG RQFH KH EHFDPH SUHVLGHQW FRU H[DPSOH LQ JXO\ RI OLEHUDO SHQDWH PHPEHUV FLUFXODWHG D FKDUW GHSLFWLQJ KRZ ÂľDQLW OLEHUDOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; JRKQVRQ ZDV when compared to Kennedy on tax reform issues. However, in his speech

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PKLOOLS AEERW â&#x20AC;&#x153;AFFLGHQWDO PUHVLGHQWV DHDWK AVVDVVLQDWLRQ RHVLJQDWLRQ DQG DHPRFUDWLF SXFFHVVLRQ â&#x20AC;? PUHVLGHQWLDO SWXGLHV QXDUWHUO\ MDUFK AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ MVWRU RUJ SVV GLOORQ TKH KHQQHG\ AVVDVVLQDWLRQ HRXUV AIWHU 47 Based on Keynesian economic theory, Kennedy argued that if people are taxed less and thus have relatively higher personal incomes, they can spend more; thus stimulating the economy. Parmet, 92. JRKQ F KHQQHG\ â&#x20AC;&#x153;SWDWHPHQW E\ WKH PUHVLGHQW USRQ SLJQLQJ WKH RHYHQXH AFW â&#x20AC;? TKH APHULFDQ PUHVLGHQF\ PURMHFW AYDLODEOH IURP http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/ LQGH[ SKS"SLG . 49 Ibid. RREHUW DDOOHN LRQH SWDU RLVLQJ L\QGRQ JRKQVRQ DQG HLV TLPHV NHZ YRUN O[IRUG UQLYHUVLW\ PUHVV The Academical Heritage Review

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found ways to tie himself to Kennedy. Kennedy was incredibly popular following his assassination, so Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to relate himself to Kennedy was politically advantageous. In one attempt to tie himself to Kennedy, Johnson campaigned in the Lincoln limousine, the same vehicle in which Kennedy had EHHQ DVVDVVLQDWHG QRZ ZLWK D EXOOHWSURRI SODVWLF WRS This campaign tactic deliberately played to the emotional appeal of the voter by invoking images still closely associated with the fallen President. Johnson also used speeches as a means to remind voters of his ties to Kennedy. Johnson would fuel the image of Kennedy as a hero and martyr, often at the expense of explaining his own SROLWLFDO REMHFWLYHV DXULQJ D UDOO\ LQ BRVWRQ RQ OFWREHU JRKQVRQ LVVXHG a speech that â&#x20AC;&#x153;was devoted to a recital of the hopes and accomplishments of President Kennedy,â&#x20AC;? rather than focusing on his own credentials for president. In another example, Johnson used a campaign rally in Jacksonville, Florida to highlight promises and speeches â&#x20AC;&#x153;that John Fitzgerald Kennedy made,â&#x20AC;? a FDPSDLJQ WDFWLF XVHG UHSHDWHGO\ WKURXJKRXW JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FDPSDLJQ TKH campaign was run such that people could honor Kennedy by voting for Johnson. This methodology of relating himself to the fallen President proved VXFFHVVIXO LQ WKDW JRKQVRQ ZRQ WKH HOHFWLRQ RI E\ D ODQGVOLGH PDUWO\ D result of the political climate in the country during this period, and partly a UHVXOW JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V FRQWLQXDWLRQ RI KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SROLFLHV JRKQVRQ ZRQ SHUFHQW of the two-party popular vote, marking one of the largest margins of victory in American Presidential election history. Johnson effectively utilized continuity as a means to ensure his reelection, marking another, and perhaps the most LPSRUWDQW LQGLFDWLRQ WKDW FRQWLQXLW\ ZDV DQ LGHDO SROLWLFDO REMHFWLYH

A VWXG\ FRQGXFWHG DIWHU KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V DVVDVVLQDWLRQ IRXQG WKDW VL[W\ ÂżYH SHUFHQW RI APHULFDQV FODLPHG WR KDYH YRWHG IRU KHQQHG\ LQ IQ DFWXDOLW\ OHVV WKDQ ÂżIW\ SHUFHQW KDG DFWXDOO\ FDVW WKHLU YRWH IRU KLP TKH APHULFDQ E[SHULHQFH WKH KHQQHG\V DVD PBS HHQGULN HHUW]EHUJ â&#x20AC;&#x153;LBJ VLVLWV BRVWRQ EXORJL]HV KHQQHG\ â&#x20AC;? TKH HDUYDUG CULPVRQ OFW AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ WKHFULPVRQ FRP DUWLFOH OEM visits-boston-eulogizes-kennedy-plyndon/. IELG PXEOLF PDSHUV RI WKH PUHVLGHQWV RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV L\QGRQ JRKQVRQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;Remarks at a Rally in Hemming Park, Jacksonville, Florida,â&#x20AC;? 1439, excerpted, HHLQOQOLQH UQLYHUVLW\ RI VLUJLQLD LDZ LLEUDU\ AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ KHLQRQOLQH RUJ HOL PDJH"PHQBWDE VUFKUHVXOWV KDQGOH KHLQ SUHVLGHQWV SSS LG VL]H FROOHFWLRQ SUHVLGHQWV WHUPV KHQQHG\ WHUPW\SH SKUDVH V et_as_cursor=. BDUU\ GROGZDWHU ZDV D SRODUL]LQJ SROLWLFDO ÂżJXUH D IDFWRU WKDW XQGRXEWHGO\ SOD\HG a role in Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s political landslide victory. Goldwater was prone to making RXWODQGLVK VWDWHPHQWV SDUWLFXODUO\ LQ UHJDUGV WR QXFOHDU ZDUIDUH AQ OFWREHU SROO IRXQG WKDW RI APHULFDQV WKRXJKW QXFOHDU ZDU ZDV OLNHO\ XQGHU GROGZDWHU ZKLOH RQO\ WKRXJKW LW ZDV OLNHO\ XQGHU JRKQVRQ GROGZDWHUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SROLWLFDO PLVVWHSV played a clear role in Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s victory, but the margin by which Johnson won should be attributed to multiple causes, including Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s continuation of KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SROLFLHV LHUQHU PKLOOLS CRQYHUVH HW DO â&#x20AC;&#x153;EOHFWRUDO M\WK DQG RHDOLW\ TKH EOHFWLRQ â&#x20AC;? TKH American Political Science Review. JXQH MDUFK AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ MVWRU RUJ VWDEOH "FRRNLHSHW Heartbeat from the Presidency

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CONCLUSION OQ WKH PRUQLQJ RI NRYHPEHU DOPRVW D \HDU UHPRYHG IURP the assassination of John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson was the newly HOHFWHG SUHVLGHQW RI WKH UQLWHG SWDWHV TKH DVVDVVLQDWLRQ VWLOO OLQJHUHG LQ WKH minds of many Americans, but Johnson had stabilized the nation. On this HDUO\ NRYHPEHU PRUQLQJ ORRNLQJ EDFN RQ KLV ZKLUOZLQG \HDU DV SUHVLGHQW continuity had proven to be a successful political plan for Johnson. In many UHJDUGV JRKQVRQ KDG IXOÂżOOHG KLV â&#x20AC;&#x153;VROHPQ SULYDWH YRZâ&#x20AC;? WR FRQWLQXH IRUZDUG ZLWK KHQQHG\â&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SUHVLGHQWLDO REMHFWLYHV Political controversy, particularly in regards to the treatment of VLHWQDP ZRXOG FRPH WR GHÂżQH JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V IXOO WHUP LQ RIÂżFH MRVW DUJXH WKDW JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V KDQGOLQJ RI VLHWQDP FRQWULEXWHG WR D WDUQLVKHG SUHVLGHQWLDO legacy. Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s continuation of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policies directly affected his IRUHLJQ SROLF\ LQ VLHWQDP LQ WKDW LW FRQVWUDLQHG KLV SROLWLFDO PRELOLW\ ODWHU LQ KLV SUHVLGHQF\ HDG KH DGRSWHG D PRUH LQGHSHQGHQW VHW RI SROLF\ REMHFWLYHV HDUO\ LQ KLV WHUP KH PD\ KDYH KDG PRUH IUHHGRP WR ZLWKGUDZ WURRSV IURP VLHWQDP Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assassination undoubtedly haunted Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s presidency; however, continuation of Kennedyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policies also lead to incredible political successes for JRKQVRQ GXULQJ KLV ÂżUVW \HDU DV SUHVLGHQW Lyndon B. Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s frantic car ride from Elm Street to Parkland HRVSLWDO RQ NRYHPEHU PLUURUV KLV FRPSOHWH WHUP DV SUHVLGHQW JRKQVRQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V SUHVLGHQF\ ZDV ÂżOOHG ZLWK FRPSOH[LWLHV FRQWUDGLFWLRQV DQG uncertainties. Should he have maintained continuity at the risk of shackling KLPVHOI WR WKHVH REMHFWLYHV ODWHU LQ KLV SUHVLGHQF\ RU VKRXOG KH KDYH VRXJKW PRUH LQGHSHQGHQW SROLF\ GHFLVLRQV MHRSDUGL]LQJ WKH SROLWLFDO VXFFHVVHV WKDW FKDUDFWHUL]HG KLV ÂżUVW \HDU LQ RIÂżFH" AOWKRXJK WKH DQVZHU LV XQFOHDU WKH successes of continuation deserve thorough consideration when analyzing Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s legacy. Taking over in tragic circumstances, Johnson successfully stabilized a nation, passed transformative legislation, and won one of the largest popular elections in American history. Lyndon Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s political successes IURP WKH SHULRG EHWZHHQ NRYHPEHU DQG NRYHPEHU VKRXOG QRW EH RYHUORRNHG ZKHQ GHÂżQLQJ KLV OHJDF\ DV SUHVLGHQW

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The Academical Heritage Review

BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbot, Phillip. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Accidental Presidents: Death, Assassination, Resignation, and Democratic Succession.â&#x20AC;? Preisdential Studies Quarterly. JSTOR WHE ASU AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ MVWRU RUJ SVV â&#x20AC;&#x153;AGGUHVV WR JRLQW SHVVLRQ RI CRQJUHVV NRYHPEHU â&#x20AC;? Miller Center of Public Affairs WHE ASU AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS PLOOHUFHQWHU org/scripps/archive/speeches/detail/3381. The American Experience, the Kennedys PBS DVD â&#x20AC;&#x153;American President: Lyndon Baines Johnson: Domestic Affairs.â&#x20AC;? Miller Center of Public Affairs WHE MD\ AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS PLOOHUFHQWHU RUJ DFDGHPLF DPHULFDQSUHVLGHQW OEMRKQVRQ HVVD\V biography/4. BDUWOHWW BUXFH â&#x20AC;&#x153;JFKâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;V GUHDWHVW AFKLHYHPHQW WDV MDVVLYH CXW LQ TD[HV â&#x20AC;? BNET WHE AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ÂżQGDUWLFOHV FRP S DUWLFOHV PLB TD LVB DLBQ BHVW JDPHV Ă&#x201E;WKR TDONHG WR WKH PUHVLGHQW WKHQ" A SWXG\ RI L\QGRQ B Johnson.â&#x20AC;&#x153; Political Science Quarterly JSTOR WHE ASU AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ MVWRU RUJ VWDEOH "VHT â&#x20AC;&#x153;CLYLO RLJKWV AFW â&#x20AC;? OurDocuments.gov WHE MD\ AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ RXUGRFXPHQWV JRY GRF SKS"Ă&#x20AC;DVK ROG GRF CRQYHUVH PKLOLS E ADJH R CODXVHQ DQG WDUUHQ E MLOOHU â&#x20AC;&#x153;EOHFWRUDO M\WK DQG RHDOLW\ TKH EOHFWLRQ â&#x20AC;? JSTOR. American Political Science Review, JXQH WHE JXQH AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ MVWRU RUJ VWDEOH "FRRNLHSHW Dallek, Robert. Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1908-1960. NHZ YRUN O[IRUG UP PULQW DUXPPRQG RRVFRH â&#x20AC;&#x153;JRKQVRQ PXVKHV CLYLO RLJKWV BLOO â&#x20AC;? Sarasota HeraldTribune DHF Google News WHE SHSW AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS QHZV JRRJOH FRP QHZVSDSHUV"LG VEF AAAAIBAJ VMLG VPUEAAAAIBAJ SJ GT MRKQVMR FLYLO ULJKWV KO HQ â&#x20AC;&#x153;ETXDO EPSOR\PHQW OSSRUWXQLW\ XQGHU WKH CLYLO RLJKWV AFW RI â&#x20AC;? Brooklyn Law Review ;;;I HeinOnline WHE JXQH Available from: http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein. MRXUQDOV EUNOU GLY JBVHQW FROOHFWLRQ MRXUQDOV

1 1 Gillon, Steven M. The Kennedy Assassination--24 Hours After: Lyndon B. 5 Heartbeat from the Presidency

Johnsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Pivotal First Day as President NHZ YRUN BDVLF PULQW HDUULV LRXLV â&#x20AC;&#x153;PXEOLF HDV CRQÂżGHQFH LQ JRKQVRQ BXW AQWLFLSDWHV SRPH CKDQJHV â&#x20AC;? The Washignton Post NRY A ProQuest Historical Newspapers WHE AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS SURTXHVW XPL FRP STGZHE "LQGH[ GLG SUFKMRGH VLG FPW VIQVW P ROD VTVT\ PQD RQT VNDPH HNP TS FOLH ntId=8772&cfc=1. Holland, Max, ed. The Presidential Recordings Lyndon Johnson NHZ YRUN W W NRWURQ DQG CRPSDQ\ White House Tapes MLOOHU CHQWHU RI PXEOLF AIIDLUV WHE MDU AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ ZKLWHKRXVHWDSHV QHW WUDQVFULSW MRKQVRQ OEM Johnson, Lyndon. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Radio and Television Remarks upon Signing the Tax Bill FHEUXDU\ â&#x20AC;? Public Papers of the President of the United States- Lyndon Johnson 1963-1964 VRO WDVKLQJWRQ UQLWHG SWDWHV GRYHUQPHQW PULQWLQJ OIÂżFH HeinOnline WHE JXQH AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ KHLQRQOLQH RUJ HOL PDJH"FROOHFW LRQ SUHVLGHQWV KDQGOH KHLQ SUHVLGHQWV SSS W\SH IPDJH LG Johnson, Lyndon. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Remarks at a Rally in Hemming Park, Jacksonville, Fla. OFWREHU â&#x20AC;? Public Papers of the President of the United States- Lyndon Johnson 1963-1964 VRO WDVKLQJWRQ UQLWHG SWDWHV GRYHUQPHQW PULQWLQJ OIÂżFH HeinOnline WHE JXQH AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS ZZZ KHLQRQOLQH RUJ HOL PDJH"PHQB WDE VUFKUHVXOWV KDQGOH KHLQ SUHVLGHQWV SSS LG VL]H 2&collection=presidents&terms=Kennedy&termtype=phrase&set_as_ cursor= . Johnson, Lyndon B. The Vantage Point; Perspectives of the Presidency, 19631969. NHZ YRUN HROW RLQHKDUW DQG WLQVWRQ PULQW KXHWWQHU AO â&#x20AC;&#x153;HRZ WLOO CLYLO RLJKWV BLOO DR UQGHU NHZ PUHVLGHQW"â&#x20AC;? Beaver County Times DHF Google News WHE SHSW AYDLODEOH IURP KWWS QHZV JRRJOH FRP QHZVSDSHUV"LG OK LAAAAIBAJ VMLG ELMFAAAAIBAJ SJ GT MRKQVRQ FLYLO ULJKWV KO HQ

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The Academical Heritage Review

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1 2 2 Volume 2 Number 1

The Academical Heritage Review

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