Business Research Methods 5th Edition by Emma Bell, Alan Bryman and Bill Harley. Chapters 1-27

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 01 - Question 01 01) Which of the following are reasons to conduct business research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Academics conduct research because, in the course of reading the literature on a topic or reflecting on what is going on in organizations, questions occur to them. They may notice a gap in the literature or an inconsistency between a number of studies or an unresolved issue in the literature.

Another stimulus is a societal development that provides a point of departure for the development of a research question.

Page reference: Page 4 *a. There may be a gap or inconsistency in the literature *b. A societal event may bring the issue to the fore *c. When an aspect of business or management is inadequately understood d. Because they have a good feeling about some aspect of business management Type: true-false Title: Chapter 01 - Question 02 02) The topics of business research are deeply influenced by the theoretical position adopted by the researcher: *a. True Feedback: The topics of business are deeply influenced by the theoretical position adopted.

Page reference: 5 b. False Feedback: The topics of business are deeply influenced by the theoretical position adopted.

Page reference: 5 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 01 – Question 03 03) Which of the following is a source of information that contributes to evidence-based management? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: There are four sources of information that contribute to evidence-based management: 1. practitioner expertise and judgement; 2. evidence from the local context; 3. critical evaluation of the best available research evidence; 4. perspectives of those who may be affected by a particular decision (Briner et al. 2009: 19).

Page reference: 7 *a. Practitioner expertise and judgement *b. Perspectives of those who may be affected by a particular decision c. Discussions on social media *d. Evidence from the local context Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 01 – Question 04 04) Which of the following is a reason to conduct a literature review? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Existing literature represents an important element in all research. When we have a topic or issue that interests us, we must read further to determine: • what is already known about the topic; • what concepts and theories have been applied to it; • what research methods have been applied in studying it; • what controversies exist about the topic and about how it is studied; • what clashes of evidence (if any) exist; • who the key contributors to research on the topic are.

Page reference: Page 8 *a. To understand what is known about a topic b. To solve a business problem *c. To understand what methods have been applied to a topic *d. To investigate clashes of evidence

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Type: true-false Title: Chapter 01 - Question 05 05) Concepts are labels we give to aspects of the social world that have common features: *a. True Feedback: Concepts are the way that we make sense of the social world. They are labels that we give to aspects of the social world that seem to have significant common features.

Page reference: 9 b. False Feedback: Concepts are the way that we make sense of the social world. They are labels that we give to aspects of the social world that seem to have significant common features.

Page reference: 9 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 01 – Question 06 06) Which of the following is not a feature of a research question? a. It guides your literature search Feedback: research questions are crucial because they will: • guide your literature search; • guide your decisions about the kind of research design to employ; • guide your decisions about what data to collect and from whom; • guide your analysis of data; • guide your writing-up of data; • stop you going on in unnecessary directions; and • provide your readers with a clear sense of what your research is about.

Page reference: 10 *b. It will determine your research findings Feedback: research questions are crucial because they will: • guide your literature search; • guide your decisions about the kind of research design to employ; • guide your decisions about what data to collect and from whom; • guide your analysis of data; • guide your writing-up of data; • stop you going on in unnecessary directions; and • provide your readers with a clear sense of what your research is about.

Page reference: 10 c. It will guide decisions about which research design to employ Feedback: research questions are crucial because they will: • guide your literature search; • guide your decisions about the kind of research design to employ; • guide your decisions about what data to collect and from whom; • guide your analysis of data; • guide your writing-up of data; • stop you going on in unnecessary directions; and • provide your readers with a clear sense of what your research is about.

Page reference: 10 d. It will guide your decisions about what data to collect and from whom Feedback: research questions are crucial because they will: • guide your literature search; • guide your decisions about the kind of research design to employ; • guide your decisions about what data to collect and from whom; • guide your analysis of data; • guide your writing-up of data; • stop you going on in unnecessary directions; and

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

• provide your readers with a clear sense of what your research is about.

Page reference: 10 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 01 - Question 07 07) A representative sample is a sample that: a. Represents the views of a specific group of people Feedback: Many people associate sampling with surveys and the quest for representative samples.

Such sampling is usually based on constructing a sample that can represent (and therefore act as a microcosm of) a wider population.

Page reference: 11 *b. Represents a wider population Feedback: Many people associate sampling with surveys and the quest for representative samples.

Such sampling is usually based on constructing a sample that can represent (and therefore act as a microcosm of) a wider population.

Page reference: 11 c. Tends to be smaller in nature Feedback: Many people associate sampling with surveys and the quest for representative samples.

Such sampling is usually based on constructing a sample that can represent (and therefore act as a microcosm of) a wider population.

Page reference: 11 d. Is more democratic in its aims and objectives Feedback: Many people associate sampling with surveys and the quest for representative samples.

Such sampling is usually based on constructing a sample that can represent (and therefore act as a microcosm of) a wider population.

Page reference: 11 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 01 - Question 08 08) Which of the following is not a feature of data analysis? a. Transcription Feedback: Transcription enables the researcher to upload the transcripts into a computer software program of the kind dis- cussed in Chapter 25. In the research by Clarke et al., once the transcripts had been uploaded into the software, the authors began by coding each transcript. This is a process whereby the data are broken down into component parts which are then given labels. The analyst searches for re-occurrences of sequences of coded text within and across cases and for links between different codes. Clarke et al. began by identifying a number of ‘descriptive order’ categories such as ‘emotion’ and ‘changes in the higher education system’ (2012: 8), which they later expanded or collapsed as the analysis progressed, refining them into more analytic categories such as ‘professionalism’, eventually arriving at core themes which they concentrated on. This approach is referred to as thematic analysis. There is a lot going on here: data are being made more manageable than they would be if the researcher just kept listening and re-listening to the recordings; the researcher is making sense of data through coding; and data are being interpreted—that is, the researcher is linking the process of making sense of the data with the research question, as well as with the literature and theoretical concepts.

The data analysis stage is fundamentally about data reduction—that is, reducing the large corpus of information gathered in order to make sense of it. Unless the researcher reduces the data collected— for example, in the case of quantitative data by producing tables or aver- ages and in the case of qualitative data by grouping textual material into categories such as themes—it is more or less impossible to interpret the material.

Page reference: 13 b. Coding Feedback: Transcription enables the researcher to upload the transcripts into a computer software program of the kind dis- cussed in Chapter 25. In the research by Clarke et al., once the transcripts had been uploaded into the software, the authors began by coding each transcript. This is a process whereby the data are broken down into component parts which are then given labels. The analyst searches for re-occurrences of sequences of coded text within and across cases and for links between different codes. Clarke et al. began by identifying a number of ‘descriptive order’ categories

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

such as ‘emotion’ and ‘changes in the higher education system’ (2012: 8), which they later expanded or collapsed as the analysis progressed, refining them into more analytic categories such as ‘professionalism’, eventually arriving at core themes which they concentrated on. This approach is referred to as thematic analysis. There is a lot going on here: data are being made more manageable than they would be if the researcher just kept listening and re-listening to the recordings; the researcher is making sense of data through coding; and data are being interpreted—that is, the researcher is linking the process of making sense of the data with the research question, as well as with the literature and theoretical concepts.

The data analysis stage is fundamentally about data reduction—that is, reducing the large corpus of information gathered in order to make sense of it. Unless the researcher reduces the data collected— for example, in the case of quantitative data by producing tables or aver- ages and in the case of qualitative data by grouping textual material into categories such as themes—it is more or less impossible to interpret the material.

Page reference: 13 c. Data reduction Feedback: Transcription enables the researcher to upload the transcripts into a computer software program of the kind dis- cussed in Chapter 25. In the research by Clarke et al., once the transcripts had been uploaded into the software, the authors began by coding each transcript. This is a process whereby the data are broken down into component parts which are then given labels. The analyst searches for re-occurrences of sequences of coded text within and across cases and for links between different codes. Clarke et al. began by identifying a number of ‘descriptive order’ categories such as ‘emotion’ and ‘changes in the higher education system’ (2012: 8), which they later expanded or collapsed as the analysis progressed, refining them into more analytic categories such as ‘professionalism’, eventually arriving at core themes which they concentrated on. This approach is referred to as thematic analysis. There is a lot going on here: data are being made more manageable than they would be if the researcher just kept listening and re-listening to the recordings; the researcher is making sense of data through coding; and data are being interpreted—that is, the researcher is linking the process of making sense of the data with the research question, as well as with the literature and theoretical concepts.

The data analysis stage is fundamentally about data reduction—that is, reducing the large corpus of information gathered in order to make sense of it. Unless the researcher reduces the data collected— for example, in the case of quantitative data by producing tables or aver- ages and in the case of qualitative data by grouping textual material into categories such as themes—it is more or less impossible to interpret the material.

Page reference: 13 *d. Programming Feedback: Transcription enables the researcher to upload the transcripts into a computer software program of the kind dis- cussed in Chapter 25. In the research by Clarke et al., once the transcripts had been uploaded into the software, the authors began by coding each transcript. This is a process whereby the data are broken down into component parts which are then given labels. The analyst searches for re-occurrences of sequences of coded text within and across cases and for links between different codes. Clarke et al. began by identifying a number of ‘descriptive order’ categories such as ‘emotion’ and ‘changes in the higher education system’ (2012: 8), which they later expanded or collapsed as the analysis progressed, refining them into more analytic categories such as ‘professionalism’, eventually arriving at core themes which they concentrated on. This approach is referred to as thematic analysis. There is a lot going on here: data are being made more manageable than they would be if the researcher just kept listening and re-listening to the recordings; the researcher is making sense of data through coding; and data are being interpreted—that is, the researcher is linking the process of making sense of the data with the research question, as well as with the literature and theoretical concepts.

The data analysis stage is fundamentally about data reduction—that is, reducing the large corpus of information gathered in order to make sense of it. Unless the researcher reduces the data collected— for example, in the case of quantitative data by producing tables or aver- ages and in the case of qualitative data by grouping textual material into categories such as themes—it is more or less impossible to interpret the material.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 1 - Question 09 09) Big data can only be collected via the internet. a. True Feedback: “Big data” refers to the vast quantities of digital information generated, stored and circulated, including via the internet. (However the internet is not the sole source).

Page reference: 20 *b. False Feedback: “Big data” refers to the vast quantities of digital information generated, stored and circulated, including via the internet. (However the internet is not the sole source).

Page reference: 20 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 01 - Question 10 10) Which of the following are features of writing up a research project? Please select all that apply: Feedback: However, there are core ingredients that dissertations, theses, research articles, and books will include: • Introduction. The research area and its significance are outlined. The research questions will also probably be introduced.

• Literature review. What is already known about the research area is examined critically. This section often relates to theoretical concepts that are the focus of the research, as shown in Table 1.1.

• Research methods. The research methods (sampling, methods of data collection, methods of data analysis) are presented and justified.

• Results. The findings are presented.

• Discussion. The findings are discussed in relation to the literature and the research questions.

• Conclusion. The significance of the research is reinforced.

Page reference: 13 *a. Literature review *b. Research Method c. Editorial *d. Results Type: true-false Title: Chapter 01 - Question 11 11) Business research is a process where the findings can be predicted with reasonable certainly before data is collected. a. True Feedback: There is one final point we want to make before you read on. Business research is often a lot less smooth than accounts of the process you read in books such as this. Our purpose is to provide an overview of the research process and to give advice on how it should ideally be done. In reality, research is full of false starts, blind alleys, mistakes, and enforced changes.

Page reference: 13 *b. False Feedback: There is one final point we want to make before you read on. Business research is often a lot less smooth than accounts of the process you read in books such as this. Our purpose is to provide an overview of the research process and to give advice on how it should ideally be done. In reality, research is full of false starts, blind alleys, mistakes, and enforced changes.

Page reference: 13

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 02 - Question 01 01) Theory is absolutely central to the conduct of business research: *a. True Feedback: Whatever the stimulus, research data become significant and contribute to knowledge when they are viewed in relation to theoretical concerns. This means that the nature of the relationship between theory and research is crucial.

Page reference: 19 b. False Feedback: Whatever the stimulus, research data become significant and contribute to knowledge when they are viewed in relation to theoretical concerns. This means that the nature of the relationship between theory and research is crucial.

Page reference: 19 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 02 – Question 02 02) Which of the following two statements characterise the term “empiricism”? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: The term ‘empiricism’ is used in a number of ways, but two stand out. First, it is used to refer to an approach to the study of reality that suggests that only knowledge gained through experience and the senses is acceptable. In other words, ideas must be subjected to the rigours of testing before they can be considered knowledge. The second meaning of the term is related to this and refers to a belief that the accumulation of ‘facts’ is a legitimate goal in its own right. It is this second meaning that is sometimes referred to as ‘naïve empiricism’.

Page reference: Page 20 *a. It suggests that only knowledge gained through experience and the senses is acceptable b. That only quantitative evidence is appropriate to business research *c. The accumulation of facts is a legitimate goal in its own right d. That business research must be relevant to practicing managers Type: true-false Title: Chapter 02 - Question 03 03) In deductive research, theory is something that develops after the collection and analysis of data. a. True This brings us to our next question: in so far as any piece of research is linked to theory, what was the role of that theory? Up to now, we have written as though theory guides and influences the collection and analysis of data. In other words, research is done in order to answer questions posed by theoretical puzzles. But an alternative position is to view theory as something that develops after collection and analysis of data. There is a second factor in considering the relationship between theory and research—whether we are referring to deductive or inductive theory.

Page reference: Page 20 *b. False This brings us to our next question: in so far as any piece of research is linked to theory, what was the role of that theory? Up to now, we have written as though theory guides and influences the collection and analysis of data. In other words, research is done in order to answer questions posed by theoretical puzzles. But an alternative position is to view theory as something that develops after collection and analysis of data. There is a second factor in considering the relationship between theory and research—whether we are referring to deductive or inductive theory.

Page reference: Page 20 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 02 - Question 04 04) In inductive research, theory is the outcome of research: *a. True “With an inductive stance, theory is the outcome of research”.

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Page reference: Page 25 b. False “With an inductive stance, theory is the outcome of research”.

Page reference: Page 25 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 02 - Question 05 05) The term ontology concerns an understanding of what the following is: a. Methods Feedback: “Ontology – our understanding of what reality is”.

Page reference: 17 b. Empiricism Feedback: “Ontology – our understanding of what reality is”.

Page reference: 17 *c. Reality Feedback: “Ontology – our understanding of what reality is”.

Page reference: 17 d. Science Feedback: “Ontology – our understanding of what reality is”.

Page reference: 17 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 02 - Question 06 06) The term epistemology concerns how we can know: a. Knowledge Feedback: Epistemology – our understanding of how we can know reality.

Page reference: 17 *b. Reality Feedback: Epistemology – our understanding of how we can know reality.

Page reference: 17 c. Research Feedback: Epistemology – our understanding of how we can know reality.

Page reference: 17 d. Science Feedback: Epistemology – our understanding of how we can know reality.

Page reference: 17 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 02 - Question 07 07) Objectivism implies that we socially construct our own interpretation of external facts. a. True Feedback: Objectivism is an ontological position that implies that social phenomena confront us as external facts beyond our reach or influence and that they exist whether we are aware of them or not.

Page reference: 26 *b. False Feedback: Objectivism is an ontological position that implies that social phenomena confront us as external facts beyond our reach or influence and that they exist whether we are aware of them or not.

Page reference: 26 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 02 - Question 08 08) Constructionism challenges the suggestion that social categories such as organisation and culture are objective phenomena. *a. True Feedback: However, we can consider an alternative ontological position—constructionism (see Key concept 2.12). This position challenges the suggestion that categories such as organization and culture are pre-given and therefore confront social actors as external realities that they have no role in fashioning.

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Page reference: 27 b. False

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 02 - Question 09 09) Postmodernists are sceptical that it is possible to arrive at a definitive version of reality. *a. True Feedback: Postmodernists are deeply suspicious of the idea that it is possible to arrive at a definitive version of reality.

Page reference: 28 b. False Feedback: Postmodernists are deeply suspicious of the idea that it is possible to arrive at a definitive version of reality.

Page reference: 28 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 02 - Question 10 10) Positivism is informed by which ontological position: a. Social constructionist Feedback: “Positivism is an epistemological position which is informed by an objectivist ontological position” Page reference: 30 b. Subjectivist Feedback: “Positivism is an epistemological position which is informed by an objectivist ontological position” Page reference: 30 c. Pragmatist Feedback: “Positivism is an epistemological position which is informed by an objectivist ontological position” Page reference: 30 *d. Objectivist Feedback: “Positivism is an epistemological position which is informed by an objectivist ontological position” Page reference: 30 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 02 - Question 11 11) Interpretivism is informed by which ontological position: *a. Social constructionist Feedback: “This approach is underpinned by a social constructionist ontology, which holds that reality is constituted by human actions and meaning-making rather than exiting objectively and externally”.

Page reference: 30 b. Subjectivist Feedback: “This approach is underpinned by a social constructionist ontology, which holds that reality is constituted by human actions and meaning-making rather than exiting objectively and externally”.

Page reference: 30 c. Pragmatist Feedback: “This approach is underpinned by a social constructionist ontology, which holds that reality is constituted by human actions and meaning-making rather than exiting objectively and externally”.

Page reference: 30 d. Objectivist Feedback: “This approach is underpinned by a social constructionist ontology, which holds that reality is constituted by human actions and meaning-making rather than exiting objectively and externally”.

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Page reference: 30 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 02 - Question 12 12) Who of the following was a founder of symbolic interactionism? a. Karl Popper Feedback: “the implications of the ideas of the founders of symbolic interactionism, particularly George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), who discusses the way in which our notion of self emerges through an appreciation of how others see us, have been hotly debated”.

Page reference: 32 b. Karl Jung Feedback: “the implications of the ideas of the founders of symbolic interactionism, particularly George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), who discusses the way in which our notion of self emerges through an appreciation of how others see us, have been hotly debated”.

Page reference: 32 *c. George Herbert Mead Feedback: “the implications of the ideas of the founders of symbolic interactionism, particularly George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), who discusses the way in which our notion of self emerges through an appreciation of how others see us, have been hotly debated”.

Page reference: 32 d. Sigmund Freud Feedback: “the implications of the ideas of the founders of symbolic interactionism, particularly George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), who discusses the way in which our notion of self emerges through an appreciation of how others see us, have been hotly debated”.

Page reference: 32 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 02 - Question 13 13) Which of the following statements best describes a paradigm? a. The disagreements between scientists in a given field Feedback: “A paradigm is a cluster of beliefs and dictates which for scientists in a particular discipline influence what should be studied and how research should be done”.

Page reference: 34 *b. A cluster of beliefs and dictates in a particular discipline which influence what should be studied and how research should be done Feedback: “A paradigm is a cluster of beliefs and dictates which for scientists in a particular discipline influence what should be studied and how research should be done”.

Page reference: 34 c. A cluster of beliefs for which there is no consensus amongst scientists Feedback: “A paradigm is a cluster of beliefs and dictates which for scientists in a particular discipline influence what should be studied and how research should be done”.

Page reference: 34 d. A set of standards to which a scientific community used to use to evaluate research but no longer adhere to Feedback: “A paradigm is a cluster of beliefs and dictates which for scientists in a particular discipline influence what should be studied and how research should be done”.

Page reference: 34 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 02 - Question 14 14) Which of the following is not a paradigm identified by Burrell and Morgan? a. Functionalist Feedback: Plotting the assumptions of researchers along these two axes provides a framework for four paradigmatic positions in the study of organizations: • functionalist—the dominant framework for the study of organizations, based on a problem-solving orientation which leads to rational explanation; • interpretative—focuses on the conceptions of social actors and implies that understanding must be based on the experience of those who work in organizations;

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• radical humanist—proposes that organizations are social arrangements from which individuals need to be emancipated and that research should be guided by the need for change; • radical structuralist—views an organization as a product of structural power relationships, which result in conflict.

Page reference: 34 b. Interpretative Feedback: Plotting the assumptions of researchers along these two axes provides a framework for four paradigmatic positions in the study of organizations: • functionalist—the dominant framework for the study of organizations, based on a problem-solving orientation which leads to rational explanation; • interpretative—focuses on the conceptions of social actors and implies that understanding must be based on the experience of those who work in organizations; • radical humanist—proposes that organizations are social arrangements from which individuals need to be emancipated and that research should be guided by the need for change; • radical structuralist—views an organization as a product of structural power relationships, which result in conflict.

Page reference: 34 *c. Radical positivist Feedback: Plotting the assumptions of researchers along these two axes provides a framework for four paradigmatic positions in the study of organizations: • functionalist—the dominant framework for the study of organizations, based on a problem-solving orientation which leads to rational explanation; • interpretative—focuses on the conceptions of social actors and implies that understanding must be based on the experience of those who work in organizations; • radical humanist—proposes that organizations are social arrangements from which individuals need to be emancipated and that research should be guided by the need for change; • radical structuralist—views an organization as a product of structural power relationships, which result in conflict.

Page reference: 34 d. Radical structuralist Feedback: Plotting the assumptions of researchers along these two axes provides a framework for four paradigmatic positions in the study of organizations: • functionalist—the dominant framework for the study of organizations, based on a problem-solving orientation which leads to rational explanation; • interpretative—focuses on the conceptions of social actors and implies that understanding must be based on the experience of those who work in organizations; • radical humanist—proposes that organizations are social arrangements from which individuals need to be emancipated and that research should be guided by the need for change; • radical structuralist—views an organization as a product of structural power relationships, which result in conflict.

Page reference: 34 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 02 - Question 15 15) The values of a researcher have a strong influence upon the type of business research they will produce. *a. True Feedback: Values reflect either the personal beliefs or the feelings of a researcher. On the face of it, we would expect that social scientists should be value free and objective in their research. After all, one might argue that research that simply reflected the personal biases of its practitioners could not be considered valid and scientific because it was bound up with the subjectivities of its practitioners.

This view is held with less and less frequency among social scientists nowadays.

Page reference: 37 b. False Feedback: Values reflect either the personal beliefs or the feelings of a researcher. On the face of it, we would expect that social scientists should be value free and objective in their research. After all,

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one might argue that research that simply reflected the personal biases of its practitioners could not be considered valid and scientific because it was bound up with the subjectivities of its practitioners.

This view is held with less and less frequency among social scientists nowadays.

Page reference: 37

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 3 - Question 01 01) A research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data. *a. True Feedback: “A research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data”.

Page reference: 45 b. False Feedback: “A research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data”.

Page reference: 45 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 03 - Question 02 02) Which of the following is not a criterion for the evaluation of business research? a. Validity Feedback: “Three of the most prominent criterial for the evaluation of business and management research are reliability, replication and validity.

Page reference: 46 b. Reliability Feedback: “Three of the most prominent criterial for the evaluation of business and management research are reliability, replication and validity.

Page reference: 46 *c. Quality Feedback: “Three of the most prominent criterial for the evaluation of business and management research are reliability, replication and validity.

Page reference: 46 d. Replication Feedback: “Three of the most prominent criterial for the evaluation of business and management research are reliability, replication and validity.

Page reference: 46 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 03 - Question 03 03) Which of following best describes “ecological validity”? a. The extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the specific research context Feedback: The criterion is concerned with the question of whether or not social scientific findings are applicable in everyday, naturally occurring social settings.

Page reference: 47 *b. The extent to which social scientific findings are applicable in everyday social settings Feedback: The criterion is concerned with the question of whether or not social scientific findings are applicable in everyday, naturally occurring social settings.

Page reference: 47 c. The extent to which research has been conducted rigorously Feedback: The criterion is concerned with the question of whether or not social scientific findings are applicable in everyday, naturally occurring social settings.

Page reference: 47 d. The extent to which adequate precautions have been taken against inherent bias Feedback: The criterion is concerned with the question of whether or not social scientific findings are applicable in everyday, naturally occurring social settings.

Page reference: 47 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 03 - Question 04 04) An independent variable is understood as having a causal influence on dependent variables. *a. True

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Feedback: An independent variable is understood as having causal influence on dependent variables.

Page reference: 47 b. False Feedback: An independent variable is understood as having causal influence on dependent variables.

Page reference: 47 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 03 - Question 05 05) In a classic experimental design, the experimental, or treatment group does not receive the treatment while the control group does. a. True Feedback: “The experimental group, or treatment group, receives the treatment (some kind of manipulation of the independent variable), and is compared against the control group, which does not).

Page reference: 51 *b. False Feedback: “The experimental group, or treatment group, receives the treatment (some kind of manipulation of the independent variable), and is compared against the control group, which does not).

Page reference: 51 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 03 - Question 06 06) Which of the following is not a threat to external validity and generalisation? a. Interaction effects of pre-testing Feedback: Campbell (1957) and Cook and Campbell (1979) identify five major threats to the external validity and hence generalizability of an investigation. These can be summarized as follows: Interaction of selection and treatment. This threat raises the question: to what social and psychological groups can a finding be generalized? Can it be generalized to a wide variety of individuals who might be differentiated by gender, ethnicity, social class, and personality? For instance, many influential studies of leadership, conducted on samples comprising a majority of men, appear not to treat gender as a significant variable (Wilson 1995). It is possible that the findings of these studies simply reflect the characteristics of the predominantly male samples and therefore cannot provide a theory of effective leadership that is generalizable across both men and women.

Interaction of setting and treatment. This threat relates to the issue of how confident we can be that the results of a study can be applied to other settings. For example, in Research in focus 3.4, Agerström and Rooth conducted their study in Sweden, a society which consistently ranks highly in global equality indexes which measure attitudes towards discrimination, and which has directive legislation to protect employees against discriminatory workplace policy and practice on the grounds of gender and race. As a result, the setting may have been unusual by comparison with the wider world and may have had an influence on the experimental participants’ behaviours.

Interaction of history and treatment. This raises the question of whether or not the findings can be generalized to the past and to the future. The original Aston studies (Research in focus 3.5), for example, were conducted in the early 1960s. How confident can we be that these findings would apply today?

Interaction effects of pre-testing. As a result of being pretested, subjects in an experiment may become sensitized to the experimental treatment. Consequently, the findings may not be generalizable to groups that have not been pre-tested and, of course, in the real world, people are rarely tested in this way. The findings may, therefore, be partly determined by the experimental treatment as such and partly by how pretest sensitization has influenced the way in which subjects respond to the treatment. This may have occurred in Nielsen et al.’s research (Research in focus 3.8).

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Reactive effects of experimental arrangements. People are frequently, if not invariably, aware that they are participating in an experiment. Their awareness may influence how they respond to the experimental treatment and therefore affect the generalizability of the findings. This was a major finding of the Hawthorne studies (Research in focus 3.7).

Page reference: 52 b. Interaction of setting and treatment Feedback: Campbell (1957) and Cook and Campbell (1979) identify five major threats to the external validity and hence generalizability of an investigation. These can be summarized as follows: Interaction of selection and treatment. This threat raises the question: to what social and psychological groups can a finding be generalized? Can it be generalized to a wide variety of individuals who might be differentiated by gender, ethnicity, social class, and personality? For instance, many influential studies of leadership, conducted on samples comprising a majority of men, appear not to treat gender as a significant variable (Wilson 1995). It is possible that the findings of these studies simply reflect the characteristics of the predominantly male samples and therefore cannot provide a theory of effective leadership that is generalizable across both men and women.

Interaction of setting and treatment. This threat relates to the issue of how confident we can be that the results of a study can be applied to other settings. For example, in Research in focus 3.4, Agerström and Rooth conducted their study in Sweden, a society which consistently ranks highly in global equality indexes which measure attitudes towards discrimination, and which has directive legislation to protect employees against discriminatory workplace policy and practice on the grounds of gender and race. As a result, the setting may have been unusual by comparison with the wider world and may have had an influence on the experimental participants’ behaviours.

Interaction of history and treatment. This raises the question of whether or not the findings can be generalized to the past and to the future. The original Aston studies (Research in focus 3.5), for example, were conducted in the early 1960s. How confident can we be that these findings would apply today?

Interaction effects of pre-testing. As a result of being pretested, subjects in an experiment may become sensitized to the experimental treatment. Consequently, the findings may not be generalizable to groups that have not been pre-tested and, of course, in the real world, people are rarely tested in this way. The findings may, therefore, be partly determined by the experimental treatment as such and partly by how pretest sensitization has influenced the way in which subjects respond to the treatment. This may have occurred in Nielsen et al.’s research (Research in focus 3.8).

Reactive effects of experimental arrangements. People are frequently, if not invariably, aware that they are participating in an experiment. Their awareness may influence how they respond to the experimental treatment and therefore affect the generalizability of the findings. This was a major finding of the Hawthorne studies (Research in focus 3.7).

Page reference: 52 *c. Interaction of researcher and environment Feedback: Campbell (1957) and Cook and Campbell (1979) identify five major threats to the external validity and hence generalizability of an investigation. These can be summarized as follows: Interaction of selection and treatment. This threat raises the question: to what social and psychological groups can a finding be generalized? Can it be generalized to a wide variety of individuals who might be differentiated by gender, ethnicity, social class, and personality? For instance, many influential studies of leadership, conducted on samples comprising a majority of men, appear not to treat gender as a significant variable (Wilson 1995). It is possible that the findings of these studies simply reflect the characteristics of the predominantly male samples and therefore cannot provide a theory of effective leadership that is generalizable across both men and women.

Interaction of setting and treatment. This threat relates to the issue of how confident we can be that the results of a study can be applied to other settings. For example, in Research in focus 3.4, Agerström and Rooth conducted their study in Sweden, a society which consistently ranks highly in global equality indexes which measure attitudes towards discrimination, and which has directive

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legislation to protect employees against discriminatory workplace policy and practice on the grounds of gender and race. As a result, the setting may have been unusual by comparison with the wider world and may have had an influence on the experimental participants’ behaviours.

Interaction of history and treatment. This raises the question of whether or not the findings can be generalized to the past and to the future. The original Aston studies (Research in focus 3.5), for example, were conducted in the early 1960s. How confident can we be that these findings would apply today?

Interaction effects of pre-testing. As a result of being pretested, subjects in an experiment may become sensitized to the experimental treatment. Consequently, the findings may not be generalizable to groups that have not been pre-tested and, of course, in the real world, people are rarely tested in this way. The findings may, therefore, be partly determined by the experimental treatment as such and partly by how pretest sensitization has influenced the way in which subjects respond to the treatment. This may have occurred in Nielsen et al.’s research (Research in focus 3.8).

Reactive effects of experimental arrangements. People are frequently, if not invariably, aware that they are participating in an experiment. Their awareness may influence how they respond to the experimental treatment and therefore affect the generalizability of the findings. This was a major finding of the Hawthorne studies (Research in focus 3.7).

Page reference: 52 d. Relative effects of experimental arrangements Feedback: Campbell (1957) and Cook and Campbell (1979) identify five major threats to the external validity and hence generalizability of an investigation. These can be summarized as follows: Interaction of selection and treatment. This threat raises the question: to what social and psychological groups can a finding be generalized? Can it be generalized to a wide variety of individuals who might be differentiated by gender, ethnicity, social class, and personality? For instance, many influential studies of leadership, conducted on samples comprising a majority of men, appear not to treat gender as a significant variable (Wilson 1995). It is possible that the findings of these studies simply reflect the characteristics of the predominantly male samples and therefore cannot provide a theory of effective leadership that is generalizable across both men and women.

Interaction of setting and treatment. This threat relates to the issue of how confident we can be that the results of a study can be applied to other settings. For example, in Research in focus 3.4, Agerström and Rooth conducted their study in Sweden, a society which consistently ranks highly in global equality indexes which measure attitudes towards discrimination, and which has directive legislation to protect employees against discriminatory workplace policy and practice on the grounds of gender and race. As a result, the setting may have been unusual by comparison with the wider world and may have had an influence on the experimental participants’ behaviours.

Interaction of history and treatment. This raises the question of whether or not the findings can be generalized to the past and to the future. The original Aston studies (Research in focus 3.5), for example, were conducted in the early 1960s. How confident can we be that these findings would apply today?

Interaction effects of pre-testing. As a result of being pretested, subjects in an experiment may become sensitized to the experimental treatment. Consequently, the findings may not be generalizable to groups that have not been pre-tested and, of course, in the real world, people are rarely tested in this way. The findings may, therefore, be partly determined by the experimental treatment as such and partly by how pretest sensitization has influenced the way in which subjects respond to the treatment. This may have occurred in Nielsen et al.’s research (Research in focus 3.8).

Reactive effects of experimental arrangements. People are frequently, if not invariably, aware that they are participating in an experiment. Their awareness may influence how they respond to the experimental treatment and therefore affect the generalizability of the findings. This was a major finding of the Hawthorne studies (Research in focus 3.7).

Page reference: 52

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Type: true-false Title: Chapter 03 - Question 07 07) Quasi-experiments fulfil all the internal validity requirements for academic research. a. True Feedback: A number of writers have drawn attention to the possibilities offered by quasiexperiments—that is, studies that have certain characteristics of experimental designs but that do not fulfil all the internal validity requirements.

Page reference: 54 *b. False Feedback: A number of writers have drawn attention to the possibilities offered by quasiexperiments—that is, studies that have certain characteristics of experimental designs but that do not fulfil all the internal validity requirements.

Page reference: 54 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 03 - Question 08 08) Which of the following two characteristics are associated with cross-sectional design research?

Feedback: The cross-sectional design is defined in Key concept 3.12. A number of elements of this definition have been emphasized.

More than one case. Researchers employing a cross- sectional design are interested in variation.

That variation can be in respect of people, organizations, nation states, or whatever. Variation can be established only when more than one case is being examined. Usually, researchers employing this design will select a lot more than two cases for a variety of reasons: they are more likely to encounter variation in all the variables in which they are interested; they can make finer distinctions between cases; and the requirements of sampling procedure are likely to necessitate larger numbers (see Chapter 8).

At a single point in time. In cross-sectional research design, data on the variables of interest are collected more or less simultaneously; when an individual completes a questionnaire, which may contain fifty or more.

Page reference: 58 *a. More than one case b. Data that is only quantitative in nature *c. At a single point in time d. Data that is only quantitative in nature Type: true-false Title: Chapter 03 - Question 09 09) The longitudinal design represents a distinct form of research design that is typically used to map change in business and management research. *a. True Feedback: The longitudinal design represents a distinct form of research design that is typically used to map change in business and management research.

Page reference: 61 b. False Feedback: The longitudinal design represents a distinct form of research design that is typically used to map change in business and management research.

Page reference: 61 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 03 - Question 10 10) Which of the following is not considered to be a case? a. A single organisation Feedback: A case can be: a single organization, such as Pettigrew’s (1985; see Research in focus 3.16) research at Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), Joanne Martin’s (1992) study of organizational culture at ‘OzCo’, a high-technology industry company based in California, or Born’s (2004) study of managerialism in the BBC;

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- a single location, such as a factory, production site, or o ce building—for example, Pollert’s (1981; see Research in focus 19.12) research in a tobacco factory, Linstead’s (1985) study of humour in a bakery, or Milk- man’s (1997) investigation of an automobile assembly plant (see Chapter 20); - a person, as in Marshall’s (1995; see Key concept 17.5) study of women managers, where each woman consti- tutes a separate case—such studies are characterized as using the life history or biographical approach; or - a single event, such as the NASA space shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986 (Vaughan 1990; see Chapter 23) or the events surrounding a pipeline accident in Canada (Gephart 1993; see Research in focus 23.4).

Page reference: Page 63 b. A single location Feedback: A case can be: a single organization, such as Pettigrew’s (1985; see Research in focus 3.16) research at Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), Joanne Martin’s (1992) study of organizational culture at ‘OzCo’, a high-technology industry company based in California, or Born’s (2004) study of managerialism in the BBC; - a single location, such as a factory, production site, or o ce building—for example, Pollert’s (1981; see Research in focus 19.12) research in a tobacco factory, Linstead’s (1985) study of humour in a bakery, or Milk- man’s (1997) investigation of an automobile assembly plant (see Chapter 20); - a person, as in Marshall’s (1995; see Key concept 17.5) study of women managers, where each woman consti- tutes a separate case—such studies are characterized as using the life history or biographical approach; or - a single event, such as the NASA space shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986 (Vaughan 1990; see Chapter 23) or the events surrounding a pipeline accident in Canada (Gephart 1993; see Research in focus 23.4).

Page reference: Page 63 c. A single event Feedback: A case can be: a single organization, such as Pettigrew’s (1985; see Research in focus 3.16) research at Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), Joanne Martin’s (1992) study of organizational culture at ‘OzCo’, a high-technology industry company based in California, or Born’s (2004) study of managerialism in the BBC; - a single location, such as a factory, production site, or o ce building—for example, Pollert’s (1981; see Research in focus 19.12) research in a tobacco factory, Linstead’s (1985) study of humour in a bakery, or Milk- man’s (1997) investigation of an automobile assembly plant (see Chapter 20); - a person, as in Marshall’s (1995; see Key concept 17.5) study of women managers, where each woman consti- tutes a separate case—such studies are characterized as using the life history or biographical approach; or - a single event, such as the NASA space shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986 (Vaughan 1990; see Chapter 23) or the events surrounding a pipeline accident in Canada (Gephart 1993; see Research in focus 23.4).

Page reference: Page 63 *d. A single factor Feedback: A case can be: a single organization, such as Pettigrew’s (1985; see Research in focus 3.16) research at Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), Joanne Martin’s (1992) study of organizational culture at ‘OzCo’, a high-technology industry company based in California, or Born’s (2004) study of managerialism in the BBC; - a single location, such as a factory, production site, or o ce building—for example, Pollert’s (1981; see Research in focus 19.12) research in a tobacco factory, Linstead’s (1985) study of humour in a bakery, or Milk- man’s (1997) investigation of an automobile assembly plant (see Chapter 20); - a person, as in Marshall’s (1995; see Key concept 17.5) study of women managers, where each woman consti- tutes a separate case—such studies are characterized as using the life history or biographical approach; or - a single event, such as the NASA space shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986 (Vaughan 1990; see Chapter 23) or the events surrounding a pipeline accident in Canada (Gephart 1993; see Research in focus 23.4).

Page reference: Page 63

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Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 03 - Question 11 11) Which of the following is not a case study type identified by Yin (2003)? a. The critical case Feedback: Following on from the issue of external validity, it is useful to consider a distinction between different types of case that is sometimes made by writers. Yin (2003) distinguishes five types.

• The critical case. Here the researcher has a clearly specified hypothesis, and a case is chosen on the grounds that it will allow a better understanding of the circumstances in which the hypothesis will and will not hold.

• The unique case. The unique or extreme case is, as Yin observes, a common focus in clinical studies.

• The revelatory case. The basis for the revelatory case exists ‘when an investigator has an opportunity to observe and analyse a phenomenon previously inac- cessible to scienti c investigation’ (Yin 1984: 44). While the idea of the revelatory case is interesting, it seems unnecessary to restrict it solely to situations in which something has not previously been studied. Much qualitative case study research that is carried out with a predominantly inductive approach to theory treats single case studies as broadly ‘revelatory’.

• The representative or typical case. This type seeks to explore a case that exempli es an everyday situation or form of organization.

• The longitudinal case. This type of case is concerned with how a situation changes over time.

Page reference: Page 65 *b. The evaluative case Feedback: Following on from the issue of external validity, it is useful to consider a distinction between different types of case that is sometimes made by writers. Yin (2003) distinguishes five types.

• The critical case. Here the researcher has a clearly specified hypothesis, and a case is chosen on the grounds that it will allow a better understanding of the circumstances in which the hypothesis will and will not hold.

• The unique case. The unique or extreme case is, as Yin observes, a common focus in clinical studies.

• The revelatory case. The basis for the revelatory case exists ‘when an investigator has an opportunity to observe and analyse a phenomenon previously inac- cessible to scienti c investigation’ (Yin 1984: 44). While the idea of the revelatory case is interesting, it seems unnecessary to restrict it solely to situations in which something has not previously been studied. Much qualitative case study research that is carried out with a predominantly inductive approach to theory treats single case studies as broadly ‘revelatory’.

• The representative or typical case. This type seeks to explore a case that exempli es an everyday situation or form of organization.

• The longitudinal case. This type of case is concerned with how a situation changes over time.

Page reference: Page 65 c. The unique case Feedback: Following on from the issue of external validity, it is useful to consider a distinction between different types of case that is sometimes made by writers. Yin (2003) distinguishes five types.

• The critical case. Here the researcher has a clearly specified hypothesis, and a case is chosen on the grounds that it will allow a better understanding of the circumstances in which the hypothesis will and will not hold.

• The unique case. The unique or extreme case is, as Yin observes, a common focus in clinical studies.

• The revelatory case. The basis for the revelatory case exists ‘when an investigator has an opportunity to observe and analyse a phenomenon previously inac- cessible to scienti c investigation’ (Yin 1984: 44). While the idea of the revelatory case is interesting, it seems unnecessary to restrict it solely to situations in which something has not previously been studied. Much qualitative case study research that is carried out with a predominantly inductive approach to theory treats single case studies as broadly ‘revelatory’.

• The representative or typical case. This type seeks to explore a case that exempli es an everyday situation or form of organization.

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• The longitudinal case. This type of case is concerned with how a situation changes over time.

Page reference: Page 65 d. The longitudinal case Feedback: Following on from the issue of external validity, it is useful to consider a distinction between different types of case that is sometimes made by writers. Yin (2003) distinguishes five types.

• The critical case. Here the researcher has a clearly specified hypothesis, and a case is chosen on the grounds that it will allow a better understanding of the circumstances in which the hypothesis will and will not hold.

• The unique case. The unique or extreme case is, as Yin observes, a common focus in clinical studies.

• The revelatory case. The basis for the revelatory case exists ‘when an investigator has an opportunity to observe and analyse a phenomenon previously inac- cessible to scienti c investigation’ (Yin 1984: 44). While the idea of the revelatory case is interesting, it seems unnecessary to restrict it solely to situations in which something has not previously been studied. Much qualitative case study research that is carried out with a predominantly inductive approach to theory treats single case studies as broadly ‘revelatory’.

• The representative or typical case. This type seeks to explore a case that exempli es an everyday situation or form of organization.

• The longitudinal case. This type of case is concerned with how a situation changes over time.

Page reference: Page 65 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 03 - Question 12 12) Case study research is restricted to the study of a single case. a. True Feedback: Case study research is not confined to the study of a single case.

Page reference: 67 *b. False Feedback: Case study research is not confined to the study of a single case.

Page reference: 67 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 03 - Question 13 13) Comparative design focuses upon studying what? a. Using identical methods on two or more similar cases Feedback: It is worth distinguishing one further kind of design: comparative design. Put simply, this design entails the study using more or less identical methods on two or more contrasting cases.

Page reference: 68 b. Using different methods two or more contrasting cases Feedback: It is worth distinguishing one further kind of design: comparative design. Put simply, this design entails the study using more or less identical methods on two or more contrasting cases.

Page reference: 68 c. Using different methods on two or more similar cases Feedback: It is worth distinguishing one further kind of design: comparative design. Put simply, this design entails the study using more or less identical methods on two or more contrasting cases.

Page reference: 68 *d. Using identical methods on two or more contrasting cases Feedback: It is worth distinguishing one further kind of design: comparative design. Put simply, this design entails the study using more or less identical methods on two or more contrasting cases.

Page reference: 68

Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 03 - Question 14 14) Which of the following two aspects does Usunier (1998) distinguish between in terms of cultural research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Usunier (1998) distinguishes between:

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• cross-cultural approaches—which compare national management systems and local business customs in various countries; and • intercultural approaches—which focus on the study of interaction between people and organizations with different national/cultural backgrounds.

Page reference: 73 *a. Intercultural research b. Intersectional research *c. Cross-cultural research d. Sociocultural research Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 03 - Question 15 15) Which of the following is not considered a primary unit of measurement and analysis? a. Individuals Feedback: in other words, what is the primary unit of measurement and analysis? Hence, research might focus on: • individuals: this would include studies that focus on specific kinds of individuals such as managers or shopfloor employees; • groups: this would include research that considered certain types of groupings—for example, human resources departments or boards of directors; • organizations: in addition to studies that focused on companies, this would include surveys, such as WERS (see Research in focus 3.14), that treat the workplace as the principal unit of analysis; • societies: the main focus of this kind of analysis would be on the national, political, social, environmental, and economic contexts in which business organizations are located.

Page reference: 71 *b. Ethnicities Feedback: in other words, what is the primary unit of measurement and analysis? Hence, research might focus on: • individuals: this would include studies that focus on specific kinds of individuals such as managers or shopfloor employees; • groups: this would include research that considered certain types of groupings—for example, human resources departments or boards of directors; • organizations: in addition to studies that focused on companies, this would include surveys, such as WERS (see Research in focus 3.14), that treat the workplace as the principal unit of analysis; • societies: the main focus of this kind of analysis would be on the national, political, social, environmental, and economic contexts in which business organizations are located.

Page reference: 71 c. Organisations Feedback: in other words, what is the primary unit of measurement and analysis? Hence, research might focus on: • individuals: this would include studies that focus on specific kinds of individuals such as managers or shopfloor employees; • groups: this would include research that considered certain types of groupings—for example, human resources departments or boards of directors; • organizations: in addition to studies that focused on companies, this would include surveys, such as WERS (see Research in focus 3.14), that treat the workplace as the principal unit of analysis; • societies: the main focus of this kind of analysis would be on the national, political, social, environmental, and economic contexts in which business organizations are located.

Page reference: 71 d. Societies Feedback: in other words, what is the primary unit of measurement and analysis? Hence, research might focus on: • individuals: this would include studies that focus on specific kinds of individuals such as managers or shopfloor employees; • groups: this would include research that considered certain types of groupings—for example, human resources departments or boards of directors;

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• organizations: in addition to studies that focused on companies, this would include surveys, such as WERS (see Research in focus 3.14), that treat the workplace as the principal unit of analysis; • societies: the main focus of this kind of analysis would be on the national, political, social, environmental, and economic contexts in which business organizations are located.

Page reference: 71

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 01 01) You should follow the guidance of this book and not of your institution in doing your dissertation. a. True Feedback: The advice here is simple: follow the requirements, instructions, and information you are given. If anything in this book contradicts with your institution’s guidelines and requirements, ignore this book! We very much hope this is not something that will occur very much, but if it does, keep to the guidelines your institution gives you.

Page reference: 76 *b. False Feedback: The advice here is simple: follow the requirements, instructions, and information you are given. If anything in this book contradicts with your institution’s guidelines and requirements, ignore this book! We very much hope this is not something that will occur very much, but if it does, keep to the guidelines your institution gives you.

Page reference: 76 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 02 02) Starting your research project early is considered good practice. *a. True Feedback: For Lisa, one of the main lessons she learned from her experience of doing a research project was the importance of starting early.

Page reference: 76 b. False Feedback: For Lisa, one of the main lessons she learned from her experience of doing a research project was the importance of starting early.

Page reference: 76 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 04 - Question 03 03) What is the role of a project supervisor? a. To write the project with the student Feedback: Most universities that require a dissertation or similar component allocate students with a supervisor whose role is to advise and guide the student in their project.

Page reference: 77 b. To provide harsh criticism of the student’s project Feedback: Most universities that require a dissertation or similar component allocate students with a supervisor whose role is to advise and guide the student in their project.

Page reference: 77 *c. To advise and guide the student in their project Feedback: Most universities that require a dissertation or similar component allocate students with a supervisor whose role is to advise and guide the student in their project.

Page reference: 77 d. To provide instructions to the student as to what they need to do in their project Feedback: Most universities that require a dissertation or similar component allocate students with a supervisor whose role is to advise and guide the student in their project.

Page reference: 77 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 04 04) A Gantt chart can be used to keep track of your research project *a. True Feedback: “One way to keep track of your research project is by using a Gantt chart.

Page reference: 79 b. False Feedback: “One way to keep track of your research project is by using a Gantt chart.

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Page reference: 79 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 04 - Question 05 05) The type of research questions will depend upon which assumptions made about the social world to be studied. Please select all that apply.

Feedback: The type of research questions asked will also depend on your research strategy, ontological assumptions you make about the nature of social phenomena as well as epistemological assumptions about how the social world should be studied.

Page reference: 80 *a. Ontological b. Forensic *c. Epistemological d. Methodological Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 06 06) A research question does not necessarily have to end with a question mark. a. True Feedback: A research question ends with a question mark.

Page reference: 83 *b. False Feedback: A research question ends with a question mark.

Page reference: 83 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 07 07) In considering a research area for your dissertation, you should completely discount personal experiences. a. True Feedback: Lucie’s choice of research subject reflected her personal experience of having been exposed to entrepreneurial discourses while she was a student at university.

Page reference: 83 *b. False Feedback: Lucie’s choice of research subject reflected her personal experience of having been exposed to entrepreneurial discourses while she was a student at university.

Page reference: 83 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 08 08) A hypothesis is the same as a research question a. True Feedback: “A final point to make is that a research question is not the same as a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a specific type of research question”.

Page reference: 85 *b. False Feedback: “A final point to make is that a research question is not the same as a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a specific type of research question”.

Page reference: 85 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 04 - Question 09 09) Which of the following are criteria that research questions for a dissertation or project should meet? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Research questions for a dissertation or project should meet the following criteria: • Questions should be clear. They must be understandable to you and to others.

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• Questions should be researchable. They should be capable of development into a research design, so that data may be collected in relation to them. This means that extremely abstract terms are unlikely to be suitable.

• Questions should connect with established theory and research. This means that there should be a literature on which you can draw to help illuminate how your research questions should be approached. Even if you find a topic that has been scarcely addressed by social scientists, it is unlikely that there will be no relevant literature (for example, on related or parallel topics). Making connections with theory and research will also allow you to show how your research has made a contribution to knowledge and understanding.

• Questions should be linked to each other. Unrelated research questions are unlikely to be acceptable, since you should be developing an argument in your dissertation. You will not very readily be able to construct a single argument in connection with unrelated research questions.

• Questions should have potential for making a contribution to knowledge. They should at the very least hold out the prospect of being able to make a contribution— however small—to the topic.

• Questions should be neither too broad nor too narrow. The research questions should be neither too large (so that you would need a massive grant to study them) nor too small (so that you cannot make a reasonably significant contribution to your area of study).

Page reference: 85 a. Questions should be relevant to managers *b. Questions should be researchable c. Questions should be broad *d. Questions should be either too broad or too narrow Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 10 10) Supervisors are not permitted to help students develop their research questions. a. True Feedback: In the initial stages of a research project students often tend to be overly ambitious in their research questions. Working with your supervisor will help you to overcome this.

Page reference: 85 *b. False Feedback: In the initial stages of a research project students often tend to be overly ambitious in their research questions. Working with your supervisor will help you to overcome this.

Page reference: 85 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 11 11) Planning research projects is not necessary as they are impossible to plan. a. True Feedback: One of the most important things Karen learned from doing a research project was the importance of planning.

Page reference: 86 *b. False Feedback: One of the most important things Karen learned from doing a research project was the importance of planning.

Page reference: 86 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 12 12) Your level of interest in the topic isn’t important, what’s more important is that the topic is of interest to your supervisor. a. True Feedback: Choose a topic that interests you.

Page reference: 87 *b. False Feedback: Choose a topic that interests you.

Page reference: 87

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Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 13 13) You should leave all of the writing until the end of the project when you are ready to write it all up. a. True Feedback: Start writing early. Build in a cushion round the deadline, analysis takes much longer than you think. This is where “added value can be gained.

Page reference: 87 *b. False Feedback: Start writing early. Build in a cushion round the deadline, analysis takes much longer than you think. This is where “added value can be gained.

Page reference: 87 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 14 14) You shouldn’t pre-commit to one idea, approach, research design, or data source to the exclusion of other possibilities. *a. True Feedback: Don’t pre-commit to one idea, approach, research design or data source, to the exclusion of other possibilities.

Page reference: 87 b. False Feedback: Don’t pre-commit to one idea, approach, research design or data source, to the exclusion of other possibilities.

Page reference: 87 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 04 - Question 15 15) Following the advice in this book is more important than making your own choices in relation to your research project. a. True Feedback: Listen to our advice but make your own choices.

Page reference: 87 *b. False Feedback: Listen to our advice but make your own choices.

Page reference: 87

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Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 05 - Question 01 01) Why should you read the existing literature? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: The purpose of exploring the existing literature should be to identify the following issues: • What is already known about this area?

• What concepts and theories are relevant to this area?

• What research methods and research strategies have been employed in studying this area?

• Are there any significant controversies?

• Are there any inconsistencies in findings relating to this area?

• Are there any unanswered research questions in this area?

Page reference: Page 91 *a. To find out what is known about an area *b. To understand what research methods and strategies have been used *c. To find any inconsistencies in findings relating to the area d. To provide an answer to your research question Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 05 - Question 02 02) What is an academic journal? a. A supplement with a Sunday newspaper Feedback: An academic journal, also referred to as a scholarly, peer-reviewed, or refereed journal, is one where the research papers submitted for consideration must go through a process of, usually ‘blind’ (i.e. anonymous), review by between two and four experts in the specialist subject, and a decision is made by the editor based on these reviews.

Page reference: 90 *b. A scholarly, peer-reviewed or refereed journal publication where research papers have gone through a process of “double blind” peer review Feedback: An academic journal, also referred to as a scholarly, peer-reviewed, or refereed journal, is one where the research papers submitted for consideration must go through a process of, usually ‘blind’ (i.e. anonymous), review by between two and four experts in the specialist subject, and a decision is made by the editor based on these reviews.

Page reference: 90 c. A journal reviewed by the lay community as well as business practitioners Feedback: An academic journal, also referred to as a scholarly, peer-reviewed, or refereed journal, is one where the research papers submitted for consideration must go through a process of, usually ‘blind’ (i.e. anonymous), review by between two and four experts in the specialist subject, and a decision is made by the editor based on these reviews.

Page reference: 90 d. A business newspaper such as the Financial Times Feedback: An academic journal, also referred to as a scholarly, peer-reviewed, or refereed journal, is one where the research papers submitted for consideration must go through a process of, usually ‘blind’ (i.e. anonymous), review by between two and four experts in the specialist subject, and a decision is made by the editor based on these reviews.

Page reference: 90 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 05 - Question 03 03) A systematic literature review applies a narrative, qualitative approach to the task of analysing previous scholarship. a. True Feedback: “This is an approach to reviewing the literature that adopts explicit, often quantitative, procedures”.

Page reference: 92 *b. False Feedback: “This is an approach to reviewing the literature that adopts explicit, often quantitative, procedures”.

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Page reference: 92 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 05 - Question 04 04) Which of the following is not a method of constructing intertextual coherence in a literature review? a. Synthesised coherence Feedback: Golden-Biddle and Locke’s research suggests that the way the author’s position in relation to the literature is presented is an important component of storytelling. They distinguish two processes in the ways that the literature is conveyed.

Constructing intertextual coherence—refers to the way in which existing knowledge is represented and organized; the author shows how contributions to the literature relate to each other and the research reported. The techniques used are: • Synthesized coherence—puts together work that is generally considered unrelated; theory and research previously regarded as unconnected are pieced together. There are two prominent forms: 1. the organization of very incompatible references (bits and pieces); 2. connections forged between established theories or research programmes.

• Progressive coherence—portrays the building-up of an area of knowledge around which there is considerable consensus.

• Non-coherence—recognition that there have been many contributions to a certain research programme, but there is considerable disagreement among practitioners. Each of these strategies is designed to leave room for a contribution to be made.

Page reference: 93 b. Progressive coherence Feedback: Golden-Biddle and Locke’s research suggests that the way the author’s position in relation to the literature is presented is an important component of storytelling. They distinguish two processes in the ways that the literature is conveyed.

Constructing intertextual coherence—refers to the way in which existing knowledge is represented and organized; the author shows how contributions to the literature relate to each other and the research reported. The techniques used are: • Synthesized coherence—puts together work that is generally considered unrelated; theory and research previously regarded as unconnected are pieced together. There are two prominent forms: 1. the organization of very incompatible references (bits and pieces); 2. connections forged between established theories or research programmes.

• Progressive coherence—portrays the building-up of an area of knowledge around which there is considerable consensus.

• Non-coherence—recognition that there have been many contributions to a certain research programme, but there is considerable disagreement among practitioners. Each of these strategies is designed to leave room for a contribution to be made.

Page reference: 93 *c. Evaluative coherence Feedback: Golden-Biddle and Locke’s research suggests that the way the author’s position in relation to the literature is presented is an important component of storytelling. They distinguish two processes in the ways that the literature is conveyed.

Constructing intertextual coherence—refers to the way in which existing knowledge is represented and organized; the author shows how contributions to the literature relate to each other and the research reported. The techniques used are: • Synthesized coherence—puts together work that is generally considered unrelated; theory and research previously regarded as unconnected are pieced together. There are two prominent forms: 1. the organization of very incompatible references (bits and pieces); 2. connections forged between established theories or research programmes.

• Progressive coherence—portrays the building-up of an area of knowledge around which there is considerable consensus.

• Non-coherence—recognition that there have been many contributions to a certain research programme, but there is considerable disagreement among practitioners. Each of these strategies is designed to leave room for a contribution to be made.

Page reference: 93 d. Non-coherence

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Feedback: Golden-Biddle and Locke’s research suggests that the way the author’s position in relation to the literature is presented is an important component of storytelling. They distinguish two processes in the ways that the literature is conveyed.

Constructing intertextual coherence—refers to the way in which existing knowledge is represented and organized; the author shows how contributions to the literature relate to each other and the research reported. The techniques used are: • Synthesized coherence—puts together work that is generally considered unrelated; theory and research previously regarded as unconnected are pieced together. There are two prominent forms: 1. the organization of very incompatible references (bits and pieces); 2. connections forged between established theories or research programmes.

• Progressive coherence—portrays the building-up of an area of knowledge around which there is considerable consensus.

• Non-coherence—recognition that there have been many contributions to a certain research programme, but there is considerable disagreement among practitioners. Each of these strategies is designed to leave room for a contribution to be made.

Page reference: 93 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 05 - Question 05 05) What are the key steps of conducting a systematic literature review? Select all that apply Feedback: The main steps of the systematic review process are: • Specifying the question and planning the review. This involves specifying the research question, which must be clearly answerable. Denyer and Tranfield (2009) suggest that this involves looking at the relationship between variables and why, and in what circum- stances, the relationship occurs.

There are four elements to this: Context (what individuals/relationships/ institutional settings/systems are being studied); Intervention (what effects, relating to events, actions, or activities, are being studied); Mechanisms (what mechanisms explain the relationship between interventions and outcomes), and Outcomes (the intended and unintended effects of the intervention and how they will be measured). Denyer and Tranfield (2009: 682) give an example of a suitable question to illustrate: ‘Under what conditions (C) does leadership style (I) influence the performance of project teams (O), and what mechanisms operate in the influence of leadership style (I) on project team performance?’

Next, a group of stakeholders, including practitioners and researchers, meets at regular intervals, first to define and clarify the boundaries of the review and later to monitor its progress. This includes setting the criteria for inclusion and exclusion of studies from the review. ‘This helps ensure that reviews are impartial and balanced, preventing reviewers from including only those studies supporting their particular argument’ (Briner, Denyer, and Rousseau 2009: 26).

• Conducting the review. This involves carrying out ‘a comprehensive, unbiased search’ (Tranfield, Denyer, and Smart 2003: 215) based on keywords and search terms. The search strategy must be described in terms that allow it to be replicated and searches should include unpublished (for example, working or conference papers) as well as published articles. The information search leads to the production of a list of all the articles and books on which the review will be based. These articles and books are examined and sifted on the basis of two types of consideration. First, all studies that fail to relate to the review’s research question have to be excluded. Second, those studies that are relevant are examined for study quality. Sometimes, systematic reviewers will exclude studies that fail to meet mini- mum criteria, although that can sometimes mean that the review is then conducted on an extremely small sample of remaining studies. More often, reviewers will categorize studies in terms of the extent to which they meet the quality criteria that are specified. Checklists for assessing quality are available, but it is necessary to use those that are appropriate for the kinds of research being examined. The issue of quality criteria in relation to quantitative and qualitative research is covered in Chapters 7 and 17. Once the items to be included in the review have been identified, the analysis begins. The aim of this is to achieve a cumulative understanding of what is known about the subject through applying techniques of research synthesis. Often, systematic reviewers seek to arrive at a ‘narrative synthesis’ of the research: this uses text to summarize key findings relating to the research question, often accompanied by simple statistical summaries such as the percentage of studies that examined a certain issue or that adopted a particular perspective. One advantage of a narrative synthesis is that it can be used as a platform for reviewing and summarizing both quantitative and qualitative studies.

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• Reporting and dissemination. This involves reporting in a way that provides a descriptive map of the research on the subject, including who the contributors are, where they are based, and when the main temporal periods of research activity on the subject occurred. A further criterion for reporting is accessibility and readability. The review process should make it easier for the practitioner to understand the research, so that it is more likely that it will be translated into practice.

Page reference: 95 *a. Specify the question and planning the review *b. Conducting the review c. Analysing your primary research data *d. Report and dissemination Type: true-false Title: Chapter 05 - Question 06 06) Narrative reviews tend to be more wide ranging in scope than systematic reviews. *a. True Feedback: Narrative reviews therefore tend to be less focused and more wide-ranging in scope than systematic reviews. They are also less explicit about the criteria for exclusion or inclusion of studies.

Page reference: 97 b. False Feedback: Narrative reviews therefore tend to be less focused and more wide-ranging in scope than systematic reviews. They are also less explicit about the criteria for exclusion or inclusion of studies.

Page reference: 97 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 05 - Question 07 07) What are the reasons for conducting a literature review? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: The following is a list of reasons for writing a literature review: - You need to know what is already known in connection with your research area because you do not want to be accused of reinventing the wheel.

- You can learn from other researchers’ mistakes and avoid making the same ones.

- You can learn about different theoretical and methodological approaches to your research area.

- It may help you to develop an analytic framework.

- It may lead you to consider the inclusion of variables in your research that you might not otherwise have thought about.

- It may suggest further research questions for you.

- It will help with the interpretation of your findings.

- It gives you some pegs on which to hang your findings.

- It is expected!

Page reference: 98 *a. To know what is already known in your research area *b. To learn from other researchers’ mistakes *c. To suggest further research questions *d. Because it is expected Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 05 - Question 08 08) Which of the following is not an electronic database to find academic literature? a. ABI/Inform Feedback: Online bibliographical databases are an invaluable source of academic journal references.

An increasing number of these will also provide access to the full text of an article in electronic format—these are usually referred to as e- journals. You will need to check what electronic resources are available at your institution. A good place to start is on your university library’s homepage or you can ask a member of library staff. Here are three resources that we would recommend: 1. ABI/INFORM provides business information from a wide range of periodicals and reports, coverage is international, and it is possible to search by keyword or to browse by topic to search for relevant articles by subject. The database can be accessed at: proquest.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

2. EBSCO Business Source Premier/Complete is an increasingly widely used business periodical database that now rivals ABI/INFORM in scope and coverage. Its popularity is in part due to the

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provision of extremely comprehensive full text access to certain key business and management journals, including titles such as Harvard Business Review and Academy of Management Review, although older issues of journals are not all included. In addition, it provides indexing and abstracts for over 3000 business journals as well as access to some company and market reports. It can be accessed via EBSCO Publishing at: ebscohost.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

3. We also recommend use of the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), which fully indexes over 1700 major social science journals covering all social science disciplines dating back to 1970. The Citation indexes collectively are also known as Web of Science. The SSCI can be accessed from the ISI Web of Knowledge at: wokinfo.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

Page reference: 99 *b. Economist.com Feedback: Online bibliographical databases are an invaluable source of academic journal references.

An increasing number of these will also provide access to the full text of an article in electronic format—these are usually referred to as e- journals. You will need to check what electronic resources are available at your institution. A good place to start is on your university library’s homepage or you can ask a member of library staff. Here are three resources that we would recommend: 1. ABI/INFORM provides business information from a wide range of periodicals and reports, coverage is international, and it is possible to search by keyword or to browse by topic to search for relevant articles by subject. The database can be accessed at: proquest.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

2. EBSCO Business Source Premier/Complete is an increasingly widely used business periodical database that now rivals ABI/INFORM in scope and coverage. Its popularity is in part due to the provision of extremely comprehensive full text access to certain key business and management journals, including titles such as Harvard Business Review and Academy of Management Review, although older issues of journals are not all included. In addition, it provides indexing and abstracts for over 3000 business journals as well as access to some company and market reports. It can be accessed via EBSCO Publishing at: ebscohost.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

3. We also recommend use of the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), which fully indexes over 1700 major social science journals covering all social science disciplines dating back to 1970. The Citation indexes collectively are also known as Web of Science. The SSCI can be accessed from the ISI Web of Knowledge at: wokinfo.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

Page reference: 99 c. EBSCO Feedback: Online bibliographical databases are an invaluable source of academic journal references.

An increasing number of these will also provide access to the full text of an article in electronic format—these are usually referred to as e- journals. You will need to check what electronic resources are available at your institution. A good place to start is on your university library’s homepage or you can ask a member of library staff. Here are three resources that we would recommend: 1. ABI/INFORM provides business information from a wide range of periodicals and reports, coverage is international, and it is possible to search by keyword or to browse by topic to search for relevant articles by subject. The database can be accessed at: proquest.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

2. EBSCO Business Source Premier/Complete is an increasingly widely used business periodical database that now rivals ABI/INFORM in scope and coverage. Its popularity is in part due to the provision of extremely comprehensive full text access to certain key business and management journals, including titles such as Harvard Business Review and Academy of Management Review, although older issues of journals are not all included. In addition, it provides indexing and abstracts for over 3000 business journals as well as access to some company and market reports. It can be accessed via EBSCO Publishing at: ebscohost.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

3. We also recommend use of the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), which fully indexes over 1700 major social science journals covering all social science disciplines dating back to 1970. The Citation indexes collectively are also known as Web of Science. The SSCI can be accessed from the ISI Web of Knowledge at: wokinfo.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

Page reference: 99 d. Social sciences citation index Feedback: Online bibliographical databases are an invaluable source of academic journal references.

An increasing number of these will also provide access to the full text of an article in electronic format—these are usually referred to as e- journals. You will need to check what electronic resources are available at your institution. A good place to start is on your university library’s homepage or you can ask a member of library staff. Here are three resources that we would recommend:

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1. ABI/INFORM provides business information from a wide range of periodicals and reports, coverage is international, and it is possible to search by keyword or to browse by topic to search for relevant articles by subject. The database can be accessed at: proquest.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

2. EBSCO Business Source Premier/Complete is an increasingly widely used business periodical database that now rivals ABI/INFORM in scope and coverage. Its popularity is in part due to the provision of extremely comprehensive full text access to certain key business and management journals, including titles such as Harvard Business Review and Academy of Management Review, although older issues of journals are not all included. In addition, it provides indexing and abstracts for over 3000 business journals as well as access to some company and market reports. It can be accessed via EBSCO Publishing at: ebscohost.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

3. We also recommend use of the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), which fully indexes over 1700 major social science journals covering all social science disciplines dating back to 1970. The Citation indexes collectively are also known as Web of Science. The SSCI can be accessed from the ISI Web of Knowledge at: wokinfo.com (accessed 17 October 2014).

Page reference: 99 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 05 - Question 09 09) Which of the following are referencing styles could you use for your dissertation? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Your institution will probably have its own guidelines as to which style of referencing you should use in your dissertation, and if it does you should definitely follow them. However, the two main methods used are: • Harvard. The essence of this system is that whenever you paraphrase the argument or ideas of an author or authors in your writing, you add in parentheses immediately afterwards the surname of the author(s) and the year of publication. If you are quoting the author(s), you put quotation marks around the quotation and after the year of publication you include the page number where the quotation is from. All books, articles, and other sources that you have cited in the text are then provided in full in a reference list at the end of the dissertation in alphabetical order by author surname. This is by far the most common referencing system in business and management research and the one that we follow in this book. It is, therefore, the style that we would encourage you to use if your university does not require you to follow its own guidelines.

• Note or numeric. This approach involves the use of superscript numbers in the text that refer to a note at the foot of the page or the end of the text, where the reference is given in full, together with the page number if it is a direct quotation. If a source is cited more than once, an abbreviated version of the reference is given in any subsequent citation (which is why this is often called the short-title system). As well as being used to refer to sources, notes are often used to provide additional detail, including comments from the writer about the source being cited. This is a particular feature of historical writing. One of the advantages of the numeric or note method is that it can be less distracting to the reader in terms of the ow of the text than the Harvard method, where sometimes particularly long strings of references can make a sentence or a paragraph di cult for the reader to follow. Furthermore, software pack- ages such as Word make the insertion of notes relatively simple, and many students find that this is a convenient way of referencing their work. However, when students use this method, they often use it incorrectly—it is quite di cult to use it well—and are sometimes unsure whether or not also to include a separate bibliography. For books and dissertations a bibliography is always recommended, and indeed this can be important in the assessment of students’ work (see the section on avoiding plagiarism at the end of this chapter).

Page reference: 103 a. Oxford *b. Harvard c. Alphabetical *d. Note or Numeric Type: true-false Title: Chapter 05 - Question 10 10) Endnote is a software package that allows you to organise your reference list. *a. True

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Feedback: However, if you do not have access to one of these packages, similar software is often freely available and can be downloaded from the Internet. A basic version of EndNote Web is available free and allows up to 50,000 references to be stored. http://endnote.com (accessed 17 October 2014) Page reference: 104 b. False Feedback: However, if you do not have access to one of these packages, similar software is often freely available and can be downloaded from the Internet. A basic version of EndNote Web is available free and allows up to 50,000 references to be stored. http://endnote.com (accessed 17 October 2014) Page reference: 104 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 05 - Question 11 11) Plagiarism involves drawing from the work of others but acknowledging it in your research report. a. True Feedback: An issue to bear in mind when writing up your literature review is the need to avoid plagiarizing the work that you are reading. Plagiarism is a notoriously slippery concept. It is defined in The Oxford Dictionary of English (2nd edn, 2003: 1344) as ‘the practice of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them o as one’s own’.

Page reference: 105 *b. False Feedback: An issue to bear in mind when writing up your literature review is the need to avoid plagiarizing the work that you are reading. Plagiarism is a notoriously slippery concept. It is de ned in The Oxford Dictionary of English (2nd edn, 2003: 1344) as ‘the practice of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them o as one’s own’.

Page reference: 105 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 05 - Question 12 12) What plagiarism is and how it should be penalized is clearly understood at all universities globally. a. True Feedback: One final point to note is that plagiarism is like a moving target. What it is, how it should be de ned, how it can be detected, how it should be penalized: all of these issues and others are in a state of flux as we write this chapter. It is very much a shifting situation precisely because of the perception that it is increasing in frequency. The penalties can be severe, and, as we have witnessed when students have been presented with evidence of their plagiarism, it can be profoundly embarrassing and distressing for them. The message is simple: do not do it, and make sure that you know exactly what it is and how it is de ned at your institution so that you do not inadvertently commit the sin of plagiarism.

Page reference: 107 *b. False Feedback: One final point to note is that plagiarism is like a moving target. What it is, how it should be de ned, how it can be detected, how it should be penalized: all of these issues and others are in a state of flux as we write this chapter. It is very much a shifting situation precisely because of the perception that it is increasing in frequency. The penalties can be severe, and, as we have witnessed when students have been presented with evidence of their plagiarism, it can be profoundly embarrassing and distressing for them. The message is simple: do not do it, and make sure that you know exactly what it is and how it is de ned at your institution so that you do not inadvertently commit the sin of plagiarism.

Page reference: 107

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 06 - Question 01 01) Writers are usually in broad agreement with each other over ethical issues and questions. a. True Feedback: Writers often differ quite widely from each other over ethical issues and questions. In other words, they differ over what is and is not ethically acceptable.

Page reference: 110 *b. False Feedback: Writers often differ quite widely from each other over ethical issues and questions. In other words, they differ over what is and is not ethically acceptable.

Page reference: 110 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 06 - Question 02 02) A universalist stance takes the view that ethical precepts depend upon the context in which the research takes place. a. True Feedback: A universalist stance takes the view that ethical precepts should never be broken.

Page reference: 111 *b. False Feedback: A universalist stance takes the view that ethical precepts should never be broken.

Page reference: 111 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 06 - Question 03 03) Situation ethics or Principled relativism has two ways of being represented. Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Situation ethics. Goode (1996) has argued for deception to be considered on a case-bycase basis. In other words, he argues for what J. Fletcher (1966: 31) has called a ‘situation ethics’, or more specifically ‘principled relativism’, which can be contrasted with the universalist ethics of some writers. This argument has two ways of being represented: 1. The end justifies the means. Some writers argue that, unless there is some breaking of ethical rules, we would never know about certain social phenomena. Dalton (1959) essentially argues for this position in relation to his study of managers and the differences between official and unofficial action.

Without some kind of disguised observation, this important aspect of organizational life would not have been studied. This is usually linked to the second form of a situationist argument in relation to social research ethics.

2. No choice. It is often suggested that we have no choice but to engage in dissimulation on occasions if we want to investigate the issues in which we are interested.

Page reference: 111 a. Anything goes *b. No choice *c. The end justifies the means d. Do no harm Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 06 - Question 04 04) Which of the following is not a core ethical principal around research? a. There must be no harm to participants Feedback: Discussions about ethical principles in business research, and perhaps more specifically transgressions of them, tend to revolve around certain issues that recur in different guises. They have been usefully broken down by Diener and Crandall (1978) into four main areas: the ethical issues that arise in connection with relation- ships between researchers and research participants. Key concept 6.2 outlines some of these stances.

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• whether there is harm to participants; • whether there is a lack of informed consent; • whether there is an invasion of privacy; • whether deception is involved.

Page reference: 114 b. There must be no invasion of privacy Feedback: Discussions about ethical principles in business research, and perhaps more specifically transgressions of them, tend to revolve around certain issues that recur in different guises. They have been usefully broken down by Diener and Crandall (1978) into four main areas: the ethical issues that arise in connection with relation- ships between researchers and research participants. Key concept 6.2 outlines some of these stances.

• whether there is harm to participants; • whether there is a lack of informed consent; • whether there is an invasion of privacy; • whether deception is involved.

Page reference: 114 *c. There must be no controversy around the research Feedback: Discussions about ethical principles in business research, and perhaps more specifically transgressions of them, tend to revolve around certain issues that recur in different guises. They have been usefully broken down by Diener and Crandall (1978) into four main areas: the ethical issues that arise in connection with relation- ships between researchers and research participants. Key concept 6.2 outlines some of these stances.

• whether there is harm to participants; • whether there is a lack of informed consent; • whether there is an invasion of privacy; • whether deception is involved.

Page reference: 114 d. There must be no deception involved Feedback: Discussions about ethical principles in business research, and perhaps more specifically transgressions of them, tend to revolve around certain issues that recur in different guises. They have been usefully broken down by Diener and Crandall (1978) into four main areas: the ethical issues that arise in connection with relation- ships between researchers and research participants. Key concept 6.2 outlines some of these stances.

• whether there is harm to participants; • whether there is a lack of informed consent; • whether there is an invasion of privacy; • whether deception is involved.

Page reference: 114 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 06 - Question 05 05) The purpose of a confidentiality agreement is to define and restrict the type of information that you are permitted to access and establish what kind of information you are able to disclose about the company. *a. True Feedback: As part of the process of negotiating access, it is becoming increasingly common for companies where research is to be carried out to ask their legal departments to prepare a confidentiality agreement, which you may be asked to sign on your own behalf, or someone from your university may be asked to sign on behalf of the institution. The main purpose of this is to de ne what type of information you can have access to and to establish what information you are and are not able to disclose about the company.

Page reference: 136 b. False Feedback: As part of the process of negotiating access, it is becoming increasingly common for companies where research is to be carried out to ask their legal departments to prepare a confidentiality agreement, which you may be asked to sign on your own behalf, or someone from your university may be asked to sign on behalf of the institution. The main purpose of this is to de ne what

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type of information you can have access to and to establish what information you are and are not able to disclose about the company.

Page reference: 136 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 06 - Question 06 06) Participants in a research study must always remain anonymous. a. True Feedback: Grinyer (2002) argues that, although protecting the anonymity of research participants is assumed to be an integral feature of ethical research, there may be certain circumstances where research participants do not wish to remain anonymous because making their identity explicit is an important way of retaining ownership of their stories.

Page reference: 137 *b. False Feedback: Grinyer (2002) argues that, although protecting the anonymity of research participants is assumed to be an integral feature of ethical research, there may be certain circumstances where research participants do not wish to remain anonymous because making their identity explicit is an important way of retaining ownership of their stories.

Page reference: 137 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 06 - Question 07 07) Informed consent must always be obtained from participants as part of a research study. a. True Feedback: The principle of informed consent means that participants should also be informed if observation techniques or recording equipment are to be used. However, some research such as disguised or covert observation, involved a lack of informed consent.

Page reference: 21 *b. False Feedback: The principle of informed consent means that participants should also be informed if observation techniques or recording equipment are to be used. However, some research such as disguised or covert observation, involved a lack of informed consent.

Page reference: 21 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 06 - Question 08 08) The collection and storage of digital data has all but eliminated any concerns about confidentiality and other ethical issues. a. True Feedback: The routine collection and storing of digital data and the practices of data sharing raise new concerns about confidentiality and other ethical issues.

Page reference: 146 *b. False Feedback: The routine collection and storing of digital data and the practices of data sharing raise new concerns about confidentiality and other ethical issues.

Page reference: 146 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 06 - Question 09 09) It is expected that researchers will declare any affiliations, conflicts of interests or funding in conducting and publishing their research *a. True Feedback: In all areas of scientific study, it is recognised that all affiliations, particularly those related to funding, have the potential to influence the way that research issues are defined and findings presented. Owing to a number of high profile ethical controversies, it is increasingly expected that researchers will declare any sources of sponsorship and finding so that this can be taken into account

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in assessing research quality, particularly if the study is financially underwritten by an organisation that has a vested interest in the results.

Page reference: 35 b. False Feedback: In all areas of scientific study, it is recognised that all affiliations, particularly those related to funding, have the potential to influence the way that research issues are defined and findings presented. Owing to a number of high profile ethical controversies, it is increasingly expected that researchers will declare any sources of sponsorship and finding so that this can be taken into account in assessing research quality, particularly if the study is financially underwritten by an organisation that has a vested interest in the results.

Page reference: 35 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 06 - Question 10 10) Researchers who take a photograph of an individual and reproduce it as part of a study should obtain written or verbal consent for doing so. *a. True Feedback: If you are taking photographs of other people, you should gain at least their verbal, and possibly their written, permission before publishing or displaying the photograph in a public forum.

Page reference: 39 b. False Feedback: If you are taking photographs of other people, you should gain at least their verbal, and possibly their written, permission before publishing or displaying the photograph in a public forum.

Page reference: 39 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 06 - Question 11 11) Online discussion lists are public, they can be researched and their data published in your dissertation without any difficulty. a. True Feedback: It is a good idea to check the welcoming messages of public discussion lists for guidance on how to cite email messages. Some discussion groups state that researchers must notify the group in advance of any research being taken.

Page reference: 41 *b. False Feedback: It is a good idea to check the welcoming messages of public discussion lists for guidance on how to cite email messages. Some discussion groups state that researchers must notify the group in advance of any research being taken.

Page reference: 41

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 7 - Question 1 01) Rhetoric is concerned with the ways in which attempts to convince or persuade an audience are formulated in language. *a. True Feedback: The study of rhetoric is fundamentally concerned with the ways in which attempts to convince or persuade an audience are formulated.

Page reference: 692 b. False Feedback: The study of rhetoric is fundamentally concerned with the ways in which attempts to convince or persuade an audience are formulated.

Page reference: 692 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 7 - Question 2 2) Which of the following is not usually found in a report of a quantitative study? a. Measurement Feedback: The main sections of a quantitative study are usually an introduction, a literature review, a justification of methods and measures, results, and conclusions. This will often take the form of a ‘sanitized’ account that presents the findings as inevitable rather than “confessing” to things that went wrong during the research process. It is argued that the findings of research will seem to be logical, when, in fact, they are simply at the end of a traditional process. Assessors and reviewers are familiar with this phenomenon, however, and will insist on a logical, coherent argument to support your research findings.

Page reference: 700 b. Results Feedback: The main sections of a quantitative study are usually an introduction, a literature review, a justification of methods and measures, results, and conclusions. This will often take the form of a ‘sanitized’ account that presents the findings as inevitable rather than “confessing” to things that went wrong during the research process. It is argued that the findings of research will seem to be logical, when, in fact, they are simply at the end of a traditional process. Assessors and reviewers are familiar with this phenomenon, however, and will insist on a logical, coherent argument to support your research findings.

Page reference: 700 *c. Confession Feedback: The main sections of a quantitative study are usually an introduction, a literature review, a justification of methods and measures, results, and conclusions. This will often take the form of a ‘sanitized’ account that presents the findings as inevitable rather than “confessing” to things that went wrong during the research process. It is argued that the findings of research will seem to be logical, when, in fact, they are simply at the end of a traditional process. Assessors and reviewers are familiar with this phenomenon, however, and will insist on a logical, coherent argument to support your research findings.

Page reference: 700 d. Validation Feedback: The main sections of a quantitative study are usually an introduction, a literature review, a justification of methods and measures, results, and conclusions. This will often take the form of a ‘sanitized’ account that presents the findings as inevitable rather than “confessing” to things that went wrong during the research process. It is argued that the findings of research will seem to be logical, when, in fact, they are simply at the end of a traditional process. Assessors and reviewers are familiar with this phenomenon, however, and will insist on a logical, coherent argument to support your research findings.

Page reference: 700

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Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 7 - Question 3 3) The introductory section of a research report should aim to: a. identify the specific focus of the study.

Reports of both quantitative and qualitative research usually contain an introductory section that sets out the main arguments of the paper. This section also helps to attract the reader’s attention by providing a clear focus for the research and identifying some of the key debates in which it can be contextualized. Simply saying you wrote about something because you were interested in it is not enough. You must locate your interest within a body of theory, or at least an area of general concern.

This is also the place to show your research questions.

Page reference: 697 b. provide a rationale for the dissertation, or article.

Reports of both quantitative and qualitative research usually contain an introductory section that sets out the main arguments of the paper. This section also helps to attract the reader’s attention by providing a clear focus for the research and identifying some of the key debates in which it can be contextualized. Simply saying you wrote about something because you were interested in it is not enough. You must locate your interest within a body of theory, or at least an area of general concern.

This is also the place to show your research questions.

Page reference: 697 c. grab the reader’s attention.

Reports of both quantitative and qualitative research usually contain an introductory section that sets out the main arguments of the paper. This section also helps to attract the reader’s attention by providing a clear focus for the research and identifying some of the key debates in which it can be contextualized. Simply saying you wrote about something because you were interested in it is not enough. You must locate your interest within a body of theory, or at least an area of general concern.

This is also the place to show your research questions.

Page reference: 697 *d. all of the above.

Reports of both quantitative and qualitative research usually contain an introductory section that sets out the main arguments of the paper. This section also helps to attract the reader’s attention by providing a clear focus for the research and identifying some of the key debates in which it can be contextualized. Simply saying you wrote about something because you were interested in it is not enough. You must locate your interest within a body of theory, or at least an area of general concern.

This is also the place to show your research questions.

Page reference: 697 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 7 - Question 4 4) What is the purpose of the conclusion in a research report?

Feedback: Almost all written accounts of social research end with a conclusion, the purpose of which is to remind the reader of the key findings of the research and relate these back to the original research questions or hypotheses. The conclusion serves as a bridge between this piece of work and anything that may follow. It points directions for further research, therefore, partly through reflecting on the limitations of your work in the light of hindsight.

Page reference: 698 a. It just a summary what the article already said.

Feedback: Almost all written accounts of social research end with a conclusion, the purpose of which is to remind the reader of the key findings of the research and relate these back to the original research questions or hypotheses. The conclusion serves as a bridge between this piece of work and anything that may follow. It points directions for further research, therefore, partly through reflecting on the limitations of your work in the light of hindsight.

Page reference: 698 *b. It summarizes the key findings in relation to the research questions.

Feedback: Almost all written accounts of social research end with a conclusion, the purpose of which is to remind the reader of the key findings of the research and relate these back to the original research questions or hypotheses. The conclusion serves as a bridge between this piece of work and

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anything that may follow. It points directions for further research, therefore, partly through reflecting on the limitations of your work in the light of hindsight.

Page reference: 698 c. It contains a useful review of the relevant literature.

Feedback: Almost all written accounts of social research end with a conclusion, the purpose of which is to remind the reader of the key findings of the research and relate these back to the original research questions or hypotheses. The conclusion serves as a bridge between this piece of work and anything that may follow. It points directions for further research, therefore, partly through reflecting on the limitations of your work in the light of hindsight.

Page reference: 698 d. It outlines the methodological procedures that were employed.

Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 7 - Question 5 5) Which of the following is not normally included in a written account of qualitative research?

Feedback: The stages of a report of a piece of qualitative research are broadly similar to those of a quantitative report, but there are some noticeable differences. In particular, the presentation and discussion of the results tend to be more interwoven, and the author will discuss the findings in relation to more open-ended research questions rather than hypotheses. Much qualitative research is inductive, meaning hypotheses are more likely to emerge as conclusions than to have been set in advance for testing.

Page reference: 705 a. An introduction, locating the research in its theoretical context.

Feedback: The stages of a report of a piece of qualitative research are broadly similar to those of a quantitative report, but there are some noticeable differences. In particular, the presentation and discussion of the results tend to be more interwoven, and the author will discuss the findings in relation to more open-ended research questions rather than hypotheses. Much qualitative research is inductive, meaning hypotheses are more likely to emerge as conclusions than to have been set in advance for testing.

Page reference: 705 b. An explanation of the design of the study.

Feedback: The stages of a report of a piece of qualitative research are broadly similar to those of a quantitative report, but there are some noticeable differences. In particular, the presentation and discussion of the results tend to be more interwoven, and the author will discuss the findings in relation to more open-ended research questions rather than hypotheses. Much qualitative research is inductive, meaning hypotheses are more likely to emerge as conclusions than to have been set in advance for testing.

Page reference: 705 c. A discussion of the main findings in relation to the research questions.

Feedback: The stages of a report of a piece of qualitative research are broadly similar to those of a quantitative report, but there are some noticeable differences. In particular, the presentation and discussion of the results tend to be more interwoven, and the author will discuss the findings in relation to more open-ended research questions rather than hypotheses. Much qualitative research is inductive, meaning hypotheses are more likely to emerge as conclusions than to have been set in advance for testing.

Page reference: 705 *d. A decision to accept or reject the hypothesis.

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 7 - Question 6 6) The humanistic genre is the dominant form of writing in business and management research a. True Feedback: “these conventions…form part of the logico-scientific genre, which is the dominant form of writing in business and management research.

Page reference: 4 *b. False

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Feedback: “these conventions…form part of the logico-scientific genre, which is the dominant form of writing in business and management research.

Page reference: 4 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 7 - Question 7 7) The best way to write up your project is at the end, when you know precisely what you need to say a. True Feedback: It is easy to take the view that the writing-up of your research findings is something that you can think about after you have collected and analysed your data. There is, of course, a grain of truth in this view, in that you could hardly write up your findings until you know what they are, which is something that you can know only once you have gathered and analysed your data. However, there are good reasons for beginning writing early on, since you might want to start thinking about such issues as how best to present and justify the research questions that are driving your research or how to structure the theoretical and research literature that will have been used to frame your research questions.

Page reference: 693 *b. False Feedback: It is easy to take the view that the writing-up of your research findings is something that you can think about after you have collected and analysed your data. There is, of course, a grain of truth in this view, in that you could hardly write up your findings until you know what they are, which is something that you can know only once you have gathered and analysed your data. However, there are good reasons for beginning writing early on, since you might want to start thinking about such issues as how best to present and justify the research questions that are driving your research or how to structure the theoretical and research literature that will have been used to frame your research questions.

Page reference: 693 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 7 - Question 8 8) In a report of quantitative research, an empiricist repertoire serves to: a. confuse the reader with long and technical words.

Feedback: Gilbert and Mulkay (1984) distinguished between “empiricist” and “contingent” repertoires as two ways of reporting scientific findings. In the former case, certain rhetorical and stylistic ways of writing would give the impression that the researchers had arrived at their conclusions through logical, objective processes of analysis, whereas the contingent repertoire was used to emphasize the ambiguity of results and the social processes that were used to produce and interpret them. Their study of scientific writings showed the contingent repertoire to be much less used than the empiricist repertoire. For the social sciences, this seems to indicate a predilection for producing certainty in writings, rather than reporting on the uncertainty which characterises a lot of actual research.

Page reference: 704 b. demonstrate the researcher’s reflexivity about their role in the research process.

Feedback: Gilbert and Mulkay (1984) distinguished between “empiricist” and “contingent” repertoires as two ways of reporting scientific findings. In the former case, certain rhetorical and stylistic ways of writing would give the impression that the researchers had arrived at their conclusions through logical, objective processes of analysis, whereas the contingent repertoire was used to emphasize the ambiguity of results and the social processes that were used to produce and interpret them. Their study of scientific writings showed the contingent repertoire to be much less used than the empiricist repertoire. For the social sciences, this seems to indicate a predilection for producing certainty in writings, rather than reporting on the uncertainty which characterises a lot of actual research.

Page reference: 704 *c. give the impression that the results were objective and logically inevitable.

Feedback: Gilbert and Mulkay (1984) distinguished between “empiricist” and “contingent” repertoires as two ways of reporting scientific findings. In the former case, certain rhetorical and stylistic ways of writing would give the impression that the researchers had arrived at their conclusions through logical, objective processes of analysis, whereas the contingent repertoire was used to emphasize the ambiguity of results and the social processes that were used to produce and interpret them. Their

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study of scientific writings showed the contingent repertoire to be much less used than the empiricist repertoire. For the social sciences, this seems to indicate a predilection for producing certainty in writings, rather than reporting on the uncertainty which characterises a lot of actual research.

Page reference: 704 d. provide a confessional tale of what went wrong in the procedure.

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 7 - Question 9 9) Writing up your research is a matter of reporting your findings and drawing your conclusions, it isn’t necessary to be persuasive in how you write. a. True Feedback: This point is crucial. Writing up your research is not sim- ply a matter of reporting your findings and drawing some conclusions. Writing up your research will contain many other features, such as referring to the literature on which you drew, explaining how you did your research, and outlining how you conducted your analysis. But, above all, you must be persuasive. This means that you must convince your readers of the credibility of your conclusions. Simply saying ‘This is what I found; isn’t it interesting?’ is not enough. You must persuade your readers that your findings and conclusions are significant and that they are plausible.

Page reference: 695 *b. False Feedback: This point is crucial. Writing up your research is not sim- ply a matter of reporting your findings and drawing some conclusions. Writing up your research will contain many other features, such as referring to the literature on which you drew, explaining how you did your research, and outlining how you conducted your analysis. But, above all, you must be persuasive. This means that you must convince your readers of the credibility of your conclusions. Simply saying ‘This is what I found; isn’t it interesting?’ is not enough. You must persuade your readers that your findings and conclusions are significant and that they are plausible.

Page reference: 695 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 7 - Question 10 10) Dissertation supervisors should be expected to respond to your drafts immediately, after all you are a paying customer and they are the service provider. a. True Feedback: Try to get as much feedback on your writing as possible and respond positively to the points anyone makes about what they read. Your supervisor is likely to be the main source of feedback, but institutions vary in what supervisors are al- lowed to comment on. Provide your supervisor with drafts of your work to the fullest extent that regulations will allow. Give him or her plenty of time to provide feedback. There will be others like you who will want your supervisor to comment on their work, and, if he or she feels rushed, the comments may be less helpful. Also, you could ask others on the same degree programme to read your drafts and comment on them. They may ask you to do the same. Their comments may be very useful, but, by and large, your supervisor’s comments are the main ones you should seek out.

Page reference: 695 *b. False Feedback: Try to get as much feedback on your writing as possible and respond positively to the points anyone makes about what they read. Your supervisor is likely to be the main source of feedback, but institutions vary in what supervisors are al- lowed to comment on. Provide your supervisor with drafts of your work to the fullest extent that regulations will allow. Give him or her plenty of time to provide feedback. There will be others like you who will want your supervisor to comment on their work, and, if he or she feels rushed, the comments may be less helpful. Also, you could ask others on the same degree programme to read your drafts and comment on them. They may ask you to do the same. Their comments may be very useful, but, by and large, your supervisor’s comments are the main ones you should seek out.

Page reference: 695 Type: multiple choice question

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Title: Chapter 07 - Question 11 11) What best characterises the term reflexivity? *a. Where the researcher thinks deeply about the knowledge generation process and the taken-forgranted assumptions Feedback: In a general sense, reflexivity is about thinking deeply about the process of knowledge generation in research and questioning taken-for-granted assumptions about research.

Page reference: 39 b. Where the researcher disagrees with their informants Feedback: In a general sense, reflexivity is about thinking deeply about the process of knowledge generation in research and questioning taken-for-granted assumptions about research.

Page reference: 39 c. Where the researcher displays greater flexibility with informants in terms of how the fieldwork will be conducted Feedback: In a general sense, reflexivity is about thinking deeply about the process of knowledge generation in research and questioning taken-for-granted assumptions about research.

Page reference: 39 d. Where the researcher becomes disenchanted with the research project and opts to choose a different topic Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 7 - Question 12 12) A reflexive business researcher will be inclined to write about: Feedback: The term “reflexivity” in this context refers to the ability to locate oneself in the research process and be critically aware of the effects that one’s values, biases and expectations may have had upon the outcomes of the research. Because it has received so much attention, particularly within postmodernist writings, it may seem to be somehow superior to “unreflexive” stances. Johnson and Duberley (2003) differentiate between methodological, deconstructive and epistemic reflexivity in management research.

Page reference: 714-715 *a. The effects that their values, biases and theoretical leanings might have had upon the data collection and analysis. b. The way in which their findings are objectively truthful and valid. c. The way in which their findings unfolded naturally and inevitably through logical deduction. d. The unproblematic and straightforward procedures of designing research, building a rapport with participants and interpreting the findings.

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 7 - Question 13 13) Reflexivity is closely linked to the concept of postmodernism *a. True Feedback: reflexivity is related to the concept of postmodernism Page reference: 40 b. False Feedback: reflexivity is related to the concept of postmodernism Page reference: 40 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 7 - Question 14 14) There are two types of academic writing – “good” and “bad”, and there is large agreement on which falls into what category a. True Feedback: “…we are not proposing that there is a single “formula” or “recipe” for how you should write. Indeed, some scholars argue that the conventions of academic writing have become too restrictive, leading to a homogenous and formulaic approach to writing, sometimes referred to as ‘boilerplate’ which stifles creativity.

Page reference: 40 *b. False

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Feedback: “…we are not proposing that there is a single “formula” or “recipe” for how you should write. Indeed, some scholars argue that the conventions of academic writing have become too restrictive, leading to a homogenous and formulaic approach to writing, sometimes referred to as ‘boilerplate’ which stifles creativity.

Page reference: 40 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 7 - Question 15 15) Which of the following can be a problem when writing journal articles? a. No theory Feedback: Daft’s (1995) list of reasons for rejecting academic manuscripts makes little distinction between papers based on quantitative or qualitative methods, suggesting that they are evaluated according to similar conventions. There can be different conventions for different types of methods which can take time to become familiar with. Early stage researchers often struggle to find a professional ‘tone’ to their studies which is appropriate to the journal article itself.

Page reference: 716-717 b. Amateur style and tone Feedback: Daft’s (1995) list of reasons for rejecting academic manuscripts makes little distinction between papers based on quantitative or qualitative methods, suggesting that they are evaluated according to similar conventions. There can be different conventions for different types of methods which can take time to become familiar with. Early stage researchers often struggle to find a professional ‘tone’ to their studies which is appropriate to the journal article itself.

Page reference: 716-717 c. Insufficient definition—theory Feedback: Daft’s (1995) list of reasons for rejecting academic manuscripts makes little distinction between papers based on quantitative or qualitative methods, suggesting that they are evaluated according to similar conventions. There can be different conventions for different types of methods which can take time to become familiar with. Early stage researchers often struggle to find a professional ‘tone’ to their studies which is appropriate to the journal article itself.

Page reference: 716-717 *d. All of the above Feedback: Daft’s (1995) list of reasons for rejecting academic manuscripts makes little distinction between papers based on quantitative or qualitative methods, suggesting that they are evaluated according to similar conventions. There can be different conventions for different types of methods which can take time to become familiar with. Early stage researchers often struggle to find a professional ‘tone’ to their studies which is appropriate to the journal article itself.

Page reference: 716-717

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 01 01) Quantitative research is the dominant methodological approach in business research. *a. True Feedback: This chapter is concerned with the characteristics of quantitative research. This approach has been the dominant strategy for conducting business research, although its influence has waned slightly since the mid-1980s, when qualitative research became more influential. However, quantitative research continues to exert a powerful influence in many quarters.

Page reference: 163 b. False Feedback: This chapter is concerned with the characteristics of quantitative research. This approach has been the dominant strategy for conducting business research, although its influence has waned slightly since the mid-1980s, when qualitative research became more influential. However, quantitative research continues to exert a powerful influence in many quarters.

Page reference: 163 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 02 02) Quantitative research is most closely aligned with a constructionist philosophy of science. a. True Feedback: In Chapter 2, quantitative research was outlined as a distinctive research strategy. In very broad terms, it was described as entailing the collection of numerical data and as exhibiting a view of the relationship between theory and re- search as deductive, a predilection for a natural science approach (and for positivism in particular), and an objectivist conception of social reality. A number of other features of quantitative research were outlined, but in this chapter we will be examining the strategy in much more detail.

Page reference: 164 *b. False Feedback: In Chapter 2, quantitative research was outlined as a distinctive research strategy. In very broad terms, it was described as entailing the collection of numerical data and as exhibiting a view of the relationship between theory and re- search as deductive, a predilection for a natural science approach (and for positivism in particular), and an objectivist conception of social reality. A number of other features of quantitative research were outlined, but in this chapter we will be examining the strategy in much more detail.

Page reference: 164 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 03 03) Quantitative research is mainly deductive in approach. *a. True Feedback: Some of the chief steps have been covered in the first two chapters of this book. The fact that we start o with theory signifies that a broadly deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research is taken.

Page reference: 164 b. False Feedback: Some of the chief steps have been covered in the first two chapters of this book. The fact that we start o with theory signifies that a broadly deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research is taken.

Page reference: 164 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 04 04) Concepts are the building blocks of theory and represent the points around which business research is conducted.

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*a. True Feedback: Concepts are the building blocks of theory and represent the points around which business research is conducted.

Page reference: 163 b. False Feedback: Concepts are the building blocks of theory and represent the points around which business research is conducted.

Page reference: 163 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 08 - Question 05 05) Why should we measure in quantitative research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Measurement allows us to delineate fine differences between people in terms of the characteristic in question. This is very useful, since, although we can often distinguish between people in terms of extreme categories, finer distinctions are much more difficult to recognize. We can detect clear variations in levels of job satisfaction—people who love their jobs and people who hate their jobs—but small differences are much more di cult to detect.

Measurement gives us a consistent device or yardstick for making such distinctions. A measurement device provides a consistent instrument for gauging differences. This consistency relates to two things: our ability to be consistent over time and our ability to be consistent with other researchers. In other words, a measure should be something that is influenced neither by the timing of its administration nor by the person who administers it. Obviously, saying that the measure is not influenced by timing is not meant to indicate that measurement readings do not change: they are bound to be influenced by the process of social change. What it means is that the measure should generate consistent results, other than those that occur as a result of natural changes. Whether a measure actually possesses this quality has to do with the issue of reliability, which was introduced in Chapter 3 and which will be examined again below.

Measurement provides the basis for more precise estimates of the degree of relationship between concepts (for example, through correlation analysis, which will be examined in Chapter 15). Thus, if we measure both job satisfaction and the things with which it might be related, such as stress-related illness, we will be able to produce more precise estimates of how closely they are related than if we had not proceeded in this way.

Page reference: 168 *a. Measurement allows us to delineate fine differences between people in terms of the characteristics in question. *b. Measurement gives us a consistent device or yardstick for marking such distinctions. c. Measurement is a superior approach to qualitative analysis. *d. Measurement provides the basis for more precise estimates of the degree of relationship between concepts.

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 06 06) Content analysis can be used for the analysis of mass media content. *a. True Feedback: through an examination of mass media content through content analysis—for example, to determine changes in the salience of an issue, such as courage in managerial decision-making (Harris 2001).

Page reference: 169 b. False Feedback: through an examination of mass media content through content analysis—for example, to determine changes in the salience of an issue, such as courage in managerial decision-making (Harris 2001).

Page reference: 169 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 07

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07) The use of multiple-indicator measures reflects the fact that some phenomena are unidimensional. a. True Feedback: ‘the use of multiple-indicator measures reflects the fact that some phenomena are multidimensional’.

Page reference: 169 *b. False Feedback: ‘the use of multiple-indicator measures reflects the fact that some phenomena are multidimensional’.

Page reference: 169 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 08 - Question 08 08) Which of the following is not a meaning for the term ‘reliability’? a. stability Feedback: ‘There are at least three different meanings of the term ‘reliability’: stability, internal reliability, and inter-rater reliability’.

Page reference: 172 *b. External reliability Feedback: ‘There are at least three different meanings of the term ‘reliability’: stability, internal reliability, and inter-rater reliability’.

Page reference: 172 c. Internal reliability Feedback: ‘There are at least three different meanings of the term ‘reliability’: stability, internal reliability, and inter-rater reliability’.

Page reference: 172 d. Inter-rater reliability Feedback: ‘There are at least three different meanings of the term ‘reliability’: stability, internal reliability, and inter-rater reliability’.

Page reference: 172 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 09 09) Face validity is when the measure apparently reflects the content of the concept in question. *a. True Feedback: At the very minimum, a researcher who develops a new measure should establish that it has face validity— that is, that the measure apparently reflects the content of the concept in question.

Page reference: 174 b. False Feedback: At the very minimum, a researcher who develops a new measure should establish that it has face validity— that is, that the measure apparently reflects the content of the concept in question.

Page reference: 174 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 10 10) Concurrent validity is where the researcher employs a criteria on which cases are known to be the same and relevant to the concept in question. a. True Feedback: The researcher might seek also to gauge the concurrent validity of the measure. Here the researcher employs a criterion on which cases (for example, people) are known to differ and that is relevant to the concept in question Page reference: 174, *b. False Feedback: The researcher might seek also to gauge the concurrent validity of the measure. Here the researcher employs a criterion on which cases (for example, people) are known to differ and that is relevant to the concept in question Page reference: 174,

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Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 11 11) Predictive validity is where the researcher uses a future criterion measure, rather than a contemporary one, as in the case of concurrent validity *a. True Feedback: Another possible test for the validity of a new measure is predictive validity, whereby the researcher uses a future criterion measure, rather than a contemporary one, as in the case of concurrent validity.

Page reference: 174 b. False Feedback: Another possible test for the validity of a new measure is predictive validity, whereby the researcher uses a future criterion measure, rather than a contemporary one, as in the case of concurrent validity.

Page reference: 174 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 11 11) For convergent validity, measurement ought to be gauged by comparing it to measures of the same concept developed through other methods. *a. True Feedback: In the view of some methodologists, the validity of a measure ought to be gauged by comparing it to measures of the same concept developed through other methods.

Page Reference: 175 b. False Feedback: In the view of some methodologists, the validity of a measure ought to be gauged by comparing it to measures of the same concept developed through other methods.

Page Reference: 175 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 12 12) Discriminant validity ensures that when a measure is used for one construct (Construct A) it is the same in terms of its content from a measure used to measure another construct (Construct B). a. True Feedback: Discriminant validity entails ensuring that when a measure is used for one construct (Construct A) it is different in terms of its content from a measure used to measure another construct (Construct B).

Page Reference: 175 *b. False Feedback: Discriminant validity entails ensuring that when a measure is used for one construct (Construct A) it is different in terms of its content from a measure used to measure another construct (Construct B).

Page Reference: 175 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 08 - Question 13 01) There is a strong concern with what in quantitative research: a. Thematic explanation Feedback: There is a very strong concern with causal explanation in most quantitative research.

Page reference: 177 b. Meta-analysis Feedback: There is a very strong concern with causal explanation in most quantitative research.

Page reference: 177 *c. Causal Explanation Feedback: There is a very strong concern with causal explanation in most quantitative research.

Page reference: 177

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d. Descriptive Explanation Feedback: There is a very strong concern with causal explanation in most quantitative research.

Page reference: 177 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 08 - Question 14 14) The results of a piece of research should typically be unaffected by the researcher’s special characteristics or expectations. *a. True Feedback: The results of a piece of research should be unaffected by the researcher’s special characteristics or expectations.

Page reference: 178 b. False Feedback: The results of a piece of research should be unaffected by the researcher’s special characteristics or expectations.

Page reference: 178 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 08 - Question 15 15) Which of the following is not a critique of quantitative research? a. It fails to distinguish between people and social institutions from ‘the nature of the world’ Feedback: To give a flavour of the critique of quantitative research, four criticisms will be covered briefly.

Quantitative researchers fail to distinguish people and social institutions from ‘the world of nature’.

The phrase ‘the world of nature’ is from the writings of Schutz (the passage from which it has been taken is quoted in Chapter 2 of this volume). Schutz and other phenomenologists charge social scientists who employ a natural science model with treating the social world as if it were no different from the natural order. In so doing, they draw attention to one of positivism’s central tenets—namely, that the principles of the scientific method can and should be applied to all phenomena that are the focus of investigation. As Schutz argues, this tactic essentially means turning a blind eye to the differences between the social and natural world. More particularly, as was observed in Chapter 2, it therefore means ignoring and riding roughshod over the fact that people interpret the world around them, whereas this capacity for self- reflection cannot be found among the objects of the natural sciences (‘molecules, atoms, and electrons’, as Schutz put it).

The measurement process possesses an artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy.

There are a number of aspects to this criticism. For one thing, it has been argued that the connection between the measures developed by social scientists and the concepts they are supposed to be revealing is assumed rather than real; hence, Cicourel’s (1964) notion of ‘measurement by fiat’.

Testing for validity in the manner described in the previous section cannot really address this problem, because the very tests themselves entail measurement by fiat. A further way in which the measurement process is regarded by writers like Cicourel as flawed is that it presumes that when, for example, members of a sample respond to a question on a questionnaire (which is itself taken to be an indicator of a concept), they interpret the key terms in the question similarly. For many writers, respondents simply do not interpret such terms similarly. An often-used reaction to this problem is to use questions with fixed-choice answers, but this approach merely provides ‘a solution to the problem of meaning by simply ignoring it’ (Cicourel 1964: 108).

The reliance on instruments and procedures hinders the connection between research and everyday life. This issue relates to the question of ecological validity that was raised in Chapter 3. Many methods of quantitative research rely heavily on administering research instruments to subjects (such as structured interviews and self-completion questionnaires) or on controlling situations to determine their effects (such as in experiments). However, as Cicourel (1982) asks, how do we know if survey respondents have the requisite knowledge to answer a question or if they are similar in their sense of the topic being important to them in their everyday lives? Thus, if respondents answer a set of questions designed to measure motivation to work, can we be sure that they are equally aware of what it is and its manifestations, and can we be sure that it is of equal concern to them in the ways in which it connects with their every- day working life? One can go even further and ask how well their answers relate to their everyday lives. People may answer a question designed to measure their

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motivation to work, but respondents’ actual behaviour may be at variance with their answers (LaPiere 1934).

The analysis of relationships between variables creates a static view of social life that is independent of people’s lives. Blumer argued that studies that aim to bring out the relationships between variables omit ‘the process of interpretation or definition that goes on in human groups’ (1956: 685). This means that we do not know how what appears to be a relationship between two or more variables has been produced by the people to whom it applies. This criticism incorporates the first and third criticisms that have been referred to—that the meaning of events to individuals is ignored and that we do not know how such findings connect to everyday contexts—but adds a further element—namely, that it creates a sense of a static social world that is separate from the individuals who make up that world. In other words, quantitative research is seen as carrying an objectivist ontology that reifies the social world.

Page reference: 181 b. The measurement process possesses an artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy Feedback: To give a flavour of the critique of quantitative research, four criticisms will be covered briefly.

Quantitative researchers fail to distinguish people and social institutions from ‘the world of nature’.

The phrase ‘the world of nature’ is from the writings of Schutz (the passage from which it has been taken is quoted in Chapter 2 of this volume). Schutz and other phenomenologists charge social scientists who employ a natural science model with treating the social world as if it were no different from the natural order. In so doing, they draw attention to one of positivism’s central tenets—namely, that the principles of the scientific method can and should be applied to all phenomena that are the focus of investigation. As Schutz argues, this tactic essentially means turning a blind eye to the differences between the social and natural world. More particularly, as was observed in Chapter 2, it therefore means ignoring and riding roughshod over the fact that people interpret the world around them, whereas this capacity for self- reflection cannot be found among the objects of the natural sciences (‘molecules, atoms, and electrons’, as Schutz put it).

The measurement process possesses an artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy.

There are a number of aspects to this criticism. For one thing, it has been argued that the connection between the measures developed by social scientists and the concepts they are supposed to be revealing is assumed rather than real; hence, Cicourel’s (1964) notion of ‘measurement by fiat’.

Testing for validity in the manner described in the previous section cannot really address this problem, because the very tests themselves entail measurement by fiat. A further way in which the measurement process is regarded by writers like Cicourel as flawed is that it presumes that when, for example, members of a sample respond to a question on a questionnaire (which is itself taken to be an indicator of a concept), they interpret the key terms in the question similarly. For many writers, respondents simply do not interpret such terms similarly. An often-used reaction to this problem is to use questions with fixed-choice answers, but this approach merely provides ‘a solution to the problem of meaning by simply ignoring it’ (Cicourel 1964: 108).

The reliance on instruments and procedures hinders the connection between research and everyday life. This issue relates to the question of ecological validity that was raised in Chapter 3. Many methods of quantitative research rely heavily on administering research instruments to subjects (such as structured interviews and self-completion questionnaires) or on controlling situations to determine their effects (such as in experiments). However, as Cicourel (1982) asks, how do we know if survey respondents have the requisite knowledge to answer a question or if they are similar in their sense of the topic being important to them in their everyday lives? Thus, if respondents answer a set of questions designed to measure motivation to work, can we be sure that they are equally aware of what it is and its manifestations, and can we be sure that it is of equal concern to them in the ways in which it connects with their every- day working life? One can go even further and ask how well their answers relate to their everyday lives. People may answer a question designed to measure their motivation to work, but respondents’ actual behaviour may be at variance with their answers (LaPiere 1934).

The analysis of relationships between variables creates a static view of social life that is independent of people’s lives. Blumer argued that studies that aim to bring out the relationships between variables omit ‘the process of interpretation or definition that goes on in human groups’ (1956: 685). This means that we do not know how what appears to be a relationship between two or more variables has been produced by the people to whom it applies. This criticism incorporates the first and third criticisms that have been referred to—that the meaning of events to individuals is ignored and that we do not know

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how such findings connect to everyday contexts—but adds a further element—namely, that it creates a sense of a static social world that is separate from the individuals who make up that world. In other words, quantitative research is seen as carrying an objectivist ontology that reifies the social world.

Page reference: 181 c. The reliance on instruments and procedures hinders the connection between research and everyday life Feedback: To give a flavour of the critique of quantitative research, four criticisms will be covered briefly.

Quantitative researchers fail to distinguish people and social institutions from ‘the world of nature’.

The phrase ‘the world of nature’ is from the writings of Schutz (the passage from which it has been taken is quoted in Chapter 2 of this volume). Schutz and other phenomenologists charge social scientists who employ a natural science model with treating the social world as if it were no different from the natural order. In so doing, they draw attention to one of positivism’s central tenets—namely, that the principles of the scientific method can and should be applied to all phenomena that are the focus of investigation. As Schutz argues, this tactic essentially means turning a blind eye to the differences between the social and natural world. More particularly, as was observed in Chapter 2, it therefore means ignoring and riding roughshod over the fact that people interpret the world around them, whereas this capacity for self- reflection cannot be found among the objects of the natural sciences (‘molecules, atoms, and electrons’, as Schutz put it).

The measurement process possesses an artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy.

There are a number of aspects to this criticism. For one thing, it has been argued that the connection between the measures developed by social scientists and the concepts they are supposed to be revealing is assumed rather than real; hence, Cicourel’s (1964) notion of ‘measurement by fiat’.

Testing for validity in the manner described in the previous section cannot really address this problem, because the very tests themselves entail measurement by fiat. A further way in which the measurement process is regarded by writers like Cicourel as flawed is that it presumes that when, for example, members of a sample respond to a question on a questionnaire (which is itself taken to be an indicator of a concept), they interpret the key terms in the question similarly. For many writers, respondents simply do not interpret such terms similarly. An often-used reaction to this problem is to use questions with fixed-choice answers, but this approach merely provides ‘a solution to the problem of meaning by simply ignoring it’ (Cicourel 1964: 108).

The reliance on instruments and procedures hinders the connection between research and everyday life. This issue relates to the question of ecological validity that was raised in Chapter 3. Many methods of quantitative research rely heavily on administering research instruments to subjects (such as structured interviews and self-completion questionnaires) or on controlling situations to determine their effects (such as in experiments). However, as Cicourel (1982) asks, how do we know if survey respondents have the requisite knowledge to answer a question or if they are similar in their sense of the topic being important to them in their everyday lives? Thus, if respondents answer a set of questions designed to measure motivation to work, can we be sure that they are equally aware of what it is and its manifestations, and can we be sure that it is of equal concern to them in the ways in which it connects with their every- day working life? One can go even further and ask how well their answers relate to their everyday lives. People may answer a question designed to measure their motivation to work, but respondents’ actual behaviour may be at variance with their answers (LaPiere 1934).

The analysis of relationships between variables creates a static view of social life that is independent of people’s lives. Blumer argued that studies that aim to bring out the relationships between variables omit ‘the process of interpretation or definition that goes on in human groups’ (1956: 685). This means that we do not know how what appears to be a relationship between two or more variables has been produced by the people to whom it applies. This criticism incorporates the first and third criticisms that have been referred to—that the meaning of events to individuals is ignored and that we do not know how such findings connect to everyday contexts—but adds a further element—namely, that it creates a sense of a static social world that is separate from the individuals who make up that world. In other words, quantitative research is seen as carrying an objectivist ontology that reifies the social world.

Page reference: 181 *d. It is based on numbers which are invariably unreliable and imprecise.

Feedback: To give a flavour of the critique of quantitative research, four criticisms will be covered briefly.

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Quantitative researchers fail to distinguish people and social institutions from ‘the world of nature’.

The phrase ‘the world of nature’ is from the writings of Schutz (the passage from which it has been taken is quoted in Chapter 2 of this volume). Schutz and other phenomenologists charge social scientists who employ a natural science model with treating the social world as if it were no different from the natural order. In so doing, they draw attention to one of positivism’s central tenets—namely, that the principles of the scientific method can and should be applied to all phenomena that are the focus of investigation. As Schutz argues, this tactic essentially means turning a blind eye to the differences between the social and natural world. More particularly, as was observed in Chapter 2, it therefore means ignoring and riding roughshod over the fact that people interpret the world around them, whereas this capacity for self- reflection cannot be found among the objects of the natural sciences (‘molecules, atoms, and electrons’, as Schutz put it).

The measurement process possesses an artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy.

There are a number of aspects to this criticism. For one thing, it has been argued that the connection between the measures developed by social scientists and the concepts they are supposed to be revealing is assumed rather than real; hence, Cicourel’s (1964) notion of ‘measurement by fiat’.

Testing for validity in the manner described in the previous section cannot really address this problem, because the very tests themselves entail measurement by fiat. A further way in which the measurement process is regarded by writers like Cicourel as flawed is that it presumes that when, for example, members of a sample respond to a question on a questionnaire (which is itself taken to be an indicator of a concept), they interpret the key terms in the question similarly. For many writers, respondents simply do not interpret such terms similarly. An often-used reaction to this problem is to use questions with fixed-choice answers, but this approach merely provides ‘a solution to the problem of meaning by simply ignoring it’ (Cicourel 1964: 108).

The reliance on instruments and procedures hinders the connection between research and everyday life. This issue relates to the question of ecological validity that was raised in Chapter 3. Many methods of quantitative research rely heavily on administering research instruments to subjects (such as structured interviews and self-completion questionnaires) or on controlling situations to determine their effects (such as in experiments). However, as Cicourel (1982) asks, how do we know if survey respondents have the requisite knowledge to answer a question or if they are similar in their sense of the topic being important to them in their everyday lives? Thus, if respondents answer a set of questions designed to measure motivation to work, can we be sure that they are equally aware of what it is and its manifestations, and can we be sure that it is of equal concern to them in the ways in which it connects with their every- day working life? One can go even further and ask how well their answers relate to their everyday lives. People may answer a question designed to measure their motivation to work, but respondents’ actual behaviour may be at variance with their answers (LaPiere 1934).

The analysis of relationships between variables creates a static view of social life that is independent of people’s lives. Blumer argued that studies that aim to bring out the relationships between variables omit ‘the process of interpretation or definition that goes on in human groups’ (1956: 685). This means that we do not know how what appears to be a relationship between two or more variables has been produced by the people to whom it applies. This criticism incorporates the first and third criticisms that have been referred to—that the meaning of events to individuals is ignored and that we do not know how such findings connect to everyday contexts—but adds a further element—namely, that it creates a sense of a static social world that is separate from the individuals who make up that world. In other words, quantitative research is seen as carrying an objectivist ontology that reifies the social world.

Page reference: 181

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 09 - Question 01 01) A sampling frame is the listing of all units in the population from which the sample will be selected. *a. True Feedback: Sampling frame: the listing of all units in the population from which the sample will be selected.

Page reference: 188 b. False Feedback: Sampling frame: the listing of all units in the population from which the sample will be selected.

Page reference: 188 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 09 - Question 02 02) A probability sample is a sample that has been selected using non-random selection. a. True Feedback: Probability sample: a sample that has been selected using random selection so that each unit in the population has a known chance of being selected.

Page reference: 188 *b. False Feedback: Probability sample: a sample that has been selected using random selection so that each unit in the population has a known chance of being selected.

Page reference: 188 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 09 - Question 03 03) Sampling error is the difference between a sample and population from which it is selected. *a. True Feedback: Sampling error: the difference between a sample and the population from which it is selected, even though a probability sample has been selected.

Page reference: 188 b. False Feedback: Sampling error: the difference between a sample and the population from which it is selected, even though a probability sample has been selected.

Page reference: 188 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 09 - Question 04 04) Which of the following is not a source of sampling bias: a. If a non-probability or non-random method is used Feedback: Three sources of bias can be identified (see Key concept 8.1 for an explanation of terms).

If a non-probability or non-random sampling method is used. If the method used to select the sample is not random, there is a possibility that human judgement will affect the selection process, making some members of the population more likely to be selected than others. This source of bias can be eliminated through the use of probability or random sampling, the procedure for which is described below.

If the sampling frame is inadequate. If the sampling frame is not comprehensive or is inaccurate or suffers from some other kind of similar deficiency, the sample that is derived cannot represent the population, even if a random or probability sampling method is employed.

If some sample members refuse to participate or cannot be contacted—in other words, if there is nonresponse. The problem with non-response is that those who agree to participate may differ in various ways from those who do not agree to participate. Some of the differences may be significant to the research question or questions. If the data are available, it may be possible to check how far, when there is non-response, the resulting sample differs from the population. It is often possible to do this in

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terms of characteristics such as gender or age, or, in the case of something like a sample of university students, whether the sample’s characteristics reflect the entire population in terms of the students’ areas of study. However, it is usually impossible to determine whether differences exist between the population and the sample after non-response in terms of ‘deeper’ factors, such as attitudes or patterns of behaviour.

Page reference: 189 b. If the sampling frame is inadequate Feedback: Three sources of bias can be identified (see Key concept 8.1 for an explanation of terms).

If a non-probability or non-random sampling method is used. If the method used to select the sample is not random, there is a possibility that human judgement will affect the selection process, making some members of the population more likely to be selected than others. This source of bias can be eliminated through the use of probability or random sampling, the procedure for which is described below.

If the sampling frame is inadequate. If the sampling frame is not comprehensive or is inaccurate or suffers from some other kind of similar deficiency, the sample that is derived cannot represent the population, even if a random or probability sampling method is employed.

If some sample members refuse to participate or cannot be contacted—in other words, if there is nonresponse. The problem with non-response is that those who agree to participate may differ in various ways from those who do not agree to participate. Some of the differences may be significant to the research question or questions. If the data are available, it may be possible to check how far, when there is non-response, the resulting sample differs from the population. It is often possible to do this in terms of characteristics such as gender or age, or, in the case of something like a sample of university students, whether the sample’s characteristics reflect the entire population in terms of the students’ areas of study. However, it is usually impossible to determine whether differences exist between the population and the sample after non-response in terms of ‘deeper’ factors, such as attitudes or patterns of behaviour.

Page reference: 189 *c. If the interviewer has biased views Feedback: Three sources of bias can be identified (see Key concept 8.1 for an explanation of terms).

If a non-probability or non-random sampling method is used. If the method used to select the sample is not random, there is a possibility that human judgement will affect the selection process, making some members of the population more likely to be selected than others. This source of bias can be eliminated through the use of probability or random sampling, the procedure for which is described below.

If the sampling frame is inadequate. If the sampling frame is not comprehensive or is inaccurate or suffers from some other kind of similar deficiency, the sample that is derived cannot represent the population, even if a random or probability sampling method is employed.

If some sample members refuse to participate or cannot be contacted—in other words, if there is nonresponse. The problem with non-response is that those who agree to participate may differ in various ways from those who do not agree to participate. Some of the differences may be significant to the research question or questions. If the data are available, it may be possible to check how far, when there is non-response, the resulting sample differs from the population. It is often possible to do this in terms of characteristics such as gender or age, or, in the case of something like a sample of university students, whether the sample’s characteristics reflect the entire population in terms of the students’ areas of study. However, it is usually impossible to determine whether differences exist between the population and the sample after non-response in terms of ‘deeper’ factors, such as attitudes or patterns of behaviour.

Page reference: 189 d. If the sample members refuse to participate or cannot be contacted, in other words, if there is nonresponse Feedback: Three sources of bias can be identified (see Key concept 8.1 for an explanation of terms).

If a non-probability or non-random sampling method is used. If the method used to select the sample is not random, there is a possibility that human judgement will affect the selection process, making some members of the population more likely to be selected than others. This source of bias can be eliminated through the use of probability or random sampling, the procedure for which is described below.

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If the sampling frame is inadequate. If the sampling frame is not comprehensive or is inaccurate or suffers from some other kind of similar deficiency, the sample that is derived cannot represent the population, even if a random or probability sampling method is employed.

If some sample members refuse to participate or cannot be contacted—in other words, if there is nonresponse. The problem with non-response is that those who agree to participate may differ in various ways from those who do not agree to participate. Some of the differences may be significant to the research question or questions. If the data are available, it may be possible to check how far, when there is non-response, the resulting sample differs from the population. It is often possible to do this in terms of characteristics such as gender or age, or, in the case of something like a sample of university students, whether the sample’s characteristics reflect the entire population in terms of the students’ areas of study. However, it is usually impossible to determine whether differences exist between the population and the sample after non-response in terms of ‘deeper’ factors, such as attitudes or patterns of behaviour.

Page reference: 189 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 09 - Question 05 05) A simple random sample is the most basic form of probability sample. *a. True Feedback: The simple random sample is the most basic form of probability sample.

Page reference: 191 b. False Feedback: The simple random sample is the most basic form of probability sample.

Page reference: 191 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 09 - Question 06 06) It is impossible to make inferences from information about a random sample to the population from which it was selected. a. True Feedback: The reason why probability sampling is such an important procedure in social survey research is that it is possible to make inferences from information about a random sample to the population from which it was selected.

Page Reference: 193 *b. False Feedback: The reason why probability sampling is such an important procedure in social survey research is that it is possible to make inferences from information about a random sample to the population from which it was selected.

Page Reference: 193 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 09 - Question 07 06) Convenience sampling is a form of non-probability sampling. *a. True Feedback: In this section we will also cover two main types of non-probability sample: the convenience sample and the quota sample.

Page Reference: 197 b. False Feedback: In this section we will also cover two main types of non-probability sample: the convenience sample and the quota sample.

Page Reference: 197 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 09 - Question 10 10) Which if of the following is not a consideration in sample size? a. Absolute and relative sample size

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Feedback: Frequently a source of great disappointment to those who pose such questions.

Moreover, most of the time decisions about sample size are affected by considerations of time and cost. Therefore, invariably decisions about sample size represent a compromise between the constraints of time and cost, the need for precision, and a variety of further considerations that will now be addressed.

Page reference: 195 *b. Ensuring the sample does not exceed 1,000 participants Feedback: Frequently a source of great disappointment to those who pose such questions.

Moreover, most of the time decisions about sample size are affected by considerations of time and cost. Therefore, invariably decisions about sample size represent a compromise between the constraints of time and cost, the need for precision, and a variety of further considerations that will now be addressed.

Page reference: 195 c. Time and cost Feedback: Frequently a source of great disappointment to those who pose such questions.

Moreover, most of the time decisions about sample size are affected by considerations of time and cost. Therefore, invariably decisions about sample size represent a compromise between the constraints of time and cost, the need for precision, and a variety of further considerations that will now be addressed.

Page reference: 195 d. Non-response Feedback: Frequently a source of great disappointment to those who pose such questions.

Moreover, most of the time decisions about sample size are affected by considerations of time and cost. Therefore, invariably decisions about sample size represent a compromise between the constraints of time and cost, the need for precision, and a variety of further considerations that will now be addressed.

Page reference: 195 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 09 - Question 11 11) The aim of quota sampling is to produce a sample that does not reflect a population in terms of the relative proportions of people in different categories. a. True Feedback: Quota sampling is used intensively in commercial research, such as market research and political opinion polling (see Thinking deeply 8.8). The aim of quota sampling is to produce a sample that reflects a population in terms of the relative proportions of people in different categories, such as gender, ethnicity, age groups, socio- economic groups, and region of residence, and in combi- nations of these categories.

Page reference: 198 *b. False Feedback: Quota sampling is used intensively in commercial research, such as market research and political opinion polling (see Thinking deeply 8.8). The aim of quota sampling is to produce a sample that reflects a population in terms of the relative proportions of people in different categories, such as gender, ethnicity, age groups, socio- economic groups, and region of residence, and in combi- nations of these categories.

Page reference: 198 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 09 - Question 12 12) Which of the following are sources of error in social survey research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: There are four sources of error in social survey research: Sampling error; Samplingrelated error; Data collection error; and Data processing error.

Page reference: 201 *a. Sampling error b. Random error *c. Data collection error d. Participant error

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Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 09 - Question 13 13) Which of the following is not a sampling issue for an online survey? *a. Households are difficult to identify Feedback: Certain other features of online communications make the issue more problematic: • Many people have more than one email address.

• A household may have one computer but several users.

• Internet users are a biased sample of the population.

Page reference: 202 b. Many people have more than one email address Feedback: Certain other features of online communications make the issue more problematic: • Many people have more than one email address.

• A household may have one computer but several users.

• Internet users are a biased sample of the population.

Page reference: 202 c. A household may have one computer but several users Feedback: Certain other features of online communications make the issue more problematic: • Many people have more than one email address.

• A household may have one computer but several users.

• Internet users are a biased sample of the population Page reference: 202 d. Internet users are a biased sample of the population Feedback: Certain other features of online communications make the issue more problematic: • Many people have more than one email address.

• A household may have one computer but several users.

• Internet users are a biased sample of the population.

Page reference: 202 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 09 - Question 14 14) Since the mid-1990s, response rates for email surveys have been declining to lower levels than those for most postal questionnaires. *a. True Feedback: “In the early years, in the late 1980s, response rates for email surveys were quite encouraging, but since the mid-1990s they have been declining to lower levels than those for most postal questionnaires.

Page reference: 203 b. False Feedback: “In the early years, in the late 1980s, response rates for email surveys were quite encouraging, but since the mid-1990s they have been declining to lower levels than those for most postal questionnaires.

Page reference: 203 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 09 - Question 15 15) How can response rates to a survey be boosted? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: However, response rates can be boosted by the following two simple strategies (needs to be corrected as there are three listed: 1. Contacting prospective respondents before sending them a questionnaire.

2. Follow up non-respondents at least once.

3. There is evidence that incentives can increase response rates in online surveys.

Page reference: 203-204 *a. By contacting prospective respondents before sending them a questionnaire b. By emailing them daily until they complete the questionnaire *c. By offering them some incentive

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d. By highlighting the consequences of not completing the survey

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 10 - Question 01 01) The research interview is a more prominent data collection strategy in quantitative rather than qualitative research. a. True Feedback: The research interview is a prominent data collection strategy in both quantitative and qualitative research.

Page reference: 208 *b. False Feedback: The research interview is a prominent data collection strategy in both quantitative and qualitative research.

Page reference: 208 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 10 - Question 02 02) Which of the following is not a source of error in survey research? a. Poorly worded question Feedback: Common sources of error in survey research.

There are many sources of error in survey research, in addition to those associated with sampling.

This is a list of the principal sources of error: 1. a poorly worded question; 2. the way the question is asked by the interviewer; 3. misunderstanding on the part of the interviewee; 4. memory problems on the part of the interviewee; 5. the way the information is recorded by the interviewer; 6. the way the information is processed, either when answers are coded or when data are entered into the computer.

Page reference: 209 b. Memory problems on behalf of the interviewee Feedback: Common sources of error in survey research.

There are many sources of error in survey research, in addition to those associated with sampling.

This is a list of the principal sources of error: 1. a poorly worded question; 2. the way the question is asked by the interviewer; 3. misunderstanding on the part of the interviewee; 4. memory problems on the part of the interviewee; 5. the way the information is recorded by the interviewer; 6. the way the information is processed, either when answers are coded or when data are entered into the computer.

Page reference: 209 c. The way the information is recoded by the interviewer Feedback: Common sources of error in survey research.

There are many sources of error in survey research, in addition to those associated with sampling.

This is a list of the principal sources of error: 1. a poorly worded question; 2. the way the question is asked by the interviewer; 3. misunderstanding on the part of the interviewee; 4. memory problems on the part of the interviewee; 5. the way the information is recorded by the interviewer; 6. the way the information is processed, either when answers are coded or when data are entered into the computer.

Page reference: 209 *d. The prestige of the organisation collecting the data Feedback: Common sources of error in survey research.

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There are many sources of error in survey research, in addition to those associated with sampling.

This is a list of the principal sources of error: 1. a poorly worded question; 2. the way the question is asked by the interviewer; 3. misunderstanding on the part of the interviewee; 4. memory problems on the part of the interviewee; 5. the way the information is recorded by the interviewer; 6. the way the information is processed, either when answers are coded or when data are entered into the computer.

Page reference: 209 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 10 - Question 03 03) In a semi-structured interview, the questions are very specific rather than general. a. True Feedback: Semi-structured interview. This is a term that covers a wide range of instances. It typically refers to a context in which the interviewer has a series of questions that are in the general form of an interview schedule but is able to vary the sequence of questions. The questions are frequently somewhat more general in their frame of reference than that typically found in a structured interview schedule. Also, the interviewer usually has some latitude to ask further questions in response to what are seen as significant replies.

Page reference: 211 *b. False Feedback: Semi-structured interview. This is a term that covers a wide range of instances. It typically refers to a context in which the interviewer has a series of questions that are in the general form of an interview schedule but is able to vary the sequence of questions. The questions are frequently somewhat more general in their frame of reference than that typically found in a structured interview schedule. Also, the interviewer usually has some latitude to ask further questions in response to what are seen as significant replies.

Page reference: 211 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 10 - Question 04 04) In a focus group, interviewees discuss a topic in a focussed yet individual way. a. True Feedback: Focus group. This is the same as the focused interview, but interviewees discuss the specific issue in groups. See Key concept 21.1 for a more detailed definition.

Page reference: 211 *b. False Feedback: Focus group. This is the same as the focused interview, but interviewees discuss the specific issue in groups. See Key concept 21.1 for a more detailed definition.

Page reference: 211 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 10 - Question 05 05) Which of the following is not an advantage of telephone over personal interviews? a. They are cheaper and easier to administer Feedback: There are several advantages of telephone over personal interviews.

On a like-for-like basis, they are far cheaper and also quicker to administer. This arises because, for personal interviews, interviewers have to spend a great deal of time and money travelling between respondents. This factor will be even more pronounced when a sample is geographically dispersed, a problem that is only partially mitigated for in personal interview surveys by strategies such as cluster sampling. Of course, tele- phone interviews take time, and hired interviewers have to be paid, but the cost of conducting a telephone interview will still be lower than a comparable personal one.

The telephone interview is easier to supervise than the personal interview. This is a particular advantage when there are several interviewers, since it becomes easier to check on interviewers’ transgressions in the asking of questions, such as rephrasing questions or the inappropriate use of

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probes by the interviewer. Probes are stimuli introduced by the interviewer to elicit further information from the interviewee when the latter’s response is inadequate, either because it fails to answer the question or because it answers the question but there is insufficient detail.

Telephone interviewing has a further advantage that is to do with evidence (which is not as clear-cut as one might want) that suggests that, in personal interviews, respondents’ replies are sometimes affected by characteristics of the interviewer (for example, class or ethnicity) and indeed by his or her mere presence (implying that the interviewees may reply in ways they feel will be deemed desirable by interviewers). The remoteness of the interviewer in telephone interviewing removes this potential source of bias to a significant extent. The interviewer’s personal characteristics cannot be seen and the fact that he or she is not physically present may o set the likelihood of respondents’ answers being affected by the interviewer.

Page reference: 212 *b. Research evidence suggests that people prefer being interviewed over the phone rather than in person Feedback: There are several advantages of telephone over personal interviews.

On a like-for-like basis, they are far cheaper and also quicker to administer. This arises because, for personal interviews, interviewers have to spend a great deal of time and money travelling between respondents. This factor will be even more pronounced when a sample is geographically dispersed, a problem that is only partially mitigated for in personal interview surveys by strategies such as cluster sampling. Of course, tele- phone interviews take time, and hired interviewers have to be paid, but the cost of conducting a telephone interview will still be lower than a comparable personal one.

The telephone interview is easier to supervise than the personal interview. This is a particular advantage when there are several interviewers, since it becomes easier to check on interviewers’ transgressions in the asking of questions, such as rephrasing questions or the inappropriate use of probes by the interviewer. Probes are stimuli introduced by the interviewer to elicit further information from the interviewee when the latter’s response is inadequate, either because it fails to answer the question or because it answers the question but there is insufficient detail.

Telephone interviewing has a further advantage that is to do with evidence (which is not as clear-cut as one might want) that suggests that, in personal interviews, respondents’ replies are sometimes affected by characteristics of the interviewer (for example, class or ethnicity) and indeed by his or her mere presence (implying that the interviewees may reply in ways they feel will be deemed desirable by interviewers). The remoteness of the interviewer in telephone interviewing removes this potential source of bias to a significant extent. The interviewer’s personal characteristics cannot be seen and the fact that he or she is not physically present may o set the likelihood of respondents’ answers being affected by the interviewer.

Page reference: 212 c. Telephone interviews are easier to supervise than personal interviews Feedback: There are several advantages of telephone over personal interviews.

On a like-for-like basis, they are far cheaper and also quicker to administer. This arises because, for personal interviews, interviewers have to spend a great deal of time and money travelling between respondents. This factor will be even more pronounced when a sample is geographically dispersed, a problem that is only partially mitigated for in personal interview surveys by strategies such as cluster sampling. Of course, tele- phone interviews take time, and hired interviewers have to be paid, but the cost of conducting a telephone interview will still be lower than a comparable personal one.

The telephone interview is easier to supervise than the personal interview. This is a particular advantage when there are several interviewers, since it becomes easier to check on interviewers’ transgressions in the asking of questions, such as rephrasing questions or the inappropriate use of probes by the interviewer. Probes are stimuli introduced by the interviewer to elicit further information from the interviewee when the latter’s response is inadequate, either because it fails to answer the question or because it answers the question but there is insufficient detail.

Telephone interviewing has a further advantage that is to do with evidence (which is not as clear-cut as one might want) that suggests that, in personal interviews, respondents’ replies are sometimes affected by characteristics of the interviewer (for example, class or ethnicity) and indeed by his or her mere presence (implying that the interviewees may reply in ways they feel will be deemed desirable by interviewers). The remoteness of the interviewer in telephone interviewing removes this potential source of bias to a significant extent. The interviewer’s personal characteristics cannot be seen and

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the fact that he or she is not physically present may o set the likelihood of respondents’ answers being affected by the interviewer.

Page reference: 212 d. Personal interviews are sometimes affected by the characteristics of the interviewer and telephone interviewing removes this source of bias Feedback: There are several advantages of telephone over personal interviews.

On a like-for-like basis, they are far cheaper and also quicker to administer. This arises because, for personal interviews, interviewers have to spend a great deal of time and money travelling between respondents. This factor will be even more pronounced when a sample is geographically dispersed, a problem that is only partially mitigated for in personal interview surveys by strategies such as cluster sampling. Of course, tele- phone interviews take time, and hired interviewers have to be paid, but the cost of conducting a telephone interview will still be lower than a comparable personal one.

The telephone interview is easier to supervise than the personal interview. This is a particular advantage when there are several interviewers, since it becomes easier to check on interviewers’ transgressions in the asking of questions, such as rephrasing questions or the inappropriate use of probes by the interviewer. Probes are stimuli introduced by the interviewer to elicit further information from the interviewee when the latter’s response is inadequate, either because it fails to answer the question or because it answers the question but there is insufficient detail.

Telephone interviewing has a further advantage that is to do with evidence (which is not as clear-cut as one might want) that suggests that, in personal interviews, respondents’ replies are sometimes affected by characteristics of the interviewer (for example, class or ethnicity) and indeed by his or her mere presence (implying that the interviewees may reply in ways they feel will be deemed desirable by interviewers). The remoteness of the interviewer in telephone interviewing removes this potential source of bias to a significant extent. The interviewer’s personal characteristics cannot be seen and the fact that he or she is not physically present may o set the likelihood of respondents’ answers being affected by the interviewer.

Page reference: 212 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 10 - Question 06 6) Which of the following are limitations of telephone interviewing compared to personal interviewing?

Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Telephone interviewing suffers from certain limitations when compared to the personal interview.

People who do not own or who are not contactable by telephone obviously cannot be interviewed by tele- phone. In business research, this characteristic is most likely to be a feature of lower-status employees and, therefore, the potential for sampling bias exists. Lower- income households are more likely not to own a tele- phone; also, many people choose to be ex-directory—that is, they have taken action for their telephone numbers not to appear in a telephone directory. Again, these people cannot be interviewed by telephone. One possible solution to this last difficulty is random digit dialling. With this technique, the computer randomly selects telephone numbers within a predefined geographical area. Not only is this a random process that conforms to the rules about probability sampling examined in Chapter 8; it also stands a chance of getting at ex-directory households, though it cannot, of course, gain access to those without a telephone at all.

The length of a telephone interview is unlikely to be sustainable beyond 20–25 minutes, whereas personal interviews can be much longer than this (Frey 2004).

The question of whether response rates (see Key concept 8.5) are lower with surveys by telephone inter- view than with surveys by personal interview is unclear, in that there is little consistent evidence on this question. However, there is a general belief that telephone interviews achieve slightly lower rates than personal interviews (Frey and Oishi 1995; Shuy 2002; Frey 2004) (see Table 28.1).

There is some evidence to suggest that telephone interviews fare less well for the asking of questions about sensitive issues, such as workplace bullying or drug and alcohol use. However, the evidence is not entirely consistent on this point, though it is probably sufficient to suggest that, when many questions of this kind are to be used, a personal interview may be superior (Shuy 2002).

Developments in telephone communications, such as answerphones, other forms of call screening, and mobile phones, have almost certainly had an adverse effect on telephone surveys in terms of

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response rates and the general difficulty of getting access to respondents through conventional landlines. Households that rely exclusively on mobile phones represent a particular difficulty.

Telephone interviewers cannot engage in observation. This means that they are not in a position to respond to signs of puzzlement or unease on the faces of respondents when they are asked a question. In a personal interview, the interviewer may respond to such signs by restating the question or attempting to clarify the meaning of the question, though this has to be handled in a standardized way as far as possible. A further issue relating to the inability of the interviewer to observe is that, sometimes, interviewers may be asked to collect subsidiary information in connection with their visits (for example, whether or not health and safety procedures are made evident at a business premises).

Such information cannot be collected when telephone interviews are employed.

It is frequently the case that specific individuals in households or firms are the targets of an interview.

In other words, simply anybody will not do. This requirement is likely to arise from the specifications of the population to be sampled, which means that people in a certain role or position or with particular characteristics are to be interviewed. It is probably more difficult to ascertain by telephone interview whether or not the correct person is replying.

The telephone interviewer cannot readily employ visual aids such as show cards (see Tips and skills ‘A show card’ and Tips and skills ‘Another show card’) from which respondents might be asked to select their replies, or use diagrams or photographs.

There is some evidence to suggest that the quality of data derived from telephone interviews is inferior to that of comparable face-to-face interviews. A series of experiments reported by Holbrook et al. (2003) on the mode of survey administration in the USA using long questionnaires found that respondents interviewed by telephone were more likely to express no opinion or ‘don’t know’ (see Chapter 11 for more on this issue); to answer in the same way to a series of linked questions; to express socially desirable answers; to be apprehensive about the interview; and to be more likely to be dissatisfied with the time taken by the interview (even though interviews were invariably shorter than in the face-to-face mode). Also, telephone interviewees tended to be less engaged with the interview process. While these results should be viewed with caution, since studies like these are bound to be affected by such factors as the use of a large questionnaire on a national sample, they do provide interesting food for thought.

Page reference: 214 *a. They are unlikely to be sustainable beyond 20-25 minutes b. They are more effective for sensitive issues like workplace bullying or substance abuse c. The quality of data from telephone interviewing is superior to that obtained from personal interviews *d. Telephone interviews achieve slightly slower response rates than personal interviews Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 10 - Question 07 07) The acronym “CATI” stands for: a. Computer-aided technology interviewing Feedback: There are two main formats for computer-assisted interviewing: computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) and computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI).

Page reference: 244 b. Consumer-assisted technology intervention Feedback: There are two main formats for computer-assisted interviewing: computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) and computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI).

Page reference: 244 *c. Computer-assisted telephone interviewing Feedback: There are two main formats for computer-assisted interviewing: computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) and computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI).

Page reference: 244 d. Computer-assisted technology interviewing Feedback: There are two main formats for computer-assisted interviewing: computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) and computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI).

Page reference: 244 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 10 - Question 08

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08) Which of the following are not considerations on the issue of question order? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: However, it is difficult to draw general lessons from such research, at least in part because experiments in question order do not always reveal clear-cut effects of varying the order in which questions are asked, even in cases where effects might legitimately have been expected.

There are two general lessons.

Within a survey, question order should not be varied (unless, of course, question order is the subject of the study!).

Researchers should be sensitive to the possible implications of the effect of early questions on answers to subsequent questions.

Page reference: 218 *a. Questions need to be somewhat uniform b. Researchers need to be sensitive to the possible implications of the effect of early questions on answers to subsequent questions *c. The most challenging questions should be asked first d. Question order should not be varied Type: true-false Title: Chapter 10 - Question 09 09) Probing is unproblematic for any researcher employing a structured interview method. a. True Feedback: Probing is a highly problematic area for researchers employing a structured interview method Page reference: 219 *b. False Feedback: Probing is a highly problematic area for researchers employing a structured interview method Page reference: 219 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 10 - Question 10 10) Which of the following areas would a researcher not need training in to conduct an interview? a. Contacting perspective respondents and providing an introduction to the study Feedback: Whenever people other than the lead researcher are involved in interviewing, they will need training and supervision in the following areas: contacting prospective respondents and providing an introduction to the study; reading out questions as written and following instructions in the interview schedule (for example, in connection with filter questions); using appropriate styles of probing; recording exactly what is said; maintaining an interview style that does not bias respondents’ answers.

Page reference: 222 b. Using appropriate styles of probing Feedback: Whenever people other than the lead researcher are involved in interviewing, they will need training and supervision in the following areas: contacting prospective respondents and providing an introduction to the study; reading out questions as written and following instructions in the interview schedule (for example, in connection with filter questions); using appropriate styles of probing; recording exactly what is said; maintaining an interview style that does not bias respondents’ answers.

Page reference: 222 *c. Being able to maintain eye-contact Feedback: Whenever people other than the lead researcher are involved in interviewing, they will need training and supervision in the following areas: contacting prospective respondents and providing an introduction to the study; reading out questions as written and following instructions in the interview schedule (for example, in connection with filter questions); using appropriate styles of probing; recording exactly what is said; maintaining an interview style that does not bias respondents’ answers.

Page reference: 222 d. Recording exactly what is said

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Feedback: Whenever people other than the lead researcher are involved in interviewing, they will need training and supervision in the following areas: contacting prospective respondents and providing an introduction to the study; reading out questions as written and following instructions in the interview schedule (for example, in connection with filter questions); using appropriate styles of probing; recording exactly what is said; maintaining an interview style that does not bias respondents’ answers.

Page reference: 222 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 10 - Question 11 11) Critical incident methods are used in order to develop an understanding of events or behaviour in terms of their sequence and significance to the individual. *a. True Feedback: The critical incident method involves asking respondents to describe critical incidents, which are defined very broadly by Flanagan (1954) as any observable human activity where the consequences are sufficiently clear as to leave the observer with a definite idea as to their likely effects. The term is derived from the analysis of near-disaster situations, where a version of the technique can be used to build up a picture of the events that contribute to a potential disaster and to develop a plan of action for dealing with them. The most common use of the critical incident method involves interviewing respondents about particular types of event or behaviour in order to develop an understanding of their sequence and their significance to the individual.

Page reference: 222 b. False Feedback: The critical incident method involves asking respondents to describe critical incidents, which are defined very broadly by Flanagan (1954) as any observable human activity where the consequences are sufficiently clear as to leave the observer with a definite idea as to their likely effects. The term is derived from the analysis of near-disaster situations, where a version of the technique can be used to build up a picture of the events that contribute to a potential disaster and to develop a plan of action for dealing with them. The most common use of the critical incident method involves interviewing respondents about particular types of event or behaviour in order to develop an understanding of their sequence and their significance to the individual.

Page reference: 222 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 10 - Question 12 12) In projective methods, individuals are typically not presented with any stimuli to respond to. a. True Feedback: Projective methods classically involve the presentation of ambiguous stimuli to individuals, and responses are interpreted by the researcher to reveal underlying characteristics of the individual concerned.

Page reference: 223 *b. False Feedback: Projective methods classically involve the presentation of ambiguous stimuli to individuals, and responses are interpreted by the researcher to reveal underlying characteristics of the individual concerned.

Page reference: 223 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 10 - Question 13 13) In the verbal protocol approach, participants are typically asked to “think aloud” while performing certain tasks. *a. True Feedback: The verbal protocol approach builds on the work of Newell and Simon (1972) in the area of human problem solving and has since been used in relation to a number of topics that are relevant to business and management researchers. The approach involves asking respondents to ‘think aloud’ while they are performing a task.

Page reference: 223

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b. False Feedback: The verbal protocol approach builds on the work of Newell and Simon (1972) in the area of human problem solving and has since been used in relation to a number of topics that are relevant to business and management researchers. The approach involves asking respondents to ‘think aloud’ while they are performing a task.

Page reference: 223 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 10 - Question 14 14) In using the repertory grid technique, individuals are asked to construct meaning outside of his or her social context. a. True Feedback: Repertory grid technique is based on G. A. Kelly’s (1955) personal construct theory, and it is used to identify the interpretative processes whereby an individual constructs meaning in relation to his or her social context.

Page reference: 229 *b. False Feedback: Repertory grid technique is based on G. A. Kelly’s (1955) personal construct theory, and it is used to identify the interpretative processes whereby an individual constructs meaning in relation to his or her social context.

Page reference: 229 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 10 - Question 15 15) Which of the following best describes social desirability bias? a. Respondents will only provide answers to interviewers they regard as socially desirable Feedback: The social desirability effect refers to evidence that some respondents’ answers to questions are related to their perception of the social desirability of those answers.

Page reference: 227 *b. Respondents answers to questions are related to their perception of the social desirability of those answers Feedback: The social desirability effect refers to evidence that some respondents’ answers to questions are related to their perception of the social desirability of those answers.

Page reference: 227 c. Interviewers will often try to steer respondents toward the most socially desirable response Feedback: The social desirability effect refers to evidence that some respondents’ answers to questions are related to their perception of the social desirability of those answers.

Page reference: 227 d. Market researchers will only interview those who they feel are the most sociable and therefore easier to approach Feedback: The social desirability effect refers to evidence that some respondents’ answers to questions are related to their perception of the social desirability of those answers.

Page reference: 227

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 11 - Question 01 01) A self-completion questionnaire is sometimes referred to as a self-administered questionnaire. *a. True Feedback: The self-completion questionnaire is sometimes referred to as a self-administered questionnaire.

Page reference: 232 b. False Feedback: The self-completion questionnaire is sometimes referred to as a self-administered questionnaire.

Page reference: 232 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 11 - Question 02 02) Self-completion questionnaires generally contain fewer closed than open questions. a. True Feedback: As a result, self-completion questionnaires, as compared to structured interviews, tend to: have fewer open questions, since closed ones tend to be easier to answer.

Page reference: 233 *b. False Feedback: As a result, self-completion questionnaires, as compared to structured interviews, tend to: have fewer open questions, since closed ones tend to be easier to answer.

Page reference: 233 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 11 - Question 03 03) Which of the following is not an advantage of a self-completion questionnaire? a. Cheaper to administer Feedback: Interviewing can be expensive. The cheapness of the self-completion questionnaire is especially advantageous if you have a sample that is geographically widely dispersed. When this is the case, a postal questionnaire will be much cheaper, because of the time and cost of travel for interviewers. This advantage is obviously less pronounced in connection with telephone interviews, be- cause of the lower costs of telephone charges relative to travel and time spent travelling. But, even in comparison to telephone interviewing, the postal questionnaire enjoys cost advantages.

Quicker to administer: Self-completion questionnaires can be sent out by post or otherwise distributed in very large quantities at the same time. A thousand questionnaires can be sent out by post in one batch, but, even with a team of interviewers, it would take a long time to conduct personal interviews with a sample of that size. However, it is important to bear in mind that the questionnaires do not all come back immediately and that they may take several weeks to be returned. Also, there is invariably a need to send out follow-up letters and/or questionnaires to those who fail to return them initially, an issue that will be returned to below.

Absence of interviewer effects: It was noted in Chapter 10 that various studies have demonstrated that characteristics of interviewers (and respondents) may affect the answers that people give. While the findings from this research are somewhat equivocal in their implications, it has been suggested that such characteristics as ethnicity, gender, and the social background of interviewers may combine to bias the answers that respondents provide. Obviously, since there is no interviewer present when a self-completion questionnaire is being completed interviewer effects are eliminated. However, this advantage probably should be regarded fairly cautiously, since few consistent patterns have emerged over the years from research to suggest what kinds of interviewer characteristics produce a bias in answers. Probably of greater importance is the tendency for respondents to be more likely to exhibit social desirability bias when an interviewer is present.

No interviewer variability:

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Self-completion questionnaires do not suffer from the problem of interviewers asking questions in a different order or in different ways.

Convenience for respondents: Self-completion questionnaires are more convenient for respondents, because they can complete a questionnaire when they want and at the speed that they want to go.

Page reference: 233 *b. More accurate responses Feedback: Interviewing can be expensive. The cheapness of the self-completion questionnaire is especially advantageous if you have a sample that is geographically widely dispersed. When this is the case, a postal questionnaire will be much cheaper, because of the time and cost of travel for interviewers. This advantage is obviously less pronounced in connection with telephone interviews, be- cause of the lower costs of telephone charges relative to travel and time spent travelling. But, even in comparison to telephone interviewing, the postal questionnaire enjoys cost advantages.

Quicker to administer: Self-completion questionnaires can be sent out by post or otherwise distributed in very large quantities at the same time. A thousand questionnaires can be sent out by post in one batch, but, even with a team of interviewers, it would take a long time to conduct personal interviews with a sample of that size. However, it is important to bear in mind that the questionnaires do not all come back immediately and that they may take several weeks to be returned. Also, there is invariably a need to send out follow-up letters and/or questionnaires to those who fail to return them initially, an issue that will be returned to below.

Absence of interviewer effects: It was noted in Chapter 10 that various studies have demonstrated that characteristics of interviewers (and respondents) may affect the answers that people give. While the findings from this research are somewhat equivocal in their implications, it has been suggested that such characteristics as ethnicity, gender, and the social background of interviewers may combine to bias the answers that respondents provide. Obviously, since there is no interviewer present when a self-completion questionnaire is being completed interviewer effects are eliminated. However, this advantage probably should be regarded fairly cautiously, since few consistent patterns have emerged over the years from research to suggest what kinds of interviewer characteristics produce a bias in answers. Probably of greater importance is the tendency for respondents to be more likely to exhibit social desirability bias when an interviewer is present.

No interviewer variability: Self-completion questionnaires do not suffer from the problem of interviewers asking questions in a different order or in different ways.

Convenience for respondents: Self-completion questionnaires are more convenient for respondents, because they can complete a questionnaire when they want and at the speed that they want to go.

Page reference: 233 c. Absence of interviewer effects Feedback: Interviewing can be expensive. The cheapness of the self-completion questionnaire is especially advantageous if you have a sample that is geographically widely dispersed. When this is the case, a postal questionnaire will be much cheaper, because of the time and cost of travel for interviewers. This advantage is obviously less pronounced in connection with telephone interviews, be- cause of the lower costs of telephone charges relative to travel and time spent travelling. But, even in comparison to telephone interviewing, the postal questionnaire enjoys cost advantages.

Quicker to administer: Self-completion questionnaires can be sent out by post or otherwise distributed in very large quantities at the same time. A thousand questionnaires can be sent out by post in one batch, but, even with a team of interviewers, it would take a long time to conduct personal interviews with a sample of that size. However, it is important to bear in mind that the questionnaires do not all come back immediately and that they may take several weeks to be returned. Also, there is invariably a need to send out follow-up letters and/or questionnaires to those who fail to return them initially, an issue that will be returned to below.

Absence of interviewer effects: It was noted in Chapter 10 that various studies have demonstrated that characteristics of interviewers (and respondents) may affect the answers that people give. While the findings from this research are somewhat equivocal in their implications, it has been suggested that such characteristics as ethnicity,

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gender, and the social background of interviewers may combine to bias the answers that respondents provide. Obviously, since there is no interviewer present when a self-completion questionnaire is being completed interviewer effects are eliminated. However, this advantage probably should be regarded fairly cautiously, since few consistent patterns have emerged over the years from research to suggest what kinds of interviewer characteristics produce a bias in answers. Probably of greater importance is the tendency for respondents to be more likely to exhibit social desirability bias when an interviewer is present.

No interviewer variability: Self-completion questionnaires do not suffer from the problem of interviewers asking questions in a different order or in different ways.

Convenience for respondents: Self-completion questionnaires are more convenient for respondents, because they can complete a questionnaire when they want and at the speed that they want to go.

Page reference: 233 d. No interviewer variability Feedback: Interviewing can be expensive. The cheapness of the self-completion questionnaire is especially advantageous if you have a sample that is geographically widely dispersed. When this is the case, a postal questionnaire will be much cheaper, because of the time and cost of travel for interviewers. This advantage is obviously less pronounced in connection with telephone interviews, be- cause of the lower costs of telephone charges relative to travel and time spent travelling. But, even in comparison to telephone interviewing, the postal questionnaire enjoys cost advantages.

Quicker to administer: Self-completion questionnaires can be sent out by post or otherwise distributed in very large quantities at the same time. A thousand questionnaires can be sent out by post in one batch, but, even with a team of interviewers, it would take a long time to conduct personal interviews with a sample of that size. However, it is important to bear in mind that the questionnaires do not all come back immediately and that they may take several weeks to be returned. Also, there is invariably a need to send out follow-up letters and/or questionnaires to those who fail to return them initially, an issue that will be returned to below.

Absence of interviewer effects: It was noted in Chapter 10 that various studies have demonstrated that characteristics of interviewers (and respondents) may affect the answers that people give. While the findings from this research are somewhat equivocal in their implications, it has been suggested that such characteristics as ethnicity, gender, and the social background of interviewers may combine to bias the answers that respondents provide. Obviously, since there is no interviewer present when a self-completion questionnaire is being completed interviewer effects are eliminated. However, this advantage probably should be regarded fairly cautiously, since few consistent patterns have emerged over the years from research to suggest what kinds of interviewer characteristics produce a bias in answers. Probably of greater importance is the tendency for respondents to be more likely to exhibit social desirability bias when an interviewer is present.

No interviewer variability: Self-completion questionnaires do not suffer from the problem of interviewers asking questions in a different order or in different ways.

Convenience for respondents: Self-completion questionnaires are more convenient for respondents, because they can complete a questionnaire when they want and at the speed that they want to go.

Page reference: 233 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 11 - Question 04 04) Outline two disadvantages of a self-completion questionnaires. Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Cannot prompt: There is no one present to help respondents if they are having difficulty answering a question. It is always important to ensure that the questions that are asked are clear and unambiguous, but this is especially so with the self- completion questionnaire, since there is no interviewer to help respondents with questions they find di cult to understand and hence to answer. Also, great attention must be paid to ensure that the questionnaire is easy to complete; otherwise questions will be inadvertently omitted if instructions are unclear.

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Cannot probe: There is no opportunity to probe respondents to elaborate an answer. Probing can be very important when open-ended questions are being asked. Interviewers are often trained to get more from respondents. However, this problem largely applies to open questions, which are not used a great deal in self-completion questionnaire research.

Cannot ask many questions that are not salient to respondents: Respondents are more likely than in interviews to be- come tired of answering questions that are not very salient to them, and that they are likely to perceive as boring. Because of the risk of a questionnaire being consigned to a waste paper bin, it is important to avoid including many nonsalient questions in a self- completion questionnaire. However, this point suggests that, when a research issue is salient to the respondent, a high response rate is feasible (Altschuld and Lower 1984). This means that, when questions are salient, the self-completion questionnaire may be a good choice for researchers, especially when the much lower cost is borne in mind.

Difficulty of asking other kinds of question: In addition to the problem of asking many questions that are not salient to respondents, as previously suggested, it is also important to avoid asking more than a very small number of open questions (because respondents frequently do not want to write a lot). Questions with complex structures, such as filters, should be avoided as far as possible (because respondents often find them difficult to follow).

Questionnaire can be read as a whole: Respondents are able to read the whole questionnaire be- fore answering the first question. When this occurs, none of the questions asked is truly independent of the others. It also means that you cannot be sure that questions have been answered in the correct order. It also means that the problems of question order effects, of the kind discussed in Chapter 9, may occur.

Do not know who answers: With postal questionnaires, you can never be sure that the right person has answered the questionnaire. If a questionnaire is sent to a certain person in a house- hold, it may be that someone else in that household completes the questionnaire. It is also impossible to have any control over the intrusion of non-respondents (such as other members of a household) in the answering of questions.

Similarly, if a questionnaire is sent to a manager in a firm, the task may simply be delegated to someone else. This advantage of the structured inter- view over the postal questionnaire does not apply when the former is administered by telephone, since the same problem applies. There is a feeling among some commentators that when a self-completion questionnaire is administered over the Internet (see Chapter 28 for more on this), the problem of not knowing who is replying is exacerbated because of the propensity of some Web users to assume online identities (Couper 2004).

Cannot collect additional data: With an interview, interviewers might be asked to collect snippets of information about the workplace, firm, manager, or whatever. This is not going to be possible in connection with a postal questionnaire, but, if self-completion questionnaires are handed out in an organization, it is more feasible to collect such additional data.

Di cult to ask a lot of questions: As signalled above, because of the possibility of ‘respondent fatigue’, long questionnaires are rarely feasible. They may even result in a greater tendency for questionnaires not to be answered in the first place, since they can be daunting.

Not appropriate for some kinds of respondent: Respondents whose literacy is limited or whose facility with English is restricted will not be able to answer the questionnaire, as illustrated by the example in Research in focus 8.9 of the exclusion of manual workers in a cement factory from a questionnaire survey owing to low levels of literacy. The second of these difficulties cannot be entirely overcome when interviews are being employed, but the difficulties are likely to be greater with postal questionnaires.

Greater risk of missing data: Partially answered questionnaires are more likely, be- cause of a lack of prompting or supervision, than in inter- views. It is also easier for respondents actively to decide not to answer a question when on their own than when being asked by an interviewer. For example, questions that appear boring or irrelevant to the respondent may be especially likely to be skipped. If questions are not answered, this creates a problem of missing data for the variables that are created.

Lower response rates:

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One of the most damaging limitations is that surveys by postal questionnaire typically result in lower response rates (see Key concept 8.5) than comparable interview- based studies. The significance of a response rate is that, unless it can be proven that those who do not participate do not differ from those who do, there is likely to be the risk of bias. In other words, if, as is likely, there are differences between participants and refusals, it is probable that the findings relating to the sample will be affected. If a response rate is low, it seems likely that the risk of bias in the findings will be greater.

Page reference: 235 *a. Cannot probe b. Cannot research sensitive areas *c. Do not know who answers d. Less convenient for respondents Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 11 - Question 05 05) Outline some steps to improve response rates to postal questionnaires. Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Because of the tendency for postal questionnaire surveys to generate lower response rates than comparable structured interview surveys (and the implications this has for the validity of findings), a great deal of thought and re- search has gone into ways of improving survey response.

The following steps are frequently suggested: Write a good covering letter explaining the reasons for the research, why it is important, and why the recipient has been selected; mention sponsorship if any, and provide guarantees of confidentiality.

The advice provided in Tips and skills ‘Topics and issues to include in an introductory statement’ (Chapter 9) in connection with the kind of letter that might go out in advance of a respondent being asked to be interviewed can also be followed to good effect in connection with a postal questionnaire.

Postal questionnaires should always be accompanied by a stamped addressed envelope or, at the very least, return postage.

Follow up individuals who do not reply at first, possibly with two or three further mailings. The importance of reminders cannot be overstated—they do work. Our preferred and recommended approach is to send out a reminder letter to non-respondents two weeks after the initial mailing, reasserting the nature and aims of the survey and suggesting that the person should con- tact either the researcher or someone else in the research team to obtain a replacement copy of the questionnaire if the initial mailing has been mislaid or lost. Then, two weeks after that, all further nonrespondents should be sent another letter along with a further copy of the questionnaire. These reminders have a demonstrable effect on the response rate. Some writers argue for further mailings of reminder letters to non-respondents. If a response rate is worryingly low, such further mailings would certainly be desirable. Some of the tactics used by Fey and Denison (2003; see Research in focus 10.1) can also be used.

Unsurprisingly, shorter questionnaires tend to achieve better response rates than longer ones.

However, this is not a clear-cut principle, because it is di cult to specify when a questionnaire becomes ‘too long’. Also, the evidence suggests that the effect of the length of questionnaires on response rates cannot be separated very easily from the salience of the topic(s) of the research for respondents and from the nature of the sample. Respondents may be highly tolerant of questionnaires that contain many questions on topics that interest them.

Clear instructions and an attractive layout improve postal questionnaire response rates. Dillman (1983), as part of what he calls the Total Design Method (TDM) for postal questionnaire research, recommends lower case for questions and upper case for closed-ended answers. However, with the growing use of electronic communication and the associated rise of ‘netiquette’, upper case is increasingly associated with shouting, so that this recommendation may become less desirable.

Do not allow the questionnaire to appear unnecessarily bulky. Dillman (1983) recommends a booklet for- mat for the questionnaire and using the photocopier to reduce the size of the questionnaire to fit the booklet format. This also gives the impression of a more professional approach.

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As with structured interviewing (see Chapter 9), begin with questions that are more likely to be of interest to the respondent. This advice is linked to the issue of salience (see above) but has particular significance in the context of research that may have limited salience for the respondent.

There is some controversy about how significant for response rates it is to personalize covering letters by including the respondent’s name and address (Baumgartner and Heberlein 1984). However, one of the features of the TDM approach advocated by Dillman (1983) is that these details are supplied on covering letters and each is individually signed.

We are inclined to the view that, in general, postal questionnaires should comprise as few open questions as possible, since people are often deterred by the prospect of having to write a lot. In fact, many writers on the subject recommend that open questions are used as little as possible in selfcompletion questionnaires.

Providing monetary incentives can be an effective way of increasing the response rate, although it is very unlikely to be an option for most students undertaking project work or research for their dissertation. Incentives are more effective if the money comes with the questionnaire rather than if it is promised once the questionnaire has been returned. Apparently, respondents typically do not cynically take the money and dis- card the questionnaire! The evidence also suggests that quite small amounts of money have a positive impact on the response rate, but that larger amounts do not necessarily improve the response rate any further.

Page reference: 236 *a. Write a strong covering letter b. Write to respondents regularly to ensure they respond *c. Do not allow the questionnaire to appear unnecessarily long or bulky d. Send them a gift in advance to entice them to complete the survey Type: true-false Title: Chapter 11 - Question 06 06) Many researchers in designing a questionnaire prefer a horizontal format because confusion can arise with a vertical format. a. True Feedback: Very often, the nature of the answers will dictate a vertical arrangement because of their sheer length. Many writers prefer a vertical format whenever possible, because, in some cases where either arrangement is feasible, confusion can arise when a horizontal one is employed (Sudman and Bradburn 1982).

Page reference: 238 *b. False Feedback: Very often, the nature of the answers will dictate a vertical arrangement because of their sheer length. Many writers prefer a vertical format whenever possible, because, in some cases where either arrangement is feasible, confusion can arise when a horizontal one is employed (Sudman and Bradburn 1982).

Page reference: 238 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 11 - Question 07 07) Which of the following is not an advantage of an email or online survey compared to a postal questionnaire? a. Low cost Feedback: The advantages an email or online survey compared to a postal questionnaire include: - Low cost - Faster response - Attractive formats - Mixed Administration - Unrestricted compass - Fewer unanswered questions - Better response to open questions - Better data accuracy Page reference: “Tips and Skills”, Page 244 – 245

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b. Attractive format Feedback: The advantages an email or online survey compared to a postal questionnaire include: - Low cost - Faster response - Attractive formats - Mixed Administration - Unrestricted compass - Fewer unanswered questions - Better response to open questions - Better data accuracy Page reference: “Tips and Skills”, Page 244 – 245 *c. More accurate response Feedback: The advantages an email or online survey compared to a postal questionnaire include: - Low cost - Faster response - Attractive formats - Mixed Administration - Unrestricted compass - Fewer unanswered questions - Better response to open questions - Better data accuracy Page reference: “Tips and Skills”, Page 244 – 245 d. Better response to open questions Feedback: The advantages an email or online survey compared to a postal questionnaire include: - Low cost - Faster response - Attractive formats - Mixed Administration - Unrestricted compass - Fewer unanswered questions - Better response to open questions - Better data accuracy Page reference: “Tips and Skills”, Page 244 – 245 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 11 - Question 08 08) Which of the following are disadvantages of an online or email survey compared to a postal questionnaire? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Disadvantages include: - Low response rate - Restricted to online populations - Requires motivation - Confidentiality and anonymity issues.

- Multiple replies Page reference: “Tips and Skills”, Page 244 – 245 *a. Low response rate b. Wide sample of individuals *c. Confidentiality and anonymity issues d. Less data accuracy Type: true-false Title: Chapter 11 - Question 09 09) A diary can be used as a method of data collection in social scientific research. *a. True Feedback: See 'What is a research diary?'

Page reference: 11.3 Key Concept, page 246. b. False Feedback: See 'What is a research diary?'

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Page reference: 11.3 Key Concept, page 246.

Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 11 - Question 10 10) Which of the following is not a recommendation of Corti (1993) in preparing a diary study? a. Provide explicit instructions Feedback: Corti (1993) recommends that the person preparing the diary should: - provide explicit instructions for diarists; - be clear about the time periods within which behaviour is to be recorded—for example, day, twentyfour hours, week; - provide a model of a completed section of a diary; - provide checklists of ‘items, events, or behaviour’ that can jog people’s memory—but the list should not become too daunting in length or complexity; - include fixed blocks of time or columns showing when the designated activities start and finish (for example, diaries of the kind used by R. Stewart (1967), which show how managers spend their time).

Page reference: 247 b. Be clear about time periods within which behaviour is to be recorded Feedback: Corti (1993) recommends that the person preparing the diary should: - provide explicit instructions for diarists; - be clear about the time periods within which behaviour is to be recorded—for example, day, twentyfour hours, week; - provide a model of a completed section of a diary; - provide checklists of ‘items, events, or behaviour’ that can jog people’s memory—but the list should not become too daunting in length or complexity; - include fixed blocks of time or columns showing when the designated activities start and finish (for example, diaries of the kind used by R. Stewart (1967), which show how managers spend their time).

Page reference: 247 *c. Give very prescriptive instructions as to the type of answers diarists should supply Feedback: Corti (1993) recommends that the person preparing the diary should: - provide explicit instructions for diarists; - be clear about the time periods within which behaviour is to be recorded—for example, day, twentyfour hours, week; - provide a model of a completed section of a diary; - provide checklists of ‘items, events, or behaviour’ that can jog people’s memory—but the list should not become too daunting in length or complexity; - include fixed blocks of time or columns showing when the designated activities start and finish (for example, diaries of the kind used by R. Stewart (1967), which show how managers spend their time).

Page reference: 247 d. Provide a model of a completed section of a diary Feedback: Corti (1993) recommends that the person preparing the diary should: - provide explicit instructions for diarists; - be clear about the time periods within which behaviour is to be recorded—for example, day, twentyfour hours, week; - provide a model of a completed section of a diary; - provide checklists of ‘items, events, or behaviour’ that can jog people’s memory—but the list should not become too daunting in length or complexity; - include fixed blocks of time or columns showing when the designated activities start and finish (for example, diaries of the kind used by R. Stewart (1967), which show how managers spend their time).

Page reference: 247 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 11 - Question 11 11) Which of the following is not an advantage of using a diary as a method of data collection? a. When precise estimates of the frequency or type of behaviour are required Feedback: The two studies that have been used to illustrate the use of diaries also suggest its potential advantages.

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When fairly precise estimates of the frequency and/or amount of time spent in different forms of behaviour are required, the diary may provide more valid and reliable data than questionnaire data (see Research in focus 10.6).

When information about the sequencing of different types of behaviour is required, the diary is likely to per- form better than questionnaires or interviews.

The first two advantages could be used to suggest that structured observation would be just as feasible, but structured observation is probably less appropriate for producing data on behaviour that is personally sensitive, such as work-related gossip (see Research in focus 10.7). Moreover, although data on such behaviour can be collected by structured interview, it is likely that respondents will be less willing to divulge personal details. If such information were collected by questionnaire, there is a greater risk of recall and rounding problems (see the first point in this list).

Page reference: 248 b. When information about the sequencing of different types of behaviour and attitude is required Feedback: The two studies that have been used to illustrate the use of diaries also suggest its potential advantages.

When fairly precise estimates of the frequency and/or amount of time spent in different forms of behaviour are required, the diary may provide more valid and reliable data than questionnaire data (see Research in focus 10.6).

When information about the sequencing of different types of behaviour is required, the diary is likely to per- form better than questionnaires or interviews.

The first two advantages could be used to suggest that structured observation would be just as feasible, but structured observation is probably less appropriate for producing data on behaviour that is personally sensitive, such as work-related gossip (see Research in focus 10.7). Moreover, although data on such behaviour can be collected by structured interview, it is likely that respondents will be less willing to divulge personal details. If such information were collected by questionnaire, there is a greater risk of recall and rounding problems (see the first point in this list).

Page reference: 248 *c. For providing an objective assessment of one’s behaviour or attitudes Feedback: The two studies that have been used to illustrate the use of diaries also suggest its potential advantages.

When fairly precise estimates of the frequency and/or amount of time spent in different forms of behaviour are required, the diary may provide more valid and reliable data than questionnaire data (see Research in focus 10.6).

When information about the sequencing of different types of behaviour is required, the diary is likely to per- form better than questionnaires or interviews.

The first two advantages could be used to suggest that structured observation would be just as feasible, but structured observation is probably less appropriate for producing data on behaviour that is personally sensitive, such as work-related gossip (see Research in focus 10.7). Moreover, although data on such behaviour can be collected by structured interview, it is likely that respondents will be less willing to divulge personal details. If such information were collected by questionnaire, there is a greater risk of recall and rounding problems (see the first point in this list).

Page reference: 248 d. Producing data which is of a sensitive nature Feedback: The two studies that have been used to illustrate the use of diaries also suggest its potential advantages.

When fairly precise estimates of the frequency and/or amount of time spent in different forms of behaviour are required, the diary may provide more valid and reliable data than questionnaire data (see Research in focus 10.6).

When information about the sequencing of different types of behaviour is required, the diary is likely to per- form better than questionnaires or interviews.

The first two advantages could be used to suggest that structured observation would be just as feasible, but structured observation is probably less appropriate for producing data on behaviour that is personally sensitive, such as work-related gossip (see Research in focus 10.7). Moreover, although data on such behaviour can be collected by structured interview, it is likely that respondents will be less willing to divulge personal details. If such information were collected by questionnaire, there is a greater risk of recall and rounding problems (see the first point in this list).

Page reference: 248

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Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 11 - Question 12 12) Which of the following are disadvantages of using a diary method? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: The following are disadvantages of using a diary method: - They tend to be more expensive than personal interviews; - They suffer high levels of attrition.

Page reference: 248 *a. They tend to be more expensive than personal interviews b. They are less accurate than surveys or interviews c. They cannot unlock as profound insights as structured observation *d. They suffer high levels of attrition Type: true-false Title: Chapter 11 - Question 13 13) In experience sampling, participants are prompted to reply to questions about their behaviour at particular points in time. *a. True Feedback: Among these is experience sampling or event sampling, which capture participants’ ‘transient affective states’. With this method, participants are prompted to reply to questions about their behaviour and/or their affective states at particular points in time (or within a narrow timeframe).

Page reference: 248 b. False Feedback: Among these is experience sampling or event sampling, which capture participants’ ‘transient affective states’. With this method, participants are prompted to reply to questions about their behaviour and/or their affective states at particular points in time (or within a narrow timeframe).

Page reference: 248

Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 11 - Question 14 14) Which of the following is not a type of experience sampling? a. Interval contingent Feedback: Uy et al. (2010) distinguish between three types of experience sampling approach: interval contingent—where responses are provided at predetermined intervals, e.g. every hour, or at the same time each day, such as in Wagner et al.’s (2013) study of emotional labour and bus drivers; event contingent—participants respond when the event takes place, such as when they experience certain moods; signal contingent—participants are prompted to respond by a signalling device, such as an alarm, at randomly selected points in the day, as in Hofmans’ (2013) study mentioned above.

Page reference: 250 *b. Optimal contingent Feedback: Uy et al. (2010) distinguish between three types of experience sampling approach: interval contingent—where responses are provided at predetermined intervals, e.g. every hour, or at the same time each day, such as in Wagner et al.’s (2013) study of emotional labour and bus drivers; event contingent—participants respond when the event takes place, such as when they experience certain moods; signal contingent—participants are prompted to respond by a signalling device, such as an alarm, at randomly selected points in the day, as in Hofmans’ (2013) study mentioned above.

Page reference: 250 c. Event contingent Feedback: Uy et al. (2010) distinguish between three types of experience sampling approach: interval contingent—where responses are provided at predetermined intervals, e.g. every hour, or at the same time each day, such as in Wagner et al.’s (2013) study of emotional labour and bus drivers; event contingent—participants respond when the event takes place, such as when they experience certain moods; signal contingent—participants are prompted to respond by a signalling device, such as an alarm, at randomly selected points in the day, as in Hofmans’ (2013) study mentioned above.

Page reference: 250

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d. Signal contingent Feedback: Uy et al. (2010) distinguish between three types of experience sampling approach: interval contingent—where responses are provided at predetermined intervals, e.g. every hour, or at the same time each day, such as in Wagner et al.’s (2013) study of emotional labour and bus drivers; event contingent—participants respond when the event takes place, such as when they experience certain moods; signal contingent—participants are prompted to respond by a signalling device, such as an alarm, at randomly selected points in the day, as in Hofmans’ (2013) study mentioned above.

Page reference: 250 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 11 - Question 15 15) Experience sampling studies may offer the researcher greater ecological validity to their work. *a. True Feedback: Uy et al. suggest that experience sampling may offer benefits in terms of being able to capture dynamic processes as they unfold over time and offer greater ecological validity through the fact that reactions to events are recorded in naturalistic contexts where they occur (Uy et al., 2010).

Page reference: 250 b. False Feedback: Uy et al. suggest that experience sampling may offer benefits in terms of being able to capture dynamic processes as they unfold over time and offer greater ecological validity through the fact that reactions to events are recorded in naturalistic contexts where they occur (Uy et al., 2010).

Page reference: 250

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 12 - Question 01 01) Which of the following is not an advantage of using open questions? a. Respondents can answer in their own terms Feedback: Although survey researchers typically prefer to use closed questions, open questions do have certain advantages over closed ones, as outlined in the list below. Respondents can answer in their own terms. They are not forced to answer in the same terms as those foisted on them by the closed answers. They allow unusual responses to be derived. Replies that the survey researcher may not have contemplated (and that would therefore not form the basis for fixed- choice alternatives) are possible. The questions do not suggest certain kinds of answer to respondents. Therefore, respondents’ levels of knowledge and understanding of issues can be tapped. The salience of issues for respondents can also be explored. They are useful for exploring new areas or ones in which the researcher has limited knowledge. They are useful for generating fixed-choice format answers.

Page reference: 253 b. They do not suggest a certain kind of answer to respondent Feedback: Although survey researchers typically prefer to use closed questions, open questions do have certain advantages over closed ones, as outlined in the list below. Respondents can answer in their own terms. They are not forced to answer in the same terms as those foisted on them by the closed answers. They allow unusual responses to be derived. Replies that the survey researcher may not have contemplated (and that would therefore not form the basis for fixed- choice alternatives) are possible. The questions do not suggest certain kinds of answer to respondents. Therefore, respondents’ levels of knowledge and understanding of issues can be tapped. The salience of issues for respondents can also be explored. They are useful for exploring new areas or ones in which the researcher has limited knowledge. They are useful for generating fixed-choice format answers.

Page reference: 253 c. They allow unusual response to be derived Feedback: Although survey researchers typically prefer to use closed questions, open questions do have certain advantages over closed ones, as outlined in the list below. Respondents can answer in their own terms. They are not forced to answer in the same terms as those foisted on them by the closed answers. They allow unusual responses to be derived. Replies that the survey researcher may not have contemplated (and that would therefore not form the basis for fixed- choice alternatives) are possible. The questions do not suggest certain kinds of answer to respondents. Therefore, respondents’ levels of knowledge and understanding of issues can be tapped. The salience of issues for respondents can also be explored. They are useful for exploring new areas or ones in which the researcher has limited knowledge. They are useful for generating fixed-choice format answers.

Page reference: 253 *d. They are generally easy to code for analysis Feedback: Although survey researchers typically prefer to use closed questions, open questions do have certain advantages over closed ones, as outlined in the list below. Respondents can answer in their own terms. They are not forced to answer in the same terms as those foisted on them by the closed answers. They allow unusual responses to be derived. Replies that the survey researcher may not have contemplated (and that would therefore not form the basis for fixed- choice alternatives) are possible. The questions do not suggest certain kinds of answer to respondents. Therefore, respondents’ levels of knowledge and understanding of issues can be tapped. The salience of issues for respondents can also be explored. They are useful for exploring new areas or ones in which the researcher has limited knowledge. They are useful for generating fixed-choice format answers.

Page reference: 253

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 12 - Question 02 02) Open questions tend to be less time-consuming to administer for surveys. a. True Feedback: Open questions present problems for the survey researcher, as the following list reveals:

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They are time-consuming for interviewers to administer and interviewees are likely to talk for longer than is usually the case with a comparable closed question.

Page reference: 253 *b. False Feedback: Open questions present problems for the survey researcher, as the following list reveals: They are time-consuming for interviewers to administer and interviewees are likely to talk for longer than is usually the case with a comparable closed question.

Page reference: 253 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 12 - Question 03 03) Which of the following are advantages of using closed questions? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: It is easy to process answers. For example, the respondent in a self-completion questionnaire or the interviewer using a structured interview schedule will place a tick or circle an answer for the appropriate response. The appropriate code can then be almost mechanically derived from the selected answer, since the pre-codes are placed to the side of the fixed-choice answers. See Tips and skills ‘Processing a closed question’ for an example based on Tips and skills ‘Closed question with a vertical format’ (Chapter 10).

Closed questions enhance the comparability of answers, making it easier to show the relationship between variables and to make comparisons between respondents or types of respondents. For example, in the research described in Research in focus 11.2, Guest and Dewe (1991) were able to generate a contingency table on the basis of their pre-coding of respondents’ answers. Although contingency tables can also be generated by post-coding respondents’ answers to open questions, with post-coding there is always a problem of knowing how far respondents’ answers that receive a certain code are genuinely comparable. As previously noted, the assignment of codes to people’s answers may be unreliable (see the sixth point in Tips and skills ‘Common sources of error in survey research’ in Chapter 9). Checks are necessary to ensure that there is a good deal of agreement between coders and that coders do not change their coding conventions over time. Closed questions essentially circumvent this problem.

Closed questions may clarify the meaning of a question for respondents. Sometimes respondents may not be clear about what a question is getting at, and the avail- ability of answers may help to clarify the situation for them.

Closed questions are easy for interviewers and/or respondents to complete. Precisely because interviewers and respondents are not expected to write extensively and instead have to place ticks or circle answers, closed questions are easier and quicker to complete.

In interviews, closed questions reduce the possibility of variability in the recording of answers in structured interviewing.

Page reference: 259 *a. They are easy to process b. They allow for evocative answers *c. They are easy for interviewers and/or responders to complete d. They increase the possibility of variability in answers Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 12 - Question 04 04) Which of the following is not a disadvantage of using closed questions? a. There is a loss of spontaneity in respondents’ answers Feedback: Closed questions exhibit certain disadvantages. There is a loss of spontaneity in respondents’ answers. There is always the possibility that they might come up with interesting replies that are not covered by the fixed answers that are provided. One solution to this possible problem is to ensure that an open question is used to generate the categories (see Research in focus 11.3).

Also, there may be a good case for including a possible response category of ‘Other’ and allowing respondents to indicate what they mean by this category. It can be di cult to make forced-choice answers mutually exclusive. The fixed answers with which respondents are provided should not overlap. If they do overlap, respondents will not know which one to choose and so will arbitrarily

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select one or the other or alternatively may tick both answers. If a respondent were to tick two or more answers when one is required, it would mean that you would have to treat the respondent’s answer as missing data, since you would not know which of the ticked answers represented the true one. One of the most frequently encountered forms of this problem can be seen in the following age bands: 18–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 60 and over.

In which band would a 40-year-old position him or herself?

It is difficult to make forced-choice answers exhaustive. All possible answers should really be catered for, although in practice this may be di cult to achieve, since this rule may result in excessively long lists of possible answers. Again, a category of ‘Other’ may be desirable to provide a wide range of answers.

There may be variation among respondents in the interpretation of forced-choice answers. There is always a problem when asking a question that certain terms may be interpreted differently by respondents. If this is the case, then validity will be jeopardized. The presence of forced-choice answers can exacerbate this possible problem, because there may be variation in the understanding of key terms in the answers.

Closed questions may be irritating to respondents when they are not able to find a category that they feel applies to them.

In interviews, a large number of closed questions may make it di cult to establish rapport, because the respondent and interviewer are less likely to engage with each other in a conversation. The interview is more likely to have an impersonal feel to it. However, because it is di cult to determine the extent to which rapport is a desirable attribute of structured interviewing (see Chapter 9), this is not necessarily too much of a problem.

Page reference: 256 *b. It is easier to establish a rapport with respondents Feedback: Closed questions exhibit certain disadvantages. There is a loss of spontaneity in respondents’ answers. There is always the possibility that they might come up with interesting replies that are not covered by the fixed answers that are provided. One solution to this possible problem is to ensure that an open question is used to generate the categories (see Research in focus 11.3).

Also, there may be a good case for including a possible response category of ‘Other’ and allowing respondents to indicate what they mean by this category. It can be di cult to make forced-choice answers mutually exclusive. The fixed answers with which respondents are provided should not overlap. If they do overlap, respondents will not know which one to choose and so will arbitrarily select one or the other or alternatively may tick both answers. If a respondent were to tick two or more answers when one is required, it would mean that you would have to treat the respondent’s answer as missing data, since you would not know which of the ticked answers represented the true one. One of the most frequently encountered forms of this problem can be seen in the following age bands: 18–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 60 and over.

In which band would a 40-year-old position him or herself?

It is difficult to make forced-choice answers exhaustive. All possible answers should really be catered for, although in practice this may be di cult to achieve, since this rule may result in excessively long lists of possible answers. Again, a category of ‘Other’ may be desirable to provide a wide range of answers.

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There may be variation among respondents in the interpretation of forced-choice answers. There is always a problem when asking a question that certain terms may be interpreted differently by respondents. If this is the case, then validity will be jeopardized. The presence of forced-choice answers can exacerbate this possible problem, because there may be variation in the understanding of key terms in the answers.

Closed questions may be irritating to respondents when they are not able to find a category that they feel applies to them.

In interviews, a large number of closed questions may make it di cult to establish rapport, because the respondent and interviewer are less likely to engage with each other in a conversation. The interview is more likely to have an impersonal feel to it. However, because it is di cult to determine the extent to which rapport is a desirable attribute of structured interviewing (see Chapter 9), this is not necessarily too much of a problem.

Page reference: 256 c. It is difficult to make fixed-choice answers exhaustive Feedback: Closed questions exhibit certain disadvantages. There is a loss of spontaneity in respondents’ answers. There is always the possibility that they might come up with interesting replies that are not covered by the fixed answers that are provided. One solution to this possible problem is to ensure that an open question is used to generate the categories (see Research in focus 11.3).

Also, there may be a good case for including a possible response category of ‘Other’ and allowing respondents to indicate what they mean by this category. It can be di cult to make forced-choice answers mutually exclusive. The fixed answers with which respondents are provided should not overlap. If they do overlap, respondents will not know which one to choose and so will arbitrarily select one or the other or alternatively may tick both answers. If a respondent were to tick two or more answers when one is required, it would mean that you would have to treat the respondent’s answer as missing data, since you would not know which of the ticked answers represented the true one. One of the most frequently encountered forms of this problem can be seen in the following age bands: 18–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 60 and over.

In which band would a 40-year-old position him or herself?

It is difficult to make forced-choice answers exhaustive. All possible answers should really be catered for, although in practice this may be di cult to achieve, since this rule may result in excessively long lists of possible answers. Again, a category of ‘Other’ may be desirable to provide a wide range of answers.

There may be variation among respondents in the interpretation of forced-choice answers. There is always a problem when asking a question that certain terms may be interpreted differently by respondents. If this is the case, then validity will be jeopardized. The presence of forced-choice answers can exacerbate this possible problem, because there may be variation in the understanding of key terms in the answers.

Closed questions may be irritating to respondents when they are not able to find a category that they feel applies to them.

In interviews, a large number of closed questions may make it di cult to establish rapport, because the respondent and interviewer are less likely to engage with each other in a conversation. The interview is more likely to have an impersonal feel to it. However, because it is di cult to determine the extent to which rapport is a desirable attribute of structured interviewing (see Chapter 9), this is not necessarily too much of a problem.

Page reference: 256 d. Closed questions may be irritating to respondents when they cannot find a category which they feel applies to them

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Feedback: Closed questions exhibit certain disadvantages. There is a loss of spontaneity in respondents’ answers. There is always the possibility that they might come up with interesting replies that are not covered by the fixed answers that are provided. One solution to this possible problem is to ensure that an open question is used to generate the categories (see Research in focus 11.3).

Also, there may be a good case for including a possible response category of ‘Other’ and allowing respondents to indicate what they mean by this category. It can be di cult to make forced-choice answers mutually exclusive. The fixed answers with which respondents are provided should not overlap. If they do overlap, respondents will not know which one to choose and so will arbitrarily select one or the other or alternatively may tick both answers. If a respondent were to tick two or more answers when one is required, it would mean that you would have to treat the respondent’s answer as missing data, since you would not know which of the ticked answers represented the true one. One of the most frequently encountered forms of this problem can be seen in the following age bands: 18–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 60 and over.

In which band would a 40-year-old position him or herself?

It is difficult to make forced-choice answers exhaustive. All possible answers should really be catered for, although in practice this may be di cult to achieve, since this rule may result in excessively long lists of possible answers. Again, a category of ‘Other’ may be desirable to provide a wide range of answers.

There may be variation among respondents in the interpretation of forced-choice answers. There is always a problem when asking a question that certain terms may be interpreted differently by respondents. If this is the case, then validity will be jeopardized. The presence of forced-choice answers can exacerbate this possible problem, because there may be variation in the understanding of key terms in the answers.

Closed questions may be irritating to respondents when they are not able to find a category that they feel applies to them.

In interviews, a large number of closed questions may make it di cult to establish rapport, because the respondent and interviewer are less likely to engage with each other in a conversation. The interview is more likely to have an impersonal feel to it. However, because it is di cult to determine the extent to which rapport is a desirable attribute of structured interviewing (see Chapter 9), this is not necessarily too much of a problem.

Page reference: 256 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 12 - Question 05 05) People may be asked questions about normative standards and values in a survey. *a. True Feedback: Respondents may be asked to indicate what principles of behaviour influence them or they hold dear. The elicitation of such norms of behaviour is likely to have considerable overlap with questions about attitudes and beliefs, since norms and values can be construed as having elements of both.

Page reference: 256 b. False Feedback: Respondents may be asked to indicate what principles of behaviour influence them or they hold dear. The elicitation of such norms of behaviour is likely to have considerable overlap with questions about attitudes and beliefs, since norms and values can be construed as having elements of both.

Page reference: 256 Type: true-false

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Title: Chapter 12 - Question 06 06) Research questions can be put aside when designing survey questions. a. True Feedback: The questions that you will ask in your self-completion questionnaire or structured interview should always be geared to answering your research questions.

Page reference: 258 *b. False Feedback: The questions that you will ask in your self-completion questionnaire or structured interview should always be geared to answering your research questions.

Page reference: 258 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 12 - Question 07 07) Ambiguous wording is useful for questionnaire design. a. True Feedback: Avoid ambiguous terms in questions. Avoid terms such as ‘often’ and ‘regularly’ as measures of frequency. They are very ambiguous, because respondents will operate with different frames of reference when employing them. Sometimes their use is unavoidable, but, when there is an alternative that allows actual frequency to be measured, this will nearly always be preferable.

Page reference: 258 *b. False Feedback: Avoid ambiguous terms in questions. Avoid terms such as ‘often’ and ‘regularly’ as measures of frequency. They are very ambiguous, because respondents will operate with different frames of reference when employing them. Sometimes their use is unavoidable, but, when there is an alternative that allows actual frequency to be measured, this will nearly always be preferable.

Page reference: 258 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 12 - Question 08 08) Double-barrelled questions are usually easily understood by participants. a. True Feedback: Double-barrelled questions are ones that in fact ask about two things. The problem with this kind of question is that it leaves respondents unsure about how best to respond.

Page reference: 259 *b. False Feedback: Double-barrelled questions are ones that in fact ask about two things. The problem with this kind of question is that it leaves respondents unsure about how best to respond.

Page reference: 259 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 12 - Question 09 09) General questions often elicit the most insightful responses for a survey. a. True Feedback: It is easy to ask a very general question when in fact what is wanted is a response to a specific issue. The problem with questions that are very general is that they lack a frame of reference.

Page reference: 259 *b. False Feedback: It is easy to ask a very general question when in fact what is wanted is a response to a specific issue. The problem with questions that are very general is that they lack a frame of reference.

Page reference: 259

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 12 - Question 10 10) You should generally avoid questions that include negative statements. *a. True Feedback: Avoid questions that include negatives.

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The problem with questions with ‘not’ or similar formulations in them is that it is easy for the respondent to miss the word out when completing a self-completion questionnaire or to miss it when being interviewed. If this occurs, a respondent is likely to answer in the opposite way from the one intended.

Page reference: 261 b. False Avoid questions that include negatives.

The problem with questions with ‘not’ or similar formulations in them is that it is easy for the respondent to miss the word out when completing a self-completion questionnaire or to miss it when being interviewed. If this occurs, a respondent is likely to answer in the opposite way from the one intended.

Page reference: 261 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 12 - Question 11 11) The use of plain and simple language is inappropriate for a survey conducted for an academic award. a. True Feedback: Avoid technical terms. Use simple, plain language and avoid jargon. Do not ask a question like: Do you sometimes feel alienated from work?

The problem here is that many respondents will not know what is meant by ‘alienated’, and furthermore they are likely to have different views of what it means, even if it is a remotely meaningful term to them.

Page reference: 261 *b. False Feedback: Avoid technical terms. Use simple, plain language and avoid jargon. Do not ask a question like: Do you sometimes feel alienated from work?

The problem here is that many respondents will not know what is meant by ‘alienated’, and furthermore they are likely to have different views of what it means, even if it is a remotely meaningful term to them.

Page reference: 261 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 12 - Question 12 12) The chief argument for including ‘don’t know’ is that not to include one risks forcing people to express views that they do not really hold. *a. True Feedback: One area of controversy when asking closed questions is whether to offer a ‘don’t know’ or ‘no opinion’ option. The issue chiefly relates to questions concerning attitudes. The chief argument for including the ‘don’t know’ option is that not to include one risks forcing people to express views that they do not really hold.

Page reference: 263 b. False Feedback: One area of controversy when asking closed questions is whether to offer a ‘don’t know’ or ‘no opinion’ option. The issue chiefly relates to questions concerning attitudes. The chief argument for including the ‘don’t know’ option is that not to include one risks forcing people to express views that they do not really hold.

Page reference: 263

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 12 - Question 13 13) It is generally not desirable to conduct a pilot study as your respondents may suffer from fatigue. a. True Feedback: It is always desirable, if at all possible, to conduct a pilot study before administering a selfcompletion questionnaire or structured interview schedule to your sample. In fact, the desirability of

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piloting such instruments is not solely to do with trying to ensure that survey questions operate well; piloting also has a role in ensuring that the research instrument as a whole functions well.

Page reference: 265 *b. False Feedback: It is always desirable, if at all possible, to conduct a pilot study before administering a selfcompletion questionnaire or structured interview schedule to your sample. In fact, the desirability of piloting such instruments is not solely to do with trying to ensure that survey questions operate well; piloting also has a role in ensuring that the research instrument as a whole functions well.

Page reference: 265 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 12 - Question 14 14) Which of the following is not a use of pilot studies in survey research? a. To generate fixed questions for the main study Feedback: Here are some uses of pilot studies in survey research: • If the main study is going to employ mainly closed questions, open questions can be asked in the pilot to generate the fixed-choice answers. Glock (1988), for example, extols the virtues of conducting qualitative interviews in preparation for a survey for precisely this kind of reason.

• Piloting an interview schedule can provide interviewers with some experience of using it and can infuse them with a greater sense of confidence.

If everyone (or virtually everyone) who answers a question replies in the same way, the resulting data are unlikely to be of interest because they do not form a variable. A pilot study allows such a question to be identified.

In interview surveys, it may be possible to identify questions that make respondents feel uncomfortable and to detect any tendency for respondents’ interest to be lost at certain junctures.

Questions that seem not to be understood (more likely to be realized in an interview than in a selfcompletion questionnaire context) or questions that are often not answered should become apparent.

The latter problem of questions being skipped may be due to confusing or threatening phrasing, poorly worded instructions, or confusing positioning in the interview schedule or questionnaire.

Whatever the cause might be, such missing data are undesirable, and a pilot study may be instrumental in identifying the problem.

Pilot studies allow the researcher to determine the adequacy of instructions to interviewers, or to respondents completing a self-completion questionnaire.

It may be possible to consider how well the questions flow and whether it is necessary to move some of them around to improve this feature.

Page reference: 265 b. So interviewers can have some experience with the interview schedule Feedback: Here are some uses of pilot studies in survey research: • If the main study is going to employ mainly closed questions, open questions can be asked in the pilot to generate the fixed-choice answers. Glock (1988), for example, extols the virtues of conducting qualitative interviews in preparation for a survey for precisely this kind of reason.

• Piloting an interview schedule can provide interviewers with some experience of using it and can infuse them with a greater sense of confidence.

If everyone (or virtually everyone) who answers a question replies in the same way, the resulting data are unlikely to be of interest because they do not form a variable. A pilot study allows such a question to be identified.

In interview surveys, it may be possible to identify questions that make respondents feel uncomfortable and to detect any tendency for respondents’ interest to be lost at certain junctures.

Questions that seem not to be understood (more likely to be realized in an interview than in a selfcompletion questionnaire context) or questions that are often not answered should become apparent.

The latter problem of questions being skipped may be due to confusing or threatening phrasing, poorly worded instructions, or confusing positioning in the interview schedule or questionnaire.

Whatever the cause might be, such missing data are undesirable, and a pilot study may be instrumental in identifying the problem.

Pilot studies allow the researcher to determine the adequacy of instructions to interviewers, or to respondents completing a self-completion questionnaire.

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It may be possible to consider how well the questions flow and whether it is necessary to move some of them around to improve this feature.

Page reference: 265 *c. To eliminate any question that is considered too sensitive Feedback: Here are some uses of pilot studies in survey research: • If the main study is going to employ mainly closed questions, open questions can be asked in the pilot to generate the fixed-choice answers. Glock (1988), for example, extols the virtues of conducting qualitative interviews in preparation for a survey for precisely this kind of reason.

• Piloting an interview schedule can provide interviewers with some experience of using it and can infuse them with a greater sense of confidence.

If everyone (or virtually everyone) who answers a question replies in the same way, the resulting data are unlikely to be of interest because they do not form a variable. A pilot study allows such a question to be identified.

In interview surveys, it may be possible to identify questions that make respondents feel uncomfortable and to detect any tendency for respondents’ interest to be lost at certain junctures.

Questions that seem not to be understood (more likely to be realized in an interview than in a selfcompletion questionnaire context) or questions that are often not answered should become apparent.

The latter problem of questions being skipped may be due to confusing or threatening phrasing, poorly worded instructions, or confusing positioning in the interview schedule or questionnaire.

Whatever the cause might be, such missing data are undesirable, and a pilot study may be instrumental in identifying the problem.

Pilot studies allow the researcher to determine the adequacy of instructions to interviewers, or to respondents completing a self-completion questionnaire.

It may be possible to consider how well the questions flow and whether it is necessary to move some of them around to improve this feature.

Page reference: 265 d. To consider how well the questions flow Feedback: Here are some uses of pilot studies in survey research: • If the main study is going to employ mainly closed questions, open questions can be asked in the pilot to generate the fixed-choice answers. Glock (1988), for example, extols the virtues of conducting qualitative interviews in preparation for a survey for precisely this kind of reason.

• Piloting an interview schedule can provide interviewers with some experience of using it and can infuse them with a greater sense of confidence.

If everyone (or virtually everyone) who answers a question replies in the same way, the resulting data are unlikely to be of interest because they do not form a variable. A pilot study allows such a question to be identified.

In interview surveys, it may be possible to identify questions that make respondents feel uncomfortable and to detect any tendency for respondents’ interest to be lost at certain junctures.

Questions that seem not to be understood (more likely to be realized in an interview than in a selfcompletion questionnaire context) or questions that are often not answered should become apparent.

The latter problem of questions being skipped may be due to confusing or threatening phrasing, poorly worded instructions, or confusing positioning in the interview schedule or questionnaire.

Whatever the cause might be, such missing data are undesirable, and a pilot study may be instrumental in identifying the problem.

Pilot studies allow the researcher to determine the adequacy of instructions to interviewers, or to respondents completing a self-completion questionnaire.

It may be possible to consider how well the questions flow and whether it is necessary to move some of them around to improve this feature.

Page reference: 265

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 12 - Question 15 15) Using the questions from a previous survey or study is unacceptable in all circumstances. a. True Feedback: One final observation regarding the asking of questions is that you should also consider using questions that have been employed by other researchers for at least part of your questionnaire

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or interview schedule. This may seem like stealing and you would be advised to contact the researchers concerned regarding the use of questions they have devised.

Page reference: 265 *b. False Feedback: One final observation regarding the asking of questions is that you should also consider using questions that have been employed by other researchers for at least part of your questionnaire or interview schedule. This may seem like stealing and you would be advised to contact the researchers concerned regarding the use of questions they have devised.

Page reference: 265

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 13 - Question 01 01) Which of the following is not a way structured data are collected? a. Chronology record Feedback: Structured data were collected using three records: - chronology record: described activity patterns, noting the time, nature, and duration of the activity; - mail record: described each piece of incoming/outgoing mail and the action that was taken in order to respond to it; - contact record: described each verbal contact, noting the participants and where it took place.

Page reference: 275 *b. Archival record Feedback: Structured data were collected using three records: - chronology record: described activity patterns, noting the time, nature, and duration of the activity; - mail record: described each piece of incoming/outgoing mail and the action that was taken in order to respond to it; - contact record: described each verbal contact, noting the participants and where it took place.

Page reference: 275 c. Mail record Feedback: Structured data were collected using three records: - chronology record: described activity patterns, noting the time, nature, and duration of the activity; - mail record: described each piece of incoming/outgoing mail and the action that was taken in order to respond to it; - contact record: described each verbal contact, noting the participants and where it took place.

Page reference: 275 d. Contact record Feedback: Structured data were collected using three records: - chronology record: described activity patterns, noting the time, nature, and duration of the activity; - mail record: described each piece of incoming/outgoing mail and the action that was taken in order to respond to it; - contact record: described each verbal contact, noting the participants and where it took place.

Page reference: 275 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 13 - Question 02 02) For structured observation, the researcher’s ability to generate a probability sample is curtailed. *a. True Feedback: The problem with doing structured observation research on such a topic that it does not lend itself to the specification of a sampling frame, and therefore the researcher’s ability to generate a probability sample is curtailed.

Page reference: 276 b. False Feedback: The problem with doing structured observation research on such a topic that it does not lend itself to the specification of a sampling frame, and therefore the researcher’s ability to generate a probability sample is curtailed.

Page reference: 276 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 13 - Question 03 03) Which of the following is not a type of sampling in structured observation? *a. Ad hominem sampling Feedback: A further set of distinctions between types of sampling in structured observation have been drawn by Martin and Bateson (1986): ‘ad libitum sampling’, whereby the observer records whatever is happening at the time; ‘focal sampling’, in which a specific individual is observed for a set period of time; the observer records all examples of whatever forms of behaviour are of interest in terms of a schedule;

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‘scan sampling’, whereby an entire group of individuals is scanned at regular intervals and the behaviour of all of them is recorded at that time; this sampling strategy allows only one or two types of behaviour to be observed and recorded; and ‘behaviour sampling’, whereby an entire group is watched and the observer records who was involved in a particular kind of behaviour.

Page reference: 277 b. Ad libitum sampling Feedback: A further set of distinctions between types of sampling in structured observation have been drawn by Martin and Bateson (1986): ‘ad libitum sampling’, whereby the observer records whatever is happening at the time; ‘focal sampling’, in which a specific individual is observed for a set period of time; the observer records all examples of whatever forms of behaviour are of interest in terms of a schedule; ‘scan sampling’, whereby an entire group of individuals is scanned at regular intervals and the behaviour of all of them is recorded at that time; this sampling strategy allows only one or two types of behaviour to be observed and recorded; and ‘behaviour sampling’, whereby an entire group is watched and the observer records who was involved in a particular kind of behaviour.

Page reference: 277 c. Focal sampling Feedback: A further set of distinctions between types of sampling in structured observation have been drawn by Martin and Bateson (1986): ‘ad libitum sampling’, whereby the observer records whatever is happening at the time; ‘focal sampling’, in which a specific individual is observed for a set period of time; the observer records all examples of whatever forms of behaviour are of interest in terms of a schedule; ‘scan sampling’, whereby an entire group of individuals is scanned at regular intervals and the behaviour of all of them is recorded at that time; this sampling strategy allows only one or two types of behaviour to be observed and recorded; and ‘behaviour sampling’, whereby an entire group is watched and the observer records who was involved in a particular kind of behaviour.

Page reference: 277 d. Behavioural sampling Feedback: A further set of distinctions between types of sampling in structured observation have been drawn by Martin and Bateson (1986): ‘ad libitum sampling’, whereby the observer records whatever is happening at the time; ‘focal sampling’, in which a specific individual is observed for a set period of time; the observer records all examples of whatever forms of behaviour are of interest in terms of a schedule; ‘scan sampling’, whereby an entire group of individuals is scanned at regular intervals and the behaviour of all of them is recorded at that time; this sampling strategy allows only one or two types of behaviour to be observed and recorded; and ‘behaviour sampling’, whereby an entire group is watched and the observer records who was involved in a particular kind of behaviour.

Page reference: 277 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 13 - Question 04 04) Measurement validity relates to how well the measure corresponds to all aspects of social science. a. True Feedback: Measurement validity relates to the question of whether or not a measure is measuring what it is supposed to measure.

Page reference: 289 *b. False Feedback: Measurement validity relates to the question of whether or not a measure is measuring what it is supposed to measure.

Page reference: 289 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 13 - Question 05

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05) Field observation shares many of structured observation’s characteristics. *a. True Feedback: Salancik (1979) has used the term ‘field stimulation’ to describe a form of observation research that shares many of structured observation’s characteristics.

Page reference: 277 b. False Feedback: Salancik (1979) has used the term ‘field stimulation’ to describe a form of observation research that shares many of structured observation’s characteristics.

Page reference: 277 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 13 - Question 06 06) In an organizational simulation, participants are not made aware they are being studied. a. True Feedback: An alternative method for observing behaviour in which participants are made aware of the fact that they are being studied involves the organizational simulation.

Page reference: 297 *b. False Feedback: An alternative method for observing behaviour in which participants are made aware of the fact that they are being studied involves the organizational simulation.

Page reference: 297 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 13 - Question 07 07) Which of the following is not a criticism of structured observation? a. There is a risk it’s inappropriate or irrelevant to the setting being observed.

Feedback: There is a risk of imposing a potentially inappropriate or irrelevant framework on the setting being observed. This point is similar to the problem of the closed question in questionnaires.

This risk is especially great if the setting is one about which little is known. One solution is for the structured observation to be preceded by a period of unstructured observation, so that appropriate variables and categories can be specified.

Because it concentrates upon directly observable behaviour, structured observation is rarely able to get at intentions behind behaviour. Sometimes, when intentions are of concern, they are imputed by observers. Thus, in Mintzberg’s basic activity categories of managerial behaviour, it is not entirely clear what the difference is between an ‘unscheduled meeting’ and a ‘tour’ that involves a chance meeting. Essentially, the problem is that structured observation does not readily allow the observer to get a grasp of the meaning of behaviour.

There is a tendency for structured observation to generate lots of bits of data. The problem here can be one of trying to piece them together to produce an overall picture, or one of trying to find general themes that link the fragments of data together. It becomes di - cult, in other words, to see a bigger picture that lies behind the segments of behaviour that structured observation typically uncovers. It has been suggested, for example, that the tendency for structured observation studies of managers at work to find little evidence of planning in their everyday work (e.g. Mintzberg 1973) is due to the tendency for the method to fragment a manager’s activities into discrete parts. As a result, something like planning, which may be an element in many managerial activities, becomes obscured from view (Snyder and Glueck 1980).

It is often suggested that structured observation neglects the context within which behaviour takes place. For example, Martinko and Gardner (1990) found that some of Mintzberg’s categories of basic activity were represented differently among school principals, rather than general managers, and, in particular, the amount of time spent on unscheduled meetings was much greater. Of course, were data collected about the context in which behaviour takes place, this criticism would have little weight, but the tendency of structured observation researchers to concentrate on overt behaviour tends to engender this kind of criticism.

Page reference: 279 b. It is rarely able to get at the intentions behind the behaviour

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Feedback: There is a risk of imposing a potentially inappropriate or irrelevant framework on the setting being observed. This point is similar to the problem of the closed question in questionnaires.

This risk is especially great if the setting is one about which little is known. One solution is for the structured observation to be preceded by a period of unstructured observation, so that appropriate variables and categories can be specified.

Because it concentrates upon directly observable behaviour, structured observation is rarely able to get at intentions behind behaviour. Sometimes, when intentions are of concern, they are imputed by observers. Thus, in Mintzberg’s basic activity categories of managerial behaviour, it is not entirely clear what the difference is between an ‘unscheduled meeting’ and a ‘tour’ that involves a chance meeting. Essentially, the problem is that structured observation does not readily allow the observer to get a grasp of the meaning of behaviour.

There is a tendency for structured observation to generate lots of bits of data. The problem here can be one of trying to piece them together to produce an overall picture, or one of trying to find general themes that link the fragments of data together. It becomes di - cult, in other words, to see a bigger picture that lies behind the segments of behaviour that structured observation typically uncovers. It has been suggested, for example, that the tendency for structured observation studies of managers at work to find little evidence of planning in their everyday work (e.g. Mintzberg 1973) is due to the tendency for the method to fragment a manager’s activities into discrete parts. As a result, something like planning, which may be an element in many managerial activities, becomes obscured from view (Snyder and Glueck 1980).

It is often suggested that structured observation neglects the context within which behaviour takes place. For example, Martinko and Gardner (1990) found that some of Mintzberg’s categories of basic activity were represented differently among school principals, rather than general managers, and, in particular, the amount of time spent on unscheduled meetings was much greater. Of course, were data collected about the context in which behaviour takes place, this criticism would have little weight, but the tendency of structured observation researchers to concentrate on overt behaviour tends to engender this kind of criticism.

Page reference: 279 *c. It is grossly unethical to those observed Feedback: There is a risk of imposing a potentially inappropriate or irrelevant framework on the setting being observed. This point is similar to the problem of the closed question in questionnaires.

This risk is especially great if the setting is one about which little is known. One solution is for the structured observation to be preceded by a period of unstructured observation, so that appropriate variables and categories can be specified.

Because it concentrates upon directly observable behaviour, structured observation is rarely able to get at intentions behind behaviour. Sometimes, when intentions are of concern, they are imputed by observers. Thus, in Mintzberg’s basic activity categories of managerial behaviour, it is not entirely clear what the difference is between an ‘unscheduled meeting’ and a ‘tour’ that involves a chance meeting. Essentially, the problem is that structured observation does not readily allow the observer to get a grasp of the meaning of behaviour.

There is a tendency for structured observation to generate lots of bits of data. The problem here can be one of trying to piece them together to produce an overall picture, or one of trying to find general themes that link the fragments of data together. It becomes di - cult, in other words, to see a bigger picture that lies behind the segments of behaviour that structured observation typically uncovers. It has been suggested, for example, that the tendency for structured observation studies of managers at work to find little evidence of planning in their everyday work (e.g. Mintzberg 1973) is due to the tendency for the method to fragment a manager’s activities into discrete parts. As a result, something like planning, which may be an element in many managerial activities, becomes obscured from view (Snyder and Glueck 1980).

It is often suggested that structured observation neglects the context within which behaviour takes place. For example, Martinko and Gardner (1990) found that some of Mintzberg’s categories of basic activity were represented differently among school principals, rather than general managers, and, in

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particular, the amount of time spent on unscheduled meetings was much greater. Of course, were data collected about the context in which behaviour takes place, this criticism would have little weight, but the tendency of structured observation researchers to concentrate on overt behaviour tends to engender this kind of criticism.

Page reference: 279 d. It tends to generate lots of bits of data Feedback: There is a risk of imposing a potentially inappropriate or irrelevant framework on the setting being observed. This point is similar to the problem of the closed question in questionnaires.

This risk is especially great if the setting is one about which little is known. One solution is for the structured observation to be preceded by a period of unstructured observation, so that appropriate variables and categories can be specified.

Because it concentrates upon directly observable behaviour, structured observation is rarely able to get at intentions behind behaviour. Sometimes, when intentions are of concern, they are imputed by observers. Thus, in Mintzberg’s basic activity categories of managerial behaviour, it is not entirely clear what the difference is between an ‘unscheduled meeting’ and a ‘tour’ that involves a chance meeting. Essentially, the problem is that structured observation does not readily allow the observer to get a grasp of the meaning of behaviour.

There is a tendency for structured observation to generate lots of bits of data. The problem here can be one of trying to piece them together to produce an overall picture, or one of trying to find general themes that link the fragments of data together. It becomes di - cult, in other words, to see a bigger picture that lies behind the segments of behaviour that structured observation typically uncovers. It has been suggested, for example, that the tendency for structured observation studies of managers at work to find little evidence of planning in their everyday work (e.g. Mintzberg 1973) is due to the tendency for the method to fragment a manager’s activities into discrete parts. As a result, something like planning, which may be an element in many managerial activities, becomes obscured from view (Snyder and Glueck 1980).

It is often suggested that structured observation neglects the context within which behaviour takes place. For example, Martinko and Gardner (1990) found that some of Mintzberg’s categories of basic activity were represented differently among school principals, rather than general managers, and, in particular, the amount of time spent on unscheduled meetings was much greater. Of course, were data collected about the context in which behaviour takes place, this criticism would have little weight, but the tendency of structured observation researchers to concentrate on overt behaviour tends to engender this kind of criticism.

Page reference: 279

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 13 - Question 08 08) Newspapers are an appropriate publication on which to conduct content analysis. *a. True Feedback: Imagine that you are interested in the amount and nature of the interest shown by the mass media, such as newspapers, in a business news item such as the collapse of Enron and WorldCom and the impact this has had on corporate accountability and ethical behaviour. You might ask such questions as: • When did news items on this topic first begin to appear?

• Which newspapers were fastest in generating an interest in the topic?

• Which newspapers have shown the greatest interest in the topic?

• At what point did media interest begin to wane?

Have journalists’ stances on the topic changed, for example, in terms of their support for business accountants and consultants, such as Arthur Andersen, or in calling for increased government regulation of corporate behaviour?

Page reference: 298 b. False

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Feedback: Imagine that you are interested in the amount and nature of the interest shown by the mass media, such as newspapers, in a business news item such as the collapse of Enron and WorldCom and the impact this has had on corporate accountability and ethical behaviour. You might ask such questions as: • When did news items on this topic first begin to appear?

• Which newspapers were fastest in generating an interest in the topic?

• Which newspapers have shown the greatest interest in the topic?

• At what point did media interest begin to wane?

Have journalists’ stances on the topic changed, for example, in terms of their support for business accountants and consultants, such as Arthur Andersen, or in calling for increased government regulation of corporate behaviour?

Page reference: 298 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 13 - Question 09 09) Content analysis is most closely associated with a qualitative research strategy a. True Feedback: Content analysis is firmly rooted in the quantitative research strategy, in that the aim is to product quantitative accounts of the raw material in terms of the categories specified by the rules Page reference: 280 *b. False Feedback: Content analysis is firmly rooted in the quantitative research strategy, in that the aim is to product quantitative accounts of the raw material in terms of the categories specified by the rules Page reference: 280 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 13 - Question 10 10) Semiotics is concerned with the study and science of signs, an approach to the analysis of documents and other phenomena that emphasizes the importance of seeking out the deeper meaning of those data. *a. True Feedback: Semiotics is the study/science of signs, an approach to the analysis of documents and other phenomena that emphasizes the importance of seeking out the deeper meaning of those phenomena.

Page reference: 281 b. False Feedback: Semiotics is the study/science of signs, an approach to the analysis of documents and other phenomena that emphasizes the importance of seeking out the deeper meaning of those phenomena.

Page reference: 281 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 13 - Question 11 11) It is not necessary to have a research question at the beginning of a content analytical study. a. True Feedback: As with most quantitative research, it is necessary to specify the research questions precisely, as these will guide both the selection of the media to be content analysed and the coding schedule.

Page reference: 281 *b. False Feedback: As with most quantitative research, it is necessary to specify the research questions precisely, as these will guide both the selection of the media to be content analysed and the coding schedule.

Page reference: 281 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 13 - Question 12

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12) Which of the following would be sampled in a content analytical study? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Many studies of the mass media entail the specification of a research problem in the form of ‘the representation of X in the mass media’. The X may be trade unions, HRM, or women and leadership. But which mass media might one choose to focus upon? Will it be newspapers or television or radio or magazines, or whatever? And, if newspapers, will it be all newspapers or tabloids or broadsheets? And, if both tabloids and broadsheets, will it be all of them and will it include Sunday papers? If it will be a sample of newspapers, including Sunday ones, will these be nation- al or local or both? And will it include free newspapers? And if newspapers, will all news items be candidates for analysis—for example, would feature articles and letters to the editor be included? And if newspapers, will news- papers from more than one country be included?

Typically, researchers will opt for one or possibly two of the mass media and may sample within that type or types. In the research described in Research in focus 13.2, Harris (2001) chose to focus on just four broadsheet newspapers over one year, 1996, which is just as well, since the author was able to locate a large number of appropriate items (news items containing one or more of the words ‘courage’, ‘courageous’, or ‘courageously’)—610 in total. However, the study also incorporated a cross-cultural element by sampling one newspaper each from Australia, the UK, the USA, and China.

Other media that typically have a smaller, more carefully selected audience can also form the focus for content analysis. For example, Barley, Meyer, and Gash (1988) conducted content analysis on items from business and management journals. Although these periodicals cannot be classified as mass media in the conventional sense, as the average peerreviewed journal article is read by only a handful of people, these journals do represent a highly influential medium for the subcultural groups that Barley and his colleagues were concerned to investigate.

Sampling dates Sometimes, the decision about dates is more or less dictated by the occurrence of a phenomenon.

For example, the timing of representation of the Enron scandal will have been more or less dictated by the speed of the US government investigation into the company’s downfall and its accounting practices. One could hardly examine the is- sue fully prior to this investigation, though there may be an important consideration in deciding at what point the content analysis should cease, since discussions about Enron and what it means for other businesses could continue for some time after the cessation of the investigation and may entail a reappraisal as a result of subsequent events, such as the demise of Andersen Consulting.

Page reference: 282 *a. Media b. Commentators c. Experts *d. Dates Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 13 - Question 13 13) Which of the following would not be counted in a content analytical study? a. Significant actors Feedback: Obviously, decisions about what should be counted in the course of a content analysis are bound to be profoundly affected by the nature of the research questions under consideration. Content analysis offers the prospect of different kinds of ‘units of analysis’ being considered. The following kinds of units of analysis are frequently encountered and can be used as guides to the kinds of objects that might be the focus of attention. However, what you would actually want or need to count will be significantly dictated by your research question.

Significant actors Particularly in the context of mass media news reporting, the main figures in any news item and their characteristics are often important items to code. These considerations are likely to result in the following questions being asked in the course of a content analysis: • What kind of person has produced the item (for example, general or specialist news reporter)?

• Who is or are the main focus of the item (for example, senior executive of an organization, manager, politician, or employee representative)?

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Who provides alternative voices (for example, consumer representative, official from a professional association, or employee)?

What was the context for the item (for example, publication of financial results, major organizational event, or disaster)?

In the case of the content analysis of managerial courage (see Research in focus 13.2), the significant actors and their characteristics included: the courage event or events described in the newspaper story; the type of newspaper item (for example, long or short general article, biography or obituary, book review, etc.) in which the courage event was reported; the details of the actor associated with the courageous act or action in the item (for example, personal details, status, and the kinds of obstacles he or she faced and the tools he or she used to help him or her to take courageous action).

The chief objective in recording such details is to map the main protagonists in news reporting in an area and to begin to reveal some of the mechanics involved in the production of information for public consumption.

Words While it may seem a dull and time-consuming activity, counting the frequency with which certain words occur is sometimes undertaken in content analysis. Deciding what the unit of analysis will be, whether word, phrase, or sentence, is an important consideration in content analysis research. It would be di cult to contemplate using manual analysis for such a large sample, and so researchers tend to use computer-aided content analysis (see Re- search in focus 13.3). Gephart (1993; see Research in focus 23.4) also used data analysis software to assist his qualitative study of accounts of a pipeline disaster, taking the phrase, rather than the word, to be the unit of analysis. In Bettman and Weitz’s (1983) study of corporate annual reports, the unit of analysis was defined as a phrase or sentence in which there is some sort of causal reasoning about a performance outcome. The use of some words rather than others can often be of some significance because they have the potential to reveal the interpretative frameworks used by different subcultural groupings. For example, Barley, Meyer, and Gash (1988) proposed that practitioner-oriented papers on organizational culture would use words associated with rational organizing strategies. In order to test their proposition, they calculated the percentage of a paper’s paragraphs that contained words associated with bureaucracy, such as ‘hierarchy’, and words associated with structural differentiation, such as ‘departments’ or ‘divisions’. Similarly, they suggested practitioner-oriented papers would make more references to external forces and environmental un- certainty that posed a threat to corporate performance. Words associated with this discourse included ‘changing technology’, ‘foreign competition’, ‘fluctuating interests’, and ‘Japanese management’.

Subjects and themes Frequently in a content analysis the researcher will want to code text in terms of certain subjects and themes. Essentially, what is being sought is a categorization of the phenomenon or phenomena of interest. In the study by Barley, Meyer, and Gash (1988), the researchers further posited that academically orientated articles would exhibit a number of key themes. In addition, words associated with the causal framework employed in the papers that were written for a practitioner audience would be ‘conspicuously absent’. While categorizations of specific words are often relatively straightforward, when the pro- cess of coding is thematic a more interpretative approach needs to be taken. At this point, the analyst is searching not just for manifest content but for latent content as well. It becomes necessary to probe beneath the surface in order to ask deeper questions about what is happening.

Page reference: 284 b. Images Feedback: Obviously, decisions about what should be counted in the course of a content analysis are bound to be profoundly affected by the nature of the research questions under consideration. Content analysis offers the prospect of different kinds of ‘units of analysis’ being considered. The following kinds of units of analysis are frequently encountered and can be used as guides to the kinds of objects that might be the focus of attention. However, what you would actually want or need to count will be significantly dictated by your research question.

Significant actors Particularly in the context of mass media news reporting, the main figures in any news item and their characteristics are often important items to code. These considerations are likely to result in the following questions being asked in the course of a content analysis:

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•

What kind of person has produced the item (for example, general or specialist news reporter)?

• Who is or are the main focus of the item (for example, senior executive of an organization, manager, politician, or employee representative)?

Who provides alternative voices (for example, consumer representative, official from a professional association, or employee)?

What was the context for the item (for example, publication of financial results, major organizational event, or disaster)?

In the case of the content analysis of managerial courage (see Research in focus 13.2), the significant actors and their characteristics included: the courage event or events described in the newspaper story; the type of newspaper item (for example, long or short general article, biography or obituary, book review, etc.) in which the courage event was reported; the details of the actor associated with the courageous act or action in the item (for example, personal details, status, and the kinds of obstacles he or she faced and the tools he or she used to help him or her to take courageous action).

The chief objective in recording such details is to map the main protagonists in news reporting in an area and to begin to reveal some of the mechanics involved in the production of information for public consumption.

Words While it may seem a dull and time-consuming activity, counting the frequency with which certain words occur is sometimes undertaken in content analysis. Deciding what the unit of analysis will be, whether word, phrase, or sentence, is an important consideration in content analysis research. It would be di cult to contemplate using manual analysis for such a large sample, and so researchers tend to use computer-aided content analysis (see Re- search in focus 13.3). Gephart (1993; see Research in focus 23.4) also used data analysis software to assist his qualitative study of accounts of a pipeline disaster, taking the phrase, rather than the word, to be the unit of analysis. In Bettman and Weitz’s (1983) study of corporate annual reports, the unit of analysis was defined as a phrase or sentence in which there is some sort of causal reasoning about a performance outcome. The use of some words rather than others can often be of some significance because they have the potential to reveal the interpretative frameworks used by different subcultural groupings. For example, Barley, Meyer, and Gash (1988) proposed that practitioner-oriented papers on organizational culture would use words associated with rational organizing strategies. In order to test their proposition, they calculated the percentage of a paper’s paragraphs that contained words associated with bureaucracy, such as ‘hierarchy’, and words associated with structural differentiation, such as ‘departments’ or ‘divisions’. Similarly, they suggested practitioner-oriented papers would make more references to external forces and environmental un- certainty that posed a threat to corporate performance. Words associated with this discourse included ‘changing technology’, ‘foreign competition’, ‘fluctuating interests’, and ‘Japanese management’.

Subjects and themes Frequently in a content analysis the researcher will want to code text in terms of certain subjects and themes. Essentially, what is being sought is a categorization of the phenomenon or phenomena of interest. In the study by Barley, Meyer, and Gash (1988), the researchers further posited that academically orientated articles would exhibit a number of key themes. In addition, words associated with the causal framework employed in the papers that were written for a practitioner audience would be ‘conspicuously absent’. While categorizations of specific words are often relatively straightforward, when the pro- cess of coding is thematic a more interpretative approach needs to be taken. At this point, the analyst is searching not just for manifest content but for latent content as well. It becomes necessary to probe beneath the surface in order to ask deeper questions about what is happening.

Page reference: 284 c. Subjects and themes Feedback: Obviously, decisions about what should be counted in the course of a content analysis are bound to be profoundly affected by the nature of the research questions under consideration. Content analysis offers the prospect of different kinds of ‘units of analysis’ being considered. The following kinds of units of analysis are frequently encountered and can be used as guides to the kinds of objects that might be the focus of attention. However, what you would actually want or need to count will be significantly dictated by your research question.

Significant actors

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Particularly in the context of mass media news reporting, the main figures in any news item and their characteristics are often important items to code. These considerations are likely to result in the following questions being asked in the course of a content analysis: • What kind of person has produced the item (for example, general or specialist news reporter)?

• Who is or are the main focus of the item (for example, senior executive of an organization, manager, politician, or employee representative)?

Who provides alternative voices (for example, consumer representative, official from a professional association, or employee)?

What was the context for the item (for example, publication of financial results, major organizational event, or disaster)?

In the case of the content analysis of managerial courage (see Research in focus 13.2), the significant actors and their characteristics included: the courage event or events described in the newspaper story; the type of newspaper item (for example, long or short general article, biography or obituary, book review, etc.) in which the courage event was reported; the details of the actor associated with the courageous act or action in the item (for example, personal details, status, and the kinds of obstacles he or she faced and the tools he or she used to help him or her to take courageous action).

The chief objective in recording such details is to map the main protagonists in news reporting in an area and to begin to reveal some of the mechanics involved in the production of information for public consumption.

Words While it may seem a dull and time-consuming activity, counting the frequency with which certain words occur is sometimes undertaken in content analysis. Deciding what the unit of analysis will be, whether word, phrase, or sentence, is an important consideration in content analysis research. It would be di cult to contemplate using manual analysis for such a large sample, and so researchers tend to use computer-aided content analysis (see Re- search in focus 13.3). Gephart (1993; see Research in focus 23.4) also used data analysis software to assist his qualitative study of accounts of a pipeline disaster, taking the phrase, rather than the word, to be the unit of analysis. In Bettman and Weitz’s (1983) study of corporate annual reports, the unit of analysis was defined as a phrase or sentence in which there is some sort of causal reasoning about a performance outcome. The use of some words rather than others can often be of some significance because they have the potential to reveal the interpretative frameworks used by different subcultural groupings. For example, Barley, Meyer, and Gash (1988) proposed that practitioner-oriented papers on organizational culture would use words associated with rational organizing strategies. In order to test their proposition, they calculated the percentage of a paper’s paragraphs that contained words associated with bureaucracy, such as ‘hierarchy’, and words associated with structural differentiation, such as ‘departments’ or ‘divisions’. Similarly, they suggested practitioner-oriented papers would make more references to external forces and environmental un- certainty that posed a threat to corporate performance. Words associated with this discourse included ‘changing technology’, ‘foreign competition’, ‘fluctuating interests’, and ‘Japanese management’.

Subjects and themes Frequently in a content analysis the researcher will want to code text in terms of certain subjects and themes. Essentially, what is being sought is a categorization of the phenomenon or phenomena of interest. In the study by Barley, Meyer, and Gash (1988), the researchers further posited that academically orientated articles would exhibit a number of key themes. In addition, words associated with the causal framework employed in the papers that were written for a practitioner audience would be ‘conspicuously absent’. While categorizations of specific words are often relatively straightforward, when the pro- cess of coding is thematic a more interpretative approach needs to be taken. At this point, the analyst is searching not just for manifest content but for latent content as well. It becomes necessary to probe beneath the surface in order to ask deeper questions about what is happening.

Page reference: 284 *d. Historical dates Feedback: Obviously, decisions about what should be counted in the course of a content analysis are bound to be profoundly affected by the nature of the research questions under consideration. Content analysis offers the prospect of different kinds of ‘units of analysis’ being considered. The following kinds of units of analysis are frequently encountered and can be used as guides to the kinds of

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objects that might be the focus of attention. However, what you would actually want or need to count will be significantly dictated by your research question.

Significant actors Particularly in the context of mass media news reporting, the main figures in any news item and their characteristics are often important items to code. These considerations are likely to result in the following questions being asked in the course of a content analysis: • What kind of person has produced the item (for example, general or specialist news reporter)?

• Who is or are the main focus of the item (for example, senior executive of an organization, manager, politician, or employee representative)?

Who provides alternative voices (for example, consumer representative, official from a professional association, or employee)?

What was the context for the item (for example, publication of financial results, major organizational event, or disaster)?

In the case of the content analysis of managerial courage (see Research in focus 13.2), the significant actors and their characteristics included: the courage event or events described in the newspaper story; the type of newspaper item (for example, long or short general article, biography or obituary, book review, etc.) in which the courage event was reported; the details of the actor associated with the courageous act or action in the item (for example, personal details, status, and the kinds of obstacles he or she faced and the tools he or she used to help him or her to take courageous action).

The chief objective in recording such details is to map the main protagonists in news reporting in an area and to begin to reveal some of the mechanics involved in the production of information for public consumption.

Words While it may seem a dull and time-consuming activity, counting the frequency with which certain words occur is sometimes undertaken in content analysis. Deciding what the unit of analysis will be, whether word, phrase, or sentence, is an important consideration in content analysis research. It would be di cult to contemplate using manual analysis for such a large sample, and so researchers tend to use computer-aided content analysis (see Re- search in focus 13.3). Gephart (1993; see Research in focus 23.4) also used data analysis software to assist his qualitative study of accounts of a pipeline disaster, taking the phrase, rather than the word, to be the unit of analysis. In Bettman and Weitz’s (1983) study of corporate annual reports, the unit of analysis was defined as a phrase or sentence in which there is some sort of causal reasoning about a performance outcome. The use of some words rather than others can often be of some significance because they have the potential to reveal the interpretative frameworks used by different subcultural groupings. For example, Barley, Meyer, and Gash (1988) proposed that practitioner-oriented papers on organizational culture would use words associated with rational organizing strategies. In order to test their proposition, they calculated the percentage of a paper’s paragraphs that contained words associated with bureaucracy, such as ‘hierarchy’, and words associated with structural differentiation, such as ‘departments’ or ‘divisions’. Similarly, they suggested practitioner-oriented papers would make more references to external forces and environmental un- certainty that posed a threat to corporate performance. Words associated with this discourse included ‘changing technology’, ‘foreign competition’, ‘fluctuating interests’, and ‘Japanese management’.

Subjects and themes Frequently in a content analysis the researcher will want to code text in terms of certain subjects and themes. Essentially, what is being sought is a categorization of the phenomenon or phenomena of interest. In the study by Barley, Meyer, and Gash (1988), the researchers further posited that academically orientated articles would exhibit a number of key themes. In addition, words associated with the causal framework employed in the papers that were written for a practitioner audience would be ‘conspicuously absent’. While categorizations of specific words are often relatively straightforward, when the pro- cess of coding is thematic a more interpretative approach needs to be taken. At this point, the analyst is searching not just for manifest content but for latent content as well. It becomes necessary to probe beneath the surface in order to ask deeper questions about what is happening.

Page reference: 284

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Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 13 - Question 14 13) Outline two advantages of content analysis. Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Content analysis has several further advantages, which are outlined below.

Content analysis is a very transparent research method. The coding scheme and the sampling procedures can be clearly set out so that replications and follow-up studies are feasible. It is this transparency that often causes content analysis to be referred to as an objective method of analysis.

It can allow a certain amount of longitudinal analysis with relative ease. Several of the studies referred to above allow the researcher to track changes in frequency over time (Barley, Meyer, and Gash 1988; Chen and Meindl 1991; Kabano , Waldersee, and Cohen 1995; Todd, McKeen, and Gallupe 1995). For example, Kabano et al.’s (1995) research entailed an analysis of organizational values over a four-year time period, Todd et al. (1995) examined information systems job advertisements over a twenty-year period (see Research in focus 13.5), while Research in focus 13.7 gives an example of a content analysis that spanned an even longer time period. Similarly, in the example of employment tribunal hearings concerning sex, race, or disability discrimination, a temporal analysis could be introduced through comparison of employment tribunal reporting in newspapers during two different time periods, such as the 1960s and the 1990s. Changes in emphasis could thus be examined.

Content analysis is often referred to favourably as an unobtrusive method, a term devised by Webb et al. (1966) to refer to a method that does not entail participants in a study having to take the researcher into account (see Key concept 14.12). It is therefore a non-reactive method (see Key concept 12.8). However, this point has to be treated with a little caution. It is certainly the case that, when the focus of a content analysis is upon things such as newspaper articles or television programmes, there is no reactive effect. Newspaper articles are obviously not written in the knowledge that a content analysis may one day be carried out on them. Hence Harris (2001) suggests that the content analysis of secondary data such as newspaper articles is particularly useful when researching sensitive issues such as the ethical behaviour of man- agers, because the method overcomes the problematic tendency of individuals to deny socially undesirable traits and only to admit to socially desirable ones (see Chapter 9 on social desirability as a source of error). On the other hand, if the content analysis is being con- ducted on documents, such as interview transcripts or ethnographies (e.g. Hodson 1996; see Research in focus 13.8), while the process of content analysis does not itself introduce a reactive effect, the documents may have been at least partly influenced by such an effect.

It is a highly flexible method. It can be applied to a wide variety of kinds of unstructured information.

While content analysis in the social sciences is primarily associated with the analysis of mass-media outputs, in business and management research it has a much broader applicability than this, including content analysis of websites. Research in focus 13.8 presents an illustration of a rather unusual application of content analysis.

Content analysis can allow information to be generated about social groups that are difficult to gain access to. For example, most of our knowledge of the social backgrounds of elite groups, such as company directors, derives from content analyses of such publications as Who’s Who and Burke’s Peerage (Bryman 1974).

Page reference: 313 a. It is easier than discourse analysis *b. It is a transparent method *c. It is a flexible method d. It is objective and therefore not as partial to researcher bias Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 13 - Question 15 15) Outline two disadvantages of content analysis. Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Like all research techniques, content analysis suffers from certain limitations, which are described below.

A content analysis can only be as good as the documents on which the practitioner works. John Scott (1990) recommends assessing documents in terms of such criteria as: authenticity (that the document is what it purports to be); credibility (whether there are grounds for thinking that the contents of the document have been or are distorted in some way); and representativeness (whether or not the documents examined are representative of all possible relevant documents, as, if certain kinds of

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document are unavailable or no longer exist, generalizability will be jeopardized). These kinds of consideration will be especially important to bear in mind when a content analysis is being conducted on documents such as company reports or internal memoranda. These issues will be explored in further detail in Chapter 23.

It is almost impossible to devise coding manuals that do not entail some interpretation on the part of coders. Coders must draw upon their everyday knowledge as participants in a common culture in order to be able to code the material with which they are confronted (Cicourel 1964; Garfinkel 1967).

To the extent that this occurs, it is questionable whether or not it is justifiable to assume a correspondence of interpretation between the persons responsible for producing the documents being analysed and the coders (Beardsworth 1980).

Particular problems are likely to arise when the aim is to impute latent rather than manifest content. In searching for traditional markers of organizational leadership, as in Chen and Meindl’s study (1991), the potential for invalid inference being made is magnified.

It is di cult to ascertain the answers to ‘Why?’ questions through content analysis. For example, Barley, Meyer, and Gash (1988) found that over the course of nearly a decade academically oriented papers on the subject of organizational culture gradually adopted or accommodated practitioners’ concerns. Why? Although the authors provide a number of speculative answers to these questions, content analysis alone can- not provide the answers. As they claim, ‘the convergence may have resulted because academics were subtly influenced to adopt a more managerial agenda in order to secure valued resources and a larger audience for their work, but given the nature of the data, other explanations are equally plausible’ (1988: 55). Hence, the authors claim that to establish the motives for the convergence would require interviewing the paper authors ‘and studying networks of citations to determine who influenced whom’ (1988: 55). Similarly, although Rosén (2014) was able to trace the increasing level of professionalization in job advertisements for strategic communication experts in Sweden, she was unable to explain in any detail why this had occurred (see Research in focus 13.9).

Content analytic studies are sometimes accused of being atheoretical. It is easy to see why an atheoretical approach might arise. The emphasis in content analysis on measurement can easily and unwittingly result in an accent being placed on what is measurable rather than on what is theoretically significant or important. However, content analysis is not necessarily atheoretical. For example, Barley et al. (1988) place their findings Page reference: 315-316 *a. It is only as good as the documents on which it is conducted b. It is sometimes regarded as being over-theoretical c. It’s excellent at “why” questions but not so good at “what” questions *d. It is impossible to devise coding manuals that do not entail some interpretation on the part of the coders

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 01 01) Secondary analysis is the analysis of data that we have collected ourselves a. True Feedback: As the opening paragraph suggests, in this chapter we will be concerned with two kinds of issue: - the secondary analysis of data that have been collected by other researchers; - the secondary analysis of data that have been collected by other organizations in the course of their business.

Page reference: 295 *b. False Feedback: As the opening paragraph suggests, in this chapter we will be concerned with two kinds of issue: - the secondary analysis of data that have been collected by other researchers; - the secondary analysis of data that have been collected by other organizations in the course of their business.

Page reference: 295 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 02 02) Secondary research data can only have been collected by governments. a. True Feedback: As the opening paragraph suggests, in this chapter we will be concerned with two kinds of issue: - the secondary analysis of data that have been collected by other researchers; - the secondary analysis of data that have been collected by other organizations in the course of their business.

Page reference: 295 *b. False Feedback: As the opening paragraph suggests, in this chapter we will be concerned with two kinds of issue: - the secondary analysis of data that have been collected by other researchers; - the secondary analysis of data that have been collected by other organizations in the course of their business.

Page reference: 295

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 03 03) Most secondary analysis data sets are low quality. a. True Feedback: High-quality data. Many of the datasets that are employed most frequently for secondary analysis are of extremely high quality. By this we mean several things. First, the sampling procedures have been rigorous, in most cases resulting in samples that are as close to being representative as one is likely to achieve. While the organizations responsible for these studies suffer the same problems of survey non-response as anybody else, well-established procedures are usually in place for following up non-respondents and thereby keeping this problem to a minimum. Secondly, the samples are often national samples or at least cover a wide variety of regions. In addition, some datasets enable cross-national comparison (see Research in focus 14.4). The degree of geographical spread and the sample size of such datasets are invariably attained only in research that attracts quite substantial resources. It is certainly inconceivable that student projects could even get close to the coverage that such datasets attain. Thirdly, many datasets have been generated by highly experienced researchers and, in the case of some of the large datasets, such as the WERS (see Research in focus 3.14) and the LFS (see Research in focus 14.7), the data have been gathered by research organizations that have developed structures and control procedures to check on the quality

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of the emerging data. Some large datasets that are suitable for secondary analysis are described in Table 14.1.

Page reference: 296 *b. False Feedback: High-quality data. Many of the datasets that are employed most frequently for secondary analysis are of extremely high quality. By this we mean several things. First, the sampling procedures have been rigorous, in most cases resulting in samples that are as close to being representative as one is likely to achieve. While the organizations responsible for these studies suffer the same problems of survey non-response as anybody else, well-established procedures are usually in place for following up non-respondents and thereby keeping this problem to a minimum. Secondly, the samples are often national samples or at least cover a wide variety of regions. In addition, some datasets enable cross-national comparison (see Research in focus 14.4). The degree of geographical spread and the sample size of such datasets are invariably attained only in research that attracts quite substantial resources. It is certainly inconceivable that student projects could even get close to the coverage that such datasets attain. Thirdly, many datasets have been generated by highly experienced researchers and, in the case of some of the large datasets, such as the WERS (see Research in focus 3.14) and the LFS (see Research in focus 14.7), the data have been gathered by research organizations that have developed structures and control procedures to check on the quality of the emerging data. Some large datasets that are suitable for secondary analysis are described in Table 14.1.

Page reference: 296 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 14 - Question 04 04) Which of the following is not an advantage of secondary analysis? a. Cost and time Feedback: secondary analysis offers numerous benefits to students carrying out a research project.

These are outlined below.

Cost and time. As noted at the outset, secondary analysis offers the prospect of having access to good-quality data, such as that available from the UK Data Archive (see section on ‘Accessing the UK Data Archive’ below), for a tiny fraction of the resources involved in carrying out a data collection exercise yourself.

High-quality data. Many of the datasets that are employed most frequently for secondary analysis are of extremely high quality. By this we mean several things. First, the sampling procedures have been rigorous, in most cases resulting in samples that are as close to being representative as one is likely to achieve. While the organizations responsible for these studies suffer the same problems of survey non-response as anybody else, well-established procedures are usually in place for following up nonrespondents and thereby keeping this problem to a minimum. Secondly, the samples are often national samples or at least cover a wide variety of regions. In addition, some datasets enable crossnational comparison (see Research in focus 14.4). The degree of geographical spread and the sample size of such datasets are invariably attained only in research that attracts quite substantial resources. It is certainly inconceivable that student projects could even get close to the coverage that such datasets attain. Thirdly, many datasets have been generated by highly experienced researchers and, in the case of some of the large datasets, such as the WERS (see Research in focus 3.14) and the LFS (see Research in focus 14.7), the data have been gathered by research organizations that have developed structures and control procedures to check on the quality of the emerging data. Some large datasets that are suitable for secondary analysis are described in Table 14.1.

Opportunity for longitudinal analysis. Partly linked to the last point is the fact that secondary analysis can offer the opportunity for longitudinal research, which, as noted in Chapter 3, is rather rare in business and management research because of the time and cost involved. Sometimes, as with the WERS, a panel design has been employed and it is possible to chart trends and connections over time. Such data are sometimes analysed cross-sectionally, but there are obviously opportunities for longitudinal analysis as well. Also, with datasets such as the LFS, where similar data are collected over time, usually because certain interview questions are recycled each year, trends (such as changes in working time or shifting patterns of employment) can be identified over time. With such

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

datasets, respondents differ from year to year so that causal inferences over time cannot be readily established, but nonetheless it is still possible to gauge trends. For example, although the study by Knight and Latreille (2000) was confined to use of the 1998 WERS data (see Research in focus 14.5), the authors made frequent comparison with analyses from the 1990 WERS data to show that there had been relatively little change in patterns and rates of disciplinary sanctions and dismissals and complaints to employment tribunals during this time period. Similarly, a study by Addison and Belfield (2000) used data from the 1998 WERS to replicate research done by other researchers who had used data from the 1990 WERS in order to test whether or not e orts to boost employee participation have had any effect. Undoubtedly, the publication of findings from WERS 2011 will have enabled researchers to compare data from the most recent study with data from previous iterations of the survey.

Subgroup or subset analysis. When large samples are the source of data (as in the WERS), there is the opportunity to study what can often be quite sizeable sub- groups of individuals or subsets of questions. Very often, in order to study specialized categories of individuals, small, localized studies are the only feasible way forward because of costs. However, large datasets can frequently yield quite large nationally representative samples of specialized categories of individuals, such as workers in a particular industry or occupation or with a particular set of personal characteristics. These can form the basis for representative sampling of individuals. Similarly, when a large-scale survey covers several topic areas, analysis may involve focusing on a smaller subset of questions that are covered by the survey. For example, Addison and Belfield (2000) were interested in the effects of European works councils on organizational performance and employee attitudes. They therefore analysed the responses from just one question in the 1998 WERS, which related to the status of these new institutional arrangements.

Opportunity for cross-cultural analysis. Cross-cultural research has considerable appeal at a time when social scientists are more attuned to the processes associated with globalization and to cultural differences, though it is easy to forget that many findings should not be taken to apply to countries other than the one in which the research was conducted.

However, cross-cultural research presents barriers to the social scientist. There are obvious barriers to do with the cost and practical difficulties of doing research in a different country, especially when language and cultural differences are likely to be significant. The secondary analysis of comparable data from two or more countries provides one possible model for conducting cross-cultural research.

The ISSP is explicitly concerned with bringing together findings from existing social science surveys from different countries and contexts. An example of the kind of cross-cultural analysis the programme has produced is given in Research in focus 14.4. Another example to illustrate how data from more than one country can be compared is a study by Coutrot (1998), in which he compared the industrial relations systems of France and the UK through statistical analysis of two broadly similar datasets—WERS 1990 and Relations Professionnelles et Négociations d’Entreprise (REPONSE) 1992 (a large-scale survey that covers similar issues to WERS and is based on interviews with managers and employee representatives in France). However, in order for a cross-cultural analysis to be conducted, some coordination is necessary so that the questions asked are comparable.

Differences between countries in the definitions used and the criteria for inclusion can make this di cult, as the example relating to the use of official statistics, provided by Jackie Davies (2001; see Research in focus 14.6), illustrates.

Page reference: 300 *b. More reliable results Feedback: secondary analysis offers numerous benefits to students carrying out a research project.

These are outlined below.

Cost and time. As noted at the outset, secondary analysis offers the prospect of having access to good-quality data, such as that available from the UK Data Archive (see section on ‘Accessing the UK Data Archive’ below), for a tiny fraction of the resources involved in carrying out a data collection exercise yourself.

High-quality data. Many of the datasets that are employed most frequently for secondary analysis are of extremely high quality. By this we mean several things. First, the sampling procedures have been rigorous, in most cases resulting in samples that are as close to being representative as one is likely

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to achieve. While the organizations responsible for these studies suffer the same problems of survey non-response as anybody else, well-established procedures are usually in place for following up nonrespondents and thereby keeping this problem to a minimum. Secondly, the samples are often national samples or at least cover a wide variety of regions. In addition, some datasets enable crossnational comparison (see Research in focus 14.4). The degree of geographical spread and the sample size of such datasets are invariably attained only in research that attracts quite substantial resources. It is certainly inconceivable that student projects could even get close to the coverage that such datasets attain. Thirdly, many datasets have been generated by highly experienced researchers and, in the case of some of the large datasets, such as the WERS (see Research in focus 3.14) and the LFS (see Research in focus 14.7), the data have been gathered by research organizations that have developed structures and control procedures to check on the quality of the emerging data. Some large datasets that are suitable for secondary analysis are described in Table 14.1.

Opportunity for longitudinal analysis. Partly linked to the last point is the fact that secondary analysis can offer the opportunity for longitudinal research, which, as noted in Chapter 3, is rather rare in business and management research because of the time and cost involved. Sometimes, as with the WERS, a panel design has been employed and it is possible to chart trends and connections over time. Such data are sometimes analysed cross-sectionally, but there are obviously opportunities for longitudinal analysis as well. Also, with datasets such as the LFS, where similar data are collected over time, usually because certain interview questions are recycled each year, trends (such as changes in working time or shifting patterns of employment) can be identified over time. With such datasets, respondents differ from year to year so that causal inferences over time cannot be readily established, but nonetheless it is still possible to gauge trends. For example, although the study by Knight and Latreille (2000) was confined to use of the 1998 WERS data (see Research in focus 14.5), the authors made frequent comparison with analyses from the 1990 WERS data to show that there had been relatively little change in patterns and rates of disciplinary sanctions and dismissals and complaints to employment tribunals during this time period. Similarly, a study by Addison and Belfield (2000) used data from the 1998 WERS to replicate research done by other researchers who had used data from the 1990 WERS in order to test whether or not e orts to boost employee participation have had any effect. Undoubtedly, the publication of findings from WERS 2011 will have enabled researchers to compare data from the most recent study with data from previous iterations of the survey.

Subgroup or subset analysis. When large samples are the source of data (as in the WERS), there is the opportunity to study what can often be quite sizeable sub- groups of individuals or subsets of questions. Very often, in order to study specialized categories of individuals, small, localized studies are the only feasible way forward because of costs. However, large datasets can frequently yield quite large nationally representative samples of specialized categories of individuals, such as workers in a particular industry or occupation or with a particular set of personal characteristics. These can form the basis for representative sampling of individuals. Similarly, when a large-scale survey covers several topic areas, analysis may involve focusing on a smaller subset of questions that are covered by the survey. For example, Addison and Belfield (2000) were interested in the effects of European works councils on organizational performance and employee attitudes. They therefore analysed the responses from just one question in the 1998 WERS, which related to the status of these new institutional arrangements.

Opportunity for cross-cultural analysis. Cross-cultural research has considerable appeal at a time when social scientists are more attuned to the processes associated with globalization and to cultural differences, though it is easy to forget that many findings should not be taken to apply to countries other than the one in which the research was conducted.

However, cross-cultural research presents barriers to the social scientist. There are obvious barriers to do with the cost and practical difficulties of doing research in a different country, especially when language and cultural differences are likely to be significant. The secondary analysis of comparable data from two or more countries provides one possible model for conducting cross-cultural research.

The ISSP is explicitly concerned with bringing together findings from existing social science surveys from different countries and contexts. An example of the kind of cross-cultural analysis the programme has produced is given in Research in focus 14.4. Another example to illustrate how data from more than one country can be compared is a study by Coutrot (1998), in which he compared the

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

industrial relations systems of France and the UK through statistical analysis of two broadly similar datasets—WERS 1990 and Relations Professionnelles et Négociations d’Entreprise (REPONSE) 1992 (a large-scale survey that covers similar issues to WERS and is based on interviews with managers and employee representatives in France). However, in order for a cross-cultural analysis to be conducted, some coordination is necessary so that the questions asked are comparable.

Differences between countries in the definitions used and the criteria for inclusion can make this di cult, as the example relating to the use of official statistics, provided by Jackie Davies (2001; see Research in focus 14.6), illustrates.

Page reference: 300 c. High quality data Feedback: secondary analysis offers numerous benefits to students carrying out a research project.

These are outlined below.

Cost and time. As noted at the outset, secondary analysis offers the prospect of having access to good-quality data, such as that available from the UK Data Archive (see section on ‘Accessing the UK Data Archive’ below), for a tiny fraction of the resources involved in carrying out a data collection exercise yourself.

High-quality data. Many of the datasets that are employed most frequently for secondary analysis are of extremely high quality. By this we mean several things. First, the sampling procedures have been rigorous, in most cases resulting in samples that are as close to being representative as one is likely to achieve. While the organizations responsible for these studies suffer the same problems of survey non-response as anybody else, well-established procedures are usually in place for following up nonrespondents and thereby keeping this problem to a minimum. Secondly, the samples are often national samples or at least cover a wide variety of regions. In addition, some datasets enable crossnational comparison (see Research in focus 14.4). The degree of geographical spread and the sample size of such datasets are invariably attained only in research that attracts quite substantial resources. It is certainly inconceivable that student projects could even get close to the coverage that such datasets attain. Thirdly, many datasets have been generated by highly experienced researchers and, in the case of some of the large datasets, such as the WERS (see Research in focus 3.14) and the LFS (see Research in focus 14.7), the data have been gathered by research organizations that have developed structures and control procedures to check on the quality of the emerging data. Some large datasets that are suitable for secondary analysis are described in Table 14.1.

Opportunity for longitudinal analysis. Partly linked to the last point is the fact that secondary analysis can offer the opportunity for longitudinal research, which, as noted in Chapter 3, is rather rare in business and management research because of the time and cost involved. Sometimes, as with the WERS, a panel design has been employed and it is possible to chart trends and connections over time. Such data are sometimes analysed cross-sectionally, but there are obviously opportunities for longitudinal analysis as well. Also, with datasets such as the LFS, where similar data are collected over time, usually because certain interview questions are recycled each year, trends (such as changes in working time or shifting patterns of employment) can be identified over time. With such datasets, respondents differ from year to year so that causal inferences over time cannot be readily established, but nonetheless it is still possible to gauge trends. For example, although the study by Knight and Latreille (2000) was confined to use of the 1998 WERS data (see Research in focus 14.5), the authors made frequent comparison with analyses from the 1990 WERS data to show that there had been relatively little change in patterns and rates of disciplinary sanctions and dismissals and complaints to employment tribunals during this time period. Similarly, a study by Addison and Belfield (2000) used data from the 1998 WERS to replicate research done by other researchers who had used data from the 1990 WERS in order to test whether or not e orts to boost employee participation have had any effect. Undoubtedly, the publication of findings from WERS 2011 will have enabled researchers to compare data from the most recent study with data from previous iterations of the survey.

Subgroup or subset analysis. When large samples are the source of data (as in the WERS), there is the opportunity to study what can often be quite sizeable sub- groups of individuals or subsets of questions. Very often, in order to study specialized categories of individuals, small, localized studies are the only feasible way forward because of costs. However, large datasets can frequently yield quite

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

large nationally representative samples of specialized categories of individuals, such as workers in a particular industry or occupation or with a particular set of personal characteristics. These can form the basis for representative sampling of individuals. Similarly, when a large-scale survey covers several topic areas, analysis may involve focusing on a smaller subset of questions that are covered by the survey. For example, Addison and Belfield (2000) were interested in the effects of European works councils on organizational performance and employee attitudes. They therefore analysed the responses from just one question in the 1998 WERS, which related to the status of these new institutional arrangements.

Opportunity for cross-cultural analysis. Cross-cultural research has considerable appeal at a time when social scientists are more attuned to the processes associated with globalization and to cultural differences, though it is easy to forget that many findings should not be taken to apply to countries other than the one in which the research was conducted.

However, cross-cultural research presents barriers to the social scientist. There are obvious barriers to do with the cost and practical difficulties of doing research in a different country, especially when language and cultural differences are likely to be significant. The secondary analysis of comparable data from two or more countries provides one possible model for conducting cross-cultural research.

The ISSP is explicitly concerned with bringing together findings from existing social science surveys from different countries and contexts. An example of the kind of cross-cultural analysis the programme has produced is given in Research in focus 14.4. Another example to illustrate how data from more than one country can be compared is a study by Coutrot (1998), in which he compared the industrial relations systems of France and the UK through statistical analysis of two broadly similar datasets—WERS 1990 and Relations Professionnelles et Négociations d’Entreprise (REPONSE) 1992 (a large-scale survey that covers similar issues to WERS and is based on interviews with managers and employee representatives in France). However, in order for a cross-cultural analysis to be conducted, some coordination is necessary so that the questions asked are comparable.

Differences between countries in the definitions used and the criteria for inclusion can make this di cult, as the example relating to the use of official statistics, provided by Jackie Davies (2001; see Research in focus 14.6), illustrates.

Page reference: 300 d. Opportunity for cross-cultural analysis Feedback: secondary analysis offers numerous benefits to students carrying out a research project.

These are outlined below.

Cost and time. As noted at the outset, secondary analysis offers the prospect of having access to good-quality data, such as that available from the UK Data Archive (see section on ‘Accessing the UK Data Archive’ below), for a tiny fraction of the resources involved in carrying out a data collection exercise yourself.

High-quality data. Many of the datasets that are employed most frequently for secondary analysis are of extremely high quality. By this we mean several things. First, the sampling procedures have been rigorous, in most cases resulting in samples that are as close to being representative as one is likely to achieve. While the organizations responsible for these studies suffer the same problems of survey non-response as anybody else, well-established procedures are usually in place for following up nonrespondents and thereby keeping this problem to a minimum. Secondly, the samples are often national samples or at least cover a wide variety of regions. In addition, some datasets enable crossnational comparison (see Research in focus 14.4). The degree of geographical spread and the sample size of such datasets are invariably attained only in research that attracts quite substantial resources. It is certainly inconceivable that student projects could even get close to the coverage that such datasets attain. Thirdly, many datasets have been generated by highly experienced researchers and, in the case of some of the large datasets, such as the WERS (see Research in focus 3.14) and the LFS (see Research in focus 14.7), the data have been gathered by research organizations that have developed structures and control procedures to check on the quality of the emerging data. Some large datasets that are suitable for secondary analysis are described in Table 14.1.

Opportunity for longitudinal analysis. Partly linked to the last point is the fact that secondary analysis can offer the opportunity for longitudinal research, which, as noted in Chapter 3, is rather rare in business and management research because of the time and cost involved. Sometimes, as with the

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

WERS, a panel design has been employed and it is possible to chart trends and connections over time. Such data are sometimes analysed cross-sectionally, but there are obviously opportunities for longitudinal analysis as well. Also, with datasets such as the LFS, where similar data are collected over time, usually because certain interview questions are recycled each year, trends (such as changes in working time or shifting patterns of employment) can be identified over time. With such datasets, respondents differ from year to year so that causal inferences over time cannot be readily established, but nonetheless it is still possible to gauge trends. For example, although the study by Knight and Latreille (2000) was confined to use of the 1998 WERS data (see Research in focus 14.5), the authors made frequent comparison with analyses from the 1990 WERS data to show that there had been relatively little change in patterns and rates of disciplinary sanctions and dismissals and complaints to employment tribunals during this time period. Similarly, a study by Addison and Belfield (2000) used data from the 1998 WERS to replicate research done by other researchers who had used data from the 1990 WERS in order to test whether or not e orts to boost employee participation have had any effect. Undoubtedly, the publication of findings from WERS 2011 will have enabled researchers to compare data from the most recent study with data from previous iterations of the survey.

Subgroup or subset analysis. When large samples are the source of data (as in the WERS), there is the opportunity to study what can often be quite sizeable sub- groups of individuals or subsets of questions. Very often, in order to study specialized categories of individuals, small, localized studies are the only feasible way forward because of costs. However, large datasets can frequently yield quite large nationally representative samples of specialized categories of individuals, such as workers in a particular industry or occupation or with a particular set of personal characteristics. These can form the basis for representative sampling of individuals. Similarly, when a large-scale survey covers several topic areas, analysis may involve focusing on a smaller subset of questions that are covered by the survey. For example, Addison and Belfield (2000) were interested in the effects of European works councils on organizational performance and employee attitudes. They therefore analysed the responses from just one question in the 1998 WERS, which related to the status of these new institutional arrangements.

Opportunity for cross-cultural analysis. Cross-cultural research has considerable appeal at a time when social scientists are more attuned to the processes associated with globalization and to cultural differences, though it is easy to forget that many findings should not be taken to apply to countries other than the one in which the research was conducted.

However, cross-cultural research presents barriers to the social scientist. There are obvious barriers to do with the cost and practical difficulties of doing research in a different country, especially when language and cultural differences are likely to be significant. The secondary analysis of comparable data from two or more countries provides one possible model for conducting cross-cultural research.

The ISSP is explicitly concerned with bringing together findings from existing social science surveys from different countries and contexts. An example of the kind of cross-cultural analysis the programme has produced is given in Research in focus 14.4. Another example to illustrate how data from more than one country can be compared is a study by Coutrot (1998), in which he compared the industrial relations systems of France and the UK through statistical analysis of two broadly similar datasets—WERS 1990 and Relations Professionnelles et Négociations d’Entreprise (REPONSE) 1992 (a large-scale survey that covers similar issues to WERS and is based on interviews with managers and employee representatives in France). However, in order for a cross-cultural analysis to be conducted, some coordination is necessary so that the questions asked are comparable.

Differences between countries in the definitions used and the criteria for inclusion can make this di cult, as the example relating to the use of official statistics, provided by Jackie Davies (2001; see Research in focus 14.6), illustrates.

Page reference: 300 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 14 - Question 05 05) Outline two disadvantages of secondary analysis. Please select all that apply.

Feedback: The foregoing list of benefits of secondary analysis sounds almost too good to be true. In fact, there are not very many limitations, but the following warrant some attention.

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Lack of familiarity with data. When you collect your own data, when the dataset is generated, it is hardly surprising that you are very familiar with the structure and contours of your data. However, with data collected by others, a period of familiarization is necessary. You have to get to grips with the range of variables, the ways in which the variables have been coded, and various aspects of the organization of the data. The period of familiarization can be quite substantial with large complex datasets and should not be underestimated.

Complexity of the data. Some of the best-known data- sets that are employed for secondary analysis, such as the WERS, are very large in the sense of having large numbers of both respondents and variables. Some- times, the sheer volume of data can present problems with the management of the information at hand, and, again, a period of acclimatization may be required.

Also, some of the most prominent datasets that have been employed for secondary analysis are known as hierarchical datasets, such as the WERS. The difficulty here is that the data are collected and presented at the level of both the organization and the individual, as well as other levels. The secondary analyst must decide which level of analysis is going to be employed. If the decision is to analyse individual-level data, the individual-level data must then be extracted from the dataset.

Different data will apply to each level. Thus, at the organizational level, the WERS provides data on such variables as number of employees and level of owner- ship, while, at the individual level, data on age, qualifications, and salary level can be found. For example, Hoque (2003) was interested in the impact of Investors in People (IiP) accreditation on workplace training practice. He used data from the 1998 WERS managers’ survey to extract organization-level data to build up a profile of workplaces that have IiP accreditation. How- ever, in order to evaluate the impact of IiP accreditation on training practice, Hoque relied on individual-level data, in the form of data about training activity taken from the survey of employees. These included questions about the number of days spent on training that were paid for or organized by the employer and whether or not the employee had, in the previous twelve months, discussed his or her training needs with his or her supervisor. He used these data to draw conclusions at the level of the organization, and to make comparisons of the effectiveness of training practice in accredited versus non-accredited workplaces.

No control over data quality. The point has been made on several occasions that secondary analysis offers the opportunity for students and others to examine data of far higher quality than they could collect themselves. However, this point applies mainly to datasets from a regulated source such as the UK Data Service (see Table 14.1). These tend to be commissioned by a government department and conducted by researchers who are regarded as independent or at least somewhat distanced from the issues that are being investigated, such as academics working for a university research unit.

While the quality of data should never be taken for granted, in the case of such datasets it is reasonably assured, though that is not to say that the data will necessarily meet all of a prospective secondary analyst’s needs, since they may not have been collected on an aspect of a topic that would have been of considerable interest. With other datasets, somewhat more caution may be necessary in connection with assessment of data quality. This may be of particular concern when using data that are the result of commercially commissioned research, as is the case in market research or when using surveys that have been conducted in-house by a company that wants, for example, to measure the effectiveness of its HRM strategy.

Absence of key variables. Because secondary analysis entails the analysis of data collected by others for their own purposes, it may be that one or more key variables may not be present. You may, for example, want to examine whether or not a relationship between two variables holds when one or more other variables are taken into account. Such an analysis is known as multivariate analysis, an area that will be touched on in Chapter 15. The inability to examine the significance or otherwise of a theoretically important variable can be frustrating and can arise when, for example, a theoretical approach that has emerged since the collection of the data suggests its importance. This is also a drawback in meta-analysis (Key concept 14.9 and Research in focus 14.10), some- times making it di cult for researchers to generate unambiguous conclusions as a result of the analysis). Obviously, when researchers collect primary data themselves, the prospect of this happening should be less pronounced.

Page reference: 302 *a. Lack of familiarity with data b. Lack of access to data c. Not as robust as primary analysis

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*d. Complexity of the data Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 06 06) Secondary research generally does not provide the opportunity for longitudinal analysis. a. True Feedback: Opportunity for longitudinal analysis. Partly linked to the last point is the fact that secondary analysis can offer the opportunity for longitudinal research, which, as noted in Chapter 3, is rather rare in business and management research because of the time and cost involved. Sometimes, as with the WERS, a panel design has been employed and it is possible to chart trends and connections over time. Such data are sometimes analysed cross-sectionally, but there are obviously opportunities for longitudinal analysis as well. Also, with datasets such as the LFS, where similar data are collected over time, usually because certain interview questions are recycled each year, trends (such as changes in working time or shifting patterns of employment) can be identified over time. With such datasets, respondents differ from year to year so that causal inferences over time cannot be readily established, but nonetheless it is still possible to gauge trends. For example, although the study by Knight and Latreille (2000) was confined to use of the 1998 WERS data (see Research in focus 14.5), the authors made frequent comparison with analyses from the 1990 WERS data to show that there had been relatively little change in patterns and rates of disciplinary sanctions and dismissals and complaints to employment tribunals during this time period. Similarly, a study by Addison and Belfield (2000) used data from the 1998 WERS to replicate research done by other researchers who had used data from the 1990 WERS in order to test whether or not efforts to boost employee participation have had any effect. Undoubtedly, the publication of findings from WERS 2011 will have enabled researchers to compare data from the most recent study with data from previous iterations of the survey.

Page reference: 299 *b. False Feedback: Opportunity for longitudinal analysis. Partly linked to the last point is the fact that secondary analysis can offer the opportunity for longitudinal research, which, as noted in Chapter 3, is rather rare in business and management research because of the time and cost involved. Sometimes, as with the WERS, a panel design has been employed and it is possible to chart trends and connections over time. Such data are sometimes analysed cross-sectionally, but there are obviously opportunities for longitudinal analysis as well. Also, with datasets such as the LFS, where similar data are collected over time, usually because certain interview questions are recycled each year, trends (such as changes in working time or shifting patterns of employment) can be identified over time. With such datasets, respondents differ from year to year so that causal inferences over time cannot be readily established, but nonetheless it is still possible to gauge trends. For example, although the study by Knight and Latreille (2000) was confined to use of the 1998 WERS data (see Research in focus 14.5), the authors made frequent comparison with analyses from the 1990 WERS data to show that there had been relatively little change in patterns and rates of disciplinary sanctions and dismissals and complaints to employment tribunals during this time period. Similarly, a study by Addison and Belfield (2000) used data from the 1998 WERS to replicate research done by other researchers who had used data from the 1990 WERS in order to test whether or not efforts to boost employee participation have had any effect. Undoubtedly, the publication of findings from WERS 2011 will have enabled researchers to compare data from the most recent study with data from previous iterations of the survey.

Page reference: 299 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 07 07) Cross-cultural analysis can be conducted using the official statistics of a particular country. *a. True Feedback: There is the prospect as well of cross-cultural analysis, since the official statistics from different nation-states can be compared for a specific area of activity.

Page reference: 306 b. False Feedback: There is the prospect as well of cross-cultural analysis, since the official statistics from different nation-states can be compared for a specific area of activity.

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Page reference: 306 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 08 08) Issues of validity and reliability are much less considerations for secondary as opposed to primary analysis. a. True Feedback: Issues of reliability and validity seem to loom large in these considerations. Reliability seems to be jeopardized because definitions and policies regarding the phenomena to be counted vary over time, as the example of the different definitions of labour disputes used by Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) nations given by Jackie Davies (2001) effectively illustrates (see Research in focus 14.6). The problem for the reliability of such statistics is that variations over time in levels of labour dispute may be due not to variations in the level of workplace conflict but to variations in the propensity to expend resources in recording these events. Also, there may be changes over time in the definitions of labour dispute or in the propensity of employers to report disputes to government. Such changes will clearly affect the degree to which fluctuations in the rate of occurrence of labour disputes reflect ‘real’ fluctuations in the rate of incidence. To the extent that such factors operate, the reliability of the data will be adversely affected and, as a result, validity will be similarly impaired.

Page reference: 308 *b. False Feedback: Issues of reliability and validity seem to loom large in these considerations. Reliability seems to be jeopardized because definitions and policies regarding the phenomena to be counted vary over time, as the example of the different definitions of labour disputes used by Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) nations given by Jackie Davies (2001) effectively illustrates (see Research in focus 14.6). The problem for the reliability of such statistics is that variations over time in levels of labour dispute may be due not to variations in the level of workplace conflict but to variations in the propensity to expend resources in recording these events. Also, there may be changes over time in the definitions of labour dispute or in the propensity of employers to report disputes to government. Such changes will clearly affect the degree to which fluctuations in the rate of occurrence of labour disputes reflect ‘real’ fluctuations in the rate of incidence. To the extent that such factors operate, the reliability of the data will be adversely affected and, as a result, validity will be similarly impaired.

Page reference: 308 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 09 09) Official statistics are not generally used for business research. a. True Feedback: The analysis of official statistics has been a feature of business research for many years.

Page reference: 306 *b. False Feedback: The analysis of official statistics has been a feature of business research for many years.

Page reference: 306 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 10 10) The BSA refers to the British Social Attitudes survey which covers a wide range of areas of social attitudes and behaviour. *a. True Feedback: Covers wide range of areas of social attitudes and behaviour. The survey focuses mainly on people’s attitudes, but also collects details of their behaviour patterns, household circumstances, and work.

Page reference: 298 b. False Feedback: Covers wide range of areas of social attitudes and behaviour. The survey focuses mainly on people’s attitudes, but also collects details of their behaviour patterns, household circumstances, and work.

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Page reference: 298 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 11 11) Most governments restrict the data they collect to researchers due to privacy and confidentiality concerns. a. True Feedback: ‘In many countries there are data archives where data collected by government agencies, university researchers and commercial organizations are stored and are available for researchers to use, often free of charge’ Page reference: 302 *b. False Feedback: ‘In many countries there are data archives where data collected by government agencies, university researchers and commercial organizations are stored and are available for researchers to use, often free of charge’ Page reference: 302 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 12 12) Meta-analysis is the study of big data online to reveal macro patterns into digital behaviour. a. True Feedback: Meta-analysis involves summarizing the results of a large number of quantitative studies and conducting various analytical tests to show whether or not a particular variable has an effect.

Page reference: 305 *b. False Feedback: Meta-analysis involves summarizing the results of a large number of quantitative studies and conducting various analytical tests to show whether or not a particular variable has an effect.

Page reference: 305 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 13 13) The ecological fallacy is the error of assuming that inferences about individuals or organisations cannot be made from findings relating to aggregate data. a. True Feedback: The ecological fallacy is the error of assuming that inferences about individuals or organizations can be made from findings relating to aggregate data.

Page reference: 306 *b. False Feedback: The ecological fallacy is the error of assuming that inferences about individuals or organizations can be made from findings relating to aggregate data.

Page reference: 306 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 14 14) An unobtrusive measure is any method of observation that directly removes the observer from the set of interactions or events being studied. *a. True Feedback: An unobtrusive measure is ‘any method of observation that directly removes the observer from the set of interactions or events being studied’ (Denzin 1970) Page reference: 307 b. False Feedback: An unobtrusive measure is ‘any method of observation that directly removes the observer from the set of interactions or events being studied’ (Denzin 1970) Page reference: 307 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 14 - Question 15 15) Official statistics are considered an intrusive form of measurement.

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a. True Feedback: One of the most compelling and frequently cited cases for the continued use of official statistics is that they can be considered a form of unobtrusive measure, al- though nowadays many writers prefer to use the term unobtrusive methods (R. M. Lee 2000).

Page reference: 308 *b. False Feedback: One of the most compelling and frequently cited cases for the continued use of official statistics is that they can be considered a form of unobtrusive measure, al- though nowadays many writers prefer to use the term unobtrusive methods (R. M. Lee 2000).

Page reference: 308

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 01 01) We generally only consider how we will analyse our quantitative data after we collect it, not before. a. True *b. False Feedback: Before beginning this exposition of techniques, we would like to give you advance warning of one of the big- gest mistakes that people make about quantitative data analysis: This is a common error that arises because quantitative data analysis looks like a distinct phase that occurs after the data have been collected (see, for example, Figure 7.1, in which the analysis of quantitative data is depicted as a late step—number 9—in quantitative research). Quantitative data analysis is indeed something that occurs typically at a late stage in the overall process and is also a distinct stage.

Page reference: 311 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 02 02) The size of your sample will impose limitations on the kinds of techniques you can use. *a. True Feedback: 1. You cannot apply just any technique to any variable. Techniques have to be appropriately matched to the types of variables that you have created through your research. This means that you must be fully conversant with the ways in which different types of variable are classified.

2. The size and nature of your sample are likely to impose limitations on the kinds of techniques you can use (see the section on ‘Kind of analysis’ in Chapter 8).

Page reference: 311 b. False

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 03 03) Missing data occur when questionnaires are not returned by the respondent. a. True Feedback: Missing data arise when respondents fail to reply to a question—either by accident or because they do not want to answer the question.

Page reference: 313 *b. False Feedback: Missing data arise when respondents fail to reply to a question—either by accident or because they do not want to answer the question.

Page reference: 313 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 04 04) Interval variables/ratio variables are variables where the distances between the categories are different across the range of categories. a. True Feedback: Interval variables/ratio variables are variables where the distances between the categories are identical across the range of categories.

Page reference: 317 *b. False Feedback: Interval variables/ratio variables are variables where the distances between the categories are identical across the range of categories.

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Page reference: 317 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 05 05) Ordinal variables are variables whose categories can be rank ordered but the distances between the categories are not equal across the range. *a. True Feedback: Ordinal variables are variables whose categories can be rank ordered (as in the case of interval/ratio variables) but the distances between the categories are not equal across the range.

Page reference: 317 b. False Feedback: Ordinal variables are variables whose categories can be rank ordered (as in the case of interval/ratio variables) but the distances between the categories are not equal across the range.

Page reference: 317 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 06 06) Nominal variables comprise categories that can be rank ordered. a. True Feedback: Nominal variables, also known as categorical variables, comprise categories that cannot be rank ordered.

Page reference: 317 *b. False Feedback: Nominal variables, also known as categorical variables, comprise categories that cannot be rank ordered.

Page reference: 317 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 07 07) Dichotomous variables contain data that have only two categories (for example, gender) *a. True Feedback: Dichotomous variables contain data that have only two categories (for example, gender).

Page reference: 317 b. False Feedback: Dichotomous variables contain data that have only two categories (for example, gender).

Page reference: 317 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 08 08) Univariate analysis refers to the analysis of more than one variable at a time. a. True Feedback: Univariate analysis refers to the analysis of one variable at a time. In this section, the commonest approaches will be outlined.

Page reference: 318 *b. False Feedback: Univariate analysis refers to the analysis of one variable at a time. In this section, the commonest approaches will be outlined.

Page reference: 318 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 15 - Question 09 09) Which of the following is not a form of average recognised in quantitative data analysis? a. Arithmetic mean Feedback: Measures of central tendency encapsulate in one figure a value that is typical for a distribution of values. In effect, we are seeking out an average for a distribution, but, in quantitative data analysis, three different forms of average are recognized.

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Arithmetic mean. This is the average as we understand it in everyday use—that is, we sum all the values in a distribution and then divide by the number of values. Thus, the arithmetic mean (or more simply the mean) for var00002 is 33.6, meaning that the average age of gym visitors is nearly 34 years of age. The mean should be employed only in relation to interval/ratio varia- bles, though it is not uncommon to see it being used for ordinal variables as well.

Median. The median is the mid-point in a distribution of values. Whereas the mean is vulnerable to outliers (extreme values at either end of the distribution), which will exert considerable upwards or downwards pressure on the mean, by taking the mid-point of a distribution the median is not affected in this way. The median is derived by arraying all the values in a distribution from the smallest to the largest and then finding the middle point. If there is an even number of values, the median is calculated by taking the mean of the two middle numbers of the distribution. In the case of var00002, the median is 31. This is slightly lower than the mean, in part because some consider- ably older members (especially respondents 5 and 10) inflate the mean slightly. The median can be employed in relation to both interval/ratio and ordinal variables.

Mode. The mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a distribution. The mode for var00002 is 28. The mode can be employed in relation to all types of variable.

Page reference: 320 *b. Meridian Feedback: Measures of central tendency encapsulate in one figure a value that is typical for a distribution of values. In effect, we are seeking out an average for a distribution, but, in quantitative data analysis, three different forms of average are recognized.

Arithmetic mean. This is the average as we understand it in everyday use—that is, we sum all the values in a distribution and then divide by the number of values. Thus, the arithmetic mean (or more simply the mean) for var00002 is 33.6, meaning that the average age of gym visitors is nearly 34 years of age. The mean should be employed only in relation to interval/ratio varia- bles, though it is not uncommon to see it being used for ordinal variables as well.

Median. The median is the mid-point in a distribution of values. Whereas the mean is vulnerable to outliers (extreme values at either end of the distribution), which will exert considerable upwards or downwards pressure on the mean, by taking the mid-point of a distribution the median is not affected in this way. The median is derived by arraying all the values in a distribution from the smallest to the largest and then finding the middle point. If there is an even number of values, the median is calculated by taking the mean of the two middle numbers of the distribution. In the case of var00002, the median is 31. This is slightly lower than the mean, in part because some consider- ably older members (especially respondents 5 and 10) inflate the mean slightly. The median can be employed in relation to both interval/ratio and ordinal variables.

Mode. The mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a distribution. The mode for var00002 is 28. The mode can be employed in relation to all types of variable.

Page reference: 320 c. Median Feedback: Measures of central tendency encapsulate in one figure a value that is typical for a distribution of values. In effect, we are seeking out an average for a distribution, but, in quantitative data analysis, three different forms of average are recognized.

Arithmetic mean. This is the average as we understand it in everyday use—that is, we sum all the values in a distribution and then divide by the number of values. Thus, the arithmetic mean (or more simply the mean) for var00002 is 33.6, meaning that the average age of gym visitors is nearly 34 years of age. The mean should be employed only in relation to interval/ratio varia- bles, though it is not uncommon to see it being used for ordinal variables as well.

Median. The median is the mid-point in a distribution of values. Whereas the mean is vulnerable to outliers (extreme values at either end of the distribution), which will exert considerable upwards or downwards pressure on the mean, by taking the mid-point of a distribution the median is not affected in this way. The median is derived by arraying all the values in a distribution from the smallest to the largest and then finding the middle point. If there is an even number of values, the median is calculated by taking the mean of the two middle numbers of the distribution. In the case of var00002, the median is 31. This is slightly lower than the mean, in part because some consider- ably older members (especially respondents 5 and 10) inflate the mean slightly. The median can be employed in relation to both interval/ratio and ordinal variables.

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Mode. The mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a distribution. The mode for var00002 is 28. The mode can be employed in relation to all types of variable.

Page reference: 320 d. Mode Feedback: Measures of central tendency encapsulate in one figure a value that is typical for a distribution of values. In effect, we are seeking out an average for a distribution, but, in quantitative data analysis, three different forms of average are recognized.

Arithmetic mean. This is the average as we understand it in everyday use—that is, we sum all the values in a distribution and then divide by the number of values. Thus, the arithmetic mean (or more simply the mean) for var00002 is 33.6, meaning that the average age of gym visitors is nearly 34 years of age. The mean should be employed only in relation to interval/ratio varia- bles, though it is not uncommon to see it being used for ordinal variables as well.

Median. The median is the mid-point in a distribution of values. Whereas the mean is vulnerable to outliers (extreme values at either end of the distribution), which will exert considerable upwards or downwards pressure on the mean, by taking the mid-point of a distribution the median is not affected in this way. The median is derived by arraying all the values in a distribution from the smallest to the largest and then finding the middle point. If there is an even number of values, the median is calculated by taking the mean of the two middle numbers of the distribution. In the case of var00002, the median is 31. This is slightly lower than the mean, in part because some consider- ably older members (especially respondents 5 and 10) inflate the mean slightly. The median can be employed in relation to both interval/ratio and ordinal variables.

Mode. The mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a distribution. The mode for var00002 is 28. The mode can be employed in relation to all types of variable.

Page reference: 320 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 10 10) Bivariate analysis is concerned with the analysis of two variables at a time to uncover whether or not the two variables are related. *a. True Feedback: Bivariate analysis is concerned with the analysis of two variables at a time in order to uncover whether or not the two variables are related.

Page reference: 321 b. False Feedback: Bivariate analysis is concerned with the analysis of two variables at a time in order to uncover whether or not the two variables are related.

Page reference: 321 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 11 11) Pearson’s r is a method of examining relationships between nominal/ordinal variables. a. True Feedback: Pearson’s r is a method for examining relationships between interval/ratio variables.

Page reference: 323 *b. False Feedback: Pearson’s r is a method for examining relationships between interval/ratio variables.

Page reference: 323 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 12 12) Multivariate analysis entails the analysis of three or more variables. *a. True Feedback: Multivariate analysis entails the simultaneous analysis of three or more variables.

Page reference: 326 b. False Feedback: Multivariate analysis entails the simultaneous analysis of three or more variables.

Page reference: 326

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Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 13 13) A spurious relationship exists when there appears to be a real relationship between two variables. a. True Feedback: A spurious relationship exists when there appears to be a relationship between two variables, but the relationship is not real: it is being produced because each variable is itself related to a third variable.

Page reference: 326 *b. False Feedback: A spurious relationship exists when there appears to be a relationship between two variables, but the relationship is not real: it is being produced because each variable is itself related to a third variable.

Page reference: 326 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 14 14) A null hypothesis stipulates that two variables are related in the population – for example there is a relationship between age and voting intentions in the population from which the sample was selected. a. True Feedback: A null hypothesis stipulates that two variables are not related in the population— for example, that there is no relationship between gender and visiting the gym in the population from which the sample was selected.

Page reference: 328 *b. False Feedback: A null hypothesis stipulates that two variables are not related in the population— for example, that there is no relationship between gender and visiting the gym in the population from which the sample was selected.

Page reference: 328 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 15 - Question 15 15) A Chi-Square test allows us to establish how confident we can be that there is a relationship between the two variables in the population. *a. True Feedback: The chi-square (χ2) test is applied to contingency tables like Table 15.4. It allows us to establish how confident we can be that there is a relationship between the two variables in the population.

Page reference: 329 b. False Feedback: The chi-square (χ2) test is applied to contingency tables like Table 15.4. It allows us to establish how confident we can be that there is a relationship between the two variables in the population.

Page reference: 329

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 16 - Question 01 01) SPSS stands for “Statistical Package for the Social Science” *a. True Feedback: SPSS, which originally was short for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, has been in existence since the mid-1960s and over the years has undergone many revisions, particularly since the arrival of personal computers.

Page reference: 334 b. False Feedback: SPSS, which originally was short for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, has been in existence since the mid-1960s and over the years has undergone many revisions, particularly since the arrival of personal computers.

Page reference: 334 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 16 - Question 02 02) What is the advantage of using SPSS over calculating statistics by hand?

Feedback: Many quantitative data analysts use SPSS or an equivalent statistical software package.

Such tools are widely regarded as being much faster and more efficient than mental arithmetic, as they can generate huge volumes of complex statistical data within seconds. If you prepare a probability sample, SPSS can help you to produce high-quality results.

Page reference: 365 a. It equips you with a useful transferable skill. b. It reduces the chance of making errors in your calculations. c. Many researchers use SPSS as it is a recognised software package. *d. All of the above.

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 16 - Question 03 03) In SPSS, each block in the grid is referred to as a brick. a. True Feedback: ‘Each block in the grid is referred to as a cell’.

Page reference: 335 *b. False Feedback: ‘Each block in the grid is referred to as a cell’.

Page reference: 335 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 16 - Question 04 04) The SPSS Data Editor consists of two views, the Data Viewer and the Numerical Viewer a. True Feedback: The SPSS Data Editor. This is the sphere of SPSS into which data are entered and subsequently edited and de ned. It is made up of two screens: the Data Viewer and the Variable Viewer. You move between these two viewers by selecting the appropriate tab at the bottom of the screen.

Page reference: 365 *b. False Feedback: The SPSS Data Editor. This is the sphere of SPSS into which data are entered and subsequently edited and de ned. It is made up of two screens: the Data Viewer and the Variable Viewer. You move between these two viewers by selecting the appropriate tab at the bottom of the screen.

Page reference: 365 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 16 - Question 05

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05) The SPSS Data Viewer is the spreadsheet into which your data are entered. *a. True Feedback: The Data Viewer. This is the spreadsheet into which your data are entered. When you start up SPSS, the Data Viewer will be facing you.

Page reference: 365 b. False Feedback: The Data Viewer. This is the spreadsheet into which your data are entered. When you start up SPSS, the Data Viewer will be facing you.

Page reference: 365 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 16 - Question 06 06) How is a variable name different from a variable label?

Feedback: Clicking the tab on the bottom of the Data Editor screen will switch the programme to the ‘Variable View’. You are limited to eight characters for the variable name, so there is a limit on how you can express the variable for the purposes of SPSS calculations. However, you can enter a longer and more meaningful name as a variable label. SPSS will use the label for all printed output. An example within the Gym dataset would be reasons. A variable label provides a more detailed description of what this means, and serves as a memo to oneself: for example: reasons for visiting gym.

Page reference: 366 *a. It is shorter and less detailed. b. It is longer and more detailed. c. It is abstract and unspecific. d. It refers to codes rather than variables.

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 16 - Question 07 07) A value label is a label that you can attach to a code for entering data for all types of variables, including interval and ratio variables a. True Feedback: This is a label that you attach to a code that has been used when entering data for all types of variables, other than interval/ratio variables.

Page reference: 366 *b. False Feedback: This is a label that you attach to a code that has been used when entering data for all types of variables, other than interval/ratio variables.

Page reference: 366 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 16 - Question 08 08) Missing values are when you do not have data for a particular variable when entering a case, you must specify how you are denoting missing values for that variable. *a. True Feedback: Missing values are when you do not have data for a particular variable when entering a case, you must specify how you are denoting missing values for that variable.

Page reference: 366 b. False Feedback: Missing values are when you do not have data for a particular variable when entering a case, you must specify how you are denoting missing values for that variable.

Page reference: 366 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 16 - Question 09 09) How would you use the drop-down menus in SPSS to generate a frequency table?

Feedback: Following this set of steps will open the “Frequencies” dialog box, in which you can select the variables you want to analyse and then click “OK”. It is worthwhile experimenting with the various

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drop-down menus to discover what else SPSS can do for you. Probably the best course of action is to ‘play’ with the gym-set data until you feel you are comfortable with the programme, then input your own data.

Page reference: 373-374 a. Open the Output Viewer and click: Save As; Pie Chart *b. Click on: Analyze; Descriptive Statistics; Frequencies c. Click on: Graphs; Frequencies; Pearson d. Open the Variable Viewer and recode the value labels Type: true-false Title: Chapter 16 - Question 10 10) To activate the chart editor function, just single-click anywhere in the graph. a. True Feedback: To activate this editor, double-click anywhere in the graph.

Page reference: 366 *b. False Feedback: To activate this editor, double-click anywhere in the graph.

Page reference: 366

Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 16 - Question 11 11) When cross-tabulating two variables, it is conventional to: Feedback: It is conventional to represent an inferred relationship between two variables in this way, because it makes tables easier to read. Typically this is done when you feel you can make a claim of causality, so that a change in the independent variable produces a change in the dependent variable.

Similarly, when producing a bar chart or scatter-plot, you should assign the independent variable to the x axis (to produce columns) and the dependent variable to the y axis (to produce horizontal readings).

Page reference: 379 a. represent the independent variable in rows and the dependent variable in columns. b. assign both the dependent and independent variables to columns. *c. represent the dependent variable in rows and the independent variable in columns. d. assign both the dependent and independent variables to rows.

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 16 - Question 12 12) Sometimes it is necessary to recode variables, for example when you want to group people *a. True Feedback: Sometimes you need to recode variables—for example, when you want to group people.

Page reference: 338 b. False Feedback: Sometimes you need to recode variables—for example, when you want to group people.

Page reference: 338 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 16 - Question 08 08) By selecting “Transform” and then “Compute Variable”, this will open the “Compute Variable” Dialogue box *a. True Feedback: → Transform → Compute . . . [opens the Compute Variable dialog box shown in Plate 16.8] Page reference: 340 b. False Feedback: → Transform → Compute . . . [opens the Compute Variable dialog box shown in Plate 16.8] Page reference: 340

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Type: true-false Title: Chapter 16 - Question 13 13) If one variable can be identified as the independent variable, it should be placed on the y axis – that is the vertical axis. a. True Feedback: There is a convention that, if one variable can be identified as likely to be the independent variable, it should be placed on the x axis—that is, the horizontal axis.

Page reference: 345 *b. False Feedback: There is a convention that, if one variable can be identified as likely to be the independent variable, it should be placed on the x axis—that is, the horizontal axis.

Page reference: 345 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 16 - Question 14 14) To generate a Spearman’s rho test, which set of instructions should you give SPSS? Feedback: Spearman’s rho is a test of correlation, so we should expect to find the SPSS function under ‘Analyse’ – ‘Correlate’. Selecting ‘Bivariate’ opens up the “Bivariate Correlations” dialog box and allows you to generate a coefficient to show the strength of the relationship between variables you selected. Plate 15.1 on page 317 shows the dialog box featuring age, cardmins and weimins as the selected variables but if you had recoded age as age-groups, you could then select Spearman to get the rho coefficient appearing instead of Pearson’s r.

Page reference: 352 a. Analyze; Crosstabs; Descriptive Statistics; Spearman; OK b. Graphs; Frequencies; [select variables]; Spearman; OK c. Analyze; Compare Means; Anova table; First layer; Spearman; OK *d. Analyze; Correlate; Bivariate; [select variables]; Spearman; OK Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 16 - Question 15 15) How would you print a bar chart that you have just produced in SPSS? Feedback: This is a straightforward way of printing your bar chart as a piece of “output” from SPSS. If you do not specify which things you want to print from the output summary box on the left of the screen, SPSS will print all of the graphs and tables in the Output Viewer. You can also locate a printer ‘icon’ like you have seen in many other computer programmes, which will open a ‘Print dialog box’. SPSS will warn you that your output has not been saved if you try to close the Output Editor. If that should happen, save your output as a file (SPSS gives you many types to choose from) and decide later on which material you want to print (and even which programme to print from).

Page reference: 386 *a. In Output Viewer, click File, Print, select the bar chart and click OK b. In Variable Viewer, open bar chart, click File, Print, OK c. In Chart Editor, click Descriptive Statistics, Print, OK d. In Data Editor, open Graphs dialog box, click Save, OK

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 17 - Question 01 01) Qualitative research takes a deductive view of the relationship between theory and research, where the latter is tested by the former. a. True Feedback: Most obviously, qualitative research tends to be concerned with words rather than numbers, but three further features are particularly noteworthy: an inductive view of the relationship between theory and research, whereby the former is generated out of the latter.

Page reference: 356 *b. False Feedback: Most obviously, qualitative research tends to be concerned with words rather than numbers, but three further features are particularly noteworthy: an inductive view of the relationship between theory and research, whereby the former is generated out of the latter.

Page reference: 356 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 17 - Question 02 02) The epistemological position of qualitative research could be best described as interpretivist *a. True Feedback: an epistemological position described as interpretivist, meaning that, in contrast to the adoption of a natural scientific model in quantitative research, the stress is on the understanding of the social world through an examination of the interpretation of that world by its participants Page reference: 356 b. False Feedback: an epistemological position described as interpretivist, meaning that, in contrast to the adoption of a natural scientific model in quantitative research, the stress is on the understanding of the social world through an examination of the interpretation of that world by its participants Page reference: 356 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 17 - Question 03 03) The ontological position of qualitative research could be best described as objectivist a. True Feedback: Most obviously, qualitative research tends to be concerned with words rather than numbers, but three further features are particularly noteworthy: • an inductive view of the relationship between theory and research, whereby the former is generated out of the latter; • an epistemological position described as interpretivist, meaning that, in contrast to the adoption of a natural scientific model in quantitative research, the stress is on the understanding of the social world through an examination of the interpretation of that world by its participants; and an ontological position described as constructionist, which implies that social properties are outcomes of the interactions between individuals, rather than phenomena ‘out there’ and separate from those involved in their construction.

Page reference: 356 *b. False Feedback: Most obviously, qualitative research tends to be concerned with words rather than numbers, but three further features are particularly noteworthy: • an inductive view of the relationship between theory and research, whereby the former is generated out of the latter; • an epistemological position described as interpretivist, meaning that, in contrast to the adoption of a natural scientific model in quantitative research, the stress is on the understanding of the social world through an examination of the interpretation of that world by

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its participants; and an ontological position described as constructionist, which implies that social properties are outcomes of the interactions between individuals, rather than phenomena ‘out there’ and separate from those involved in their construction.

Page reference: 356 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 17 - Question 04 04) Which of the following is not a main research method associated with qualitative research? a. Ethnography Feedback: The following are the main research methods associated with qualitative research.

Ethnography/participant observation. While some caution is advisable in treating ethnography and participant observation as synonyms, they refer to similar approaches to data collection in which the researcher is immersed in a social setting for some time in order to observe and listen with a view to gaining an appreciation of the culture of a social group. These methods have been used in Dalton’s (1959) study of managerial work in the USA and Lupton’s (1963) exploration of shopfloor factory life and restriction of output in England.

Qualitative interviewing. This is a very broad term to describe a wide range of interviewing styles (see Key concept 9.2 for an introduction). Moreover, qualitative researchers employing ethnography or participant observation typically engage in a substantial amount of qualitative interviewing.

• Focus groups (see Key concept 9.2).

• Language-based approaches to the collection of qualitative data, such as discourse and conversation analysis. The collection and qualitative analysis of texts and documents.

Page reference: 357 b. Focus Groups Feedback: The following are the main research methods associated with qualitative research.

Ethnography/participant observation. While some caution is advisable in treating ethnography and participant observation as synonyms, they refer to similar approaches to data collection in which the researcher is immersed in a social setting for some time in order to observe and listen with a view to gaining an appreciation of the culture of a social group. These methods have been used in Dalton’s (1959) study of managerial work in the USA and Lupton’s (1963) exploration of shopfloor factory life and restriction of output in England.

Qualitative interviewing. This is a very broad term to describe a wide range of interviewing styles (see Key concept 9.2 for an introduction). Moreover, qualitative researchers employing ethnography or participant observation typically engage in a substantial amount of qualitative interviewing.

• Focus groups (see Key concept 9.2).

• Language-based approaches to the collection of qualitative data, such as discourse and conversation analysis. The collection and qualitative analysis of texts and documents.

Page reference: 357 *c. Content Analysis Feedback: The following are the main research methods associated with qualitative research.

Ethnography/participant observation. While some caution is advisable in treating ethnography and participant observation as synonyms, they refer to similar approaches to data collection in which the researcher is immersed in a social setting for some time in order to observe and listen with a view to gaining an appreciation of the culture of a social group. These methods have been used in Dalton’s (1959) study of managerial work in the USA and Lupton’s (1963) exploration of shopfloor factory life and restriction of output in England.

Qualitative interviewing. This is a very broad term to describe a wide range of interviewing styles (see Key concept 9.2 for an introduction). Moreover, qualitative researchers employing ethnography or participant observation typically engage in a substantial amount of qualitative interviewing.

• Focus groups (see Key concept 9.2).

• Language-based approaches to the collection of qualitative data, such as discourse and conversation analysis. The collection and qualitative analysis of texts and documents.

Page reference: 357 d. Qualitative Interviewing Feedback: The following are the main research methods associated with qualitative research.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Ethnography/participant observation. While some caution is advisable in treating ethnography and participant observation as synonyms, they refer to similar approaches to data collection in which the researcher is immersed in a social setting for some time in order to observe and listen with a view to gaining an appreciation of the culture of a social group. These methods have been used in Dalton’s (1959) study of managerial work in the USA and Lupton’s (1963) exploration of shopfloor factory life and restriction of output in England.

Qualitative interviewing. This is a very broad term to describe a wide range of interviewing styles (see Key concept 9.2 for an introduction). Moreover, qualitative researchers employing ethnography or participant observation typically engage in a substantial amount of qualitative interviewing.

• Focus groups (see Key concept 9.2).

• Language-based approaches to the collection of qualitative data, such as discourse and conversation analysis. The collection and qualitative analysis of texts and documents.

Page reference: 357 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 17 - Question 05 05) The notion of reflexivity tends to highlight the significance of the participant in the research process and consequently the tentativeness of any findings presented a. True Feedback: Postmodernists tend to emphasize the notion of reflexivity (see Chapter 29), which highlights the significance of the researcher in the research process and consequently the tentativeness of any findings presented (since the researcher is always implicated in his or her findings).

Page reference: 28 *b. False Feedback: Postmodernists tend to emphasize the notion of reflexivity (see Chapter 29), which highlights the significance of the researcher in the research process and consequently the tentativeness of any findings presented (since the researcher is always implicated in his or her findings).

Page reference: 28 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 17 - Question 06 06) Which of the following are the main steps in qualitative research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: The sequence outlined in Figure 17.1 provides a representation of how the qualitative research process can be visualized. In order to illustrate these steps, a study by Ladge et al. (2012) of identity transitions among women professionals in early pregnancy will be used.

Step 1. General research questions (see Thinking deeply 17.3). Ladge et al.’s (2012) study focused on how professional women in pregnancy experience identity changes. Their theoretical interest, as they explain, ‘is in understanding how a life-altering change in an individual’s nonwork self often instigates a need to reorient his/her work identity’ (Ladge et al. 2012: 1450). They therefore chose to focus on professional women who were in the early stages of their first pregnancy, asserting that these women start to explore and enact the identity of motherhood long before the child is born.

Through this, Ladge et al. (2012) make a theoretical contribution to understanding how work and nonwork identities coevolve in ‘liminal periods’, when identity is in flux. Drawing on the identity literature, they assume that this liminal period will be characterised by ‘feelings of ambiguity, openness, disorientation, self- questioning and indeterminacy’ (Ladge et al. 2012: 1451), as women are no longer fully connected to their old professional identity and are anticipating a new identity where they will be mothers and professionals. This led the researchers towards the development of their research goal which was to ‘study women’s experiences of the liminal period of pregnancy as they develop their new maternal identity and begin reconstructing their professional identity in light of impending motherhood’ (Ladge et al. 2012: 1453). A set of general questions including ‘How do women manage their work identity while pregnant?’ guided the research, ‘but as we moved through the data, we were open to making adjustments to these questions ... based on our own interpretations of the data and the interpretations of respondents’ (Ladge et al. 2012: 1455).

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Step 2. Selecting relevant site(s) and subjects. The first stage of the project involved a pilot study of ten inter- views with pregnant women who were either pregnant with their first child or within six months of having given birth to their first child. Interviewees had a minimum of three years’ professional experience and were planning on returning to work after their maternity leave.

Step 3. Collection of relevant data. The researchers justify their choice of qualitative research methods as a response to calls from work-life scholars for more research that explores the lived experience of participants, their choice of semi-structured interview methods enabling the exploration of women’s work experience while pregnant. Interviews were between 60 and 90 minutes’ duration and were taped and transcribed verbatim.

Step4. Interpretation of data. Ladge et al. describe their study as based on a grounded theory approach. The process of analysis began by developing a set of codes that emerged inductively from the interviews. The three researchers worked together to develop shared agreement on these codes, each coding a subset of the transcripts independently and then meeting up to compare and consolidate, returning to the literature and then recoding. Following techniques developed by Strauss and Corbin (1990), they went through several cycles of this process. Eventually, ‘after coding 29 interviews, we felt we had reached the point of theoretical saturation because no new codes were being generated’ (Ladge, et al., 2012: 1456).

Step 5. Conceptual and theoretical work. Consistent with their grounded theory approach, Ladge et al. describe their goal as to expand knowledge about liminal periods and to build new theory about identity transitions. The researchers therefore develop a theoretical model (in the form of a detailed flow diagram) to illustrate the experiences of identity transitions in liminal periods. In this model, pregnancy is labelled as a ‘triggering event’ that evokes identity uncertainty. The emphasis in this model is on explaining the process of identity transition as it unfolds in the liminal period.

Step 5a. Tighter specification of the research question(s), and Step 5b. Collection of further data.

Having done the pilot study, Ladge et al. refined their definition of the population being studied, their theoretical frame, and the questions that comprised the interview protocol. The extent of these changes illustrates the extent to which qualitative researchers are flexible in their approach to study, changing direction in the course of the investigation, a point which we will return to later in this chapter. They explain: ‘we learned from the pilot study that we needed to focus on a precise segment of working women ... Thus, we decided to focus our attention on women who had at least three years professional experience’. The women in this second sample held a variety of professional occupations, including manager, lawyer, and college professor. Through analysis of the interview transcripts from the pilot study, the researchers returned to the literature on identity transitions ‘and recognized that pregnancy represents a liminal space. Thus, we modified our full study to focus exclusively on pregnant women, excluding those who had given birth’ (Ladge et al. 2012: 1453– 1454). They then interviewed a further 25 women based on these refined sampling criteria. A snowball sampling technique was used to identify participants in the main study. Initially this involved publicising the study via University alumni and professional networks. Although they do not make this explicit, all of the interviews appear to have been conducted in the United States, where the three researchers are based. Ladge et al. give much more detail about the interview questions they asked in the main study than they do for the pilot. Questions covered three main themes. The first set asked participants to share thoughts and ideals related to work and pregnancy in light of their backgrounds—an example would be ‘What aspects of your youth and history have formulated your views of motherhood?’ A second set probed women’s experiences of pregnancy and work, e.g. ‘Tell the story about when you first found out that you were pregnant’. A third group of questions explored women’s specific experiences in the workplace related to their pregnancy and their strategies for managing pregnancy in the work- place. Such a strategy is frequently referred to as iterative: the stages of data collection and analysis take place in parallel, as initial stages of data collection and analysis are used to refine subsequent phases of data collection and analysis.

Step 6. Writing up findings/conclusions. There is no real difference between the significance of writing up in quantitative research and qualitative research, so that exactly the same points made in relation to Step 11 in Figure 7.1 apply here. An audience has to be convinced about the credibility and

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

significance of the interpretations offered. Researchers are not and cannot be simply conduits for the things they see and the words they hear. The salience of what researchers have seen and heard has to be impressed on the audience. Ladge et al. do this by making clear the theoretical and practical implications of their study. They also suggest how the findings from this study may be generalizable to other situations where a future nonwork role has an impact on one’s work role, such as when a manager finds himself with responsibilities to care for an aging parent. The practical implications arising from the study relate to the role of organizations in more proactively supporting women during pregnancy, ‘as they wrestle with conceptualizing possible selves’ (Ladge et al. 2012: 1467), rather than providing work-life support for working mothers when they return to work after the baby is born.

Page reference: 357-358 *a. General research questions b. Analysis of variance *c. Interpretation of data d. Construction of hypothesis Type: true-false Title: Chapter 17 - Question 07 07) Blumer’s (1954) idea of “sensitising concepts” argued for the use of a definitive concept in social research a. True Feedback: Blumer (1954) argued stridently against the use of definitive concepts in social research.

The idea of definitive concepts is typified by the way in which, in quantitative research, a concept, once developed, becomes fixed through the elaboration of indicators. For Blumer, such an approach entailed the application of a straitjacket on the social world, because the concept in question comes to be seen exclusively in terms of the indicators that have been developed for it. Fine nuances in the form that the concept can assume or alternative ways of viewing the concept and its manifestations are sidelined. In other words, definitive concepts are excessively concerned with what is common to the phenomena that the concept is supposed to subsume rather than with variety. Instead, Blumer recommended that social researchers should recognize that the concepts they use are sensitizing concepts in that they provide ‘a general sense of reference and guidance in approaching empirical instances’ (1954: 7).

Page reference: 361 *b. False Feedback: Blumer (1954) argued stridently against the use of definitive concepts in social research.

The idea of definitive concepts is typified by the way in which, in quantitative research, a concept, once developed, becomes fixed through the elaboration of indicators. For Blumer, such an approach entailed the application of a straitjacket on the social world, because the concept in question comes to be seen exclusively in terms of the indicators that have been developed for it. Fine nuances in the form that the concept can assume or alternative ways of viewing the concept and its manifestations are sidelined. In other words, definitive concepts are excessively concerned with what is common to the phenomena that the concept is supposed to subsume rather than with variety. Instead, Blumer recommended that social researchers should recognize that the concepts they use are sensitizing concepts in that they provide ‘a general sense of reference and guidance in approaching empirical instances’ (1954: 7).

Page reference: 361 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 17 - Question 08 08) The terms “reliability” and “validity” have no relevance to qualitative research, they are more applicable to quantitative research. a. True Feedback: In Chapters 3 and 7 it was noted that reliability and validity are important criteria in establishing and assessing the quality of research for the quantitative researcher.

However, there has been discussion among qualitative researchers concerning the relevance of reliability and validity for qualitative research. Even writers who do take the view that the criteria are relevant have considered the possibility that the meanings of the terms need to be altered. For example, the issue of measurement validity almost by definition seems to carry connotations of

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

measurement. Since measurement is not a major preoccupation among qualitative researchers, the issue of validity would seem to have little bearing on such studies. As foreshadowed briefly in Chapter 3, a number of stances have been taken by qualitative researchers in relation to these issues.

Page reference: 362 *b. False Feedback: In Chapters 3 and 7 it was noted that reliability and validity are important criteria in establishing and assessing the quality of research for the quantitative researcher.

However, there has been discussion among qualitative researchers concerning the relevance of reliability and validity for qualitative research. Even writers who do take the view that the criteria are relevant have considered the possibility that the meanings of the terms need to be altered. For example, the issue of measurement validity almost by definition seems to carry connotations of measurement. Since measurement is not a major preoccupation among qualitative researchers, the issue of validity would seem to have little bearing on such studies. As foreshadowed briefly in Chapter 3, a number of stances have been taken by qualitative researchers in relation to these issues.

Page reference: 362 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 17 - Question 09 09) Which of the following is not a criterion typically associated with the term “trustworthiness”? a. Credibility Feedback: Trustworthiness is made up of four criteria, each of which has an equivalent criterion in quantitative research: credibility, which parallels internal validity; transferability, which parallels external validity; dependability, which parallels reliability; confirmability, which parallels objectivity.

Page reference: 363 b. Dependability Feedback: Trustworthiness is made up of four criteria, each of which has an equivalent criterion in quantitative research: credibility, which parallels internal validity; transferability, which parallels external validity; dependability, which parallels reliability; confirmability, which parallels objectivity.

Page reference: 363 c. Confirmability Feedback: Trustworthiness is made up of four criteria, each of which has an equivalent criterion in quantitative research: credibility, which parallels internal validity; transferability, which parallels external validity; dependability, which parallels reliability; confirmability, which parallels objectivity.

Page reference: 363 *d. Adaptability Feedback: Trustworthiness is made up of four criteria, each of which has an equivalent criterion in quantitative research: credibility, which parallels internal validity; transferability, which parallels external validity; dependability, which parallels reliability; confirmability, which parallels objectivity.

Page reference: 363 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 17 - Question 10 10) Which if the following is not associated with interpretivism? a. Symbolic interactionism

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Feedback: As noted in Chapter 7, quantitative and qualitative research exhibit a set of distinctive but contrasting preoccupations. These preoccupations reflect epistemologically grounded beliefs about what constitutes acceptable knowledge. In Chapter 2 it was suggested that, at the level of epistemology, whereas quantitative research is profoundly influenced by a natural science approach of what should count as acceptable knowledge, qualitative researchers are more influenced by interpretivism (see Key concept 2.10). This position is the product of the confluence of three related stances: Weber’s notion of Verstehen; symbolic interactionism; and phenomenology. In this section, five distinctive preoccupations among qualitative researchers will be outlined and examined.

Page reference: 366 b. Verstehen Feedback: As noted in Chapter 7, quantitative and qualitative research exhibit a set of distinctive but contrasting preoccupations. These preoccupations reflect epistemologically grounded beliefs about what constitutes acceptable knowledge. In Chapter 2 it was suggested that, at the level of epistemology, whereas quantitative research is profoundly influenced by a natural science approach of what should count as acceptable knowledge, qualitative researchers are more influenced by interpretivism (see Key concept 2.10). This position is the product of the confluence of three related stances: Weber’s notion of Verstehen; symbolic interactionism; and phenomenology. In this section, five distinctive preoccupations among qualitative researchers will be outlined and examined.

Page reference: 366 *c. Critical realism Feedback: As noted in Chapter 7, quantitative and qualitative research exhibit a set of distinctive but contrasting preoccupations. These preoccupations reflect epistemologically grounded beliefs about what constitutes acceptable knowledge. In Chapter 2 it was suggested that, at the level of epistemology, whereas quantitative research is profoundly influenced by a natural science approach of what should count as acceptable knowledge, qualitative researchers are more influenced by interpretivism (see Key concept 2.10). This position is the product of the confluence of three related stances: Weber’s notion of Verstehen; symbolic interactionism; and phenomenology. In this section, five distinctive preoccupations among qualitative researchers will be outlined and examined.

Page reference: 366 d. Phenomenology Feedback: As noted in Chapter 7, quantitative and qualitative research exhibit a set of distinctive but contrasting preoccupations. These preoccupations reflect epistemologically grounded beliefs about what constitutes acceptable knowledge. In Chapter 2 it was suggested that, at the level of epistemology, whereas quantitative research is profoundly influenced by a natural science approach of what should count as acceptable knowledge, qualitative researchers are more influenced by interpretivism (see Key concept 2.10). This position is the product of the confluence of three related stances: Weber’s notion of Verstehen; symbolic interactionism; and phenomenology. In this section, five distinctive preoccupations among qualitative researchers will be outlined and examined.

Page reference: 366 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 17 - Question 11 11) A key preoccupation in qualitative research is seeing the world through the eyes of the researcher. a. True Feedback: It is not surprising, therefore, that many researchers make claims in their reports of their investigations about having sought to take the views of the people they studied as the point of departure (see Research in focus 17.8). This tendency reveals itself in frequent references to empathy and seeing through others’ eyes. Here are some examples.

Page reference: 366 *b. False Feedback: It is not surprising, therefore, that many researchers make claims in their reports of their investigations about having sought to take the views of the people they studied as the point of departure (see Research in focus 17.8). This tendency reveals itself in frequent references to empathy and seeing through others’ eyes. Here are some examples.

Page reference: 366

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 17 - Question 12 12) In qualitative research there is a strong emphasis upon social life in terms of processes. *a. True Feedback: Qualitative research tends to view social life in terms of processes.

Page reference: 368 b. False Feedback: Qualitative research tends to view social life in terms of processes.

Page reference: 368 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 17 - Question 13 13) Which of the following is not a critique of qualitative research? a. It is too subjective Feedback: In a similar way to the criticisms that have been levelled at quantitative research mainly by qualitative researchers, a parallel critique has been built up of qualitative research. These are some of the more common issues raised.

Qualitative research is too subjective Quantitative researchers sometimes criticize qualitative research as being too impressionistic and subjective. By these criticisms they usually mean that qualitative findings rely too much on the researcher’s often unsystematic views about what is significant and important, and also upon the close personal relationships that the researcher frequently strikes up with the people studied.

Precisely because qualitative research often begins in a relatively open-ended way and entails a gradual narrowing-down of research questions or problems, the consumer of the writings deriving from the research is given few clues as to why one area was the chosen area upon which attention was focused rather than another. By contrast, quantitative researchers point to the tendency for the problem formulation stage in their work to be more explicitly stated in terms of such matters as the existing literature on that topic and key theoretical ideas.

Difficult to replicate Quantitative researchers also often argue that these tendencies are made more problematic because of the difficulty of replicating a qualitative study, although replication is by no means a straightforward matter regardless of this particular issue (see Chapter 7). Precisely because it is unstructured and reliant upon the qualitative researcher’s ingenuity, it is almost impossible to conduct a true replication, since there are hardly any standard procedures to be followed. In qualitative research, the investigator him- or herself is the main instrument of data collection, so that what is observed and heard and also what the researcher decides to concentrate upon is very much a product of his or her preferences.

There are several possible components of this criticism: what qualitative researchers (especially perhaps in ethnography) choose to focus upon while in the field is a product of what strikes them as significant, whereas other researchers are likely to empathize with other issues; the responses of participants (people being observed or inter- viewed) to qualitative researchers are likely to be affected by the characteristics of the researcher (personality, age, gender, and so on); and, because of the unstructured nature of qualitative data, interpretation will be profoundly influenced by the subjective leanings of a researcher. Because of such factors it is di cult to replicate qualitative findings. The difficulties ethnographers experience when they revisit grounds previously trodden by another researcher (often referred to as a ‘restudy’) do not inspire confidence in the replicability of qualitative research (Bryman 1994).

Problems of generalization It is often suggested that the scope of the findings of qualitative investigations is restricted. When participant observation is used or when unstructured interviews are conducted with a small number of individuals in a certain organization or locality, they argue that it is impossible to know how the findings can be generalized to other settings. How can just one or two cases be representative of all cases? In other words, can we really treat Perlow’s (1997; see Key concept 19.1) research on the time and the work–life balance of software engineers in a high-tech corporation in the USA as representative of all software engineers; or Ladge et al.’s (2012) research on pregnant women professionals as representative of the identity transition experiences of women working in nonprofessional occupations? In the case of research based on interviews rather than participation, can

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

we treat interviewees who have not been selected through a probability procedure or even quota sampling as representative? Are Watson’s (1994a) managers typical of all managers working within the telecommunications industry, or are Ram’s (1994; see Research in focus 19.5) small-firm case studies in the West Midlands typical of small firms elsewhere?

The answer in all these cases is, of course, emphatically ‘no’. A case study is not a sample of one drawn from a known population. Similarly, the people who are inter- viewed in qualitative research are not meant to be representative of a population and indeed, in some cases, like managers, we may find it more or less impossible to enumerate the population in any precise manner. Instead, the findings of qualitative research are to generalize to theory rather than to populations. It is ‘the cogency of the theoretical reasoning’ (J. C. Mitchell 1983: 207), rather than statistical criteria, that is decisive in considering the generalizability of the findings of qualitative research. In other words, it is the quality of the theoretical inferences that are made out of qualitative data that is crucial to the assessment of generalization.

These three criticisms reflect many of the preoccupations of quantitative research that were discussed in Chapter 7. A further criticism that is often made of qualitative research, but that is perhaps less influenced by quantitative research criteria, is the suggestion that qualitative research frequently lacks transparency in how the research was conducted.

Lack of transparency It is sometimes di cult to establish from qualitative research what the researcher actually did and how he or she arrived at the study’s conclusions. For example, qualitative research reports are sometimes unclear about such matters as how people were chosen for observation or interview. This deficiency contrasts sharply with the sometimes laborious accounts of sampling procedures in reports of quantitative research. However, it does not seem plausible to suggest that outlining in some detail the ways in which research participants are selected constitutes the application of quantitative research criteria. Readers have a right to know to what extent research participants were selected to correspond to a wide range of people. Also, the process of qualitative data analysis is frequently unclear (see Bryman and Burgess 1994a). It is often not obvious how the analysis was conducted— in other words, what the researcher was actually doing when the data were analysed and therefore how the study’s conclusions were arrived at. These issues of lack of transparency are being addressed (see Thinking deeply 17.12), but not always in ways that are consistent with the principles of qualitative research.

Page reference: 374-375 *b. It is too simplistic Feedback: In a similar way to the criticisms that have been levelled at quantitative research mainly by qualitative researchers, a parallel critique has been built up of qualitative research. These are some of the more common issues raised.

Qualitative research is too subjective Quantitative researchers sometimes criticize qualitative research as being too impressionistic and subjective. By these criticisms they usually mean that qualitative findings rely too much on the researcher’s often unsystematic views about what is significant and important, and also upon the close personal relationships that the researcher frequently strikes up with the people studied.

Precisely because qualitative research often begins in a relatively open-ended way and entails a gradual narrowing-down of research questions or problems, the consumer of the writings deriving from the research is given few clues as to why one area was the chosen area upon which attention was focused rather than another. By contrast, quantitative researchers point to the tendency for the problem formulation stage in their work to be more explicitly stated in terms of such matters as the existing literature on that topic and key theoretical ideas.

Difficult to replicate Quantitative researchers also often argue that these tendencies are made more problematic because of the difficulty of replicating a qualitative study, although replication is by no means a straightforward matter regardless of this particular issue (see Chapter 7). Precisely because it is unstructured and reliant upon the qualitative researcher’s ingenuity, it is almost impossible to conduct a true replication, since there are hardly any standard procedures to be followed. In qualitative research, the investigator him- or herself is the main instrument of data collection, so that what is observed and heard and also what the researcher decides to concentrate upon is very much a product of his or her preferences.

There are several possible components of this criticism: what qualitative researchers (especially

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

perhaps in ethnography) choose to focus upon while in the field is a product of what strikes them as significant, whereas other researchers are likely to empathize with other issues; the responses of participants (people being observed or inter- viewed) to qualitative researchers are likely to be affected by the characteristics of the researcher (personality, age, gender, and so on); and, because of the unstructured nature of qualitative data, interpretation will be profoundly influenced by the subjective leanings of a researcher. Because of such factors it is di cult to replicate qualitative findings. The difficulties ethnographers experience when they revisit grounds previously trodden by another researcher (often referred to as a ‘restudy’) do not inspire confidence in the replicability of qualitative research (Bryman 1994).

Problems of generalization It is often suggested that the scope of the findings of qualitative investigations is restricted. When participant observation is used or when unstructured interviews are conducted with a small number of individuals in a certain organization or locality, they argue that it is impossible to know how the findings can be generalized to other settings. How can just one or two cases be representative of all cases? In other words, can we really treat Perlow’s (1997; see Key concept 19.1) research on the time and the work–life balance of software engineers in a high-tech corporation in the USA as representative of all software engineers; or Ladge et al.’s (2012) research on pregnant women professionals as representative of the identity transition experiences of women working in nonprofessional occupations? In the case of research based on interviews rather than participation, can we treat interviewees who have not been selected through a probability procedure or even quota sampling as representative? Are Watson’s (1994a) managers typical of all managers working within the telecommunications industry, or are Ram’s (1994; see Research in focus 19.5) small-firm case studies in the West Midlands typical of small firms elsewhere?

The answer in all these cases is, of course, emphatically ‘no’. A case study is not a sample of one drawn from a known population. Similarly, the people who are inter- viewed in qualitative research are not meant to be representative of a population and indeed, in some cases, like managers, we may find it more or less impossible to enumerate the population in any precise manner. Instead, the findings of qualitative research are to generalize to theory rather than to populations. It is ‘the cogency of the theoretical reasoning’ (J. C. Mitchell 1983: 207), rather than statistical criteria, that is decisive in considering the generalizability of the findings of qualitative research. In other words, it is the quality of the theoretical inferences that are made out of qualitative data that is crucial to the assessment of generalization.

These three criticisms reflect many of the preoccupations of quantitative research that were discussed in Chapter 7. A further criticism that is often made of qualitative research, but that is perhaps less influenced by quantitative research criteria, is the suggestion that qualitative research frequently lacks transparency in how the research was conducted.

Lack of transparency It is sometimes di cult to establish from qualitative research what the researcher actually did and how he or she arrived at the study’s conclusions. For example, qualitative research reports are sometimes unclear about such matters as how people were chosen for observation or interview. This deficiency contrasts sharply with the sometimes laborious accounts of sampling procedures in reports of quantitative research. However, it does not seem plausible to suggest that outlining in some detail the ways in which research participants are selected constitutes the application of quantitative research criteria. Readers have a right to know to what extent research participants were selected to correspond to a wide range of people. Also, the process of qualitative data analysis is frequently unclear (see Bryman and Burgess 1994a). It is often not obvious how the analysis was conducted— in other words, what the researcher was actually doing when the data were analysed and therefore how the study’s conclusions were arrived at. These issues of lack of transparency are being addressed (see Thinking deeply 17.12), but not always in ways that are consistent with the principles of qualitative research.

Page reference: 374-375 c. It lacks transparency Feedback: In a similar way to the criticisms that have been levelled at quantitative research mainly by qualitative researchers, a parallel critique has been built up of qualitative research. These are some of the more common issues raised.

Qualitative research is too subjective

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Quantitative researchers sometimes criticize qualitative research as being too impressionistic and subjective. By these criticisms they usually mean that qualitative findings rely too much on the researcher’s often unsystematic views about what is significant and important, and also upon the close personal relationships that the researcher frequently strikes up with the people studied.

Precisely because qualitative research often begins in a relatively open-ended way and entails a gradual narrowing-down of research questions or problems, the consumer of the writings deriving from the research is given few clues as to why one area was the chosen area upon which attention was focused rather than another. By contrast, quantitative researchers point to the tendency for the problem formulation stage in their work to be more explicitly stated in terms of such matters as the existing literature on that topic and key theoretical ideas.

Difficult to replicate Quantitative researchers also often argue that these tendencies are made more problematic because of the difficulty of replicating a qualitative study, although replication is by no means a straightforward matter regardless of this particular issue (see Chapter 7). Precisely because it is unstructured and reliant upon the qualitative researcher’s ingenuity, it is almost impossible to conduct a true replication, since there are hardly any standard procedures to be followed. In qualitative research, the investigator him- or herself is the main instrument of data collection, so that what is observed and heard and also what the researcher decides to concentrate upon is very much a product of his or her preferences.

There are several possible components of this criticism: what qualitative researchers (especially perhaps in ethnography) choose to focus upon while in the field is a product of what strikes them as significant, whereas other researchers are likely to empathize with other issues; the responses of participants (people being observed or inter- viewed) to qualitative researchers are likely to be affected by the characteristics of the researcher (personality, age, gender, and so on); and, because of the unstructured nature of qualitative data, interpretation will be profoundly influenced by the subjective leanings of a researcher. Because of such factors it is di cult to replicate qualitative findings. The difficulties ethnographers experience when they revisit grounds previously trodden by another researcher (often referred to as a ‘restudy’) do not inspire confidence in the replicability of qualitative research (Bryman 1994).

Problems of generalization It is often suggested that the scope of the findings of qualitative investigations is restricted. When participant observation is used or when unstructured interviews are conducted with a small number of individuals in a certain organization or locality, they argue that it is impossible to know how the findings can be generalized to other settings. How can just one or two cases be representative of all cases? In other words, can we really treat Perlow’s (1997; see Key concept 19.1) research on the time and the work–life balance of software engineers in a high-tech corporation in the USA as representative of all software engineers; or Ladge et al.’s (2012) research on pregnant women professionals as representative of the identity transition experiences of women working in nonprofessional occupations? In the case of research based on interviews rather than participation, can we treat interviewees who have not been selected through a probability procedure or even quota sampling as representative? Are Watson’s (1994a) managers typical of all managers working within the telecommunications industry, or are Ram’s (1994; see Research in focus 19.5) small-firm case studies in the West Midlands typical of small firms elsewhere?

The answer in all these cases is, of course, emphatically ‘no’. A case study is not a sample of one drawn from a known population. Similarly, the people who are inter- viewed in qualitative research are not meant to be representative of a population and indeed, in some cases, like managers, we may find it more or less impossible to enumerate the population in any precise manner. Instead, the findings of qualitative research are to generalize to theory rather than to populations. It is ‘the cogency of the theoretical reasoning’ (J. C. Mitchell 1983: 207), rather than statistical criteria, that is decisive in considering the generalizability of the findings of qualitative research. In other words, it is the quality of the theoretical inferences that are made out of qualitative data that is crucial to the assessment of generalization.

These three criticisms reflect many of the preoccupations of quantitative research that were discussed in Chapter 7. A further criticism that is often made of qualitative research, but that is perhaps less influenced by quantitative research criteria, is the suggestion that qualitative research frequently lacks transparency in how the research was conducted.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Lack of transparency It is sometimes di cult to establish from qualitative research what the researcher actually did and how he or she arrived at the study’s conclusions. For example, qualitative research reports are sometimes unclear about such matters as how people were chosen for observation or interview. This deficiency contrasts sharply with the sometimes laborious accounts of sampling procedures in reports of quantitative research. However, it does not seem plausible to suggest that outlining in some detail the ways in which research participants are selected constitutes the application of quantitative research criteria. Readers have a right to know to what extent research participants were selected to correspond to a wide range of people. Also, the process of qualitative data analysis is frequently unclear (see Bryman and Burgess 1994a). It is often not obvious how the analysis was conducted— in other words, what the researcher was actually doing when the data were analysed and therefore how the study’s conclusions were arrived at. These issues of lack of transparency are being addressed (see Thinking deeply 17.12), but not always in ways that are consistent with the principles of qualitative research.

Page reference: 374-375 d. It has a problem of generalisation Feedback: In a similar way to the criticisms that have been levelled at quantitative research mainly by qualitative researchers, a parallel critique has been built up of qualitative research. These are some of the more common issues raised.

Qualitative research is too subjective Quantitative researchers sometimes criticize qualitative research as being too impressionistic and subjective. By these criticisms they usually mean that qualitative findings rely too much on the researcher’s often unsystematic views about what is significant and important, and also upon the close personal relationships that the researcher frequently strikes up with the people studied.

Precisely because qualitative research often begins in a relatively open-ended way and entails a gradual narrowing-down of research questions or problems, the consumer of the writings deriving from the research is given few clues as to why one area was the chosen area upon which attention was focused rather than another. By contrast, quantitative researchers point to the tendency for the problem formulation stage in their work to be more explicitly stated in terms of such matters as the existing literature on that topic and key theoretical ideas.

Difficult to replicate Quantitative researchers also often argue that these tendencies are made more problematic because of the difficulty of replicating a qualitative study, although replication is by no means a straightforward matter regardless of this particular issue (see Chapter 7). Precisely because it is unstructured and reliant upon the qualitative researcher’s ingenuity, it is almost impossible to conduct a true replication, since there are hardly any standard procedures to be followed. In qualitative research, the investigator him- or herself is the main instrument of data collection, so that what is observed and heard and also what the researcher decides to concentrate upon is very much a product of his or her preferences.

There are several possible components of this criticism: what qualitative researchers (especially perhaps in ethnography) choose to focus upon while in the field is a product of what strikes them as significant, whereas other researchers are likely to empathize with other issues; the responses of participants (people being observed or inter- viewed) to qualitative researchers are likely to be affected by the characteristics of the researcher (personality, age, gender, and so on); and, because of the unstructured nature of qualitative data, interpretation will be profoundly influenced by the subjective leanings of a researcher. Because of such factors it is di cult to replicate qualitative findings. The difficulties ethnographers experience when they revisit grounds previously trodden by another researcher (often referred to as a ‘restudy’) do not inspire confidence in the replicability of qualitative research (Bryman 1994).

Problems of generalization It is often suggested that the scope of the findings of qualitative investigations is restricted. When participant observation is used or when unstructured interviews are conducted with a small number of individuals in a certain organization or locality, they argue that it is impossible to know how the findings can be generalized to other settings. How can just one or two cases be representative of all cases? In other words, can we really treat Perlow’s (1997; see Key concept 19.1) research on the time and the work–life balance of software engineers in a high-tech corporation in the USA as representative of all software engineers; or Ladge et al.’s (2012) research on pregnant women professionals as representative of the identity transition experiences of women working in non-

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professional occupations? In the case of research based on interviews rather than participation, can we treat interviewees who have not been selected through a probability procedure or even quota sampling as representative? Are Watson’s (1994a) managers typical of all managers working within the telecommunications industry, or are Ram’s (1994; see Research in focus 19.5) small-firm case studies in the West Midlands typical of small firms elsewhere?

The answer in all these cases is, of course, emphatically ‘no’. A case study is not a sample of one drawn from a known population. Similarly, the people who are inter- viewed in qualitative research are not meant to be representative of a population and indeed, in some cases, like managers, we may find it more or less impossible to enumerate the population in any precise manner. Instead, the findings of qualitative research are to generalize to theory rather than to populations. It is ‘the cogency of the theoretical reasoning’ (J. C. Mitchell 1983: 207), rather than statistical criteria, that is decisive in considering the generalizability of the findings of qualitative research. In other words, it is the quality of the theoretical inferences that are made out of qualitative data that is crucial to the assessment of generalization.

These three criticisms reflect many of the preoccupations of quantitative research that were discussed in Chapter 7. A further criticism that is often made of qualitative research, but that is perhaps less influenced by quantitative research criteria, is the suggestion that qualitative research frequently lacks transparency in how the research was conducted.

Lack of transparency It is sometimes di cult to establish from qualitative research what the researcher actually did and how he or she arrived at the study’s conclusions. For example, qualitative research reports are sometimes unclear about such matters as how people were chosen for observation or interview. This deficiency contrasts sharply with the sometimes laborious accounts of sampling procedures in reports of quantitative research. However, it does not seem plausible to suggest that outlining in some detail the ways in which research participants are selected constitutes the application of quantitative research criteria. Readers have a right to know to what extent research participants were selected to correspond to a wide range of people. Also, the process of qualitative data analysis is frequently unclear (see Bryman and Burgess 1994a). It is often not obvious how the analysis was conducted— in other words, what the researcher was actually doing when the data were analysed and therefore how the study’s conclusions were arrived at. These issues of lack of transparency are being addressed (see Thinking deeply 17.12), but not always in ways that are consistent with the principles of qualitative research.

Page reference: 374-375 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 17 - Question 14 14) Which of the following is a contrast between qualitative and quantitative research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Several writers have explored the contrasts between quantitative and qualitative research by devising tables that allow the differences to be brought out (e.g. Halfpenny 1979; Bryman 1988a; Hammersley 1992b). Table 17.1 attempts to draw out the chief contrasting features.

Numbers vs Words. Quantitative researchers are often portrayed as preoccupied with applying measurement procedures to social life, while qualitative researchers are seen as using words in the presentation of analyses of society, although, as we have emphasized, qualitative researchers are also concerned with the analysis of visual data.

Point of view of researcher vs Points of view of participants. In quantitative research, the investigator is in the driving seat. The set of concerns that he or she brings to an investigation structures the investigation. In qualitative research, the perspective of those being studied—what they see as important and significant— provides the point of orientation.

Researcher is distant vs Researcher is close. In quantitative research, researchers are uninvolved with their subjects and in some cases, as in research based on postal questionnaires or on hired interviewers, may have no contact with them at all. Sometimes, this lack of a relationship with the subjects of an investigation is regarded as desirable by quantitative researchers, because they feel

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that their objectivity might be com- promised if they become too involved with the people they study.

The qualitative researcher seeks close involvement with the people being investigated, so that he or she can genuinely understand the world through their eyes.

Theory and concepts tested in research vs Theory and concepts emergent from data. Quantitative researchers typically bring a set of concepts to bear on the research instruments being employed, so that theoretical work precedes the collection of data, whereas in qualitative research concepts and theoretical elaboration emerge out of data collection.

Static vs Process. Quantitative research is frequently depicted as presenting a static image of social reality with its emphasis on relationships between variables. Change and connections between events over time tend not to surface, other than in a mechanistic fashion. Qualitative research is often depicted as attuned to the unfolding of events over time and to the interconnections between the actions of participants of social settings.

Structured vs Unstructured. Quantitative research is typically highly structured, so that the investigator is able to examine the precise concepts and issues that are the focus of the study; in qualitative research the approach is invariably unstructured, so that the possibility of getting at actors’ meanings and of concepts emerging out of data collection is enhanced.

Generalization vs Contextual understanding. Whereas quantitative researchers want their findings to be generalizable to the relevant population, the qualitative researcher seeks an understanding of behaviour, values, beliefs, and so on in terms of the context in which the research is conducted.

Hard, reliable data vs Rich, deep data. Quantitative data are often depicted as ‘hard’ in the sense of being robust and unambiguous, owing to the precision offered by measurement. Qualitative researchers claim, by contrast, that their contextual approach and their often prolonged involvement in a setting engender rich data.

Macro vs Micro. Quantitative researchers are often depicted as involved in uncovering large-scale social trends and connections between variables, whereas qualitative researchers are seen as concerned with small-scale aspects of social reality, such as interaction.

Behaviour vs Meaning. It is sometimes suggested that the quantitative researcher is concerned with people’s behaviour and the qualitative researcher with the meaning of action.

Artificial settings vs Natural settings. Whereas quantitative researchers conduct research in a contrived context, qualitative researchers investigate people in natural environments.

Page reference: 376-377 *a. Numbers vs Words b. Order vs Chaos c. Fantasy vs Reality *d. Structured vs Unstructured Type: true-false Title: Chapter 17 - Question 15 15) In action research the action researcher and the client collaborate in the diagnosis of a problem and in the development of a solution based on the diagnosis *a. True Feedback: There is no single type of action research, but broadly it can be defined as an approach in which the action researcher and a client collaborate in the diagnosis of a problem and in the development of a solution based on the diagnosis. A common theme among business researchers is that action research output results from ‘involvement with members of an organization’ over a matter of ‘genuine concern to them’ (Eden and Huxham 1996: 75).

Page reference: 379 b. False

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Feedback: There is no single type of action research, but broadly it can be defined as an approach in which the action researcher and a client collaborate in the diagnosis of a problem and in the development of a solution based on the diagnosis. A common theme among business researchers is that action research output results from ‘involvement with members of an organization’ over a matter of ‘genuine concern to them’ (Eden and Huxham 1996: 75).

Page reference: 379

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 18 - Question 01 01) Purposive sampling is a form of probability sampling. a. True Feedback: Purposive sampling is a non-probability form of sampling.

Page reference: 389 *b. False Feedback: Purposive sampling is a non-probability form of sampling.

Page reference: 389 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 18 - Question 02 02) The goal of purpose sampling is to sample cases/participants in a strategic way, so that those sampled are relevant to the research questions that are being posed. *a. True Feedback: The goal of purposive sampling is to sample cases/participants in a strategic way, so that those sampled are relevant to the research questions that are being posed.

Page reference: 389 b. False Feedback: The goal of purposive sampling is to sample cases/participants in a strategic way, so that those sampled are relevant to the research questions that are being posed.

Page reference: 389 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 18 - Question 03 03) Which of the following is not a purposive sampling approach? a. Theoretical sampling Feedback: The following is a list of some prominent types of purposive sample that have been identified by writers such as Patton (1990) and Palys (2008): 1. Extreme or deviant case sampling. Sampling cases that are unusual or that are unusually at the far end(s) of a particular dimension of interest.

2. Typical case sampling. Sampling a case because it exemplifies a dimension of interest.

3. Critical case sampling. Sampling a crucial case that permits a logical inference about the phenomenon of interest—for example, a case might be chosen precisely because it is anticipated that it might allow a theory to be tested.

4. Maximum variation sampling. Sampling to ensure as wide a variation as possible in terms of the dimension of interest.

5. Criterion sampling. Sampling all units (cases or individuals) that meet a particular criterion.

6. Theoretical sampling. See Key concept 18.3.

7. Snowballsampling.SeeResearchinfocus18.6.

8. Opportunistic sampling. Capitalizing on opportunities to collect data from certain individuals, contact with whom is largely unforeseen but who may provide data relevant to the research question.

9. Stratified purposive sampling. Sampling of usually typical cases or individuals within subgroups of interest.

Page reference: 390 b. Snowball sampling Feedback: The following is a list of some prominent types of purposive sample that have been identified by writers such as Patton (1990) and Palys (2008): 1. Extreme or deviant case sampling. Sampling cases that are unusual or that are unusually at the far end(s) of a particular dimension of interest.

2. Typical case sampling. Sampling a case because it exemplifies a dimension of interest.

3. Critical case sampling. Sampling a crucial case that permits a logical inference about the phenomenon of interest—for example, a case might be chosen precisely because it is anticipated that it might allow a theory to be tested.

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4. Maximum variation sampling. Sampling to ensure as wide a variation as possible in terms of the dimension of interest.

5. Criterion sampling. Sampling all units (cases or individuals) that meet a particular criterion.

6. Theoretical sampling. See Key concept 18.3.

7. Snowballsampling.SeeResearchinfocus18.6.

8. Opportunistic sampling. Capitalizing on opportunities to collect data from certain individuals, contact with whom is largely unforeseen but who may provide data relevant to the research question.

9. Stratified purposive sampling. Sampling of usually typical cases or individuals within subgroups of interest.

Page reference: 390 c. Opportunistic sampling Feedback: The following is a list of some prominent types of purposive sample that have been identified by writers such as Patton (1990) and Palys (2008): 1. Extreme or deviant case sampling. Sampling cases that are unusual or that are unusually at the far end(s) of a particular dimension of interest.

2. Typical case sampling. Sampling a case because it exemplifies a dimension of interest.

3. Critical case sampling. Sampling a crucial case that permits a logical inference about the phenomenon of interest—for example, a case might be chosen precisely because it is anticipated that it might allow a theory to be tested.

4. Maximum variation sampling. Sampling to ensure as wide a variation as possible in terms of the dimension of interest.

5. Criterion sampling. Sampling all units (cases or individuals) that meet a particular criterion.

6. Theoretical sampling. See Key concept 18.3.

7. Snowballsampling.SeeResearchinfocus18.6.

8. Opportunistic sampling. Capitalizing on opportunities to collect data from certain individuals, contact with whom is largely unforeseen but who may provide data relevant to the research question.

9. Stratified purposive sampling. Sampling of usually typical cases or individuals within subgroups of interest.

Page reference: 390 *d. Cluster sampling Feedback: The following is a list of some prominent types of purposive sample that have been identified by writers such as Patton (1990) and Palys (2008): 1. Extreme or deviant case sampling. Sampling cases that are unusual or that are unusually at the far end(s) of a particular dimension of interest.

2. Typical case sampling. Sampling a case because it exemplifies a dimension of interest.

3. Critical case sampling. Sampling a crucial case that permits a logical inference about the phenomenon of interest—for example, a case might be chosen precisely because it is anticipated that it might allow a theory to be tested.

4. Maximum variation sampling. Sampling to ensure as wide a variation as possible in terms of the dimension of interest.

5. Criterion sampling. Sampling all units (cases or individuals) that meet a particular criterion.

6. Theoretical sampling. See Key concept 18.3.

7. Snowballsampling.SeeResearchinfocus18.6.

8. Opportunistic sampling. Capitalizing on opportunities to collect data from certain individuals, contact with whom is largely unforeseen but who may provide data relevant to the research question.

9. Stratified purposive sampling. Sampling of usually typical cases or individuals within subgroups of interest.

Page reference: 390 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 18 - Question 04 04) Theoretical sampling is a form of purposive sampling associated with a qualitative data analysis approach known as grounded theory. *a. True

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Feedback: One form of purposive sampling is theoretical sampling (see Key concept 18.3), advocated by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and Strauss and Corbin (1998) in the context of an approach to qualitative data analysis they developed known as grounded theory.

Page reference: 391 b. False Feedback: One form of purposive sampling is theoretical sampling (see Key concept 18.3), advocated by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and Strauss and Corbin (1998) in the context of an approach to qualitative data analysis they developed known as grounded theory.

Page reference: 391 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 18 - Question 05 05) In theoretical saturation, the researcher acknowledges that they need to collect more data to substantiate the categories they’ve identified. a. True Feedback: In grounded theory, you carry on collecting data (observing, interviewing, collecting documents) through theoretical sampling until theoretical saturation (see Key concept 18.4) has been achieved. This means that successive interviews/observations have both formed the basis for the creation of a category and confirmed its importance and there is no need to continue with data collection in relation to that category or cluster of categories; instead, the researcher should move on and generate hypotheses out of the categories that are building up and then move on to collecting data in relation to these hypotheses.

Page reference: 393 *b. False Feedback: In grounded theory, you carry on collecting data (observing, interviewing, collecting documents) through theoretical sampling until theoretical saturation (see Key concept 18.4) has been achieved. This means that successive interviews/observations have both formed the basis for the creation of a category and confirmed its importance and there is no need to continue with data collection in relation to that category or cluster of categories; instead, the researcher should move on and generate hypotheses out of the categories that are building up and then move on to collecting data in relation to these hypotheses.

Page reference: 393 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 18 - Question 06 06) Snowball sampling is: Feedback: In certain respects, snowball sampling is a form of convenience sample, but it is worth distinguishing because it has attracted quite a lot of attention over the years. With this approach to sampling, the researcher makes initial contact with a small group of people who are relevant to the research topic and then uses these to establish contacts with others. Bryman used an approach like this to create a sample of British visitors to Disney theme parks (Bryman 1999). Another example of snowball sampling is given in the study by Venter et al. (2005) (see Research in focus 18.6), where this technique was used to identify owner-managers and successors of small and medium-sized family businesses in South Africa. A snowball sample is in no sense random, because there is no way of knowing the precise extent of the population from which it would have to be drawn. In other words, there is no accessible sampling frame for the population from which the sample is to be taken, and the difficulty of creating such a sampling frame means that such an approach is the only feasible one.

Page reference: 395 *a. All of the below b. A form of convenience sampling c. Not a random sampling approach d. A method where the researcher makes contact with a small group of people and uses them to make contact with others.

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 18 - Question 07 07) Snowball sampling is a form of convenience sampling

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*a. True Feedback: In certain respects, snowball sampling is a form of convenience sample, but it is worth distinguishing because it has attracted quite a lot of attention over the years.

Page reference: 395 b. False Feedback: In certain respects, snowball sampling is a form of convenience sample, but it is worth distinguishing because it has attracted quite a lot of attention over the years.

Page reference: 395

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 18 - Question 08 08) In snowball sampling, the researcher gathers different contacts but is careful that they will never meet each other or get to know of the purpose of the research. a. True Feedback: With this approach to sampling, the researcher makes initial contact with a small group of people who are relevant to the research topic and then uses these to establish contacts with others.

Page reference: 395 *b. False Feedback: With this approach to sampling, the researcher makes initial contact with a small group of people who are relevant to the research topic and then uses these to establish contacts with others.

Page reference: 395 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 18 - Question 09 09) At the outset of any qualitative research project, the researcher should be able to determine how many people should be interviewed. a. True Feedback: One of the problems that the qualitative researcher faces is that it can be difficult to establish at the outset how many people will be interviewed if theoretical considerations guide selection.

Page reference: 397 *b. False Feedback: One of the problems that the qualitative researcher faces is that it can be difficult to establish at the outset how many people will be interviewed if theoretical considerations guide selection.

Page reference: 397 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 18 - Question 10 10) In most Business Research, saturation is claimed, justified and explained. a. True Feedback: If saturation is the criterion for sample size, specifying minimum or maximum sample sizes is pointless. Essentially, the criterion for sample size is whatever it takes to achieve saturation.

The problem is that, as several writers observe (e.g. Guest et al. 2006; Mason 2010), saturation is often claimed but not justified or explained (Bowen 2008). See Thinking deeply 18.7 for more on this issue.

Page reference: 398 *b. False Feedback: If saturation is the criterion for sample size, specifying minimum or maximum sample sizes is pointless. Essentially, the criterion for sample size is whatever it takes to achieve saturation.

The problem is that, as several writers observe (e.g. Guest et al. 2006; Mason 2010), saturation is often claimed but not justified or explained (Bowen 2008). See Thinking deeply 18.7 for more on this issue.

Page reference: 398 Type: true-false

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Title: Chapter 18 - Question 11 11) Purposive sampling can involve more than one sampling approach. *a. True Feedback: Purposive sampling often involves more than one of the approaches outlined above.

Page reference: 400 b. False Feedback: Purposive sampling often involves more than one of the approaches outlined above.

Page reference: 400 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 18 - Question 13 13) What is generic purposive sampling?

Feedback: Generic purposive sampling is a category that subsumes several of the sampling strategies, though not theoretical sampling. Generic purposive sampling may be employed in a sequential or in a fixed manner and the criteria for selecting cases or individuals may be formed a priori (for example, socio-demographic criteria) or be contingent or a mixture of both. In most of the examples discussed in this book, generic purposive sampling is fixed and a priori. However, the criteria employed are ones that are informed by the research questions. When using a generic purposive sampling approach with respect to the selection of cases or contexts, the researcher establishes criteria concerning the kinds of cases needed to address the research questions, identifies appropriate cases, and then samples from those cases that have been identified. When contexts are being sampled, it is common for some form of generic purposive sampling to be employed.

Page reference: 394 a. When the researcher purposely creates a generic sampling frame. *b. When the researcher establishes criteria concerning the kinds of cases needed to address the research questions, identifies appropriate cases, and then samples from those cases that have been identified. c. When the researcher establishes a generic set of questions to ask his or her participants. d. When the researcher reviews many samples generically.

Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 18 - Question 14 14) Why is an ethnographic study unlikely to use a probability sample?

Feedback: Ethnographic research tends to rely on convenience or snowball sampling, because the ethnographer can only glean information from whoever is prepared to talk to them. The shifting population of such groups also makes it difficult to map out the sampling frame from which a probability sample could be selected. However, as a qualitative research design, it is generally seen as more important for this technique to lead to interpretive understanding than to statistical generalisation.

Page reference: 396 a. Because the aim of understanding is more important than that of generalization. b. Because the researcher cannot control who is willing to talk to them. c. Because it is difficult to identify a sampling frame. *d. All of the above.

Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 18 - Question 15 15) In addition to people, what else can we sample as researchers?

Feedback: The principles of purposive sampling can be applied to such things as documents, in much the same way that probability sampling can be applied to different kinds of phenomena to generate a representative sample. Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) mention time and context as units that need to be considered in the context of sampling.

Page reference: 399 a. Context and Snowballing b. Context and construct

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*c. Context and Time d. Context and Participant personalities

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 19 - Question 01 01) Ethnography and participant observation are easy to distinguish. a. True Feedback: Definitions of ethnography and participant observation are difficult to distinguish.

Page reference: 404 *b. False Feedback: Definitions of ethnography and participant observation are difficult to distinguish.

Page reference: 404 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 19 - Question 02 02) Ethnography denotes the practice of writing about: a. People and organisations Feedback: Since the 1980s the popularity of organizational culture as a concept has meant that ethnographic methods have enjoyed something of a revival within business and management research. Ethnography, which denotes the practice of writing (graphy) about people and cultures (ethno), has provided researchers with an obvious method for understanding work organizations as cultural entities.

Page reference: 405 *b. People and cultures Feedback: Since the 1980s the popularity of organizational culture as a concept has meant that ethnographic methods have enjoyed something of a revival within business and management research. Ethnography, which denotes the practice of writing (graphy) about people and cultures (ethno), has provided researchers with an obvious method for understanding work organizations as cultural entities.

Page reference: 405 c. People and machines Feedback: Since the 1980s the popularity of organizational culture as a concept has meant that ethnographic methods have enjoyed something of a revival within business and management research. Ethnography, which denotes the practice of writing (graphy) about people and cultures (ethno), has provided researchers with an obvious method for understanding work organizations as cultural entities.

Page reference: 405 d. People and religion Feedback: Since the 1980s the popularity of organizational culture as a concept has meant that ethnographic methods have enjoyed something of a revival within business and management research. Ethnography, which denotes the practice of writing (graphy) about people and cultures (ethno), has provided researchers with an obvious method for understanding work organizations as cultural entities.

Page reference: 405 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 19 – Question 03 03) In ethnography, gaining access to the social setting is one of the least difficult steps. a. True Feedback: One of the key and yet most difficult steps in ethnography is gaining access to a social setting that is relevant to the research problem in which you are interested.

Page reference: 407 *b. False Feedback: One of the key and yet most difficult steps in ethnography is gaining access to a social setting that is relevant to the research problem in which you are interested.

Page reference: 407

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Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 19 - Question 04 04) Which of the following would not typically be considered a data collection source in an ethnographic study? *a. Questionnaire Feedback: Prasad et al. (2011) conducted a four-year-long multi-sited ethnography of six organizations from the Canadian petroleum and insurance industries. Their focus was on the workplace diversity management programmes that had been implemented in these organizations, and on the discourse of fashion that had shaped the implementation process. In each of the six organizations, three components of data collection were involved: 1. Ethnographic observations: primarily this involved observing diversity training sessions, internal meetings, a diversity conference, and diversity training for HR professionals delivered by external consultants; 2. In-depth ethnographic interviews: with diversity consultants and trainers, personnel and HR directors, diversity managers, and participants in diversity workshops: 3. Examination of documents: related to the diversity management process, including brochures, videos, training exercises, and cases.

Page reference: 421 b. Observation Feedback: Prasad et al. (2011) conducted a four-year-long multi-sited ethnography of six organizations from the Canadian petroleum and insurance industries. Their focus was on the workplace diversity management programmes that had been implemented in these organizations, and on the discourse of fashion that had shaped the implementation process. In each of the six organizations, three components of data collection were involved: 1. Ethnographic observations: primarily this involved observing diversity training sessions, internal meetings, a diversity conference, and diversity training for HR professionals delivered by external consultants; 2. In-depth ethnographic interviews: with diversity consultants and trainers, personnel and HR directors, diversity managers, and participants in diversity workshops: 3. Examination of documents: related to the diversity management process, including brochures, videos, training exercises, and cases.

Page reference: 421 c. Interview Feedback: Prasad et al. (2011) conducted a four-year-long multi-sited ethnography of six organizations from the Canadian petroleum and insurance industries. Their focus was on the workplace diversity management programmes that had been implemented in these organizations, and on the discourse of fashion that had shaped the implementation process. In each of the six organizations, three components of data collection were involved: 1. Ethnographic observations: primarily this involved observing diversity training sessions, internal meetings, a diversity conference, and diversity training for HR professionals delivered by external consultants; 2. In-depth ethnographic interviews: with diversity consultants and trainers, personnel and HR directors, diversity managers, and participants in diversity workshops: 3. Examination of documents: related to the diversity management process, including brochures, videos, training exercises, and cases.

Page reference: 421 d. Documents Feedback: Prasad et al. (2011) conducted a four-year-long multi-sited ethnography of six organizations from the Canadian petroleum and insurance industries. Their focus was on the workplace diversity management programmes that had been implemented in these organizations, and on the discourse of fashion that had shaped the implementation process. In each of the six organizations, three components of data collection were involved: 1. Ethnographic observations: primarily this involved observing diversity training sessions, internal meetings, a diversity conference, and diversity training for HR professionals delivered by external consultants; 2. In-depth ethnographic interviews: with diversity consultants and trainers, personnel and HR directors, diversity managers, and participants in diversity workshops:

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3. Examination of documents: related to the diversity management process, including brochures, videos, training exercises, and cases.

Page reference: 421 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 19 - Question 05 05) It is considered unethical to use friends, contacts or colleagues to gain access to conduct ethnographic research in an organization. a. True Feedback: Use friends, contacts, colleagues, academics to help you gain access; provided the organization is relevant to your research question, the route should not matter.

Page reference: 407 *b. False Feedback: Use friends, contacts, colleagues, academics to help you gain access; provided the organization is relevant to your research question, the route should not matter.

Page reference: 407 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 19 - Question 06 06) The ethnographer is much more likely to be in an overt rather than covert role owing to ethical considerations. *a. True Feedback: Covert ethnography is relatively uncommon within studies of management and business.

An exception is Dalton’s (1959) classic study of managers, Men Who Manage, which focused on the gap between official and unofficial action. Dalton describes how, in setting up access, he made no formal approach to the top management of any of the four firms he studied in the heavily industrialized area of ‘Mobile Acres’ in the USA. He relied instead on his status as an employee in two of the firms he studied and relied primarily on the method of covert participant observation. Describing some of the difficulties associated with his covert research role, Dalton draws attention to the problem of ‘knowing too much’, describing how his situation became more sensitive as he acquired more unofficial information about practices such as ‘pilfering’ (employee theft of materials).

Page reference: 410 b. False Feedback: Covert ethnography is relatively uncommon within studies of management and business.

An exception is Dalton’s (1959) classic study of managers, Men Who Manage, which focused on the gap between official and unofficial action. Dalton describes how, in setting up access, he made no formal approach to the top management of any of the four firms he studied in the heavily industrialized area of ‘Mobile Acres’ in the USA. He relied instead on his status as an employee in two of the firms he studied and relied primarily on the method of covert participant observation. Describing some of the difficulties associated with his covert research role, Dalton draws attention to the problem of ‘knowing too much’, describing how his situation became more sensitive as he acquired more unofficial information about practices such as ‘pilfering’ (employee theft of materials).

Page reference: 410 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 19 - Question 07 07) Identify two ethical transgressions associated with a covert ethnographic study. Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Covert study transgresses two important ethical tenets: it does not provide participants with the opportunity for informed consent (whereby they can agree or disagree to participate on the basis of information supplied to them) and it entails deception. It can also be taken to be a violation of the principle of privacy. Indeed, ethics politics and approval procedures in many universities make it very difficult to gain approval for covert ethnography. Also, many writers take the view that, in addition to being potentially damaging to research participants, it can also harm the practice of research: there are fears about social researchers being identified by the public as snoopers or voyeurs if they are found out. The discussion of access that follows will therefore focus upon ethnographers seeking to take an overt role.

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Page reference: 411 *a. Informed consent b. Ruptured friendships *c. Practice of research d. Interpretive reflexivity Type: true-false Title: Chapter 19 - Question 08 08) Negotiation of access will always finish once you have made contact and gained an entrée to the organisation. a. True Feedback: Negotiation of access does not finish when you have made contact and gained an entrée to the organization. You still need access to people.

Page reference: 411 *b. False Feedback: Negotiation of access does not finish when you have made contact and gained an entrée to the organization. You still need access to people.

Page reference: 411 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 19 - Question 09 09) Which of the following is not a concern that group members may have about an ethnographic researcher? a. That they are there to spy on the employees Feedback: There are various concerns that group members may have, and these will affect the level of ongoing access that you are able to achieve.

People will have suspicions about you, perhaps seeing you as an instrument of top management (it is very common for members of organizations to believe that researchers are placed there to check up on them or even to mistake them for other people). For example, Roethlisberger and Dickson (1939) describe how one of the interviewers in the Hawthorne studies was mistaken for a rate setter.

• Another example is provided by Freeman (2000), who found that her research access was halted because of fears that she was a corporate spy, sent by a competitor organization to poach members of the workforce.

• People will worry that what they say or do may get back to bosses or to colleagues. Van Maanen (1991a) notes from his research on the police that, when conducting ethnographic research among officers, you are likely to observe activities that may be deeply discrediting and even illegal. Your credibility among police officers will be determined by your reactions to situations and events that are known to be di cult for individuals.

• If they have these worries, they may go along with your research, but in fact sabotage it, engaging in deceptions, misinformation, and not allowing access to ‘back regions’ (Go man 1959).

Page reference: 411 b. That anything they say to them will get back to the bosses Feedback: There are various concerns that group members may have, and these will affect the level of ongoing access that you are able to achieve.

People will have suspicions about you, perhaps seeing you as an instrument of top management (it is very common for members of organizations to believe that researchers are placed there to check up on them or even to mistake them for other people). For example, Roethlisberger and Dickson (1939) describe how one of the interviewers in the Hawthorne studies was mistaken for a rate setter.

• Another example is provided by Freeman (2000), who found that her research access was halted because of fears that she was a corporate spy, sent by a competitor organization to poach members of the workforce.

• People will worry that what they say or do may get back to bosses or to colleagues. Van Maanen (1991a) notes from his research on the police that, when conducting ethnographic research among officers, you are likely to observe activities that may be deeply discrediting

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and even illegal. Your credibility among police officers will be determined by your reactions to situations and events that are known to be di cult for individuals.

• If they have these worries, they may go along with your research, but in fact sabotage it, engaging in deceptions, misinformation, and not allowing access to ‘back regions’ (Go man 1959).

Page reference: 411 c. That they are sent by a competitor Feedback: There are various concerns that group members may have, and these will affect the level of ongoing access that you are able to achieve.

People will have suspicions about you, perhaps seeing you as an instrument of top management (it is very common for members of organizations to believe that researchers are placed there to check up on them or even to mistake them for other people). For example, Roethlisberger and Dickson (1939) describe how one of the interviewers in the Hawthorne studies was mistaken for a rate setter.

• Another example is provided by Freeman (2000), who found that her research access was halted because of fears that she was a corporate spy, sent by a competitor organization to poach members of the workforce.

• People will worry that what they say or do may get back to bosses or to colleagues. Van Maanen (1991a) notes from his research on the police that, when conducting ethnographic research among officers, you are likely to observe activities that may be deeply discrediting and even illegal. Your credibility among police officers will be determined by your reactions to situations and events that are known to be di cult for individuals.

• If they have these worries, they may go along with your research, but in fact sabotage it, engaging in deceptions, misinformation, and not allowing access to ‘back regions’ (Go man 1959).

Page reference: 411 *d. That they have a criminal record Feedback: There are various concerns that group members may have, and these will affect the level of ongoing access that you are able to achieve.

People will have suspicions about you, perhaps seeing you as an instrument of top management (it is very common for members of organizations to believe that researchers are placed there to check up on them or even to mistake them for other people). For example, Roethlisberger and Dickson (1939) describe how one of the interviewers in the Hawthorne studies was mistaken for a rate setter.

• Another example is provided by Freeman (2000), who found that her research access was halted because of fears that she was a corporate spy, sent by a competitor organization to poach members of the workforce.

• People will worry that what they say or do may get back to bosses or to colleagues. Van Maanen (1991a) notes from his research on the police that, when conducting ethnographic research among officers, you are likely to observe activities that may be deeply discrediting and even illegal. Your credibility among police officers will be determined by your reactions to situations and events that are known to be di cult for individuals.

• If they have these worries, they may go along with your research, but in fact sabotage it, engaging in deceptions, misinformation, and not allowing access to ‘back regions’ (Go man 1959).

Page reference: 411 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 19 - Question 10 10) Which of the following can you do to smooth the path of ongoing access in an ethnographic study? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: There are four things you can do to smooth the path of ongoing access: • Play up your credentials—your past work and experience; your knowledge of the organization and/or its sector; your understanding of organization members’ problems—and be prepared for tests of either competence or credibility. For example, Perlow (1997) observes that a critical factor in gaining the support of engineers at the Ditto corporation was that she came from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), as ‘there is no institution that the engineers we studied hold in higher regard’ (1997: 142).

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• Pass tests—be non-judgemental when things are said to you about informal activities or about the organization; make sure information given to you does not get back to others, whether bosses or peers. M. Parker (2000) describes how, when at the end of his fieldwork he submitted his report to management, an uncomplimentary comment about the managing director was traced back to an insufficiently anonymized source. Parker subsequently came in for a humiliating grilling from three of the company directors. He claims that this event probably damaged the manager’s reputation in the organization and the manager’s trust in him.

Page reference: 412 *a. Play up to your credentials b. Pretend to be somebody you are not *c. Pass loyalty tests d. Bribe your participants Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 19 - Question 11 11) Which of the following is not a role of an ethnographer? a. Complete participant Feedback: There are four roles: Complete participant. According to Gold, the complete participant is a fully functioning member of the social setting and his or her true identity is not known to members. As such, the complete participant is a covert observer, like D. Roy (1958) and Dalton (1959).

Participant-as-observer. This role is the same as the complete participant one, but members of the social setting are aware of the researcher’s status as a researcher. The ethnographer is engaged in regular interaction with people and participates in their daily lives and is open about their research. In organizational ethnography this frequently involves taking up either paid or unpaid employment in the research set- ting, as did Delbridge (1998) in his study of contemporary manufacturing under TQM and Sharpe (1997) in her study of Japanese work practices in a UK-based car manufacturing plant.

Observer-as-participant. In this role, the researcher is mainly an interviewer. There is some observation, but very little of it involves any participation. Many of the studies covered in Chapter 20 are of this type Complete observer. The researcher does not interact with people. According to Gold, people do not have to take the researcher into account. This kind of role relies on forms of observation that are unobtrusive in character. For example, in studies at the Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne plant, investigators spent a total of six months observing the informal social relationships between operators in the Bank Wiring Observation Room. Investigations involved an observer, who maintained a role as ‘disinterested spectator’ with the aim of observing and describing what was going on. Observation involved certain general rules: the investigator should not give orders or answer any questions that necessitated the assumption of authority; he should not enter voluntarily into any argument and generally should remain as non-committal as possible; he should not force himself into any conversation or appear anxious to overhear; he should never violate confidences or give information to supervisors; and he should not by his manner of speech or behaviour ‘set himself o from the group’ (Roethlisberger and Dickson 1939: 388–9).

However, most writers would take the view that, since ethnography entails immersion in a social setting and fairly prolonged involvement, the complete observer role should not be considered as participant observation or ethnography at all, since participation is likely to be more or less entirely missing. Some writers might also question whether research based on the observer-as-participant role can genuinely be regarded as ethnography, but, since it is likely that certain situations are unlikely to be amenable to the immersion that is a key ingredient of the method, it could be argued that to dismiss it totally as an approach to ethnography is rather restrictive. It is significant in this context that Gold referred to the four roles in relation to conducting ‘fieldwork’, which has the potential for a broader meaning than either participant observation or ethnography.

Page reference: 414 *b. Non-complete-participant

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Feedback: There are four roles: Complete participant. According to Gold, the complete participant is a fully functioning member of the social setting and his or her true identity is not known to members. As such, the complete participant is a covert observer, like D. Roy (1958) and Dalton (1959).

Participant-as-observer. This role is the same as the complete participant one, but members of the social setting are aware of the researcher’s status as a researcher. The ethnographer is engaged in regular interaction with people and participates in their daily lives and is open about their research. In organizational ethnography this frequently involves taking up either paid or unpaid employment in the research set- ting, as did Delbridge (1998) in his study of contemporary manufacturing under TQM and Sharpe (1997) in her study of Japanese work practices in a UK-based car manufacturing plant.

Observer-as-participant. In this role, the researcher is mainly an interviewer. There is some observation, but very little of it involves any participation. Many of the studies covered in Chapter 20 are of this type Complete observer. The researcher does not interact with people. According to Gold, people do not have to take the researcher into account. This kind of role relies on forms of observation that are unobtrusive in character. For example, in studies at the Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne plant, investigators spent a total of six months observing the informal social relationships between operators in the Bank Wiring Observation Room. Investigations involved an observer, who maintained a role as ‘disinterested spectator’ with the aim of observing and describing what was going on. Observation involved certain general rules: the investigator should not give orders or answer any questions that necessitated the assumption of authority; he should not enter voluntarily into any argument and generally should remain as non-committal as possible; he should not force himself into any conversation or appear anxious to overhear; he should never violate confidences or give information to supervisors; and he should not by his manner of speech or behaviour ‘set himself o from the group’ (Roethlisberger and Dickson 1939: 388–9).

However, most writers would take the view that, since ethnography entails immersion in a social setting and fairly prolonged involvement, the complete observer role should not be considered as participant observation or ethnography at all, since participation is likely to be more or less entirely missing. Some writers might also question whether research based on the observer-as-participant role can genuinely be regarded as ethnography, but, since it is likely that certain situations are unlikely to be amenable to the immersion that is a key ingredient of the method, it could be argued that to dismiss it totally as an approach to ethnography is rather restrictive. It is significant in this context that Gold referred to the four roles in relation to conducting ‘fieldwork’, which has the potential for a broader meaning than either participant observation or ethnography.

Page reference: 414 c. Observer-as-participant Feedback: There are four roles: Complete participant. According to Gold, the complete participant is a fully functioning member of the social setting and his or her true identity is not known to members. As such, the complete participant is a covert observer, like D. Roy (1958) and Dalton (1959).

Participant-as-observer. This role is the same as the complete participant one, but members of the social setting are aware of the researcher’s status as a researcher. The ethnographer is engaged in regular interaction with people and participates in their daily lives and is open about their research. In organizational ethnography this frequently involves taking up either paid or unpaid employment in the research set- ting, as did Delbridge (1998) in his study of contemporary manufacturing under TQM and Sharpe (1997) in her study of Japanese work practices in a UK-based car manufacturing plant.

Observer-as-participant. In this role, the researcher is mainly an interviewer. There is some observation, but very little of it involves any participation. Many of the studies covered in Chapter 20 are of this type

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Complete observer. The researcher does not interact with people. According to Gold, people do not have to take the researcher into account. This kind of role relies on forms of observation that are unobtrusive in character. For example, in studies at the Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne plant, investigators spent a total of six months observing the informal social relationships between operators in the Bank Wiring Observation Room. Investigations involved an observer, who maintained a role as ‘disinterested spectator’ with the aim of observing and describing what was going on. Observation involved certain general rules: the investigator should not give orders or answer any questions that necessitated the assumption of authority; he should not enter voluntarily into any argument and generally should remain as non-committal as possible; he should not force himself into any conversation or appear anxious to overhear; he should never violate confidences or give information to supervisors; and he should not by his manner of speech or behaviour ‘set himself o from the group’ (Roethlisberger and Dickson 1939: 388–9).

However, most writers would take the view that, since ethnography entails immersion in a social setting and fairly prolonged involvement, the complete observer role should not be considered as participant observation or ethnography at all, since participation is likely to be more or less entirely missing. Some writers might also question whether research based on the observer-as-participant role can genuinely be regarded as ethnography, but, since it is likely that certain situations are unlikely to be amenable to the immersion that is a key ingredient of the method, it could be argued that to dismiss it totally as an approach to ethnography is rather restrictive. It is significant in this context that Gold referred to the four roles in relation to conducting ‘fieldwork’, which has the potential for a broader meaning than either participant observation or ethnography.

Page reference: 414 d. Complete observer Feedback: There are four roles: Complete participant. According to Gold, the complete participant is a fully functioning member of the social setting and his or her true identity is not known to members. As such, the complete participant is a covert observer, like D. Roy (1958) and Dalton (1959).

Participant-as-observer. This role is the same as the complete participant one, but members of the social setting are aware of the researcher’s status as a researcher. The ethnographer is engaged in regular interaction with people and participates in their daily lives and is open about their research. In organizational ethnography this frequently involves taking up either paid or unpaid employment in the research set- ting, as did Delbridge (1998) in his study of contemporary manufacturing under TQM and Sharpe (1997) in her study of Japanese work practices in a UK-based car manufacturing plant.

Observer-as-participant. In this role, the researcher is mainly an interviewer. There is some observation, but very little of it involves any participation. Many of the studies covered in Chapter 20 are of this type Complete observer. The researcher does not interact with people. According to Gold, people do not have to take the researcher into account. This kind of role relies on forms of observation that are unobtrusive in character. For example, in studies at the Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne plant, investigators spent a total of six months observing the informal social relationships between operators in the Bank Wiring Observation Room. Investigations involved an observer, who maintained a role as ‘disinterested spectator’ with the aim of observing and describing what was going on. Observation involved certain general rules: the investigator should not give orders or answer any questions that necessitated the assumption of authority; he should not enter voluntarily into any argument and generally should remain as non-committal as possible; he should not force himself into any conversation or appear anxious to overhear; he should never violate confidences or give information to supervisors; and he should not by his manner of speech or behaviour ‘set himself o from the group’ (Roethlisberger and Dickson 1939: 388–9).

However, most writers would take the view that, since ethnography entails immersion in a social setting and fairly prolonged involvement, the complete observer role should not be considered as participant observation or ethnography at all, since participation is likely to be more or less entirely missing. Some writers might also question whether research based on the observer-as-participant

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role can genuinely be regarded as ethnography, but, since it is likely that certain situations are unlikely to be amenable to the immersion that is a key ingredient of the method, it could be argued that to dismiss it totally as an approach to ethnography is rather restrictive. It is significant in this context that Gold referred to the four roles in relation to conducting ‘fieldwork’, which has the potential for a broader meaning than either participant observation or ethnography.

Page reference: 414 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 19 - Question 12 12) Going native refers to when an ethnographer loses their sense of being a researcher and becomes wrapped up in the world view of the people they are studying, to such an extent that they are willing to engage in unethical behaviour. *a. True Feedback: ‘Going native’ refers to a plight that is supposed sometimes to afflict ethnographers when they lose their sense of being a researcher and become wrapped up in the world view of the people they are studying. The prolonged immersion of ethnographers in the lives of the people they study, coupled with the commitment to seeing the social world through their eyes, lie behind the risk and actuality of going native. Going native is a potential problem for several reasons but especially because the ethnographer can lose sight of his or her position as a researcher and therefore find it difficult to develop a socially scientific angle on the collection and analysis of data.

Page reference: 414 b. False Feedback: ‘Going native’ refers to a plight that is supposed sometimes to afflict ethnographers when they lose their sense of being a researcher and become wrapped up in the world view of the people they are studying. The prolonged immersion of ethnographers in the lives of the people they study, coupled with the commitment to seeing the social world through their eyes, lie behind the risk and actuality of going native. Going native is a potential problem for several reasons but especially because the ethnographer can lose sight of his or her position as a researcher and therefore find it difficult to develop a socially scientific angle on the collection and analysis of data.

Page reference: 414 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 19 - Question 13 13) Which of the following is not a category of field notes for an ethnographic study? a. Mental notes Feedback: Some writers have found it useful to classify the types of field notes that are generated in the process of conducting an ethnography. The following classification is based on the similar categories suggested by Lofland and Lofland (1995) and Sanjek (1990).

Mental notes: particularly useful when it is inappropriate to be seen taking notes.

Jotted notes (also called scratch notes): very brief notes written down on pieces of paper or in small notebooks to jog one’s memory about events that should be writ- ten up later. Lofland and Lofland (1995: 90) refer to these as being made up of ‘little phrases, quotes, key words, and the like’. They need to be jotted down inconspicuously, preferably out of sight, since detailed note-taking in front of people may make them self- conscious. Crang (1994) refers to his use of scratch notes in his study of waiting staff in a restaurant (see Research in focus 19.11).

Full field notes: as soon as possible, make detailed notes, which will be your main data source.

Page reference: 417 *b. Billed notes Feedback: Some writers have found it useful to classify the types of field notes that are generated in the process of conducting an ethnography. The following classification is based on the similar categories suggested by Lofland and Lofland (1995) and Sanjek (1990).

Mental notes: particularly useful when it is inappropriate to be seen taking notes.

Jotted notes (also called scratch notes): very brief notes written down on pieces of paper or in small notebooks to jog one’s memory about events that should be writ- ten up later. Lofland and Lofland (1995: 90) refer to these as being made up of ‘little phrases, quotes, key words, and the like’. They

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need to be jotted down inconspicuously, preferably out of sight, since detailed note-taking in front of people may make them self- conscious. Crang (1994) refers to his use of scratch notes in his study of waiting staff in a restaurant (see Research in focus 19.11).

Full field notes: as soon as possible, make detailed notes, which will be your main data source.

Page reference: 417 c. Jotted notes Feedback: Some writers have found it useful to classify the types of field notes that are generated in the process of conducting an ethnography. The following classification is based on the similar categories suggested by Lofland and Lofland (1995) and Sanjek (1990).

Mental notes: particularly useful when it is inappropriate to be seen taking notes.

Jotted notes (also called scratch notes): very brief notes written down on pieces of paper or in small notebooks to jog one’s memory about events that should be writ- ten up later. Lofland and Lofland (1995: 90) refer to these as being made up of ‘little phrases, quotes, key words, and the like’. They need to be jotted down inconspicuously, preferably out of sight, since detailed note-taking in front of people may make them self- conscious. Crang (1994) refers to his use of scratch notes in his study of waiting staff in a restaurant (see Research in focus 19.11).

Full field notes: as soon as possible, make detailed notes, which will be your main data source.

Page reference: 417 Incorrect d. Full field notes Feedback: Some writers have found it useful to classify the types of field notes that are generated in the process of conducting an ethnography. The following classification is based on the similar categories suggested by Lofland and Lofland (1995) and Sanjek (1990).

Mental notes: particularly useful when it is inappropriate to be seen taking notes.

Jotted notes (also called scratch notes): very brief notes written down on pieces of paper or in small notebooks to jog one’s memory about events that should be writ- ten up later. Lofland and Lofland (1995: 90) refer to these as being made up of ‘little phrases, quotes, key words, and the like’. They need to be jotted down inconspicuously, preferably out of sight, since detailed note-taking in front of people may make them self- conscious. Crang (1994) refers to his use of scratch notes in his study of waiting staff in a restaurant (see Research in focus 19.11).

Full field notes: as soon as possible, make detailed notes, which will be your main data source.

Page reference: 417 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 19 - Question 14 14) Postmodernism is most associated with which turn in the context of the social sciences? a. Positivistic turn Feedback: Postmodernism can also be seen as the stimulus for the linguistic turn in the social sciences. The linguistic turn is based on the idea that language shapes our understanding of the world. Moreover, because knowledge is constructed through language, and language can never create an objective representation of external reality, meaning is uncontrollable and undiscoverable.

Page reference: 429 b. Poetic turn Feedback: Postmodernism can also be seen as the stimulus for the linguistic turn in the social sciences. The linguistic turn is based on the idea that language shapes our understanding of the world. Moreover, because knowledge is constructed through language, and language can never create an objective representation of external reality, meaning is uncontrollable and undiscoverable.

Page reference: 429 c. Numerical turn Feedback: Postmodernism can also be seen as the stimulus for the linguistic turn in the social sciences. The linguistic turn is based on the idea that language shapes our understanding of the world. Moreover, because knowledge is constructed through language, and language can never create an objective representation of external reality, meaning is uncontrollable and undiscoverable.

Page reference: 429 *d. Linguistic turn Feedback: Postmodernism can also be seen as the stimulus for the linguistic turn in the social sciences. The linguistic turn is based on the idea that language shapes our understanding of the

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world. Moreover, because knowledge is constructed through language, and language can never create an objective representation of external reality, meaning is uncontrollable and undiscoverable.

Page reference: 429 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 19 - Question 15 15) Autoethnography involves writing the study exclusively from the position of others and the researcher tries as much as possible to exclude themselves from the account. a. True Feedback: One of the ways in which more reflexive, narrative forms of ethnographic writing have been cultivated is through the emerging cross-disciplinary genre of auto-ethnography. This relates to the interest of anthropologists in auto-anthropology (Strathern 1987), which is an autobiographical form of research that is concerned with researching settings where the cultural backgrounds of the observer and observed are shared. Auto-ethnography involves the writing of a highly personalized text in which the personal is related to the cultural and the political in a way that claims the conventions associated with literary writing.

Page reference: 429 *b. False Feedback: One of the ways in which more reflexive, narrative forms of ethnographic writing have been cultivated is through the emerging cross-disciplinary genre of auto-ethnography. This relates to the interest of anthropologists in auto-anthropology (Strathern 1987), which is an autobiographical form of research that is concerned with researching settings where the cultural backgrounds of the observer and observed are shared. Auto-ethnography involves the writing of a highly personalized text in which the personal is related to the cultural and the political in a way that claims the conventions associated with literary writing.

Page reference: 429

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 20 - Question 01 01) Which of the following is not a difference between qualitative and quantitative interviewing? a. The approach is less structured in qualitative research Feedback: Qualitative interviewing is usually very different from interviewing in quantitative research in a number of ways.

The approach tends to be much less structured in qualitative research. In quantitative research, the approach is structured to maximize the reliability and validity of measurement of key concepts. It is also more structured because the researcher has a clearly specified set of research questions that are to be investigated. The structured interview is designed to answer these questions. Instead, in qualitative research, there is an emphasis on greater generality in the formulation of initial research ideas and on interviewees’ own perspectives.

In qualitative interviewing, there is much greater interest in the interviewee’s point of view; in quantitative research, the interview reflects the researcher’s concerns. This contrast is a direct outcome of the previously mentioned one. For example, Ram (1994) describes his qualitative interviewing style as owing little to the ‘textbook’ approach, which ‘exhorts the interviewer to remain aloof while seeking to extract information from the respondent’ (1994: 32), as it would have been ‘absurd and counter-productive’ to assume this degree of social distance from family and friends whom he had known for years.

In qualitative interviewing, ‘rambling’ or going off at tangents is often encouraged—it gives insight into what the interviewee sees as relevant and important; in quantitative research, it is usually regarded as a nuisance and discouraged.

In qualitative interviewing, interviewers can depart significantly from any schedule or guide that is being used. They can ask new questions that follow up interviewees’ replies and can vary the order of questions and even the wording of questions. In quantitative research, none of these things should be done, because they will compromise the standardization of the interview process and hence the reliability and validity of measurement.

As a result, qualitative interviewing tends to be flexible (see Research in focus 20.2 for an example), responding to the direction in which interviewees take the interview and perhaps adjusting the emphases in the research as a result of significant issues that emerge in the course of interviews. By contrast, structured interviews are typically inflexible, because of the need to standardize the way in which each interviewee is dealt with.

In qualitative interviewing, the researcher wants rich, detailed answers; in quantitative research, the interview is supposed to generate answers that can be coded and processed quickly.

In qualitative interviewing, the interviewee may be interviewed on more than one and sometimes even several occasions. In quantitative research, unless the research is longitudinal in character, the person will be interviewed on one occasion only.

Page reference: 435 *b. The approach is generally less rigorous in qualitative research Feedback: Qualitative interviewing is usually very different from interviewing in quantitative research in a number of ways.

The approach tends to be much less structured in qualitative research. In quantitative research, the approach is structured to maximize the reliability and validity of measurement of key concepts. It is also more structured because the researcher has a clearly specified set of research questions that are to be investigated. The structured interview is designed to answer these questions. Instead, in qualitative research, there is an emphasis on greater generality in the formulation of initial research ideas and on interviewees’ own perspectives.

In qualitative interviewing, there is much greater interest in the interviewee’s point of view; in quantitative research, the interview reflects the researcher’s concerns. This contrast is a direct outcome of the previously mentioned one. For example, Ram (1994) describes his qualitative

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interviewing style as owing little to the ‘textbook’ approach, which ‘exhorts the interviewer to remain aloof while seeking to extract information from the respondent’ (1994: 32), as it would have been ‘absurd and counter-productive’ to assume this degree of social distance from family and friends whom he had known for years.

In qualitative interviewing, ‘rambling’ or going off at tangents is often encouraged—it gives insight into what the interviewee sees as relevant and important; in quantitative research, it is usually regarded as a nuisance and discouraged.

In qualitative interviewing, interviewers can depart significantly from any schedule or guide that is being used. They can ask new questions that follow up interviewees’ replies and can vary the order of questions and even the wording of questions. In quantitative research, none of these things should be done, because they will compromise the standardization of the interview process and hence the reliability and validity of measurement.

As a result, qualitative interviewing tends to be flexible (see Research in focus 20.2 for an example), responding to the direction in which interviewees take the interview and perhaps adjusting the emphases in the research as a result of significant issues that emerge in the course of interviews. By contrast, structured interviews are typically inflexible, because of the need to standardize the way in which each interviewee is dealt with.

In qualitative interviewing, the researcher wants rich, detailed answers; in quantitative research, the interview is supposed to generate answers that can be coded and processed quickly.

In qualitative interviewing, the interviewee may be interviewed on more than one and sometimes even several occasions. In quantitative research, unless the research is longitudinal in character, the person will be interviewed on one occasion only.

Page reference: 435 c. In qualitative research, rambling or going off-topic is often encouraged Feedback: Qualitative interviewing is usually very different from interviewing in quantitative research in a number of ways.

The approach tends to be much less structured in qualitative research. In quantitative research, the approach is structured to maximize the reliability and validity of measurement of key concepts. It is also more structured because the researcher has a clearly specified set of research questions that are to be investigated. The structured interview is designed to answer these questions. Instead, in qualitative research, there is an emphasis on greater generality in the formulation of initial research ideas and on interviewees’ own perspectives.

In qualitative interviewing, there is much greater interest in the interviewee’s point of view; in quantitative research, the interview reflects the researcher’s concerns. This contrast is a direct outcome of the previously mentioned one. For example, Ram (1994) describes his qualitative interviewing style as owing little to the ‘textbook’ approach, which ‘exhorts the interviewer to remain aloof while seeking to extract information from the respondent’ (1994: 32), as it would have been ‘absurd and counter-productive’ to assume this degree of social distance from family and friends whom he had known for years.

In qualitative interviewing, ‘rambling’ or going off at tangents is often encouraged—it gives insight into what the interviewee sees as relevant and important; in quantitative research, it is usually regarded as a nuisance and discouraged.

In qualitative interviewing, interviewers can depart significantly from any schedule or guide that is being used. They can ask new questions that follow up interviewees’ replies and can vary the order of questions and even the wording of questions. In quantitative research, none of these things should be done, because they will compromise the standardization of the interview process and hence the reliability and validity of measurement.

As a result, qualitative interviewing tends to be flexible (see Research in focus 20.2 for an example), responding to the direction in which interviewees take the interview and perhaps adjusting the emphases in the research as a result of significant issues that emerge in the course of interviews. By contrast, structured interviews are typically inflexible, because of the need to standardize the way in which each interviewee is dealt with.

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In qualitative interviewing, the researcher wants rich, detailed answers; in quantitative research, the interview is supposed to generate answers that can be coded and processed quickly.

In qualitative interviewing, the interviewee may be interviewed on more than one and sometimes even several occasions. In quantitative research, unless the research is longitudinal in character, the person will be interviewed on one occasion only.

Page reference: 435 d. Qualitative research tends to be more flexible and sensitive to context Feedback: Qualitative interviewing is usually very different from interviewing in quantitative research in a number of ways.

The approach tends to be much less structured in qualitative research. In quantitative research, the approach is structured to maximize the reliability and validity of measurement of key concepts. It is also more structured because the researcher has a clearly specified set of research questions that are to be investigated. The structured interview is designed to answer these questions. Instead, in qualitative research, there is an emphasis on greater generality in the formulation of initial research ideas and on interviewees’ own perspectives.

In qualitative interviewing, there is much greater interest in the interviewee’s point of view; in quantitative research, the interview reflects the researcher’s concerns. This contrast is a direct outcome of the previously mentioned one. For example, Ram (1994) describes his qualitative interviewing style as owing little to the ‘textbook’ approach, which ‘exhorts the interviewer to remain aloof while seeking to extract information from the respondent’ (1994: 32), as it would have been ‘absurd and counter-productive’ to assume this degree of social distance from family and friends whom he had known for years.

In qualitative interviewing, ‘rambling’ or going off at tangents is often encouraged—it gives insight into what the interviewee sees as relevant and important; in quantitative research, it is usually regarded as a nuisance and discouraged.

In qualitative interviewing, interviewers can depart significantly from any schedule or guide that is being used. They can ask new questions that follow up interviewees’ replies and can vary the order of questions and even the wording of questions. In quantitative research, none of these things should be done, because they will compromise the standardization of the interview process and hence the reliability and validity of measurement.

As a result, qualitative interviewing tends to be flexible (see Research in focus 20.2 for an example), responding to the direction in which interviewees take the interview and perhaps adjusting the emphases in the research as a result of significant issues that emerge in the course of interviews. By contrast, structured interviews are typically inflexible, because of the need to standardize the way in which each interviewee is dealt with.

In qualitative interviewing, the researcher wants rich, detailed answers; in quantitative research, the interview is supposed to generate answers that can be coded and processed quickly.

In qualitative interviewing, the interviewee may be interviewed on more than one and sometimes even several occasions. In quantitative research, unless the research is longitudinal in character, the person will be interviewed on one occasion only.

Page reference: 435 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 20 - Question 02 02) A totally unstructured interview would be considered poor research practice in the social sciences. a. True Feedback: Qualitative interviewing varies a great deal in the approach taken by the interviewer. The two major types were mentioned at the beginning of the chapter.

The almost totally unstructured interview. Here the researcher uses at most an aide-mémoire as a brief set of prompts to him or herself to deal with a certain range of topics. There may be just a single question that the interviewer asks, and the interviewee is then allowed to respond freely, with the interviewer simply responding to points that seem worthy of being followed up. Unstructured

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interviewing tends to be very similar in character to a conversation (Burgess 1984). Dalton (1959) refers to the importance of ‘conversational interviewing’ as the basis for his data collection strategy.

These are not interviews in the usual sense, but a series of broken and incomplete conversations that, when written up, may, according to Dalton, be ‘tied together as one statement’ (1959: 280).

Conversational interviews are characterized by being precipitated by events. In some instances, these were prompted by Dalton, who asked managers at the end of an important meeting an open-ended question like ‘How did things go?’, but in others they were simply the result of overheard exchanges in shops or offices. See Research in focus 20.1 for another illustration of an unstructured interview style.

Page reference: 436 *b. False Feedback: Qualitative interviewing varies a great deal in the approach taken by the interviewer. The two major types were mentioned at the beginning of the chapter.

The almost totally unstructured interview. Here the researcher uses at most an aide-mémoire as a brief set of prompts to him or herself to deal with a certain range of topics. There may be just a single question that the interviewer asks, and the interviewee is then allowed to respond freely, with the interviewer simply responding to points that seem worthy of being followed up. Unstructured interviewing tends to be very similar in character to a conversation (Burgess 1984). Dalton (1959) refers to the importance of ‘conversational interviewing’ as the basis for his data collection strategy.

These are not interviews in the usual sense, but a series of broken and incomplete conversations that, when written up, may, according to Dalton, be ‘tied together as one statement’ (1959: 280).

Conversational interviews are characterized by being precipitated by events. In some instances, these were prompted by Dalton, who asked managers at the end of an important meeting an open-ended question like ‘How did things go?’, but in others they were simply the result of overheard exchanges in shops or offices. See Research in focus 20.1 for another illustration of an unstructured interview style.

Page reference: 436 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 20 - Question 03 03) In either an unstructured or semi-structured interview, the interview process is likely to be flexible. *a. True Feedback: In both cases, the interview process is flexible.

Page reference: 436 b. False Feedback: In both cases, the interview process is flexible.

Page reference: 436 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 20 - Question 04 04) What should you not do in the preparation of an interview guide? a. Create order in the topic areas Feedback: Some basic elements in the preparation of your interview guide will be: create a certain amount of order on the topic areas, so that your questions about them flow reasonably well, but be prepared to alter the order of questions during the actual interview; formulate interview questions or topics in a way that will help you to answer your research questions (but try not to make them too specific); • try to use a language that is comprehensible and relevant to the people you are interviewing; • just as in interviewing in quantitative research, do not ask leading questions; • remember to ensure that you ask or record ‘facesheet’ information of a general kind (name, age, gender, etc.) and a specific kind (position in company, number of years employed, number of years involved in a group, etc.), because such information is useful for contextualizing people’s answers.

Page reference: 440 *b. Develop questions which demonstrate how much you know about the area in questions Feedback: Some basic elements in the preparation of your interview guide will be: create a certain amount of order on the topic areas, so that your questions about them flow reasonably well, but be prepared to alter the order of questions during the actual interview; formulate interview questions or

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topics in a way that will help you to answer your research questions (but try not to make them too specific); • try to use a language that is comprehensible and relevant to the people you are interviewing; • just as in interviewing in quantitative research, do not ask leading questions; • remember to ensure that you ask or record ‘facesheet’ information of a general kind (name, age, gender, etc.) and a specific kind (position in company, number of years employed, number of years involved in a group, etc.), because such information is useful for contextualizing people’s answers.

Page reference: 440 c. Ask leading questions Feedback: Some basic elements in the preparation of your interview guide will be: create a certain amount of order on the topic areas, so that your questions about them flow reasonably well, but be prepared to alter the order of questions during the actual interview; formulate interview questions or topics in a way that will help you to answer your research questions (but try not to make them too specific); • try to use a language that is comprehensible and relevant to the people you are interviewing; • just as in interviewing in quantitative research, do not ask leading questions; • remember to ensure that you ask or record ‘facesheet’ information of a general kind (name, age, gender, etc.) and a specific kind (position in company, number of years employed, number of years involved in a group, etc.), because such information is useful for contextualizing people’s answers.

Page reference: 440 d. Record “facesheet” information of a general kind Feedback: Some basic elements in the preparation of your interview guide will be: create a certain amount of order on the topic areas, so that your questions about them flow reasonably well, but be prepared to alter the order of questions during the actual interview; formulate interview questions or topics in a way that will help you to answer your research questions (but try not to make them too specific); • try to use a language that is comprehensible and relevant to the people you are interviewing; • just as in interviewing in quantitative research, do not ask leading questions; • remember to ensure that you ask or record ‘facesheet’ information of a general kind (name, age, gender, etc.) and a specific kind (position in company, number of years employed, number of years involved in a group, etc.), because such information is useful for contextualizing people’s answers.

Page reference: 440 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 20 - Question 05 05) Kvale (1996) has proposed 10 criteria of a successful interviewer. Which of the following is not one of them? *a. Confrontational Feedback: Kvale (1996) has proposed a list of ten criteria of a successful interviewer.

1. Knowledgeable: is thoroughly familiar with the focus of the interview; pilot interviews of the kind used in survey interviewing can be useful here.

2. Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off; asks whether interviewee has questions.

3. Clear: asks simple, easy, short questions; no jargon.

4. Gentle: lets people finish; gives them time to think; tolerates pauses.

5. Sensitive: listens attentively to what is said and how it is said; is empathetic in dealing with the interviewee.

6. Open: responds to what is important to interviewee and is flexible.

7. Steering: knows what he or she wants to find out.

8. Critical: is prepared to challenge what is said—for example, dealing with inconsistencies in interviewees’ replies.

9. Remembering: relates what is said to what has previously been said

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10. Interpreting: clarifies and extends meanings of interviewees’ statements, but without imposing meaning on them.

Page reference: 441 b. Gentle Feedback: Kvale (1996) has proposed a list of ten criteria of a successful interviewer.

1. Knowledgeable: is thoroughly familiar with the focus of the interview; pilot interviews of the kind used in survey interviewing can be useful here.

2. Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off; asks whether interviewee has questions.

3. Clear: asks simple, easy, short questions; no jargon.

4. Gentle: lets people finish; gives them time to think; tolerates pauses.

5. Sensitive: listens attentively to what is said and how it is said; is empathetic in dealing with the interviewee.

6. Open: responds to what is important to interviewee and is flexible.

7. Steering: knows what he or she wants to find out.

8. Critical: is prepared to challenge what is said—for example, dealing with inconsistencies in interviewees’ replies.

9. Remembering: relates what is said to what has previously been said 10. Interpreting: clarifies and extends meanings of interviewees’ statements, but without imposing meaning on them.

Page reference: 441 c. Steering Feedback: Kvale (1996) has proposed a list of ten criteria of a successful interviewer.

1. Knowledgeable: is thoroughly familiar with the focus of the interview; pilot interviews of the kind used in survey interviewing can be useful here.

2. Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off; asks whether interviewee has questions.

3. Clear: asks simple, easy, short questions; no jargon.

4. Gentle: lets people finish; gives them time to think; tolerates pauses.

5. Sensitive: listens attentively to what is said and how it is said; is empathetic in dealing with the interviewee.

6. Open: responds to what is important to interviewee and is flexible.

7. Steering: knows what he or she wants to find out.

8. Critical: is prepared to challenge what is said—for example, dealing with inconsistencies in interviewees’ replies.

9. Remembering: relates what is said to what has previously been said 10. Interpreting: clarifies and extends meanings of interviewees’ statements, but without imposing meaning on them.

Page reference: 441 d. Critical Feedback: Kvale (1996) has proposed a list of ten criteria of a successful interviewer.

1. Knowledgeable: is thoroughly familiar with the focus of the interview; pilot interviews of the kind used in survey interviewing can be useful here.

2. Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off; asks whether interviewee has questions.

3. Clear: asks simple, easy, short questions; no jargon.

4. Gentle: lets people finish; gives them time to think; tolerates pauses.

5. Sensitive: listens attentively to what is said and how it is said; is empathetic in dealing with the interviewee.

6. Open: responds to what is important to interviewee and is flexible.

7. Steering: knows what he or she wants to find out.

8. Critical: is prepared to challenge what is said—for example, dealing with inconsistencies in interviewees’ replies.

9. Remembering: relates what is said to what has previously been said 10. Interpreting: clarifies and extends meanings of interviewees’ statements, but without imposing meaning on them.

Page reference: 441

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Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 20 - Question 06 06) Identify two types of questions, as recommended by Kvale (1996). Please select all that apply.

Feedback: The kinds of question asked in qualitative interviews are highly variable. Kvale (1996) has suggested nine different kinds of question. Most interviews will contain virtually all of them, although interviews that rely on lists of topics are likely to follow a somewhat looser format. Kvale’s nine types of question are as follows.

1. Introducing questions: ‘Please tell me about when your interest in X first began’; ‘Have you ever . . . ?’; ‘Why did you go to . . . ?’

2. Follow-up questions: getting the interviewee to elaborate his or her answer, such as ‘Could you say some more about that?’; ‘What do you mean by that . . . ?’; ‘Can you give me an example . . . ?’; even ‘Yeeees?’

3. Probing questions: following up what has been said through direct questioning.

4. Specifying questions: ‘What did you do then?’; ‘How did X react to what you said?’

5. Direct questions: ‘Do you find it easy to keep smiling when serving customers?’; ‘Are you happy with the amount of on-the-job training you have received?’ Such questions are perhaps best left until towards the end of the interview, in order not to influence the direction of the interview too much.

6. Indirect questions: ‘What do most people round here think of the ways that management treats its staff?’, perhaps followed up by ‘Is that the way you feel too?’, in order to get at the individual’s own view.

7. Structuring questions: ‘I would now like to move onto a different topic.’

8. Silence: allow pauses to signal that you want to give the interviewee the opportunity to reflect and amplify an answer.

9. Interpreting questions: ‘Do you mean that your leadership role has had to change from one of encouraging others to a more directive one?’; ‘Is it fair to say that you don’t mind being friendly towards customers most of the time, but when they are unpleasant or demanding you find it more difficult?’

Page reference: 441 a. Awkward questions b. Difficult questions *c. Probing questions *d. Indirect questions Type: true-false Title: Chapter 20 - Question 07 07) Interviews in the social sciences are rarely transcribed, it takes too long and is cumbersome to do. a. True Feedback: We have already made the point on several occasions that, in qualitative research, the interview is usually audio- recorded and transcribed whenever possible (see Tips and skills ‘Why you should record and transcribe inter- views’).

Page reference: 445 *b. False Feedback: We have already made the point on several occasions that, in qualitative research, the interview is usually audio- recorded and transcribed whenever possible (see Tips and skills ‘Why you should record and transcribe inter- views’).

Page reference: 445 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 20 - Question 08 08) Telephone interviewing is more commonly used in qualitative research than face-to-face interviewing. a. True Feedback: Telephone interviewing is quite common in survey re- search, as noted in Chapter 9.

However, it has not been used a great deal in qualitative research. It is likely to have certain benefits when compared to face-to-face qualitative interviewing. Page reference: 451

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*b. False Feedback: Telephone interviewing is quite common in survey re- search, as noted in Chapter 9.

However, it has not been used a great deal in qualitative research. It is likely to have certain benefits when compared to face-to-face qualitative interviewing. Page reference: 451 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 20 - Question 09 09) In synchronous online interviews, communication takes place in real time so that the questions posed by the researcher are answered more or less immediately by the participant. *a. True Feedback: In synchronous online interviews, communication takes place in real time so that the questions posed by the researcher are answered more or less immediately by the participant.

Page reference: 451 b. False Feedback: In synchronous online interviews, communication takes place in real time so that the questions posed by the researcher are answered more or less immediately by the participant.

Page reference: 451 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 20 - Question 10 01) Which of the following is not an advantage of Skype interviewing? a. It is more flexible Feedback: Skype interviewing is more flexible than face to face interviewing; There are obvious time and cost savings as the need to travel is removed; The convenience of being interviewed by Skype may encourage people to agree to be interviewed; There are fewer concerns about the safety of both parties in an interview situation.

Page reference: 453 b. It reduces time and cost Feedback: Skype interviewing is more flexible than face to face interviewing; There are obvious time and cost savings as the need to travel is removed; The convenience of being interviewed by Skype may encourage people to agree to be interviewed; There are fewer concerns about the safety of both parties in an interview situation.

Page reference: 453 *c. It demonstrates the tech savviness of the researcher to the participant Feedback: Skype interviewing is more flexible than face to face interviewing There are obvious time and cost savings as the need to travel is removed The convenience of being interviewed by Skype may encourage people to agree to be interviewed.

There are fewer concerns about the safety of both parties in an interview situation.

Page reference: 453 d. It has no safety concerns for the researcher Feedback: Skype interviewing is more flexible than face to face interviewing; There are obvious time and cost savings as the need to travel is removed; The convenience of being interviewed by Skype may encourage people to agree to be interviewed; There are fewer concerns about the safety of both parties in an interview situation.

Page reference: 453 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 20 - Question 11 11) Identify two disadvantages of Skype interviewing. Please select all that apply.

Feedback: There are potential technological problems with the use of skype.

There is some evidence that prospective Skype interviewees are more likely than face-to-face interviewees to fail to be present for an interview.

Page reference: 453 *a. Technological problems b. Cyberbullying *c. Cancellation more likely d. Data privacy concerns

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Type: true-false Title: Chapter 20 - Question 12 12) In a life history interview, the participant discusses the totality of their life experience in a relatively unstructured manner. *a. True Feedback: The life history interview is associated with the life history method, where it is often combined with various kinds of personal documents such as diaries, photographs, and letters. This method is also referred to as the biographical method. A life history interview is a kind of unstructured interview covering the totality of an individual’s life. It documents ‘the inner experience of individuals, how they interpret, understand, and define the world around them’ (Faraday and Plummer 1979: 776).

Page reference: 454 b. False Feedback: The life history interview is associated with the life history method, where it is often combined with various kinds of personal documents such as diaries, photographs, and letters. This method is also referred to as the biographical method. A life history interview is a kind of unstructured interview covering the totality of an individual’s life. It documents ‘the inner experience of individuals, how they interpret, understand, and define the world around them’ (Faraday and Plummer 1979: 776).

Page reference: 454 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 20 - Question 13 13) Which of the following are Plummer’s (2001) distinctions between three types of life story? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Plummer (2001) draws a useful distinction between three types of life story: 1. Naturalistic life stories. These are life stories that occur whenever people reminisce or write autobiographies, or when job applicants write out letters of application and are interviewed.

2. Researched life stories. These are life stories that are solicited by researchers with a social scientific purpose in mind. Most research based on life history/story interviews are of this kind.

3. Reflexive and recursive life stories. This recognizes that the life story is always a construction in which the interviewer is implicated. An oral history interview is usually somewhat more specific in tone in that the subject is asked to reflect upon specific events or periods in the past. It too is sometimes combined with other sources, such as documents. The chief problem with the oral history interview (which it shares with the life history interview) is the possibility of bias introduced by memory lapses and distortions (Grele 1998). On the other hand, oral history testimonies have allowed the voices to come through of groups that are typically marginalized in historical research (a point that also applies to life history interviews), either because of their lack of power or because they are typically regarded as unexceptional (Samuel 1976).

Page reference: 455 *a. Naturalistic life stories b. Imagined life stories *c. Researched life stories *d. Reflexive and recursive life stories Type: true-false Title: Chapter 20 - Question 14 14) In feminist research, a hierarchical relationship exists between the researcher and the participant a. True Feedback: Instead of this framework for conducting interviews, feminist researchers advocate one that establishes: - a high level of rapport between interviewer and interviewee; - a high degree of reciprocity on the part of the interviewer; - the perspective of the women being interviewed; a non-hierarchical relationship.

Page reference: 456 *b. False Feedback: Instead of this framework for conducting interviews, feminist researchers advocate one that establishes:

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- a high level of rapport between interviewer and interviewee; - a high degree of reciprocity on the part of the interviewer; - the perspective of the women being interviewed; a non-hierarchical relationship.

Page reference: 456 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 20 - Question 15 15) Which of the following is not an advantage of qualitative interviewing compared to participant observation? a. Research issues resistant to observation Feedback: Issues resistant to observation It is likely that there is a wide range of issues that are simply not amenable to observation, so that asking people about them represents the only viable means of finding out about them within a qualitative research strategy. For example, in Emma Bell’s (2001) research on payment systems in the chemical industry, it was not really possible to explore the systems and rules whereby payments were made by observing shopfloor practices, although the latter was very useful in gaining an understanding of the cultural context in which payment systems were located. For most workers, payment is an issue that sur- faces through consideration of issues that relate to the ‘effort-bargain’, and this understanding was more readily accessed through interviews.

Reconstruction of events Qualitative research frequently entails the reconstruction of events by asking interviewees to think back over how a certain series of events unfolded in relation to a current situation. An example is Pettigrew’s (1985) research on ICI, which entailed interviewing about contemporaneous events but also included ‘retrospective interviewing’, as Pettigrew defines it (see Research in focus 3.16). This reconstruction of events is something that cannot be accomplished through participant observation alone.

Ethical considerations There are certain areas that could be observed—albeit indirectly through hidden hardware such as a microphone—but to do so would raise ethical considerations. For example, Ditton (1977) never disclosed to his fellow workers in the bakery that he was interested in pilfer- age, although he did seek to protect their anonymity by omitting names and changing other irrelevant facts in the published study. He goes on to claim that he could not have disclosed his interest in pilferage, partly because he did not decide to concentrate on this subject until some time after the conclusion of the study. However, in this case, participant observation does raise ethical issues relating to the observation of criminal activity and the extent to which the researcher actively participates in it.

Reactive effects The question of reactive effects is by no means a straight- forward matter. As with structured observation (see Chapter 12), it might be anticipated that the presence of a participant observer would result in reactive effects (see Key concept 12.8). People’s knowledge of the fact that they are being observed may make them behave less naturally. However, participant observers, like researchers using structured observation, typically find that people become accustomed to their presence and begin to be- have more naturally the longer they are around. Indeed, members of social settings sometimes express surprise when participant observers announce their imminent departure when they are on the verge of disengagement. Interviewers clearly do not suffer from the same kind of problem, but it could be argued that the unnatural character of the interview encounter can also be regarded as a context within which reactive effects may emerge. Participant observation also suffers from the related problem of observers disturbing the very situation being studied, because conversations and interactions will occur in con- junction with the observer that otherwise would not hap- pen. This is by no means an easy issue to resolve and it seems likely that both participant observation and qualitative interviewing set in motion reactive effects but of different kinds.

Less intrusive in people’s lives

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Participant observation can be very intrusive in people’s lives in that the observer is likely to take up a lot more of their time than in an interview. Interviews in qualitative research can sometimes be very long and reinterviewing is not uncommon, but the impact on people’s time will probably be less than having to take observers into account on a regular basis, though it is likely that this feature will vary from situation to situation. Participant observation is likely to be especially intrusive in terms of the amount of people’s time taken up when it is in organizational settings. In work organizations, there is a risk that the rhythms of work lives will be disrupted.

Longitudinal research easier One of the advantages of participant observation is that it is inherently longitudinal in character, because the observer is present in a social setting for a period of time. As a result, change and connections between events can be observed. However, there are limits to the amount of time that participant observers can devote to being away from their normal routines. Consequently, participant observation does not usually extend much beyond two to three years in duration. When participant observation is being conducted into an area of research that is episodic rather than requiring continued observation, a longer time period may be feasible. Pettigrew’s (1985) research at ICI combined interviewing in late 1975, 1976, and early 1977, the latter parts of 1980 and early 1981, and again in 1982, with his interventions into the company as a consultant. During that period 134 people were interviewed from the ICI corporate headquarters and the four divisions under study. Several of these individuals were interviewed more than once, and the total number of research interviews amounted to 175. Kanter (1977) employed a similar strategy combining consultant activity with research over a five-year period. Research in focus 20.8 gives an example of a longitudinal telephone interview study that, although it took place over a shorter six-month time period, traced a period of dramatic change following the closure of a car plant that marked the loss of the last remaining Britishowned car manufacturer. In summary, interviewing can be carried out within a longitudinal research design somewhat more easily, because repeat interviews may be easier to organize than repeat visits to participant observers’ research settings, though the latter is not impossible. Following up interviewees on several occasions is likely to be easier than returning to research sites on a regular basis.

Greater breadth of coverage In participant observation, the researcher is invariably constrained in his or her interactions and observations to a fairly restricted range of people, incidents, and localities. Participant observation in a large organization, for example, is likely to mean that knowledge of that organization beyond the confines of the department or section in which the observation is carried out is not likely to be very extensive. Interviewing can allow access to a wider variety of people and situations.

Specific focus As noted in Chapter 17, qualitative research sometimes begins with a specific focus, and indeed Silverman (1993) has been critical of the notion that it should be regarded as an open-ended form of research. Qualitative interviewing would seem to be better suited to such a situation, since the interview can be directed at that focus and its associated research questions. Thus, the research by Bryman and his colleagues on the police had a very specific research focus in line with its Home Office funding— namely, conceptions of leadership among police officers (Bryman, Stephens, and A Campo 1996). The bulk of the data gathering was in two police forces and entailed the interviewing of police officers at all levels using a semi- structured interview guide. As it had such a clear focus, it was more appropriate to conduct the research by inter- view rather than participant observation, since issues to Page reference: 457-458 *b. More ecological validity Feedback: Issues resistant to observation It is likely that there is a wide range of issues that are simply not amenable to observation, so that asking people about them represents the only viable means of finding out about them within a qualitative research strategy. For example, in Emma Bell’s (2001) research on payment systems in the chemical industry, it was not really possible to explore the systems and rules whereby payments were made by observing shopfloor practices, although the latter was very useful in gaining an

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understanding of the cultural context in which payment systems were located. For most workers, payment is an issue that sur- faces through consideration of issues that relate to the ‘effort-bargain’, and this understanding was more readily accessed through interviews.

Reconstruction of events Qualitative research frequently entails the reconstruction of events by asking interviewees to think back over how a certain series of events unfolded in relation to a current situation. An example is Pettigrew’s (1985) research on ICI, which entailed interviewing about contemporaneous events but also included ‘retrospective interviewing’, as Pettigrew defines it (see Research in focus 3.16). This reconstruction of events is something that cannot be accomplished through participant observation alone.

Ethical considerations There are certain areas that could be observed—albeit indirectly through hidden hardware such as a microphone—but to do so would raise ethical considerations. For example, Ditton (1977) never disclosed to his fellow workers in the bakery that he was interested in pilfer- age, although he did seek to protect their anonymity by omitting names and changing other irrelevant facts in the published study. He goes on to claim that he could not have disclosed his interest in pilferage, partly because he did not decide to concentrate on this subject until some time after the conclusion of the study. However, in this case, participant observation does raise ethical issues relating to the observation of criminal activity and the extent to which the researcher actively participates in it.

Reactive effects The question of reactive effects is by no means a straight- forward matter. As with structured observation (see Chapter 12), it might be anticipated that the presence of a participant observer would result in reactive effects (see Key concept 12.8). People’s knowledge of the fact that they are being observed may make them behave less naturally. However, participant observers, like researchers using structured observation, typically find that people become accustomed to their presence and begin to be- have more naturally the longer they are around. Indeed, members of social settings sometimes express surprise when participant observers announce their imminent departure when they are on the verge of disengagement. Interviewers clearly do not suffer from the same kind of problem, but it could be argued that the unnatural character of the interview encounter can also be regarded as a context within which reactive effects may emerge. Participant observation also suffers from the related problem of observers disturbing the very situation being studied, because conversations and interactions will occur in con- junction with the observer that otherwise would not hap- pen. This is by no means an easy issue to resolve and it seems likely that both participant observation and qualitative interviewing set in motion reactive effects but of different kinds.

Less intrusive in people’s lives Participant observation can be very intrusive in people’s lives in that the observer is likely to take up a lot more of their time than in an interview. Interviews in qualitative research can sometimes be very long and reinterviewing is not uncommon, but the impact on people’s time will probably be less than having to take observers into account on a regular basis, though it is likely that this feature will vary from situation to situation. Participant observation is likely to be especially intrusive in terms of the amount of people’s time taken up when it is in organizational settings. In work organizations, there is a risk that the rhythms of work lives will be disrupted.

Longitudinal research easier One of the advantages of participant observation is that it is inherently longitudinal in character, because the observer is present in a social setting for a period of time. As a result, change and connections between events can be observed. However, there are limits to the amount of time that participant observers can devote to being away from their normal routines. Consequently, participant observation does not usually extend much beyond two to three years in duration. When participant observation is being conducted into an area of research that is episodic rather than requiring continued observation, a longer time period may be feasible. Pettigrew’s (1985) research at ICI combined interviewing in late 1975, 1976, and early 1977, the latter parts of 1980 and early 1981, and again in 1982, with his interventions into the company as a consultant. During that period 134 people

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

were interviewed from the ICI corporate headquarters and the four divisions under study. Several of these individuals were interviewed more than once, and the total number of research interviews amounted to 175. Kanter (1977) employed a similar strategy combining consultant activity with research over a five-year period. Research in focus 20.8 gives an example of a longitudinal telephone interview study that, although it took place over a shorter six-month time period, traced a period of dramatic change following the closure of a car plant that marked the loss of the last remaining Britishowned car manufacturer. In summary, interviewing can be carried out within a longitudinal research design somewhat more easily, because repeat interviews may be easier to organize than repeat visits to participant observers’ research settings, though the latter is not impossible. Following up interviewees on several occasions is likely to be easier than returning to research sites on a regular basis.

Greater breadth of coverage In participant observation, the researcher is invariably constrained in his or her interactions and observations to a fairly restricted range of people, incidents, and localities. Participant observation in a large organization, for example, is likely to mean that knowledge of that organization beyond the confines of the department or section in which the observation is carried out is not likely to be very extensive. Interviewing can allow access to a wider variety of people and situations.

Specific focus As noted in Chapter 17, qualitative research sometimes begins with a specific focus, and indeed Silverman (1993) has been critical of the notion that it should be regarded as an open-ended form of research. Qualitative interviewing would seem to be better suited to such a situation, since the interview can be directed at that focus and its associated research questions. Thus, the research by Bryman and his colleagues on the police had a very specific research focus in line with its Home Office funding— namely, conceptions of leadership among police officers (Bryman, Stephens, and A Campo 1996). The bulk of the data gathering was in two police forces and entailed the interviewing of police officers at all levels using a semi- structured interview guide. As it had such a clear focus, it was more appropriate to conduct the research by inter- view rather than participant observation, since issues to Page reference: 457-458 c. Less intrusive Feedback: Issues resistant to observation It is likely that there is a wide range of issues that are simply not amenable to observation, so that asking people about them represents the only viable means of finding out about them within a qualitative research strategy. For example, in Emma Bell’s (2001) research on payment systems in the chemical industry, it was not really possible to explore the systems and rules whereby payments were made by observing shopfloor practices, although the latter was very useful in gaining an understanding of the cultural context in which payment systems were located. For most workers, payment is an issue that sur- faces through consideration of issues that relate to the ‘effort-bargain’, and this understanding was more readily accessed through interviews.

Reconstruction of events Qualitative research frequently entails the reconstruction of events by asking interviewees to think back over how a certain series of events unfolded in relation to a current situation. An example is Pettigrew’s (1985) research on ICI, which entailed interviewing about contemporaneous events but also included ‘retrospective interviewing’, as Pettigrew defines it (see Research in focus 3.16). This reconstruction of events is something that cannot be accomplished through participant observation alone.

Ethical considerations There are certain areas that could be observed—albeit indirectly through hidden hardware such as a microphone—but to do so would raise ethical considerations. For example, Ditton (1977) never disclosed to his fellow workers in the bakery that he was interested in pilfer- age, although he did seek to protect their anonymity by omitting names and changing other irrelevant facts in the published study. He goes on to claim that he could not have disclosed his interest in pilferage, partly because he

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

did not decide to concentrate on this subject until some time after the conclusion of the study. However, in this case, participant observation does raise ethical issues relating to the observation of criminal activity and the extent to which the researcher actively participates in it.

Reactive effects The question of reactive effects is by no means a straight- forward matter. As with structured observation (see Chapter 12), it might be anticipated that the presence of a participant observer would result in reactive effects (see Key concept 12.8). People’s knowledge of the fact that they are being observed may make them behave less naturally. However, participant observers, like researchers using structured observation, typically find that people become accustomed to their presence and begin to be- have more naturally the longer they are around. Indeed, members of social settings sometimes express surprise when participant observers announce their imminent departure when they are on the verge of disengagement. Interviewers clearly do not suffer from the same kind of problem, but it could be argued that the unnatural character of the interview encounter can also be regarded as a context within which reactive effects may emerge. Participant observation also suffers from the related problem of observers disturbing the very situation being studied, because conversations and interactions will occur in con- junction with the observer that otherwise would not hap- pen. This is by no means an easy issue to resolve and it seems likely that both participant observation and qualitative interviewing set in motion reactive effects but of different kinds.

Less intrusive in people’s lives Participant observation can be very intrusive in people’s lives in that the observer is likely to take up a lot more of their time than in an interview. Interviews in qualitative research can sometimes be very long and reinterviewing is not uncommon, but the impact on people’s time will probably be less than having to take observers into account on a regular basis, though it is likely that this feature will vary from situation to situation. Participant observation is likely to be especially intrusive in terms of the amount of people’s time taken up when it is in organizational settings. In work organizations, there is a risk that the rhythms of work lives will be disrupted.

Longitudinal research easier One of the advantages of participant observation is that it is inherently longitudinal in character, because the observer is present in a social setting for a period of time. As a result, change and connections between events can be observed. However, there are limits to the amount of time that participant observers can devote to being away from their normal routines. Consequently, participant observation does not usually extend much beyond two to three years in duration. When participant observation is being conducted into an area of research that is episodic rather than requiring continued observation, a longer time period may be feasible. Pettigrew’s (1985) research at ICI combined interviewing in late 1975, 1976, and early 1977, the latter parts of 1980 and early 1981, and again in 1982, with his interventions into the company as a consultant. During that period 134 people were interviewed from the ICI corporate headquarters and the four divisions under study. Several of these individuals were interviewed more than once, and the total number of research interviews amounted to 175. Kanter (1977) employed a similar strategy combining consultant activity with research over a five-year period. Research in focus 20.8 gives an example of a longitudinal telephone interview study that, although it took place over a shorter six-month time period, traced a period of dramatic change following the closure of a car plant that marked the loss of the last remaining Britishowned car manufacturer. In summary, interviewing can be carried out within a longitudinal research design somewhat more easily, because repeat interviews may be easier to organize than repeat visits to participant observers’ research settings, though the latter is not impossible. Following up interviewees on several occasions is likely to be easier than returning to research sites on a regular basis.

Greater breadth of coverage In participant observation, the researcher is invariably constrained in his or her interactions and observations to a fairly restricted range of people, incidents, and localities. Participant observation in a large organization, for example, is likely to mean that knowledge of that organization beyond the confines of the department or section in which the observation is carried out is not likely to be very extensive. Interviewing can allow access to a wider variety of people and situations.

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Specific focus As noted in Chapter 17, qualitative research sometimes begins with a specific focus, and indeed Silverman (1993) has been critical of the notion that it should be regarded as an open-ended form of research. Qualitative interviewing would seem to be better suited to such a situation, since the interview can be directed at that focus and its associated research questions. Thus, the research by Bryman and his colleagues on the police had a very specific research focus in line with its Home Office funding— namely, conceptions of leadership among police officers (Bryman, Stephens, and A Campo 1996). The bulk of the data gathering was in two police forces and entailed the interviewing of police officers at all levels using a semi- structured interview guide. As it had such a clear focus, it was more appropriate to conduct the research by inter- view rather than participant observation, since issues to Page reference: 457-458 d. Specific focus Feedback: Issues resistant to observation It is likely that there is a wide range of issues that are simply not amenable to observation, so that asking people about them represents the only viable means of finding out about them within a qualitative research strategy. For example, in Emma Bell’s (2001) research on payment systems in the chemical industry, it was not really possible to explore the systems and rules whereby payments were made by observing shopfloor practices, although the latter was very useful in gaining an understanding of the cultural context in which payment systems were located. For most workers, payment is an issue that sur- faces through consideration of issues that relate to the ‘effort-bargain’, and this understanding was more readily accessed through interviews.

Reconstruction of events Qualitative research frequently entails the reconstruction of events by asking interviewees to think back over how a certain series of events unfolded in relation to a current situation. An example is Pettigrew’s (1985) research on ICI, which entailed interviewing about contemporaneous events but also included ‘retrospective interviewing’, as Pettigrew defines it (see Research in focus 3.16). This reconstruction of events is something that cannot be accomplished through participant observation alone.

Ethical considerations There are certain areas that could be observed—albeit indirectly through hidden hardware such as a microphone—but to do so would raise ethical considerations. For example, Ditton (1977) never disclosed to his fellow workers in the bakery that he was interested in pilfer- age, although he did seek to protect their anonymity by omitting names and changing other irrelevant facts in the published study. He goes on to claim that he could not have disclosed his interest in pilferage, partly because he did not decide to concentrate on this subject until some time after the conclusion of the study. However, in this case, participant observation does raise ethical issues relating to the observation of criminal activity and the extent to which the researcher actively participates in it.

Reactive effects The question of reactive effects is by no means a straight- forward matter. As with structured observation (see Chapter 12), it might be anticipated that the presence of a participant observer would result in reactive effects (see Key concept 12.8). People’s knowledge of the fact that they are being observed may make them behave less naturally. However, participant observers, like researchers using structured observation, typically find that people become accustomed to their presence and begin to be- have more naturally the longer they are around. Indeed, members of social settings sometimes express surprise when participant observers announce their imminent departure when they are on the verge of disengagement. Interviewers clearly do not suffer from the same kind of problem, but it could be argued that the unnatural character of the interview encounter can also be regarded as a context within which reactive effects may emerge. Participant observation also suffers from the related problem of observers disturbing the very situation being studied, because conversations and interactions will occur in con- junction with the observer that otherwise would not

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

hap- pen. This is by no means an easy issue to resolve and it seems likely that both participant observation and qualitative interviewing set in motion reactive effects but of different kinds.

Less intrusive in people’s lives Participant observation can be very intrusive in people’s lives in that the observer is likely to take up a lot more of their time than in an interview. Interviews in qualitative research can sometimes be very long and reinterviewing is not uncommon, but the impact on people’s time will probably be less than having to take observers into account on a regular basis, though it is likely that this feature will vary from situation to situation. Participant observation is likely to be especially intrusive in terms of the amount of people’s time taken up when it is in organizational settings. In work organizations, there is a risk that the rhythms of work lives will be disrupted.

Longitudinal research easier One of the advantages of participant observation is that it is inherently longitudinal in character, because the observer is present in a social setting for a period of time. As a result, change and connections between events can be observed. However, there are limits to the amount of time that participant observers can devote to being away from their normal routines. Consequently, participant observation does not usually extend much beyond two to three years in duration. When participant observation is being conducted into an area of research that is episodic rather than requiring continued observation, a longer time period may be feasible. Pettigrew’s (1985) research at ICI combined interviewing in late 1975, 1976, and early 1977, the latter parts of 1980 and early 1981, and again in 1982, with his interventions into the company as a consultant. During that period 134 people were interviewed from the ICI corporate headquarters and the four divisions under study. Several of these individuals were interviewed more than once, and the total number of research interviews amounted to 175. Kanter (1977) employed a similar strategy combining consultant activity with research over a five-year period. Research in focus 20.8 gives an example of a longitudinal telephone interview study that, although it took place over a shorter six-month time period, traced a period of dramatic change following the closure of a car plant that marked the loss of the last remaining Britishowned car manufacturer. In summary, interviewing can be carried out within a longitudinal research design somewhat more easily, because repeat interviews may be easier to organize than repeat visits to participant observers’ research settings, though the latter is not impossible. Following up interviewees on several occasions is likely to be easier than returning to research sites on a regular basis.

Greater breadth of coverage In participant observation, the researcher is invariably constrained in his or her interactions and observations to a fairly restricted range of people, incidents, and localities. Participant observation in a large organization, for example, is likely to mean that knowledge of that organization beyond the confines of the department or section in which the observation is carried out is not likely to be very extensive. Interviewing can allow access to a wider variety of people and situations.

Specific focus As noted in Chapter 17, qualitative research sometimes begins with a specific focus, and indeed Silverman (1993) has been critical of the notion that it should be regarded as an open-ended form of research. Qualitative interviewing would seem to be better suited to such a situation, since the interview can be directed at that focus and its associated research questions. Thus, the research by Bryman and his colleagues on the police had a very specific research focus in line with its Home Office funding— namely, conceptions of leadership among police officers (Bryman, Stephens, and A Campo 1996). The bulk of the data gathering was in two police forces and entailed the interviewing of police officers at all levels using a semi- structured interview guide. As it had such a clear focus, it was more appropriate to conduct the research by inter- view rather than participant observation, since issues to Page reference: 457-458

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 21 - Question 01 01) A focus group is a form of group interview in which there are several participants (in addition to the moderator/facilitator); there is an emphasis in the questioning on a fairly tightly defined topic. *a. True Feedback: The focus group method is a form of group interview in which there are several participants (in addition to the moderator/facilitator); there is an emphasis in the questioning on a particular fairly tightly de ned topic; and the accent is upon interaction within the group and the joint construction of meaning.

Page reference: 463 b. False Feedback: The focus group method is a form of group interview in which there are several participants (in addition to the moderator/facilitator); there is an emphasis in the questioning on a particular fairly tightly de ned topic; and the accent is upon interaction within the group and the joint construction of meaning.

Page reference: 463 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 21 - Question 02 02) In business and management research, a focus group was a way of helping individuals to define problems and work together to identify potential solutions *a. True Feedback: In management and business, early use of the focus group technique was also seen as a way of helping individuals to define problems and work together to identify potential solutions (Hutt 1979). The dynamics of group discussion could lead individuals to define business problems in new and innovative ways and to stimulate creative ideas for their solution.

Page reference: 464 b. False Feedback: In management and business, early use of the focus group technique was also seen as a way of helping individuals to define problems and work together to identify potential solutions (Hutt 1979). The dynamics of group discussion could lead individuals to define business problems in new and innovative ways and to stimulate creative ideas for their solution.

Page reference: 464 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 21 - Question 03 03) Which of the following is not a use for a focus group? a. So people could be interviewed in an unstructured way about their experience Feedback: What are the uses of the focus group method? In many ways its uses are bound up with the uses of qualitative research in general, but, over and above these, the following points can be registered: The original idea for the focus group—the focused interview—was that people who were known to have had a certain experience could be interviewed in a relatively unstructured way about that experience. The bulk of the discussion by Merton, Fiske, and Kendall (1956) of the notion of the focused interview was in terms of individual interviews, but their book also considered the extension of the method into group interview contexts. Subsequently, the focus group has become a popular method for researchers examining the ways in which people in conjunction with one another construe the general topics in which the researcher is interested. In management and business, early use of the focus group technique was also seen as a way of helping individuals to define problems and work together to identify potential solutions (Hutt 1979). The dynamics of group discussion could lead individuals to define business problems in new and innovative ways and to stimulate creative ideas for their solution.

The technique allows the researcher to develop an understanding about why people feel the way they do. In a normal individual interview the interviewee is often asked about his or her reasons for holding a particular view, but the focus group approach others the opportunity of allowing people to probe

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

each other’s reasons for holding a certain view. This can be more interesting than the sometimes predictable question- followed-by-answer approach of normal interviews. For one thing, an individual may answer in a certain way during a focus group, but, as he or she listens to others’ answers, he or she may want to qualify or modify a view; or alternatively may want to voice agreement to something that he or she probably would not have thought of without the opportunity of hearing the views of others. These possibilities mean that focus groups may also be very helpful in the elicitation of a wide variety of views in relation to a particular issue.

In focus groups, participants are able to bring to the fore issues in relation to a topic that they deem to be important and significant. This is clearly an aim of individual interviews too, but, because the moderator has to relinquish a certain amount of control to the participants, the issues that concern them can surface. This is clearly an important consideration in the context of qualitative research, since the viewpoints of the people being studied are an important point of departure.

In conventional one-to-one interviewing, interviewees are rarely challenged; they might say things that are inconsistent with earlier replies or that patently could not be true, but we are often reluctant to point out such deficiencies. In the context of a focus group, individuals will often argue with each other and challenge each other’s views. This process of arguing means that the researcher may stand a chance of ending up with more realistic accounts of what people think, because they are forced to think about and possibly revise their views.

The focus group others the researcher the opportunity to study the ways in which individuals collectively make sense of a phenomenon and construct meanings around it. It is a central tenet of such theoretical positions as symbolic interactionism that the process of coming to terms with (that is, understanding) social phenomena is not undertaken by individuals in isolation from each other.

Instead, it is something that occurs in interaction and discussion with others. In this sense, therefore, focus groups reflect the processes through which meaning is constructed in everyday life and to that extent can be regarded as more naturalistic (see Key concept 3.4 on the idea of naturalism) than individual interviews (Wilkinson 1998).

Page reference: 464 b. To allow a researcher to understand why people feel the way they do Feedback: What are the uses of the focus group method? In many ways its uses are bound up with the uses of qualitative research in general, but, over and above these, the following points can be registered: The original idea for the focus group—the focused interview—was that people who were known to have had a certain experience could be interviewed in a relatively unstructured way about that experience. The bulk of the discussion by Merton, Fiske, and Kendall (1956) of the notion of the focused interview was in terms of individual interviews, but their book also considered the extension of the method into group interview contexts. Subsequently, the focus group has become a popular method for researchers examining the ways in which people in conjunction with one another construe the general topics in which the researcher is interested. In management and business, early use of the focus group technique was also seen as a way of helping individuals to define problems and work together to identify potential solutions (Hutt 1979). The dynamics of group discussion could lead individuals to define business problems in new and innovative ways and to stimulate creative ideas for their solution.

The technique allows the researcher to develop an understanding about why people feel the way they do. In a normal individual interview the interviewee is often asked about his or her reasons for holding a particular view, but the focus group approach others the opportunity of allowing people to probe each other’s reasons for holding a certain view. This can be more interesting than the sometimes predictable question- followed-by-answer approach of normal interviews. For one thing, an individual may answer in a certain way during a focus group, but, as he or she listens to others’ answers, he or she may want to qualify or modify a view; or alternatively may want to voice agreement to something that he or she probably would not have thought of without the opportunity of hearing the views of others. These possibilities mean that focus groups may also be very helpful in the elicitation of a wide variety of views in relation to a particular issue.

In focus groups, participants are able to bring to the fore issues in relation to a topic that they deem to be important and significant. This is clearly an aim of individual interviews too, but, because the moderator has to relinquish a certain amount of control to the participants, the issues that concern them can surface. This is clearly an important consideration in the context of qualitative research, since the viewpoints of the people being studied are an important point of departure.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

In conventional one-to-one interviewing, interviewees are rarely challenged; they might say things that are inconsistent with earlier replies or that patently could not be true, but we are often reluctant to point out such deficiencies. In the context of a focus group, individuals will often argue with each other and challenge each other’s views. This process of arguing means that the researcher may stand a chance of ending up with more realistic accounts of what people think, because they are forced to think about and possibly revise their views.

The focus group others the researcher the opportunity to study the ways in which individuals collectively make sense of a phenomenon and construct meanings around it. It is a central tenet of such theoretical positions as symbolic interactionism that the process of coming to terms with (that is, understanding) social phenomena is not undertaken by individuals in isolation from each other.

Instead, it is something that occurs in interaction and discussion with others. In this sense, therefore, focus groups reflect the processes through which meaning is constructed in everyday life and to that extent can be regarded as more naturalistic (see Key concept 3.4 on the idea of naturalism) than individual interviews (Wilkinson 1998).

Page reference: 464 c. To allow individuals to bring to the fore issues they may deem important Feedback: What are the uses of the focus group method? In many ways its uses are bound up with the uses of qualitative research in general, but, over and above these, the following points can be registered: The original idea for the focus group—the focused interview—was that people who were known to have had a certain experience could be interviewed in a relatively unstructured way about that experience. The bulk of the discussion by Merton, Fiske, and Kendall (1956) of the notion of the focused interview was in terms of individual interviews, but their book also considered the extension of the method into group interview contexts. Subsequently, the focus group has become a popular method for researchers examining the ways in which people in conjunction with one another construe the general topics in which the researcher is interested. In management and business, early use of the focus group technique was also seen as a way of helping individuals to define problems and work together to identify potential solutions (Hutt 1979). The dynamics of group discussion could lead individuals to define business problems in new and innovative ways and to stimulate creative ideas for their solution.

The technique allows the researcher to develop an understanding about why people feel the way they do. In a normal individual interview the interviewee is often asked about his or her reasons for holding a particular view, but the focus group approach others the opportunity of allowing people to probe each other’s reasons for holding a certain view. This can be more interesting than the sometimes predictable question- followed-by-answer approach of normal interviews. For one thing, an individual may answer in a certain way during a focus group, but, as he or she listens to others’ answers, he or she may want to qualify or modify a view; or alternatively may want to voice agreement to something that he or she probably would not have thought of without the opportunity of hearing the views of others. These possibilities mean that focus groups may also be very helpful in the elicitation of a wide variety of views in relation to a particular issue.

In focus groups, participants are able to bring to the fore issues in relation to a topic that they deem to be important and significant. This is clearly an aim of individual interviews too, but, because the moderator has to relinquish a certain amount of control to the participants, the issues that concern them can surface. This is clearly an important consideration in the context of qualitative research, since the viewpoints of the people being studied are an important point of departure.

In conventional one-to-one interviewing, interviewees are rarely challenged; they might say things that are inconsistent with earlier replies or that patently could not be true, but we are often reluctant to point out such deficiencies. In the context of a focus group, individuals will often argue with each other and challenge each other’s views. This process of arguing means that the researcher may stand a chance of ending up with more realistic accounts of what people think, because they are forced to think about and possibly revise their views.

The focus group others the researcher the opportunity to study the ways in which individuals collectively make sense of a phenomenon and construct meanings around it. It is a central tenet of such theoretical positions as symbolic interactionism that the process of coming to terms with (that is, understanding) social phenomena is not undertaken by individuals in isolation from each other.

Instead, it is something that occurs in interaction and discussion with others. In this sense, therefore, focus groups reflect the processes through which meaning is constructed in everyday life and to that

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

extent can be regarded as more naturalistic (see Key concept 3.4 on the idea of naturalism) than individual interviews (Wilkinson 1998).

Page reference: 464 *d. To allow individuals to express themselves in a one-to-one capacity Feedback: What are the uses of the focus group method? In many ways its uses are bound up with the uses of qualitative research in general, but, over and above these, the following points can be registered: The original idea for the focus group—the focused interview—was that people who were known to have had a certain experience could be interviewed in a relatively unstructured way about that experience. The bulk of the discussion by Merton, Fiske, and Kendall (1956) of the notion of the focused interview was in terms of individual interviews, but their book also considered the extension of the method into group interview contexts. Subsequently, the focus group has become a popular method for researchers examining the ways in which people in conjunction with one another construe the general topics in which the researcher is interested. In management and business, early use of the focus group technique was also seen as a way of helping individuals to define problems and work together to identify potential solutions (Hutt 1979). The dynamics of group discussion could lead individuals to define business problems in new and innovative ways and to stimulate creative ideas for their solution.

The technique allows the researcher to develop an understanding about why people feel the way they do. In a normal individual interview the interviewee is often asked about his or her reasons for holding a particular view, but the focus group approach others the opportunity of allowing people to probe each other’s reasons for holding a certain view. This can be more interesting than the sometimes predictable question- followed-by-answer approach of normal interviews. For one thing, an individual may answer in a certain way during a focus group, but, as he or she listens to others’ answers, he or she may want to qualify or modify a view; or alternatively may want to voice agreement to something that he or she probably would not have thought of without the opportunity of hearing the views of others. These possibilities mean that focus groups may also be very helpful in the elicitation of a wide variety of views in relation to a particular issue.

In focus groups, participants are able to bring to the fore issues in relation to a topic that they deem to be important and significant. This is clearly an aim of individual interviews too, but, because the moderator has to relinquish a certain amount of control to the participants, the issues that concern them can surface. This is clearly an important consideration in the context of qualitative research, since the viewpoints of the people being studied are an important point of departure.

In conventional one-to-one interviewing, interviewees are rarely challenged; they might say things that are inconsistent with earlier replies or that patently could not be true, but we are often reluctant to point out such deficiencies. In the context of a focus group, individuals will often argue with each other and challenge each other’s views. This process of arguing means that the researcher may stand a chance of ending up with more realistic accounts of what people think, because they are forced to think about and possibly revise their views.

The focus group others the researcher the opportunity to study the ways in which individuals collectively make sense of a phenomenon and construct meanings around it. It is a central tenet of such theoretical positions as symbolic interactionism that the process of coming to terms with (that is, understanding) social phenomena is not undertaken by individuals in isolation from each other.

Instead, it is something that occurs in interaction and discussion with others. In this sense, therefore, focus groups reflect the processes through which meaning is constructed in everyday life and to that extent can be regarded as more naturalistic (see Key concept 3.4 on the idea of naturalism) than individual interviews (Wilkinson 1998).

Page reference: 464 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 21 - Question 04 04) The results of focus groups are usually easily generalizable. a. True Feedback: However, the use of focus group methods in market research has attracted its fair share of controversy. Some researchers have suggested that it is a weaker method than, say, experiments or surveys (to name two research approaches that are common in market research). The most

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

frequently mentioned problem is the perceived lack of generalizability—results are not always a reliable indicator of the reactions of the wider population.

Page reference: 465 *b. False Feedback: However, the use of focus group methods in market research has attracted its fair share of controversy. Some researchers have suggested that it is a weaker method than, say, experiments or surveys (to name two research approaches that are common in market research). The most frequently mentioned problem is the perceived lack of generalizability—results are not always a reliable indicator of the reactions of the wider population.

Page reference: 465 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 21 - Question 05 05) There is a great deal of consensus on how many focus groups should be done. a. True Feedback: How many groups do you need? Table 21.1 provides an example detailing the composition of a sequence of focus groups that was designed to reflect the impact of the local socioeconomic context on small business owner- managers. This was a longitudinal focus group study, so the groups met on several occasions during an eighteen- month period (see Research in focus 21.2).

There is a good deal of variation in the numbers of focus groups that are used in any particular study, with the norm being somewhere between twelve and fifteen. However, much lower numbers are not uncommon. Chan et al. (2012) conducted focus group research into the management of stress among expatriate Hong Kong construction professionals in mainland China and held just six groups.

Four were from different parts of mainland China, one was a group of Hong Kong professionals who had repatriated from China, and one was group of Hong Kong professionals without expatriate experience.

Page reference: 466 *b. False Feedback: How many groups do you need? Table 21.1 provides an example detailing the composition of a sequence of focus groups that was designed to reflect the impact of the local socioeconomic context on small business owner- managers. This was a longitudinal focus group study, so the groups met on several occasions during an eighteen- month period (see Research in focus 21.2).

There is a good deal of variation in the numbers of focus groups that are used in any particular study, with the norm being somewhere between twelve and fifteen. However, much lower numbers are not uncommon. Chan et al. (2012) conducted focus group research into the management of stress among expatriate Hong Kong construction professionals in mainland China and held just six groups.

Four were from different parts of mainland China, one was a group of Hong Kong professionals who had repatriated from China, and one was group of Hong Kong professionals without expatriate experience.

Page reference: 466 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 21 - Question 06 06) How large should a focus group generally be? a. 0-4 Feedback: How large should groups be? Morgan (1998a) suggests that the typical group size is six to ten members, although in their study of small business owner-managers Blackburn and Stokes (2000) found that discussion in groups of more than eight was di cult to manage, so, as the re- search progressed, they scaled down the number of participants who were invited on each occasion.

Page reference: 468 b. 1-5 Feedback: How large should groups be? Morgan (1998a) suggests that the typical group size is six to ten members, although in their study of small business owner-managers Blackburn and Stokes (2000) found that discussion in groups of more than eight was di cult to manage, so, as the re- search progressed, they scaled down the number of participants who were invited on each occasion.

Page reference: 468 *c. 6-10

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Feedback: How large should groups be? Morgan (1998a) suggests that the typical group size is six to ten members, although in their study of small business owner-managers Blackburn and Stokes (2000) found that discussion in groups of more than eight was di cult to manage, so, as the re- search progressed, they scaled down the number of participants who were invited on each occasion.

Page reference: 468 d. 6-15 Feedback: How large should groups be? Morgan (1998a) suggests that the typical group size is six to ten members, although in their study of small business owner-managers Blackburn and Stokes (2000) found that discussion in groups of more than eight was di cult to manage, so, as the re- search progressed, they scaled down the number of participants who were invited on each occasion.

Page reference: 468 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 21 - Question 07 07) In conducting a focus group, the role of the moderator needs to be somewhat intrusive and unstructured. a. True Feedback: How involved should the moderator/facilitator be? In qualitative research, the aim is to get at the perspectives of those being studied. Consequently, the approach should not be intrusive and structured.

Page reference: 468 *b. False Feedback: How involved should the moderator/facilitator be? In qualitative research, the aim is to get at the perspectives of those being studied. Consequently, the approach should not be intrusive and structured.

Page reference: 468 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 21 - Question 08 08) When conducting a focus group, the moderator should err on the side of minimal intervention. *a. True Feedback: The best advice is to err on the side of minimal intervention—other than to start the group on a fresh set of issues—but to intervene when the group is struggling in its discussions or when it has not alighted on something that is said in the course of the session that appears significant for the research topic.

Page reference: 469 b. False Feedback: The best advice is to err on the side of minimal intervention—other than to start the group on a fresh set of issues—but to intervene when the group is struggling in its discussions or when it has not alighted on something that is said in the course of the session that appears significant for the research topic.

Page reference: 469 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 21 - Question 09 09) Snowball sampling is not an appropriate method for recruiting participants for a focus group. a. True Feedback: ‘Participants for each group can then be selected randomly or through some kind of snowball sampling method’.

Page reference: 470 *b. False Feedback: ‘Participants for each group can then be selected randomly or through some kind of snowball sampling method’.

Page reference: 470 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 21 - Question 10

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10) It is good practice for the for the moderator to outline the goals of the research and the format for the focus group session at the outset *a. True Feedback: It is recommended that focus group sessions begin with an introduction, whereby the moderators thank people for coming and introduce themselves, the goals of the research are briefly outlined, the reasons for recording the session are given, and the format of the focus group session is sketched out.

Page reference: 471 b. False Feedback: It is recommended that focus group sessions begin with an introduction, whereby the moderators thank people for coming and introduce themselves, the goals of the research are briefly outlined, the reasons for recording the session are given, and the format of the focus group session is sketched out.

Page reference: 471 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 21 - Question 11 11) Focus groups generally take good account of interaction within the group a. True Feedback: Kitzinger (1994) has observed that reports of focus group research frequently do not take into account interaction within the group.

Page reference: 472 *b. False Feedback: Kitzinger (1994) has observed that reports of focus group research frequently do not take into account interaction within the group.

Page reference: 472 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 21 - Question 12 12) Focus groups are a method often associated with feminist research. *a. True Feedback: The use of focus groups as a method that seeks to give voice to groups of participants who are systematically marginalized or oppressed in organizations and society stems from the work of feminist researchers (Wilkinson) 1998, 1999b).

Page reference: 476 b. False Feedback: The use of focus groups as a method that seeks to give voice to groups of participants who are systematically marginalized or oppressed in organizations and society stems from the work of feminist researchers (Wilkinson) 1998, 1999b).

Page reference: 476 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 21 - Question 13 13) Which aspects of the focus group method highlight its compatibility with the ethics and politics of feminism? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: The use of focus groups by feminist researchers has grown considerably in recent years, and Wilkinson (1998, 1999b) has argued that it has great potential in this regard. Three aspects of the method stand out in terms of their compatibility with the ethics and politics of feminism: Focus group research is less artificial than many other methods, because, in emphasizing group interaction, which is a normal part of social life, it does not suffer from the problem of gleaning information in an unnatural situation. Moreover, the tendency of many focus group researchers to recruit participants from naturally occurring groups underpins the lower level of artificiality of the method, since people are able to discuss in situations that are quite normal for them. As a result, there is greater opportunity to derive understandings that chime with the ‘lived experience’ of women.

However, not all writers accept the contention that focus groups are more naturalistic than individual interviews. Even when natural groups are used, gathering people to discuss a certain topic (such as a

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television advertisement) is not inherently naturalistic, because the social setting is to a significant extent contrived (Morrison 1998: 154–5).

Indeed, completing questionnaires or being interviewed may appear more natural, because such instruments are fairly commonplace, whereas being asked to discuss in a group an issue not necessarily of one’s choosing is less so.

Feminist researchers have expressed a preference for methods that avoid decontextualization—that is, that successfully study the individual within a social context. The tendency for most methods to treat the individual as a separate entity devoid of a social con- text is disliked by many feminist researchers, who prefer to analyse ‘the self as relational or as socially constructed’ (Wilkinson 1999b: 229–30). Because the individual is very much part of a group in the focus group method, this tendency towards decontextualization is avoided.

As we have seen in previous chapters, feminist researchers are suspicious of research methods that are exploitative and create a power relationship between the female researcher and the female respondent. Wilkinson observes that the risk of this occurring is greatly reduced, because focus group participants are able to take over much of the direction of the session from the moderator. Indeed, they may even subvert the goals of the session in ways that could be of considerable interest to the moderator. As a result, participants’ points of view are much more likely to be revealed than in a traditional interview.

Page reference: 476 *a. Because it is less artificial and emphasises group interaction *b. Because it is a method that avoids decontextualization c. Because it’s a method that women tend to be better at than men *d. Because there is an absence of power relations within a focus group Title: Chapter 21 - Question 14 14) Focus groups are difficult to analyse *a. True Feedback: The data are difficult to analyse. A huge amount of data can be very quickly produced.

Developing a strategy of analysis that incorporates both themes in what people say and patterns of interaction is not easy. Also, as previously pointed out, focus group recordings are particularly prone to inaudible elements, which affects transcription.

Page reference: 478 b. False Feedback: The data are difficult to analyse. A huge amount of data can be very quickly produced.

Developing a strategy of analysis that incorporates both themes in what people say and patterns of interaction is not easy. Also, as previously pointed out, focus group recordings are particularly prone to inaudible elements, which affects transcription.

Page reference: 478 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 21 - Question 15 15) What are the main limitations of a focus group? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Focus groups clearly have considerable potential for research questions in which the processes through which meaning is jointly constructed are likely to be of particular interest. Indeed, it may be that even when this is not a prominent emphasis, the use of the focus group method may be appropriate and even advantageous, since it allows participants’ perspectives—an important feature of much qualitative research (see Chapter 17)—to be revealed in ways that are different from individual interviews (for example, through discussion, participants’ questions, arguments, and so on).

It also offers considerable potential for feminist researchers. What, then, might be its chief limitations?

• The researcher probably has less control over proceedings than with the individual interview…

• They are difficult to organize. Not only do you have to secure the agreement of people to participate in your study; you also need to persuade them to turn up at a particular time.

• There are possible problems of group effects. This includes the obvious problem of dealing with reticent speakers and with those who hog the stage!’

Page reference: 478 *a. Researcher has less control over proceedings

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*b. They are difficult to organise c. They provide less insights than an interview *d. There are possible problems of group effects

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 22 - Question 01 01) Research that investigates language in qualitative research is generally considered constructionist in orientation. *a. True Feedback: ‘This type of research is broadly constructionist in orientation, hence language is not seen as reflective of what goes on in an organisation; instead, it is a way of constructing particular understandings of phenomena’.

Page reference: 483 b. False Feedback: ‘This type of research is broadly constructionist in orientation, hence language is not seen as reflective of what goes on in an organisation; instead, it is a way of constructing particular understandings of phenomena’.

Page reference: 483 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 22 - Question 02 02) Which of the following are two distinctive features at the level of epistemology and ontology of discourse analysis? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: It is suggested to be characterised by two distinctive features at the level of epistemology and ontology.

• It is anti-realist • It is constructionist Page reference: 483 *a. It is anti-realist b. It is positivist *c. It is constructionist d. It is objectivist Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 22 - Question 03 03) Which of the following is not a feature of discourse analysis? a. Not just speech Feedback: Main features of discourse analysis: 1. Not just speech 2. Contextual understanding 3. Resists codification 4. Sensitivity to what is unsaid Page reference: 484 b. Contextual understanding Feedback: Main features of discourse analysis: 5. Not just speech 6. Contextual understanding 7. Resists codification 8. Sensitivity to what is unsaid Page reference: 484 *c. Codification of practices Feedback: Main features of discourse analysis: 9. Not just speech 10. Contextual understanding 11. Resists codification 12. Sensitivity to what is unsaid Page reference: 484 d. Sensitivity to what is unsaid Feedback: Main features of discourse analysis:

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13. Not just speech 14. Contextual understanding 15. Resists codification 16. Sensitivity to what is unsaid Page reference: 484 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 22 - Question 04 04) Which of the following are characteristics which apply to discourse analysis? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: A number of further characteristics apply to discourse analysis, the most important of which are presented below: • Reading the detail • Looking for rhetorical detail • Looking for accountability • Cross referencing discourse studies Page reference: 487 *a. Reading the detail *b. Looking for rhetorical detail *c. Looking for accountability d. A focus on language as somehow reflective of social reality Type: true-false Title: Chapter 22 - Question 05 05) In critical discourse analysis, the role of language as a power resource is studied. *a. True Feedback: Critical discourse analysis is principally concerned with capturing and analysing how language is used in specific socio-historical contexts in order to generate particular effects. It also emphasizes the role of language as a power resource. This approach is associated with writers such as Fairclough (1992, 1995, 2003), Hardy (2001), and Phillips and Hardy (2002). Critical discourse analysis additionally draws on the writings of the social theorist Michel Foucault (1974, 1979, 1980), whose work uncovers the representational properties of discourse as a vehicle for the exercise of power. Foucault draws attention to the disciplinary practices that enable particular versions of subjectivity to be constructed in different sociocultural moments, and the role of language within this.

Consequently, the notion of discourse is broader than in other forms of discourse analysis, as this summary by Phillips and Hardy (2002) highlights.

Page reference: 488 b. False Feedback: Critical discourse analysis is principally concerned with capturing and analysing how language is used in specific socio-historical contexts in order to generate particular effects. It also emphasizes the role of language as a power resource. This approach is associated with writers such as Fairclough (1992, 1995, 2003), Hardy (2001), and Phillips and Hardy (2002). Critical discourse analysis additionally draws on the writings of the social theorist Michel Foucault (1974, 1979, 1980), whose work uncovers the representational properties of discourse as a vehicle for the exercise of power. Foucault draws attention to the disciplinary practices that enable particular versions of subjectivity to be constructed in different sociocultural moments, and the role of language within this.

Consequently, the notion of discourse is broader than in other forms of discourse analysis, as this summary by Phillips and Hardy (2002) highlights.

Page reference: 488 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 22 - Question 06 06) Which of the following is not a feature of a ‘three-dimensional’ framework to analyse a discursive event? a. The text dimension

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Feedback: Analysis of a particular discursive event is usually carried out according to a ‘threedimensional’ framework, which proceeds as follows: examination of the actual content, structure, and meaning of the text under scrutiny (the text dimension); examination of the form of discursive interaction used to communicate meaning and beliefs (the discursive practice dimension); consideration of the social context in which the discursive event is taking place (the social practice dimension) (Grant et al. 2004: 11).

Page reference: 489 *b. The social policy dimension Feedback: Analysis of a particular discursive event is usually carried out according to a ‘threedimensional’ framework, which proceeds as follows: examination of the actual content, structure, and meaning of the text under scrutiny (the text dimension); examination of the form of discursive interaction used to communicate meaning and beliefs (the discursive practice dimension); consideration of the social context in which the discursive event is taking place (the social practice dimension) (Grant et al. 2004: 11).

Page reference: 489 c. The discursive practice dimension Feedback: Analysis of a particular discursive event is usually carried out according to a ‘threedimensional’ framework, which proceeds as follows: examination of the actual content, structure, and meaning of the text under scrutiny (the text dimension); examination of the form of discursive interaction used to communicate meaning and beliefs (the discursive practice dimension); consideration of the social context in which the discursive event is taking place (the social practice dimension) (Grant et al. 2004: 11).

Page reference: 489 d. The social practice dimension Feedback: Analysis of a particular discursive event is usually carried out according to a ‘threedimensional’ framework, which proceeds as follows: examination of the actual content, structure, and meaning of the text under scrutiny (the text dimension); examination of the form of discursive interaction used to communicate meaning and beliefs (the discursive practice dimension); consideration of the social context in which the discursive event is taking place (the social practice dimension) (Grant et al. 2004: 11).

Page reference: 489 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 22 - Question 07 07) Which of the following is not an organisational research issue that a critical realist approach to discourse can address, as outlined by Fairclough (1995) a. emergence Feedback: Fairclough identifies four sets of organisational research issues that a critical realist approach to discourse analysis can address: • Emergence • Hegemony • Recontextualization • Operationalization Page reference: 489 b. Hegemony Feedback: Fairclough identifies four sets of organisational research issues that a critical realist approach to discourse analysis can address: • Emergence • Hegemony

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• Recontextualization • Operationalization Page reference: 489 *c. Responsibility Feedback: Fairclough identifies four sets of organisational research issues that a critical realist approach to discourse analysis can address: • Emergence • Hegemony • Recontextualization • Operationalization Page reference: 489 d. Re-contextualisation Feedback: Fairclough identifies four sets of organisational research issues that a critical realist approach to discourse analysis can address: • Emergence • Hegemony • Recontextualization • Operationalization Page reference: 489 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 22 - Question 08 08) Narrative analysis is an approach to the analysis of language, which sees people as tellers of stories about their lives or events around them. *a. True Feedback: Narrative analysis is an approach to the elicitation and analysis of language that is sensitive to the sense of temporal sequence that people, as tellers of stories about their lives or events around them, detect in their lives and sur- rounding episodes and inject into their accounts.

Page reference: 489 b. False Feedback: Narrative analysis is an approach to the elicitation and analysis of language that is sensitive to the sense of temporal sequence that people, as tellers of stories about their lives or events around them, detect in their lives and sur- rounding episodes and inject into their accounts.

Page reference: 489 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 22 - Question 09 09) Life history research has little application in narrative analysis a. True Feedback: Life history research is an obvious location for the application of narrative analysis.

Page reference: 489 *b. False Feedback: Life history research is an obvious location for the application of narrative analysis.

Page reference: 489 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 22 - Question 10 10) Rhetoric concerns the study of language as a means of communication and persuasion within management and organisation. *a. True Feedback: Related to narrative analysis is an approach that focuses on the importance of rhetorical devices as a means of communication and persuasion within management and organization.

Page reference: 491 b. False

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Feedback: Related to narrative analysis is an approach that focuses on the importance of rhetorical devices as a means of communication and persuasion within management and organization.

Page reference: 491 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 22 - Question 11 11) Conversation analysis is a fine-grained approach to the use of language in use whose roots lie in ethnomethodology. *a. True Feedback: Conversation analysis (CA) is the ne-grained analysis of talk as it occurs in interaction in naturally occurring situations.

The roots of CA lie in ethnomethodology, a sociological position developed in the USA under the general tutelage of Harold Garfinkel and Harvey Sacks, though it is the latter with whom CA is most associated.

Page reference: 493 b. False Feedback: Conversation analysis (CA) is the ne-grained analysis of talk as it occurs in interaction in naturally occurring situations.

The roots of CA lie in ethnomethodology, a sociological position developed in the USA under the general tutelage of Harold Garfinkel and Harvey Sacks, though it is the latter with whom CA is most associated.

Page reference: 493 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 22 - Question 12 12) Which two ideas are central to ethnomethodology and find clear expression in conversation analysis? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Two ideas are particularly central to ethnomethodology and find clear expression in CA: indexicality and reflexivity. Indexicality means that the meaning of an act, which in CA essentially means spoken words or utterances including pauses and sounds, depends upon the context in which it is used. Reflexivity means that spoken words are constitutive of the social world in which they are located; in other words, the principle of reflexivity in ethnomethodology means that talk is not a ‘mere’ representation of the social world, so that it does much more than just stand for something else Page reference: 493 *a. Indexicality b. Criticality *c. Reflexivity d. Relativism Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 22 - Question 13 13) Which of the following are the basic assumptions of conversation analysis, as outlined by Heritage (1984, 1987). Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Heritage (1984, 1987) has proposed that CA is governed by three basic assumptions.

Talk is structured. Talk comprises invariant patterns— that is, it is structured. Participants are implicitly aware of the rules that underpin these patterns. As a result, conversation analysts eschew attempts to infer the motivations of speakers from what they say or to ascribe their talk to personal characteristics. Such information is unnecessary, since the conversation analyst is orientated to the underlying structures of action, as revealed in talk.

Talk is forged contextually. Action is revealed in talk, and as such talk must be analysed in terms of its con- text. This means that we must seek to understand what someone says in terms of the talk that has preceded it and that therefore talk is viewed as exhibiting patterned sequences.

Analysis is grounded in data. Conversation analysts shun prior theoretical schemes and instead argue that characteristics of talk and of the constitutive nature of social order in each empirical instance must be induced out of data. Heritage (1987: 258) has written: ‘It is assumed that social actions work in detail and hence that the specific details of interaction cannot simply be ignored as insignificant without damaging the prospects for coherent and effective analyses.’ This assumption represents a

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manifesto for the emphasis on fine-grained details (including length of pauses, prolongation of sounds, and so on) that is the hallmark of CA. Page reference: 494 *a. Talk is structured b. Talk is unbounded *c. Talk is forged contextually *d. Talk is grounded in data Type: true-false Title: Chapter 22 - Question 14 14) One of the most basic ideas in conversation analysis is the notion that one of the ways in which order is achieved in everyday conversation is through turn-taking. *a. True Feedback: ‘One of the most basic ideas in conversation analysis is the notion that one of the ways in which order is achieved in everyday conversation is through turn-taking’.

Page reference: 494 b. False Feedback: ‘One of the most basic ideas in conversation analysis is the notion that one of the ways in which order is achieved in everyday conversation is through turn-taking’.

Page reference: 494 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 22 - Question 15 15) Conversation analysis is only concerned with the analysis of face-to-face talk rather than mass media discourse. a. True Feedback: Conversation analysts study talk in a range of institutional settings, such as television news interviews, courtroom trials, and clinical interaction. Boden (1994) uses CA to explore how talk influences organizational structures. She highlights the importance of formal and informal meetings, which she sees as involving sequences of talk that enable people to transmit information, make decisions, and sort out misunderstandings. She suggests CA can provide a means of understanding these interactional contexts, by looking at the way talk is organized in meetings. A further example of CA in management meetings is provided by Gibson (2005), who analyses the effects of hierarchical and horizontal networks on man- agers’ participation shifts (see Research in focus 22.2).

Page reference: 495 *b. False Feedback: Conversation analysts study talk in a range of institutional settings, such as television news interviews, courtroom trials, and clinical interaction. Boden (1994) uses CA to explore how talk influences organizational structures. She highlights the importance of formal and informal meetings, which she sees as involving sequences of talk that enable people to transmit information, make decisions, and sort out misunderstandings. She suggests CA can provide a means of understanding these interactional contexts, by looking at the way talk is organized in meetings. A further example of CA in management meetings is provided by Gibson (2005), who analyses the effects of hierarchical and horizontal networks on man- agers’ participation shifts (see Research in focus 22.2).

Page reference: 495

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 01 01) Personal documents such as diaries and letters can be used as data within a qualitative study. *a. True Feedback: Personal documents such as diaries and letters may be used as the primary source of data within a qualitative study or alternatively as adjuncts to other methods, such as interviews or participant observation.

Page reference: 454 b. False Feedback: Personal documents such as diaries and letters may be used as the primary source of data within a qualitative study or alternatively as adjuncts to other methods, such as interviews or participant observation.

Page reference: 454 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 02 02) Representativeness is generally not an additional concern for personal documents. a. True Feedback: Representativeness is an additional concern for these materials. Surviving historical documents are relatively few in number, and they have been preserved only in relation to the most influential of companies, such as Cadbury, Unilever, or the Ford Foundation. Therefore, such historical documents are likely to be biased in terms of the organizations they represent. A further problem is the selective survival of documents like letters. Why do any survive at all and what proportion are damaged, lost, or thrown away? The question of meaning is often rendered problematic by such things as damage to letters and diaries, and the use by authors of abbreviations or codes that are di cult to decipher.

Page reference: 502 *b. False Feedback: Representativeness is an additional concern for these materials. Surviving historical documents are relatively few in number, and they have been preserved only in relation to the most influential of companies, such as Cadbury, Unilever, or the Ford Foundation. Therefore, such historical documents are likely to be biased in terms of the organizations they represent. A further problem is the selective survival of documents like letters. Why do any survive at all and what proportion are damaged, lost, or thrown away? The question of meaning is often rendered problematic by such things as damage to letters and diaries, and the use by authors of abbreviations or codes that are di cult to decipher.

Page reference: 502 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 03 03) In case study and ethnographic research, documents can provide the researcher with valuable background information about the company and its history. *a. True Feedback: In case study and ethnographic research, documents can provide the researcher with valuable background information about the company and its history.

Page reference: 505 b. False Feedback: In case study and ethnographic research, documents can provide the researcher with valuable background information about the company and its history.

Page reference: 505 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 04 04) Newspapers and magazines are generally not used for business or management research as they are not considered specialist enough.

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a. True Feedback: Newspapers, magazines, television programmes, films, and other mass media are potential sources for business and management study.

Page reference: 506 *b. False Feedback: Newspapers, magazines, television programmes, films, and other mass media are potential sources for business and management study.

Page reference: 506 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 05 05) Photographs must not be taken at face value when used as a research source. *a. True Feedback: ‘However, photographs must not be taken at face value when used as a research source; it is also necessary to have considerable additional knowledge of the social context to probe beneath the surface’.

Page reference: 507 b. False Feedback: ‘However, photographs must not be taken at face value when used as a research source; it is also necessary to have considerable additional knowledge of the social context to probe beneath the surface’.

Page reference: 507 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 06 06) Treating documents as texts implies a more objectivist ontological approach. a. True Feedback: ‘However, treating documents as texts implies a more constructionist ontological approach’.

Page reference: 510 *b. False Feedback: ‘However, treating documents as texts implies a more constructionist ontological approach’.

Page reference: 510 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 23 - Question 07 07) The concept of intertextuality refers to the interconnectedness of? a. People Feedback: ‘Atkinson and Coffey refer to the interconnectedness of documents as inter-textuality’.

Page reference: 510 b. Organisations Feedback: ‘Atkinson and Coffey refer to the interconnectedness of documents as inter-textuality’.

Page reference: 510 *c. Documents Feedback: ‘Atkinson and Coffey refer to the interconnectedness of documents as inter-textuality’.

Page reference: 510 d. Concepts Feedback: ‘Atkinson and Coffey refer to the interconnectedness of documents as inter-textuality’.

Page reference: 510 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 23 - Question 08 08) Which of the following is not a method for interpreting documents qualitatively? a. Semiotics Feedback: Although it means straying into areas that are relevant to Chapter 24, this section will briefly consider the question of how to interpret documents qualitatively. Three possible approaches

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are outlined: qualitative content analysis; semiotics; and historical analysis. In addition to these, discourse analysis, which was covered in Chapter 22, has been employed as an approach for the analysis of documents.

Page reference: 511 b. Qualitative content analysis Feedback: Although it means straying into areas that are relevant to Chapter 24, this section will briefly consider the question of how to interpret documents qualitatively. Three possible approaches are outlined: qualitative content analysis; semiotics; and historical analysis. In addition to these, discourse analysis, which was covered in Chapter 22, has been employed as an approach for the analysis of documents.

Page reference: 511 *c. Regression analysis Feedback: Although it means straying into areas that are relevant to Chapter 24, this section will briefly consider the question of how to interpret documents qualitatively. Three possible approaches are outlined: qualitative content analysis; semiotics; and historical analysis. In addition to these, discourse analysis, which was covered in Chapter 22, has been employed as an approach for the analysis of documents.

Page reference: 511 d. Historical analysis Feedback: Although it means straying into areas that are relevant to Chapter 24, this section will briefly consider the question of how to interpret documents qualitatively. Three possible approaches are outlined: qualitative content analysis; semiotics; and historical analysis. In addition to these, discourse analysis, which was covered in Chapter 22, has been employed as an approach for the analysis of documents.

Page reference: 511 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 09 09) Semiotics is the science of words and their meaning. a. True Feedback: Semiotics is invariably referred to as the ‘science of signs’. It is an approach to the analysis of symbols in everyday life and as such can be employed in relation not only to documentary sources but also to all kinds of other data because of its commitment to treating phenomena as texts.

Page reference: 512 *b. False Feedback: Semiotics is invariably referred to as the ‘science of signs’. It is an approach to the analysis of symbols in everyday life and as such can be employed in relation not only to documentary sources but also to all kinds of other data because of its commitment to treating phenomena as texts.

Page reference: 512 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 10 10) Semiotics research has been mainly confined to studies of marketing and advertising. *a. True Feedback: Despite the potential for applying semiotic analysis in the study of organizational cultures, its use has instead been mainly confined to studies of marketing and advertising. In advertising, semiotic analysis encourages recognition of the way that individuals interpret the same advertising message in slightly different ways. Combe and Crowther (2000) suggest, for example, that signs and symbols influence the positioning and repositioning of brands, such as Murphy’s Irish stout, in recipients’ minds. A further application of semiotic analysis in an organizational context is provided by Barley (1983) in his study of funeral work (see Research in focus 23.9).

Page reference: 512 b. False Feedback: Despite the potential for applying semiotic analysis in the study of organizational cultures, its use has instead been mainly confined to studies of marketing and advertising. In advertising, semiotic analysis encourages recognition of the way that individuals interpret the same advertising message in slightly different ways. Combe and Crowther (2000) suggest, for example, that signs and

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symbols influence the positioning and repositioning of brands, such as Murphy’s Irish stout, in recipients’ minds. A further application of semiotic analysis in an organizational context is provided by Barley (1983) in his study of funeral work (see Research in focus 23.9).

Page reference: 512 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 11 11) The sign is made of a signifier and a signified *a. True Feedback: the sign is made up of: a signifier and the signified.

Page reference: 512 b. False Feedback: the sign is made up of: a signifier and the signified.

Page reference: 512 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 12 12) The concept of polysemy refers to the quality of signs, that they are only capable of being interpreted in a singular way. a. True Feedback: polysemy refers to a quality of signs—namely, that they are always capable of being interpreted in many way Page reference: 512 *b. False Feedback: polysemy refers to a quality of signs—namely, that they are always capable of being interpreted in many way Page reference: 512 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 13 13) Historiography is the study of the historical method. *a. True Feedback: Historiography is the study of historical method.

Page reference: 512 b. False Feedback: Historiography is the study of historical method.

Page reference: 512 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 23 - Question 14 14) Historiography has been widely discussed in business research. a. True Feedback: However, with few exceptions, historiography has not been widely discussed in business research.

Page reference: 572 *b. False Feedback: However, with few exceptions, historiography has not been widely discussed in business research.

Page reference: 572 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 23 - Question 15 15) Which of the following is not an argument put forward by Kieser (1994) in favour of a historical turn in business? a. Understanding of contemporary organisations relies on having awareness of how they have developed historically Feedback: See page 513 for further reading on Kieser and historical research.

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Page reference: 513 *b. Historical research has superior validity, reliability and trustworthiness than contemporary research Feedback: See page 513 for further reading on Kieser and historical research.

Page reference: 513 c. Historical research and reduce the ideological biases that are embedded in current “fashionable” trends in organisation theory and practice Feedback: See page 513 for further reading on Kieser and historical research.

Page reference: 513 d. Historical analysis enables interpretation of existing organisational arrangements as a result of the intentional or implicit decisions made in the past rather than determined by objective laws.

Feedback: See page 513 for further reading on Kieser and historical research.

Page reference: 513

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 24 - Question 01 01) Qualitative analysis is iterative, in that there is an interplay between collection and analysis of data. *a. True Feedback: ‘In contrast, qualitative analytical approaches such as grounded theory are often described as iterative – that is, there is a repetitive interplay between the collection and analysis of data’.

Page reference: 518 b. False Feedback: ‘In contrast, qualitative analytical approaches such as grounded theory are often described as iterative – that is, there is a repetitive interplay between the collection and analysis of data’.

Page reference: 518 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 24 - Question 02 02) According to Ryan and Bernard (2003), when searching for themes we should look for what?

Please select all that apply.

Feedback: When searching for themes, Ryan and Bernard (2003) recommend looking for: • Repetitions • Indigenous typologies or categories • Metaphors and analogies • Transitions • Similarities and differences • Linguistic connectors Page reference: 519 *a. Metaphors and analogies *b. Transitions c. Correlations *d. Linguistic connectors Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 24 - Question 03 03) Which of the following does not describe a theme? a. A category identified by the analyst through his/her data Feedback: In spite of its apparent frequency of use in the analysis of qualitative data (see main text), there are relatively few specifications of the processes involved in thematic analysis. This is changing (e.g. Ryan and Bernard 2003; Braun and Clarke 2006), but, even so, understandings of what constitutes a theme vary. By and large, we can say that a theme: • is a category identified by the analyst through his/her data; • relates to the analyst’s research focus (and quite possibly the research questions); • builds on codes identified in transcripts and/or field notes; • provides the researcher with the basis for a theoretical understanding of his or her data that can make a theoretical contribution to the literature relating to the research focus.

Page reference: 519 *b. A statistically significant discovery Feedback: In spite of its apparent frequency of use in the analysis of qualitative data (see main text), there are relatively few specifications of the processes involved in thematic analysis. This is changing (e.g. Ryan and Bernard 2003; Braun and Clarke 2006), but, even so, understandings of what constitutes a theme vary. By and large, we can say that a theme: • is a category identified by the analyst through his/her data; • relates to the analyst’s research focus (and quite possibly the research questions); • builds on codes identified in transcripts and/or field notes;

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• provides the researcher with the basis for a theoretical understanding of his or her data that can make a theoretical contribution to the literature relating to the research focus.

Page reference: 519 c. Relates to the analysts’ research focus Feedback: In spite of its apparent frequency of use in the analysis of qualitative data (see main text), there are relatively few specifications of the processes involved in thematic analysis. This is changing (e.g. Ryan and Bernard 2003; Braun and Clarke 2006), but, even so, understandings of what constitutes a theme vary. By and large, we can say that a theme: • is a category identified by the analyst through his/her data; • relates to the analyst’s research focus (and quite possibly the research questions); • builds on codes identified in transcripts and/or field notes; • provides the researcher with the basis for a theoretical understanding of his or her data that can make a theoretical contribution to the literature relating to the research focus.

Page reference: 519 d. Provides the researcher with the basis of a theoretical understanding of his or her data to make a contribution to the literature Feedback: In spite of its apparent frequency of use in the analysis of qualitative data (see main text), there are relatively few specifications of the processes involved in thematic analysis. This is changing (e.g. Ryan and Bernard 2003; Braun and Clarke 2006), but, even so, understandings of what constitutes a theme vary. By and large, we can say that a theme: • is a category identified by the analyst through his/her data; • relates to the analyst’s research focus (and quite possibly the research questions); • builds on codes identified in transcripts and/or field notes; • provides the researcher with the basis for a theoretical understanding of his or her data that can make a theoretical contribution to the literature relating to the research focus.

Page reference: 519 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 24 - Question 04 04) Which two authors developed Grounded Theory? a. Atkinson and Hammersly Feedback: Grounded theory (see Key concept 24.3) has become by far the most widely used framework for analysing qualitative data. The book that is the chief wellspring of the approach, The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research by Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss (published in 1967), must be one of the most widely cited books in the social sciences.

Page reference: 521 b. Potter and Weatherall Feedback: Grounded theory (see Key concept 24.3) has become by far the most widely used framework for analysing qualitative data. The book that is the chief wellspring of the approach, The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research by Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss (published in 1967), must be one of the most widely cited books in the social sciences.

Page reference: 521 *c. Glaser and Strauss Feedback: Grounded theory (see Key concept 24.3) has become by far the most widely used framework for analysing qualitative data. The book that is the chief wellspring of the approach, The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research by Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss (published in 1967), must be one of the most widely cited books in the social sciences.

Page reference: 521 d. Bryman and Bell Feedback: Grounded theory (see Key concept 24.3) has become by far the most widely used framework for analysing qualitative data. The book that is the chief wellspring of the approach, The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research by Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss (published in 1967), must be one of the most widely cited books in the social sciences.

Page reference: 521 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 24 - Question 05

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05) There is considerable controversy about what grounded theory is and what it entails. *a. True Feedback: However, because of the greater prominence of Strauss’s writings, his version is largely the one followed in the exposition below. There is, however, considerable controversy about what grounded theory is and entails (Charmaz 2000).

Page reference: 521 b. False Feedback: However, because of the greater prominence of Strauss’s writings, his version is largely the one followed in the exposition below. There is, however, considerable controversy about what grounded theory is and entails (Charmaz 2000).

Page reference: 521 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 24 - Question 06 06) Which of the following is not considered a tool of grounded theory? a. Theoretical sampling Feedback: Some of the tools of grounded theory have been referred to in previous chapters. Their location is indicated in the list that follows.

Theoretical sampling: see Key concept 18.3.

Coding: the key process in grounded theory, whereby data are broken down into component parts, which are given names. It begins soon after the collection of initial data. As Charmaz (2000: 515) puts it: ‘We grounded theorists code our emerging data as we collect it . . . Unlike quantitative research that requires data to fit into preconceived standardized codes, the researcher’s interpretations of data shape his or her emergent codes in grounded theory’ (emphasis in original). In grounded theory, different types or levels of coding are recognized (see Key concept 24.4).

Theoretical saturation: see Key concept 18.4. Theoretical saturation is a process that relates to two phases in grounded theory: the coding of data (implying that you reach a point where there is no further point in reviewing your data to see how well they fit with your concepts or categories) and the collection of data (implying that, once a concept or category has been developed, you may wish to continue collecting data to determine its nature and operation but then reach a point where new data are no longer illuminating the concept).

Constant comparison: an aspect of grounded theory that was prominent in Glaser and Strauss (1967) and that is often referred to as a significant phase by practitioners, but that seems to be an implicit, rather than an explicit, element in more recent writings. Constant comparison refers to a process of maintaining a close connection between data and conceptualization, so that the correspondence between concepts and categories with their indicators is not lost. More specifically, attention to the procedure of constant comparison enjoins the researcher constantly to compare phenomena being coded under a certain category so that a theoretical elaboration of that category can begin to emerge.

Glaser and Strauss advised writing a memo (see below) on the category after a few phenomena had been coded. It also entails being sensitive to contrasts between the categories that are emerging.

Page reference: 522 *b. Interpretive repertoires Feedback: Some of the tools of grounded theory have been referred to in previous chapters. Their location is indicated in the list that follows.

Theoretical sampling: see Key concept 18.3.

Coding: the key process in grounded theory, whereby data are broken down into component parts, which are given names. It begins soon after the collection of initial data. As Charmaz (2000: 515) puts it: ‘We grounded theorists code our emerging data as we collect it . . . Unlike quantitative research that requires data to fit into preconceived standardized codes, the researcher’s interpretations of data shape his or her emergent codes in grounded theory’ (emphasis in original). In grounded theory, different types or levels of coding are recognized (see Key concept 24.4).

Theoretical saturation: see Key concept 18.4. Theoretical saturation is a process that relates to two phases in grounded theory: the coding of data (implying that you reach a point where there is no further point in reviewing your data to see how well they fit with your concepts or categories) and the

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collection of data (implying that, once a concept or category has been developed, you may wish to continue collecting data to determine its nature and operation but then reach a point where new data are no longer illuminating the concept).

Constant comparison: an aspect of grounded theory that was prominent in Glaser and Strauss (1967) and that is often referred to as a significant phase by practitioners, but that seems to be an implicit, rather than an explicit, element in more recent writings. Constant comparison refers to a process of maintaining a close connection between data and conceptualization, so that the correspondence between concepts and categories with their indicators is not lost. More specifically, attention to the procedure of constant comparison enjoins the researcher constantly to compare phenomena being coded under a certain category so that a theoretical elaboration of that category can begin to emerge.

Glaser and Strauss advised writing a memo (see below) on the category after a few phenomena had been coded. It also entails being sensitive to contrasts between the categories that are emerging.

Page reference: 522 c. Theoretical saturation Feedback: Some of the tools of grounded theory have been referred to in previous chapters. Their location is indicated in the list that follows.

Theoretical sampling: see Key concept 18.3.

Coding: the key process in grounded theory, whereby data are broken down into component parts, which are given names. It begins soon after the collection of initial data. As Charmaz (2000: 515) puts it: ‘We grounded theorists code our emerging data as we collect it . . . Unlike quantitative research that requires data to fit into preconceived standardized codes, the researcher’s interpretations of data shape his or her emergent codes in grounded theory’ (emphasis in original). In grounded theory, different types or levels of coding are recognized (see Key concept 24.4).

Theoretical saturation: see Key concept 18.4. Theoretical saturation is a process that relates to two phases in grounded theory: the coding of data (implying that you reach a point where there is no further point in reviewing your data to see how well they fit with your concepts or categories) and the collection of data (implying that, once a concept or category has been developed, you may wish to continue collecting data to determine its nature and operation but then reach a point where new data are no longer illuminating the concept).

Constant comparison: an aspect of grounded theory that was prominent in Glaser and Strauss (1967) and that is often referred to as a significant phase by practitioners, but that seems to be an implicit, rather than an explicit, element in more recent writings. Constant comparison refers to a process of maintaining a close connection between data and conceptualization, so that the correspondence between concepts and categories with their indicators is not lost. More specifically, attention to the procedure of constant comparison enjoins the researcher constantly to compare phenomena being coded under a certain category so that a theoretical elaboration of that category can begin to emerge.

Glaser and Strauss advised writing a memo (see below) on the category after a few phenomena had been coded. It also entails being sensitive to contrasts between the categories that are emerging.

Page reference: 522 d. Constant comparison Feedback: Some of the tools of grounded theory have been referred to in previous chapters. Their location is indicated in the list that follows.

Theoretical sampling: see Key concept 18.3.

Coding: the key process in grounded theory, whereby data are broken down into component parts, which are given names. It begins soon after the collection of initial data. As Charmaz (2000: 515) puts it: ‘We grounded theorists code our emerging data as we collect it . . . Unlike quantitative research that requires data to fit into preconceived standardized codes, the researcher’s interpretations of data shape his or her emergent codes in grounded theory’ (emphasis in original). In grounded theory, different types or levels of coding are recognized (see Key concept 24.4).

Theoretical saturation: see Key concept 18.4. Theoretical saturation is a process that relates to two phases in grounded theory: the coding of data (implying that you reach a point where there is no further point in reviewing your data to see how well they fit with your concepts or categories) and the collection of data (implying that, once a concept or category has been developed, you may wish to

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continue collecting data to determine its nature and operation but then reach a point where new data are no longer illuminating the concept).

Constant comparison: an aspect of grounded theory that was prominent in Glaser and Strauss (1967) and that is often referred to as a significant phase by practitioners, but that seems to be an implicit, rather than an explicit, element in more recent writings. Constant comparison refers to a process of maintaining a close connection between data and conceptualization, so that the correspondence between concepts and categories with their indicators is not lost. More specifically, attention to the procedure of constant comparison enjoins the researcher constantly to compare phenomena being coded under a certain category so that a theoretical elaboration of that category can begin to emerge.

Glaser and Strauss advised writing a memo (see below) on the category after a few phenomena had been coded. It also entails being sensitive to contrasts between the categories that are emerging.

Page reference: 522 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 24 - Question 07 07) What are the outcomes of grounded theory? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: The following are the products of different phases of grounded theory: Concept(s)—refers to labels given to discrete phenomena; concepts are referred to as the ‘building blocks of theory’ (Strauss and Corbin 1998: 101). The value of concepts is determined by their usefulness or utility. One criterion for deciding whether a concept is useful is that a useful concept will typically be found frequently, and members of the organization under study will be able to recognize it and relate it to their experiences. Concepts are produced through open coding (see Key concept 24.4). Concepts can be recorded using concept cards (see Research in focus 24.5), through which incidents in the data can be recorded. An example of a concept card is provided in Figure 24.2.

Category, categories—a concept that has been elaborated so that it is regarded as representing realworld phenomena. A category may subsume two or more concepts. As such, categories are at a higher level of abstraction than concepts. A category may become a core category around which the other categories pivot (see Key concept 24.4). The number of core categories may, in fact, be relatively few. For example, Martin and Turner (1986) give an example of one study in which from a large dataset and an initial 100 concepts, fewer than 40 of these proved to be very useful and only 10 provided the basis for the final analysis.

Properties: attributes or aspects of a category.

Hypotheses: initial hunches about relationships between concepts.

Theory: according to Strauss and Corbin (1998: 22), ‘a set of well-developed categories . . . that are systematically related through statements of relationship to form a theoretical framework that explains some relevant social . . . or other phenomenon’. Since the inception of grounded theory, writings have pointed to two types or levels of theory: substantive theory and formal theory. The former relates to theory in a certain empirical instance or substantive area, such as occupational socialization. A formal theory is at a higher level of abstraction and has a wider range of applicability to several substantive areas, such as socialization in a number of spheres, suggesting that higher-level processes are at work. The generation of formal theory requires data col- lection in contrasting settings.

Page reference: 522 *a. Concepts *b. Categories *c. Hypotheses d. Principles Type: true-false Title: Chapter 24 - Question 08 08) Memos are notes that researchers might write for themselves or those with whom they work concerning elements of grounded theory such as coding or concepts. *a. True Feedback: Memos in grounded theory are notes that re- searchers might write for themselves and for those with whom they work concerning such elements of grounded theory as coding or concepts.

Page reference: 524 b. False

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Feedback: Memos in grounded theory are notes that re- searchers might write for themselves and for those with whom they work concerning such elements of grounded theory as coding or concepts.

Page reference: 524 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 24 - Question 09 09) Which of the following are not part of the classic grounded theory sequence of analysis? a. Open coding Feedback: The qualitative data analysis followed a classic grounded theory sequence of: 1. Open coding, whereby preliminary concepts were identified (often based on in vivo language) from the data and grouped; 2. Axial coding, whereby connections between the emergent themes were detected and grouped into higher- order conceptual categories; 3. Themes deriving from the axial coding were themselves grouped into theoretically fertile dimensions.

Page reference: 526 b. Axial coding Feedback: The qualitative data analysis followed a classic grounded theory sequence of: 4. Open coding, whereby preliminary concepts were identified (often based on in vivo language) from the data and grouped; 5. Axial coding, whereby connections between the emergent themes were detected and grouped into higher- order conceptual categories; 6. Themes deriving from the axial coding were themselves grouped into theoretically fertile dimensions.

Page reference: 526 *c. Indexical coding Feedback: The qualitative data analysis followed a classic grounded theory sequence of: 7. Open coding, whereby preliminary concepts were identified (often based on in vivo language) from the data and grouped; 8. Axial coding, whereby connections between the emergent themes were detected and grouped into higher- order conceptual categories; 9. Themes deriving from the axial coding were themselves grouped into theoretically fertile dimensions.

Page reference: 526 d. Themes Feedback: The qualitative data analysis followed a classic grounded theory sequence of: 10. Open coding, whereby preliminary concepts were identified (often based on in vivo language) from the data and grouped; 11. Axial coding, whereby connections between the emergent themes were detected and grouped into higher- order conceptual categories; 12. Themes deriving from the axial coding were themselves grouped into theoretically fertile dimensions.

Page reference: 526 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 24 - Question 10 10) Which of the following are legitimate criticisms of grounded theory? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: In spite of the frequency with which it is cited and the frequent lip service paid to it, grounded theory is not with- out its limitations, of which the following can be briefly registered: Bulmer (1979) has questioned whether or not, as pre- scribed by the advocates of grounded theory, researchers can suspend their awareness of relevant theories or concepts until quite a late stage in the process of analysis. Business researchers are typically sensitive to the conceptual armoury of their disciplines, and it seems unlikely that this awareness can be put aside. Indeed, nowadays it is rarely accepted that theory- neutral observation is feasible. In other words, it is generally agreed that what we ‘see’ when we conduct research is conditioned by many factors, one of which is what we already know about the social world being studied (in terms both of social scientific conceptualizations and as members of

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society). Also, many writers might take the view that it is desirable that researchers are sensitive to existing conceptualizations, so that their investigations are focused and can build upon the work of others.

Related to this first point is that, in many circum- stances, researchers are required to spell out the possible implications of their planned investigation. For example, a lecturer making a bid for research funding or a student applying for funding for postgraduate research is usually required to demonstrate how his or her research will build upon what is already known or to demonstrate that he or she has a reasonably tightly defined research question, something that is also frequently disdained in grounded theory.

There are practical difficulties with grounded theory. The time taken to transcribe audio recordings of inter- views, for example, can make it di cult for researchers, especially when they have tight deadlines, to carry out a genuine grounded theory analysis with its constant interplay of data collection and conceptualization.

It is somewhat doubtful whether grounded theory in many instances really results in theory. As previously suggested, it provides a rigorous approach to the generation of concepts, but it is often di cult to see what theory, in the sense of an explanation of something, is being put forward. Moreover, in spite of the frequent lip service paid to the generation of formal theory, most grounded theories are substantive in character; in other words, they pertain to the specific social phenomenon being researched and not to a broader range of phenomena (though, of course, they may have such broader applicability).

Page reference: 529 *a. Theory-neutral observations are not feasible *b. It is time consuming *c. It is doubtful it results in the creation of theory d. It lacks rigor and integrity Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 24 - Question 11 11) Which of the following is not a step or consideration in coding? *a. Code as soon as possible Feedback: The following steps and considerations need to be borne in mind in preparation for and during coding.

Code as soon as possible. It is well worth coding as you go along, as grounded theory suggests. This may sharpen your understanding of your data and help with theoretical sampling. Also, it may help to alleviate the feeling of being swamped by your data, which may happen if you defer analysis entirely until the end of the data collection period. At the very least, you should ensure that, if your data collection involves recording interviews, you begin transcription at a relatively early stage.

Read through your initial set of transcripts, field notes, documents, etc., without taking any notes or considering an interpretation; perhaps at the end jot down a few general notes about what struck you as especially interesting, important, or significant.

Do it again. Read through your data again, but this time begin to make marginal notes about significant remarks or observations. Make as many as possible. Initially, they will be very basic— perhaps keywords used by your respondents, names that you give to themes in the data. When you do this you are coding— generating an index of terms that will help you to interpret and theorize in relation to your data.

Review your codes. Begin to review your codes, possibly in relation to your transcripts. Are you using two or more words or phrases to describe the same phenomenon? If so, remove one of them. Do some of your codes relate to concepts and categories in the existing literature? If so, might it be sensible to use these instead? Can you see any connections between the codes? Is there some evidence that respondents believe that one thing tends to be associated with or caused by something else? If so, how do you characterize and therefore code these connections?

Page reference: 531 *b. Read through your initial set of transcripts, field notes and documents Feedback: The following steps and considerations need to be borne in mind in preparation for and during coding.

Code as soon as possible. It is well worth coding as you go along, as grounded theory suggests. This may sharpen your understanding of your data and help with theoretical sampling. Also, it may help to

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alleviate the feeling of being swamped by your data, which may happen if you defer analysis entirely until the end of the data collection period. At the very least, you should ensure that, if your data collection involves recording interviews, you begin transcription at a relatively early stage.

Read through your initial set of transcripts, field notes, documents, etc., without taking any notes or considering an interpretation; perhaps at the end jot down a few general notes about what struck you as especially interesting, important, or significant.

Do it again. Read through your data again, but this time begin to make marginal notes about significant remarks or observations. Make as many as possible. Initially, they will be very basic— perhaps keywords used by your respondents, names that you give to themes in the data. When you do this you are coding— generating an index of terms that will help you to interpret and theorize in relation to your data.

Review your codes. Begin to review your codes, possibly in relation to your transcripts. Are you using two or more words or phrases to describe the same phenomenon? If so, remove one of them. Do some of your codes relate to concepts and categories in the existing literature? If so, might it be sensible to use these instead? Can you see any connections between the codes? Is there some evidence that respondents believe that one thing tends to be associated with or caused by something else? If so, how do you characterize and therefore code these connections?

Page reference: 531 *c. Review your codes Feedback: The following steps and considerations need to be borne in mind in preparation for and during coding.

Code as soon as possible. It is well worth coding as you go along, as grounded theory suggests. This may sharpen your understanding of your data and help with theoretical sampling. Also, it may help to alleviate the feeling of being swamped by your data, which may happen if you defer analysis entirely until the end of the data collection period. At the very least, you should ensure that, if your data collection involves recording interviews, you begin transcription at a relatively early stage.

Read through your initial set of transcripts, field notes, documents, etc., without taking any notes or considering an interpretation; perhaps at the end jot down a few general notes about what struck you as especially interesting, important, or significant.

Do it again. Read through your data again, but this time begin to make marginal notes about significant remarks or observations. Make as many as possible. Initially, they will be very basic— perhaps keywords used by your respondents, names that you give to themes in the data. When you do this you are coding— generating an index of terms that will help you to interpret and theorize in relation to your data.

Review your codes. Begin to review your codes, possibly in relation to your transcripts. Are you using two or more words or phrases to describe the same phenomenon? If so, remove one of them. Do some of your codes relate to concepts and categories in the existing literature? If so, might it be sensible to use these instead? Can you see any connections between the codes? Is there some evidence that respondents believe that one thing tends to be associated with or caused by something else? If so, how do you characterize and therefore code these connections?

Page reference: 531 d. Collect as much data as you possibly can Feedback: The following steps and considerations need to be borne in mind in preparation for and during coding.

Code as soon as possible. It is well worth coding as you go along, as grounded theory suggests. This may sharpen your understanding of your data and help with theoretical sampling. Also, it may help to alleviate the feeling of being swamped by your data, which may happen if you defer analysis entirely until the end of the data collection period. At the very least, you should ensure that, if your data collection involves recording interviews, you begin transcription at a relatively early stage.

Read through your initial set of transcripts, field notes, documents, etc., without taking any notes or considering an interpretation; perhaps at the end jot down a few general notes about what struck you as especially interesting, important, or significant.

Do it again. Read through your data again, but this time begin to make marginal notes about significant remarks or observations. Make as many as possible. Initially, they will be very basic— perhaps keywords used by your respondents, names that you give to themes in the data. When you do this you are coding— generating an index of terms that will help you to interpret and theorize in relation to your data.

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Review your codes. Begin to review your codes, possibly in relation to your transcripts. Are you using two or more words or phrases to describe the same phenomenon? If so, remove one of them. Do some of your codes relate to concepts and categories in the existing literature? If so, might it be sensible to use these instead? Can you see any connections between the codes? Is there some evidence that respondents believe that one thing tends to be associated with or caused by something else? If so, how do you characterize and therefore code these connections?

Page reference: 531 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 24 - Question 13 13) Which of the following are legitimate criticisms of coding? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: One of the most common criticisms of the coding approach to qualitative data analysis is the possibility of losing the context of what is said. By picking chunks of text out of the context within which they appeared, such as a particular interview transcript, the social setting can be lost.

A second criticism of coding is that it results in a fragmentation of data, so that the narrative flow of what people say is lost (Coffey and Atkinson 1996). Marshall (1981) became concerned about the fragmentation of data that occurs as a result of coding themes when she came to analyse the data she had collected based on qualitative interviews with women managers.

Page reference: 533 *a. Losing the context of what is said b. Not as reliable as quantitative analysis *c. It results in the fragmentation of data d. It is impossible to prove the veracity of the analysis Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 24 - Question 14 14) Which of the following is not a level of coding? a. First order coding Feedback: The first level is basic or first-order coding. This involves identifying basic aspects of how the organizing happened. Examples include codes such as ‘changed plans’, ‘typical issues faced’, ‘support from non-local organizations’. Such coding primarily extracts and summarizes what the interviewee has said. It is therefore unlikely to get us very far analytically.

• A second level of coding comprises a deeper awareness of the content. This is achieved by recoding, comparing, consolidating, and re-grouping the codes to generate concepts. In the example above, basic codes such as ‘changed plans’ and ‘typical issues faced’ were grouped together under ‘decision-making factors’. Conversely, a single code, ‘organizing essentials’, was later split into two codes—‘funds required’ and ‘social capital’. Figure 25.1 shows the different codes generated through this process of regrouping and consolidation.

• A final level of coding moves even further away from close association with what the interviewee says, towards a concern with broad analytic themes. This involves asking questions about the properties and interconnections between codes. Through this it becomes possible to see codes and concepts as dimensions of a broader phenomenon. This level of coding enables second-order analysis, as the basis for generating theory inductively from the data (see Key concept 24.6 and Research in focus 24.5).

Page reference: 533 b. Deeper awareness of content Feedback: The first level is basic or first-order coding. This involves identifying basic aspects of how the organizing happened. Examples include codes such as ‘changed plans’, ‘typical issues faced’, ‘support from non-local organizations’. Such coding primarily extracts and summarizes what the interviewee has said. It is therefore unlikely to get us very far analytically.

• A second level of coding comprises a deeper awareness of the content. This is achieved by recoding, comparing, consolidating, and re-grouping the codes to generate concepts. In the example above, basic codes such as ‘changed plans’ and ‘typical issues faced’ were grouped together under ‘decision-making factors’. Conversely, a single code, ‘organizing essentials’, was later split into two codes—‘funds required’ and ‘social capital’. Figure 25.1 shows the different codes generated through this process of regrouping and consolidation.

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• A final level of coding moves even further away from close association with what the interviewee says, towards a concern with broad analytic themes. This involves asking questions about the properties and interconnections between codes. Through this it becomes possible to see codes and concepts as dimensions of a broader phenomenon. This level of coding enables second-order analysis, as the basis for generating theory inductively from the data (see Key concept 24.6 and Research in focus 24.5).

Page reference: 533 *c. Complete analytical induction Feedback: The first level is basic or first-order coding. This involves identifying basic aspects of how the organizing happened. Examples include codes such as ‘changed plans’, ‘typical issues faced’, ‘support from non-local organizations’. Such coding primarily extracts and summarizes what the interviewee has said. It is therefore unlikely to get us very far analytically.

• A second level of coding comprises a deeper awareness of the content. This is achieved by recoding, comparing, consolidating, and re-grouping the codes to generate concepts. In the example above, basic codes such as ‘changed plans’ and ‘typical issues faced’ were grouped together under ‘decision-making factors’. Conversely, a single code, ‘organizing essentials’, was later split into two codes—‘funds required’ and ‘social capital’. Figure 25.1 shows the different codes generated through this process of regrouping and consolidation.

• A final level of coding moves even further away from close association with what the interviewee says, towards a concern with broad analytic themes. This involves asking questions about the properties and interconnections between codes. Through this it becomes possible to see codes and concepts as dimensions of a broader phenomenon. This level of coding enables second-order analysis, as the basis for generating theory inductively from the data (see Key concept 24.6 and Research in focus 24.5).

Page reference: 533 d. Concern with broad analytical themes Feedback: The first level is basic or first-order coding. This involves identifying basic aspects of how the organizing happened. Examples include codes such as ‘changed plans’, ‘typical issues faced’, ‘support from non-local organizations’. Such coding primarily extracts and summarizes what the interviewee has said. It is therefore unlikely to get us very far analytically.

• A second level of coding comprises a deeper awareness of the content. This is achieved by recoding, comparing, consolidating, and re-grouping the codes to generate concepts. In the example above, basic codes such as ‘changed plans’ and ‘typical issues faced’ were grouped together under ‘decision-making factors’. Conversely, a single code, ‘organizing essentials’, was later split into two codes—‘funds required’ and ‘social capital’. Figure 25.1 shows the different codes generated through this process of regrouping and consolidation.

• A final level of coding moves even further away from close association with what the interviewee says, towards a concern with broad analytic themes. This involves asking questions about the properties and interconnections between codes. Through this it becomes possible to see codes and concepts as dimensions of a broader phenomenon. This level of coding enables second-order analysis, as the basis for generating theory inductively from the data (see Key concept 24.6 and Research in focus 24.5).

Page reference: 533 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 24 - Question 14 14) Meta-ethnography is a method used to achieve interpretative synthesis of qualitative research and other secondary sources. *a. True Feedback: ‘Meta-ethnography is a method used to achieve interpretative synthesis of qualitative research and other secondary sources’.

Page reference: 535 b. False Feedback: ‘Meta-ethnography is a method used to achieve interpretative synthesis of qualitative research and other secondary sources’.

Page reference: 535

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Type: true-false Title: Chapter 24 - Question 15 15) Unlike positivists, interpretative researchers are not concerned with developing an exhaustive list of studies that might be included in a review for a meta-ethnographical study. *a. True Feedback: Unlike positivists, interpretative researchers are not concerned with developing an exhaustive list of studies that might be included in the review. Instead the primary intent is to determine what accounts are likely to be credible and interesting to the intended audience for the synthesis.

Page reference: 535 b. False Feedback: Unlike positivists, interpretative researchers are not concerned with developing an exhaustive list of studies that might be included in the review. Instead the primary intent is to determine what accounts are likely to be credible and interesting to the intended audience for the synthesis.

Page reference: 535

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 01 01) CAQDAS stands for “computer-assisted quantitative data analysis software” a. True Feedback: One of the most notable developments in qualitative re- search in recent years has been the arrival of computer software that facilitates the analysis of qualitative data. Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software, or CAQDAS as it is conventionally abbreviated, has been a growth area in terms of both the proliferation of programs that perform such analysis and the numbers of people using them.

Page reference: 530 *b. False Feedback: One of the most notable developments in qualitative re- search in recent years has been the arrival of computer software that facilitates the analysis of qualitative data. Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software, or CAQDAS as it is conventionally abbreviated, has been a growth area in terms of both the proliferation of programs that perform such analysis and the numbers of people using them.

Page reference: 530 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 02 02) CAQDAS can help with decisions on how to code your data or interpret your findings a. True Feedback: CAQDAS does not and cannot help with decisions about how to code qualitative data or how to interpret findings.

Page reference: 539 *b. False Feedback: CAQDAS does not and cannot help with decisions about how to code qualitative data or how to interpret findings.

Page reference: 539 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 25 - Question 03 03) Which of the following are stages an analyst would typically go through? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Typically, the analyst would: go through a set of data marking sequences of text in terms of codes (coding); and for each code, collect together all sequences of text coded in a particular way (retrieving).

Page reference: 539 *a. Coding b. Regurgitation *c. Retrieving d. Repeating Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 04 04) There is a clear industry leader in qualitative data analysis software a. True Feedback: With quantitative data analysis, SPSS is both widely known and widely used. It is not the only statistical software used by social researchers, but it is certainly dominant. It has competitors but SPSS is close to being the industry leader. No parallel situation exists with regard to CAQDAS. Page reference: 539 *b. False

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Feedback: With quantitative data analysis, SPSS is both widely known and widely used. It is not the only statistical software used by social researchers, but it is certainly dominant. It has competitors but SPSS is close to being the industry leader. No parallel situation exists with regard to CAQDAS. Page reference: 539 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 05 05) The use of qualitative analysis software has been universally embraced by researchers globally. a. True Feedback: Unlike quantitative data analysis, in which the use of computer software is both widely accepted and to all intents and purposes a necessity, among qualitative data analysts its use is by no means universally embraced.

Page reference: 539 *b. False Feedback: Unlike quantitative data analysis, in which the use of computer software is both widely accepted and to all intents and purposes a necessity, among qualitative data analysts its use is by no means universally embraced.

Page reference: 539 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 25 - Question 06 06) Which of the following are legitimate concerns about the use of computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Unlike quantitative data analysis, in which the use of computer software is both widely accepted and to all intents and purposes a necessity, among qualitative data analysts its use is by no means universally embraced. There are several concerns.

Some writers are concerned that the ease with which coded text can be quantified, either within qualitative data analysis packages or by importing coded information into quantitative data analysis packages such as SPSS, will mean that the temptation to quantify findings will prove irresistible. As a result, there is a concern that qualitative research will then be colonized by the reliability and validity criteria of quantitative research (Hesse-Biber 1995).

It has been suggested that CAQDAS reinforces the tendency for the code-and-retrieve process that underpins most approaches to qualitative data analysis to result in a fragmentation of the textual materials on which researchers work (Weaver and Atkinson 1994). As a result, the narrative flow of interview transcripts and events recorded in field notes may be lost.

It has also been suggested that the fragmentation pro- cess of coding text into chunks that are then retrieved and put together into groups of related fragments risks decontextualizing data (Buston 1997; Fielding and Lee 1998: 74). Having an awareness of context is crucial to many qualitative researchers and the prospect of this element being sidelined is unattractive.

Catterall and Maclaran (1997) have argued that CAQDAS is not very suitable for focus group data because the code-and-retrieve function tends to result in a loss of the communication between participants. Many writers view the interaction that occurs in focus groups as an important feature of the method (Kitzinger 1994).

Stanley and Temple (1995) have suggested that most of the coding and retrieval features are achievable through word-processing software. They show how this can be accomplished using Microsoft Word. The advantage of using such software is that it does not require a lengthy period of getting acquainted with it.

Researchers working in teams may experience difficulties in coordinating the coding of text when different people are involved in this activity (Sprokkereef et al. 1995).

Coffey, et al. (1996) have argued that the style of qualitative data analysis enshrined in most CAQDAS software (including NVivo) is resulting in the emergence of a new orthodoxy. This arises because these programs presume a certain style of analysis—one based on coding and retrieving text— that owes a great deal to grounded theory. Coffey et al. argue that the emergence of a new orthodoxy is inconsistent with the growing experimentation with a variety of representational modes in qualitative research.

Page reference: 540 *a. The ease with which data can be quantified

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*b. The fragmentation and decontextualization of data *c. The difficulty of coding when multiple people are involved in a project d. It’s only suitable for grounded theory Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 25 - Question 07 07) Which of the following are advantages of using computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: On the other hand, several writers are enthusiastic about CAQDAS software on a variety of grounds: Most obviously, CAQDAS can make the coding and retrieval process faster and more efficient.

It has been suggested that new opportunities are offered. For example, Mangabeira (1995) has argued on the basis of her experience that her ability to relate her coded text to what are often referred to as ‘facesheet variables’ (sociodemographic and personal information such as age, title of job, number of years in school education) offered new opportunities in the process of analysing her data. Thus, CAQDAS may be helpful in the development of explanations.

It is sometimes suggested that CAQDAS enhances the transparency of the process of qualitative data analysis. It is often noted that the ways in which qualitative data are analysed are unclear in reports of findings (Bryman and Burgess 1994b). CAQDAS may force researchers to be more explicit and reflective about the process of analysis.

CAQDAS invites the analyst to think about codes that are developed in terms of ‘trees’ of interrelated ideas. This can be a useful feature, in that it urges the analyst to consider possible connections between codes.

Writers like Silverman (1985) have commented on the tendency towards anecdotalism in much qualitative research—that is, the tendency to use quotations from interview transcripts or field notes but with little sense of the prevalence of the phenomenon they are sup- posed to exemplify. CAQDAS invariably offers the opportunity to count such things as the frequency with which a form of behaviour occurred or a viewpoint was expressed in interviews. However, some qualitative researchers perceive risks in the opportunity offered for quantification of findings.

Paulus, Lester, and Britt (2013) suggest there are generational differences in researchers’ attitudes to CAQDAS, with senior researchers in particular lacking exposure to CAQDAS use, and introductory methods textbooks on qualitative research tending to frame the use of technology tools as a ‘discourse of caution’ rather than a ‘discourse of possibility’ (Paulus, Lester This explanation of NVivo and its functions addresses just its most basic features. There may be features not covered here that you would find useful in your own work, so try to explore it. There is a very good help facility, and tutorials have been included to assist learners. As in Chapter 16, → signifies ‘click once with the left-hand button of your mouse’—that is, select.

Page reference: 540 *a. It makes coding more efficient b. It practically does the analysis for you *c. You can think about codes in terms of trees of interrelated ideas d. It both transcribes and codes your data Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 08 08) It is worth learning how to use computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software, even if you are only using a small data set. a. True Feedback: If you have a very small dataset, you should think carefully about whether it is worth the time investment in learning a new software program versus analysing the data manually or using word-processing software.

Page reference: 554 *b. False Feedback: If you have a very small dataset, you should think carefully about whether it is worth the time investment in learning a new software program versus analysing the data manually or using word-processing software.

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Page reference: 554 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 09 09) Coding is one of the key phases in the whole process of qualitative data analysis *a. True Feedback: Coding your data is one of the key phases in the whole process of qualitative data analysis.

Page reference: 542 b. False Feedback: Coding your data is one of the key phases in the whole process of qualitative data analysis.

Page reference: 542 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 10 10) Coding in Nvivo is a way of gathering all the references to a specific topic, theme, person or other entity *a. True Feedback: ‘Nvivo’s Help system defines coding as ‘a way of gathering all the references to a specific topic, theme, person or other entity’ Page reference: 543 b. False Feedback: ‘Nvivo’s Help system defines coding as ‘a way of gathering all the references to a specific topic, theme, person or other entity’ Page reference: 543 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 11 11) A node is a collection of references about a specific theme, place, person or other area of interest *a. True Feedback: In turn, a node is defined in the latest release as ‘a collection of references about a specific theme, place, person or other area of interest’.

Page reference: 543 b. False Feedback: In turn, a node is defined in the latest release as ‘a collection of references about a specific theme, place, person or other area of interest’.

Page reference: 543 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 12 12) For Nvivo, coding is achieved through nodes. *a. True Feedback: For NVivo, coding is accomplished through nodes Page reference: 542 b. False Feedback: For NVivo, coding is accomplished through nodes Page reference: 542 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 13 13) When using Nvivo, overlapping codes represent a significant problem to the researcher. a. True Feedback: Overlapping codes do not represent a problem.

Page reference: 550 *b. False Feedback: Overlapping codes do not represent a problem.

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Page reference: 550 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 14 14) Memos are difficult to create in Nvivo. a. True Feedback: Memos can be easily created in NVivo.

Page reference: 552 *b. False Feedback: Memos can be easily created in NVivo.

Page reference: 552 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 25 - Question 15 15) The search for sequences of text that have been coded at two nodes is known as a ‘Boolean search’. *a. True Feedback: This section is concerned with searching for sequences of text that have been coded at two nodes: aesthetic critique and not critical of Disney. This type of search is known as a ‘Boolean search’ Page reference: 551 b. False Feedback: This section is concerned with searching for sequences of text that have been coded at two nodes: aesthetic critique and not critical of Disney. This type of search is known as a ‘Boolean search’ Page reference: 551

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 01 01) There is full agreement on the epistemological basis of the natural sciences. a. True Feedback: There is no agreement on the epistemological basis of the natural sciences.

Page reference: 558 *b. False Feedback: There is no agreement on the epistemological basis of the natural sciences.

Page reference: 558 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 26 - Question 02 02) Which features of the natural science model does qualitative research frequently exhibit? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Quite aside from the difficulty of addressing the natural science model and positivism, there are problems with associating them solely with quantitative research. Further, qualitative research frequently exhibits features that one would associate with a natural science model. This tendency is revealed in several ways: Empiricist overtones. Although empiricism (see Key concept 2.3) is typically associated with quantitative research, many writers on qualitative research display an equal emphasis on the importance of direct contact with social reality as the springboard for any investigation. Thus, writers on qualitative research frequently stress the importance of direct experience of social set- tings and fashioning an understanding of social worlds via that contact. The very idea that theory is to be grounded in data (see Chapter 24) seems to constitute a manifesto for empiricism, and it is unsurprising, therefore, that some writers claim to detect ‘covert positivism’ in qualitative research.

Another way in which empiricist overtones are revealed is in the suggestion that social reality must be studied from the vantage point of research participants but that the only way to gain access to their interpretations is through extended contact with them, implying that meaning is accessible to the senses of researchers. The empiricism of qualitative research is perhaps most notable in conversation analysis, which was examined in Chapter 22. This is an approach that takes precise transcriptions of talk as its starting point and applies rules of analysis to such data. The analyst is actively discouraged from engaging in speculations about intention or context that might derive from an appreciation of the ethno- graphic particulars of the social setting.

A specific problem focus. As noted in Chapter 17, qualitative research can be employed to investigate quite specific, tightly defined research questions of the kind normally associated with a natural science model of the research process.

Hypothesis- and theory-testing. Following on from the previous point, qualitative researchers typically dis- cuss hypothesis- and theory-testing in connection with hypotheses or theories generated in the course of conducting research, as in analytic induction or grounded theory. However, there is no obvious reason why this cannot occur in relation to previously specified hypotheses or theories. A. Scott’s (1994) ethnographic study of British workers under HRM, for example, was designed to test the theory that British management was operating according to a ‘new’ model of industrial relations, based on a unitaristic view of organizational life, where workers and man- agers are seen to have a similar interest in the success of the firm. Scott wanted to test whether workers and managers in his case study firms actually shared similar interests or if they still adhered to ideas based on an ‘old’ industrial relations model founded on adversarial relationships. In the event, the research showed a complex picture, concluding that ‘any cultural transformation of British management has only been partial, and the embrace of the “new IR” piecemeal’ (A. Scott 1994: 131).

Realism. Realism (see Key concept 2.8) is one way in which the epistemological basis of the natural sciences has been construed. It has entered into the social sciences in a number of ways, but one of the most significant of these is Bhaskar’s (1989) notion of critical realism. This approach accepts

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neither a constructionist nor an objectivist ontology and instead takes the view that the ‘social world is reproduced and trans- formed in daily life’ (1989: 4). Social phenomena are produced by mechanisms that are real, but that are not directly accessible to observation and are discernible only through their effects. For critical realism the task of business research is to construct hypotheses about such mechanisms and to seek out their effects. Within business and management there is increasing interest in this ontological approach, which is undergoing something of an intellectual revitalization at the moment (Reed 1997). Critical realism has also become popular in marketing research because it offers an alternative to the predominantly positivist paradigm in marketing (Easton 2002). Fleetwood (2005) suggests that critical realism offers a more fruitful alternative to postmodernism (see Key concept 17.2) for organization and management studies because it over- comes the ambiguity associated with postmodernism, which stems from ‘ontological exaggeration’ of the role of language in determining reality. Critical realists occupy a middle position between positivism and postmodernism by claiming that an entity can exist independently of our knowledge of it, while also asserting that access to the social world is always mediated and thus subjective. Critical realists also believe in the notion of material entities that are said to be real if they have an effect on behaviour. In addition to the empirical domain of observable events, there is a real domain ‘in which generative mechanisms capable of producing patterns of events reside’ (Tsang and Kwan 1999: 762). Fleetwood concludes: ‘As many postmodernists come to realize that critical realism is absolutely opposed to the empirical or naïve realism of positivism, they have begun to realize that there may be some common ground between themselves and critical realists’ (2005: 217). An example of the application of a critical realist perspective is provided by Research in focus 26.1. Porter’s (1993) critical realist ethnography is also interesting in this connection (see Research in focus 26.2), because it demonstrates the use of ethnography in connection with an epistemological position that derives from the natural sciences. It also relates to the previous point in providing an illustration of hypothesistesting qualitative research.

Page reference: 559 *a. Empiricist overtones *b. A specific problem focus *c. Realism d. Machine metaphors Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 03 03) In discussing research approaches, the term “positivist” can sometimes be used in a polemical way *a. True Feedback: As Platt (1981) has argued, a term like ‘positivist’ has to be treated in a circumspect way, because, while it does refer to a distinctive characterization of scientific enquiry (see Key concept 2.7), it is also frequently employed in a polemical way. When employed in this manner, it is rarely helpful, because the term is usually a characterization (a negative one) of the work of others rather than of one’s own work.

Page reference: 558 b. False Feedback: As Platt (1981) has argued, a term like ‘positivist’ has to be treated in a circumspect way, because, while it does refer to a distinctive characterization of scientific enquiry (see Key concept 2.7), it is also frequently employed in a polemical way. When employed in this manner, it is rarely helpful, because the term is usually a characterization (a negative one) of the work of others rather than of one’s own work.

Page reference: 558 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 04 04) Only qualitative research can focus upon the study of meaning and seeing the world through the eyes of the people studied a. True Feedback: Qualitative research would seem to have a monopoly of the ability to study meaning. Its proponents essentially claim that it is only through qualitative research that the world can be studied

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through the eyes of the people who are studied. As Platt (1981: 87) observes, this contention seems rather at odds with the widespread study of attitudes in surveys based on interviews and questionnaires. In fact, it would seem that quantitative researchers frequently address meanings.

Page reference: 560 *b. False Feedback: Qualitative research would seem to have a monopoly of the ability to study meaning. Its proponents essentially claim that it is only through qualitative research that the world can be studied through the eyes of the people who are studied. As Platt (1981: 87) observes, this contention seems rather at odds with the widespread study of attitudes in surveys based on interviews and questionnaires. In fact, it would seem that quantitative researchers frequently address meanings.

Page reference: 560 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 05 05) Respondent validation is extensively used in qualitative studies in business research. a. True Feedback: First, in the absence of respondent validation exercises, the notion that qualitative research is more adept at gaining access to the point of view of those being studied than quantitative research is invariably assumed rather than demonstrated. Qualitative researchers frequently claim to have tapped into participants’ world views because of, for example, their extensive participation in the daily round of those they study, the length of time they spent in the setting being studied, or the lengthy and intensive interviews conducted. However, the explicit demonstration that interpretative understanding has been accomplished—for example, through respondent validation (see Key concept 17.5)—is rarely undertaken Page reference: 560 *b. False Feedback: First, in the absence of respondent validation exercises, the notion that qualitative research is more adept at gaining access to the point of view of those being studied than quantitative research is invariably assumed rather than demonstrated. Qualitative researchers frequently claim to have tapped into participants’ world views because of, for example, their extensive participation in the daily round of those they study, the length of time they spent in the setting being studied, or the lengthy and intensive interviews conducted. However, the explicit demonstration that interpretative understanding has been accomplished—for example, through respondent validation (see Key concept 17.5)—is rarely undertaken.

Page reference: 560 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 06 06) It is possible for quantitative research to be underpinned by a constructionist epistemology *a. True Feedback: It was noted in Chapter 2 that one keynote of constructionism is a concern with issues of representation, as these play an important role in the construction of the social world. Qualitative content analysis has played an important role in developing just such an understanding, just as discourse analysis has in relation to the social construction of events and meanings in business leaders’ speeches and mission statements. However, it is easy to forget that conventional quantitative content analysis can also be useful in this way.

Page reference: 561 b. False Feedback: It was noted in Chapter 2 that one keynote of constructionism is a concern with issues of representation, as these play an important role in the construction of the social world. Qualitative content analysis has played an important role in developing just such an understanding, just as discourse analysis has in relation to the social construction of events and meanings in business leaders’ speeches and mission statements. However, it is easy to forget that conventional quantitative content analysis can also be useful in this way.

Page reference: 561 Type: true-false

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Title: Chapter 26 - Question 07 07) Quantitative and qualitative research tend to be associated with ontological and epistemological positions but there are important exceptions to this general trend. *a. True Feedback: Quantitative and qualitative research tend to be associated with ontological and epistemological positions but there are important exceptions to this general trend.

Page reference: 561 b. False Feedback: Quantitative and qualitative research tend to be associated with ontological and epistemological positions but there are important exceptions to this general trend.

Page reference: 561 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 08 08) Quantitative researchers are concerned with behaviours and don’t really take much interest in meanings a. True Feedback: The distinction is sometimes drawn between a focus on behaviour and a focus on meanings. However, quantitative research frequently involves the study of meanings in the form of attitude scales (such as the Likert scaling technique) and other techniques. Qualitative researchers may feel that the tendency for attitude scales to be pre- formulated and imposed on research participants means that they do not really gain access to meanings. The key point being made here is that at the very least quantitative researchers frequently try to address meanings. Also, somewhat ironically, many of the techniques with which quantitative research is associated, most notably survey research based on questionnaires and interviews, have been shown to relate poorly to people’s actual behaviour. Moreover, looking at the other side of the divide, qualitative research frequently, if not invariably, entails the examination of behaviour in context. Qualitative re- searchers often want to interpret people’s behaviour in terms of the norms, values, and culture of the group or organization in question. In other words, quantitative and qualitative researchers are typically interested in both what people do and what they think, but they go about the investigation of these areas in different ways.

There- fore, the degree to which the behaviour versus meaning contrast coincides with quantitative and qualitative research should not be overstated.

Page reference: 562 *b. False Feedback: The distinction is sometimes drawn between a focus on behaviour and a focus on meanings. However, quantitative research frequently involves the study of meanings in the form of attitude scales (such as the Likert scaling technique) and other techniques. Qualitative researchers may feel that the tendency for attitude scales to be pre- formulated and imposed on research participants means that they do not really gain access to meanings. The key point being made here is that at the very least quantitative researchers frequently try to address meanings. Also, somewhat ironically, many of the techniques with which quantitative research is associated, most notably survey research based on questionnaires and interviews, have been shown to relate poorly to people’s actual behaviour. Moreover, looking at the other side of the divide, qualitative research frequently, if not invariably, entails the examination of behaviour in context. Qualitative re- searchers often want to interpret people’s behaviour in terms of the norms, values, and culture of the group or organization in question. In other words, quantitative and qualitative researchers are typically interested in both what people do and what they think, but they go about the investigation of these areas in different ways.

There- fore, the degree to which the behaviour versus meaning contrast coincides with quantitative and qualitative research should not be overstated.

Page reference: 562 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 09 09) Survey research can often be quite exploratory in nature as opposed to hypothesis testing *a. True Feedback: A further related point is that the suggestion that theory and concepts are developed prior to undertaking a study in quantitative research is something of a caricature that is true only up to a

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point. It reflects a tendency to characterize quantitative research as driven by a theory-testing approach. However, while experimental investigations probably fit this model well, survey-based studies are often more exploratory than this view implies. Although concepts have to be measured, the nature of their interconnections is frequently not specified in advance. Quantitative research is far less driven by a hypothesis-testing strategy than is frequently supposed. As a result, the analysis of quantitative data from social surveys is often more exploratory than is generally appreciated and consequently offers opportunities for the generation of theories and concepts (see Research in focus 26.3).

Page reference: 562 b. False Feedback: A further related point is that the suggestion that theory and concepts are developed prior to undertaking a study in quantitative research is something of a caricature that is true only up to a point. It reflects a tendency to characterize quantitative research as driven by a theory-testing approach. However, while experimental investigations probably fit this model well, survey-based studies are often more exploratory than this view implies. Although concepts have to be measured, the nature of their interconnections is frequently not specified in advance. Quantitative research is far less driven by a hypothesis-testing strategy than is frequently supposed. As a result, the analysis of quantitative data from social surveys is often more exploratory than is generally appreciated and consequently offers opportunities for the generation of theories and concepts (see Research in focus 26.3).

Page reference: 562 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 10 10) Quantitative research never uses words and qualitative research never uses numbers a. True Feedback: Even perhaps this most basic element in the distinction between quantitative and qualitative research is not with- out problems. Qualitative researchers sometimes under- take a limited amount of quantification of their data. Silverman (1984, 1985) has argued that some quantification of findings from qualitative research can often help to un- cover the generality of the phenomena being described. However, he warns that such quantification should reflect research participants’ own ways of understanding their social world. Similarly, Miles and Huberman (1994), whose approach is commonly used in business and management research, recommend the use of a contact summary sheet as a means of recording themes that arise during a qualitative interview. Using the interview transcript, the researcher categorizes interview responses by theme, eventually generating a singlepage summary of the interview. Not only does the contact summary sheet highlight the main concepts, themes, and issues, it also provides a record of their frequency of occurrence. Figure 26.1 illustrates an example of the contact summary sheet used by P. Stiles (2001) (this study is discussed in Chapter 9). This technique illustrates how qualitative interview data can be analysed in a way that involves a degree of quantification. In any case, it has often been noted that qualitative researchers engage in ‘quasi-quantification’ through the use of such terms as ‘many’, ‘often’, and ‘some’ (see below). All that is happening is that the researcher is injecting greater precision into such estimates of frequency.

Page reference: 562 *b. False Feedback: Even perhaps this most basic element in the distinction between quantitative and qualitative research is not with- out problems. Qualitative researchers sometimes under- take a limited amount of quantification of their data. Silverman (1984, 1985) has argued that some quantification of findings from qualitative research can often help to un- cover the generality of the phenomena being described. However, he warns that such quantification should reflect research participants’ own ways of understanding their social world. Similarly, Miles and Huberman (1994), whose approach is commonly used in business and management research, recommend the use of a contact summary sheet as a means of recording themes that arise during a qualitative interview. Using the interview transcript, the researcher categorizes interview responses by theme, eventually generating a singlepage summary of the interview. Not only does the contact summary sheet highlight the main concepts, themes, and issues, it also provides a record of their frequency of occurrence. Figure 26.1 illustrates an example of the contact summary sheet used by P. Stiles (2001) (this study is discussed

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in Chapter 9). This technique illustrates how qualitative interview data can be analysed in a way that involves a degree of quantification. In any case, it has often been noted that qualitative researchers engage in ‘quasi-quantification’ through the use of such terms as ‘many’, ‘often’, and ‘some’ (see below). All that is happening is that the researcher is injecting greater precision into such estimates of frequency.

Page reference: 562 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 11 11) Qualitative research is always more naturalistic while quantitative research is always more artificial a. True Feedback: The artificial/natural contrast referred to in Table 17.1 can similarly be criticized. It is often assumed that be- cause much quantitative research employs research instruments that are applied to the people being studied (questionnaires, structured interview schedules, structured observation schedules, and so on), it provides an artificial account of how the social world operates. Qualitative research is often viewed as more naturalistic (see Key concept 3.4 on naturalism). Ethnographic research in particular would seem to exhibit this quality, because the participant observer studies people in their normal social worlds and contexts—in other words, as they go about normal activities.

However, when qualitative research is based on interviews (such as semi- and unstructured interviewing and focus groups), the depiction ‘natural’ is possibly less applicable. Interviews still have to be arranged and interviewees have to be taken away from activities that they would otherwise be engaged in, even when the interviewing style is of the more conversational kind. We know very little about interviewees’ reactions to and feelings about being interviewed. M. Parker (2000), in describing his ethnographic role as a confidant (see Table 19.1), recounts a comment made by one of his interviewees: ‘it’s nice to have somebody to talk to and moan to you know. I try to talk to my wife like this but she doesn’t listen’ (2000: 237). While this interviewee clearly enjoyed being interviewed, it is likely that he was very conscious of the fact that he had been engaged in an interview rather than a conversation. The interview was clearly valuable in allowing this individual to express his concerns, but the point being made here is that the view that the methods associated with qualitative research are naturalistic is to exaggerate the contrast with the supposed artificiality of the research methods associated with quantitative research. Atkinson and Silverman (1997) have further suggested that qualitative researchers’ obsession with the semi-structured interview as a naturalistic form of enquiry reflects a media-led societal trend towards confessional interviewing as a source of truth and meaning. They suggest that descriptive research of this nature is little different from chat shows or human interest journalism.

Page reference: 563 *b. False Feedback: The artificial/natural contrast referred to in Table 17.1 can similarly be criticized. It is often assumed that be- cause much quantitative research employs research instruments that are applied to the people being studied (questionnaires, structured interview schedules, structured observation schedules, and so on), it provides an artificial account of how the social world operates. Qualitative research is often viewed as more naturalistic (see Key concept 3.4 on naturalism). Ethnographic research in particular would seem to exhibit this quality, because the participant observer studies people in their normal social worlds and contexts—in other words, as they go about normal activities.

However, when qualitative research is based on interviews (such as semi- and unstructured interviewing and focus groups), the depiction ‘natural’ is possibly less applicable. Interviews still have to be arranged and interviewees have to be taken away from activities that they would otherwise be engaged in, even when the interviewing style is of the more conversational kind. We know very little about interviewees’ reactions to and feelings about being interviewed. M. Parker (2000), in describing his ethnographic role as a confidant (see Table 19.1), recounts a comment made by one of his interviewees: ‘it’s nice to have somebody to talk to and moan to you know. I try to talk to my wife like this but she doesn’t listen’ (2000: 237). While this interviewee clearly enjoyed being interviewed, it is likely that he was very conscious of the fact that he had been engaged in an interview rather than a conversation. The interview was clearly valuable in allowing this individual to express his concerns, but the point being made here is that the view that the methods associated with qualitative research are naturalistic is to exaggerate the contrast with the supposed artificiality of the research methods

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associated with quantitative research. Atkinson and Silverman (1997) have further suggested that qualitative researchers’ obsession with the semi-structured interview as a naturalistic form of enquiry reflects a media-led societal trend towards confessional interviewing as a source of truth and meaning. They suggest that descriptive research of this nature is little different from chat shows or human interest journalism.

Page reference: 563 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 12 12) It is possible to analyse the writings of quantitative researchers using some of the methods associated with qualitative research *a. True Feedback: There has been a growing interest in the examination of the writings of quantitative researchers using some of the methods associated with qualitative research Page reference: 564 b. False Feedback: There has been a growing interest in the examination of the writings of quantitative researchers using some of the methods associated with qualitative research Page reference: 564 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 13 13) It is philosophically and practically inappropriate to analyse qualitative data using quantitative analysis a. True Feedback: In Chapter 13, the research by Hodson (1996), which was based on the content analysis of workplace ethnographies, was given quite a lot of attention (see Research in focus 13.8).

Essentially, Hodson’s approach was to apply a quantitative research approach—in the form of content analysis—to qualitative research. This is a form of research that may have potential in other areas of business research in which ethnography has been a popular meth- od, and as a result a good deal of ethnographic evidence has been built up. Hodson (1999) suggests that the study of social movements may be one such field; managerial fads and fashions may be yet another. Hodson’s research is treated as a solution to the problem of making comparisons between ethnographic studies in a given area. One approach to synthesizing related qualitative studies is meta-ethnography, which is a qualitative research approach to such aggregation (Noblit and Hare 1988). However, whereas the practice of meta-ethnography is meant to be broadly in line with the goals of qualitative research, such as a commitment to interpretivism and a sensitivity to the social context, Hodson’s approach is one that largely ignores contextual factors in order to explore relationships between variables that have been abstracted out of the ethnographies.

Page reference: 565 *b. False Feedback: In Chapter 13, the research by Hodson (1996), which was based on the content analysis of workplace ethnographies, was given quite a lot of attention (see Research in focus 13.8).

Essentially, Hodson’s approach was to apply a quantitative research approach—in the form of content analysis—to qualitative research. This is a form of research that may have potential in other areas of business research in which ethnography has been a popular meth- od, and as a result a good deal of ethnographic evidence has been built up. Hodson (1999) suggests that the study of social movements may be one such field; managerial fads and fashions may be yet another. Hodson’s research is treated as a solution to the problem of making comparisons between ethnographic studies in a given area. One approach to synthesizing related qualitative studies is meta-ethnography, which is a qualitative research approach to such aggregation (Noblit and Hare 1988). However, whereas the practice of meta-ethnography is meant to be broadly in line with the goals of qualitative research, such as a commitment to interpretivism and a sensitivity to the social context, Hodson’s approach is one that largely ignores contextual factors in order to explore relationships between variables that have been abstracted out of the ethnographies.

Page reference: 565

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Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 14 14) Some qualitative researchers engage in quasi-quantification of research data *a. True Feedback: It has often been noted that qualitative researchers engage in ‘quasi-quantification’ through the use of terms such as ‘many’, ‘frequently’, ‘rarely’, ‘often’, and ‘some’. In order to be able to make such allusions to quantity, the qualitative researcher should have some idea of the relative frequency of the phenomena being referred to. However, as expressions of quantities, they are imprecise, and it is often di cult to discern why they are being used at all. The alternative would seem to be to engage in a limited amount of quantification when it is appropriate, such as when an expression of quantity can bolster an argument. This point leads directly on to the next section.

Page reference: 566 b. False Feedback: It has often been noted that qualitative researchers engage in ‘quasi-quantification’ through the use of terms such as ‘many’, ‘frequently’, ‘rarely’, ‘often’, and ‘some’. In order to be able to make such allusions to quantity, the qualitative researcher should have some idea of the relative frequency of the phenomena being referred to. However, as expressions of quantities, they are imprecise, and it is often di cult to discern why they are being used at all. The alternative would seem to be to engage in a limited amount of quantification when it is appropriate, such as when an expression of quantity can bolster an argument. This point leads directly on to the next section.

Page reference: 566 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 26 - Question 15 15) One of the criticisms of qualitative research is that it is overly anecdotal *a. True Feedback: One of the criticisms that are often levelled against qualitative research is that the publications on which it is based are often anecdotal, giving the reader little guidance as to the prevalence of the issue to which the anecdote refers. The widespread use of brief sequences of conversation, snippets from interview transcripts, and accounts of encounters between people provides little sense of the prevalence of whatever such items of evidence are supposed to indicate.

There is the related risk that a particularly striking statement by someone or an unexpected activity may have more significance attached to it than might be warranted in terms of its frequency.

Page reference: 566 b. False Feedback: One of the criticisms that are often levelled against qualitative research is that the publications on which it is based are often anecdotal, giving the reader little guidance as to the prevalence of the issue to which the anecdote refers. The widespread use of brief sequences of conversation, snippets from interview transcripts, and accounts of encounters between people provides little sense of the prevalence of whatever such items of evidence are supposed to indicate.

There is the related risk that a particularly striking statement by someone or an unexpected activity may have more significance attached to it than might be warranted in terms of its frequency.

Page reference: 566

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Correct answers are marked with an asterisk (*).

Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 27 - Question 01 01) What are the two main arguments against the use of mixed methods research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: The idea that research methods carry epistemological commitments; The idea that quantitative and qualitative research are separate paradigms.

Page reference: 569 a. That it’s too much work *b. That research methods carry epistemological commitments *c. That quantitative and qualitative are separate paradigms d. That researchers rarely have both skills Type: true-false Title: Chapter 27 - Question 02 02) The term mixed methods stands for research that integrates qualitative and quantitative research within a single project. *a. True Feedback: The term mixed methods research is used as simple shorthand to stand for research that integrates quantitative and qualitative research within a single project.

Page reference: 569 b. False Feedback: The term mixed methods research is used as simple shorthand to stand for research that integrates quantitative and qualitative research within a single project.

Page reference: 569 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 27 - Question 03 03) Which of the following are versions of the debate about the nature of qualitative and quantitative research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: There would seem to be two different versions of the debate about the nature of quantitative and qualitative research, and these two different versions have implications in writers’ minds about whether or not the two can be combined.

An epistemological version, as in the embedded methods argument and the paradigm argument, sees quantitative and qualitative research as grounded in incompatible epistemological principles (and onto- logical ones too, but these tend not to be given as much attention). According to this version of their nature, mixed methods research is not possible.

A technical version, which is the position taken by most researchers whose work is mentioned in the next section, gives greater prominence to the strengths of the data collection and data analysis techniques with which quantitative and qualitative research are each associated and sees these as capable of being fused. There is a recognition that quantitative and qualitative research are each connected with distinctive epistemological and ontological assumptions, but the connections are not viewed as fixed and ineluctable. Research methods are perceived, unlike in the epistemological version of the debate, as autonomous. A research method from one research strategy is viewed as capable of being pressed into the service of another. Indeed, in some instances, as will be seen in the next section, the notion that there is a ‘leading’ research strategy in a mixed methods investigation may not even apply in some cases.

Page reference: 570 *a. A philosophical version b. A psychological version *c. A technical or practical version d. A sociological version

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Type: true-false Title: Chapter 27 - Question 04 04) Mixed methods research is rare in business research and is very difficult to publish. a. True Feedback: Mixed methods research has become an increasingly used and accepted approach to conducting business research and in the social sciences more generally.

Page reference: 571 *b. False Feedback: Mixed methods research has become an increasingly used and accepted approach to conducting business research and in the social sciences more generally.

Page reference: 571 Type: multiple choice question Title: Chapter 27 - Question 05 05) Which of the following has not been a focus for writers concerned with mixed methods research? a. The priority and order through quantitative and qualitative research were carried out Feedback: The three foci are: 1. The priority and order through which quantitative research and qualitative research were carried out.

2. The different types of mixed methods design.

3. The purpose(s) of doing mixed methods research. This section will be structured in terms of a classification Bryman developed many years ago of the different ways in which mixed methods research has been undertaken (Bryman 1988a, 1992). The classification has been changed slightly from the one presented in his earlier publications.

Page reference: 571 *b. Which method offers the superior insight into the nature of reality Feedback: The three foci are: 1. The priority and order through which quantitative research and qualitative research were carried out.

2. The different types of mixed methods design.

3. The purpose(s) of doing mixed methods research. This section will be structured in terms of a classification Bryman developed many years ago of the different ways in which mixed methods research has been undertaken (Bryman 1988a, 1992). The classification has been changed slightly from the one presented in his earlier publications.

Page reference: 571 c. The different types of mixed methods design Feedback: The three foci are: 1. The priority and order through which quantitative research and qualitative research were carried out.

2. The different types of mixed methods design.

3. The purpose(s) of doing mixed methods research. This section will be structured in terms of a classification Bryman developed many years ago of the different ways in which mixed methods research has been undertaken (Bryman 1988a, 1992). The classification has been changed slightly from the one presented in his earlier publications.

Page reference: 571 d. The purpose of doing mixed methods research Feedback: The three foci are: 1. The priority and order through which quantitative research and qualitative research were carried out.

2. The different types of mixed methods design.

3. The purpose(s) of doing mixed methods research. This section will be structured in terms of a classification Bryman developed many years ago of the different ways in which mixed methods research has been undertaken (Bryman 1988a, 1992). The classification has been changed slightly from the one presented in his earlier publications.

Page reference: 571 Type: multiple response question

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Title: Chapter 27 - Question 06 06) What are the two key decisions facing those engaged in mixed methods research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Several writers (e.g. D. L. Morgan 1998b, 2014) have distinguished various forms of Mixed methods research in terms of two issues: The priority decision. How far is a qualitative or a quantitative method the principal data-gathering tool, or do they have equal weight?

The sequence decision. Which method precedes which? In other words, does the qualitative method precede the quantitative one or vice versa, or is the data collection associated with each method concurrent?

Page reference: 571 *a. The priority decision b. The software decision c. The epistemological decision *d. The sequence decision Type: true-false Title: Chapter 27 - Question 07 07) The convergent parallel design system gives more priority to quantitative than qualitative research in the design of a project. a. True Feedback: The Convergent Parallel Design entails the simultaneous collection of quantitative and qualitative data which have equal priority.

Page reference: 573 *b. False Feedback: The Convergent Parallel Design entails the simultaneous collection of quantitative and qualitative data which have equal priority.

Page reference: 573 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 27 - Question 08 08) The exploratory sequential design entails the collection of qualitative data prior to the collection of quantitative data. *a. True Feedback: The Exploratory Sequential Design entails the collection of qualitative data prior to the collection of quantitative data.

Page reference: 574 b. False Feedback: The Exploratory Sequential Design entails the collection of qualitative data prior to the collection of quantitative data.

Page reference: 574 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 27 - Question 09 09) The explanatory sequential design entails the collection and analysis of qualitative data followed by quantitative data to substantiate the findings. a. True Feedback: The Explanatory Sequential Design entails the col- lection and analysis of quantitative data followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data in order to elaborate or explain the quantitative findings.

Page reference: 574 *b. False Feedback: The Explanatory Sequential Design entails the col- lection and analysis of quantitative data followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data in order to elaborate or explain the quantitative findings.

Page reference: 574

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Type: true-false Title: Chapter 27 – Question 10 10) The embedded design can have either quantitative or qualitative as the priority approach but draws on the other approach as well in the context of the study. *a. True Feedback: The Embedded Design can have either quantitative or qualitative research as the priority approach but draws on the other approach as well within the context of a study.

Page reference: 574 b. False Feedback: The Embedded Design can have either quantitative or qualitative research as the priority approach but draws on the other approach as well within the context of a study.

Page reference: 574 Type: true-false Title: Chapter 27 - Question 11 11) Triangulation implies that the results of an investigation employing a method associated with one research strategy are cross-checked against the results of using a method associated with the other research strategy. *a. True Feedback: The idea of triangulation has been previously encountered in Key concept 17.4. When applied to the present context, it implies that the results of an investigation employing a method associated with one research strategy are cross-checked against the results of using a method associated with the other research strategy.

Page reference: 574 b. False Feedback: The idea of triangulation has been previously encountered in Key concept 17.4. When applied to the present context, it implies that the results of an investigation employing a method associated with one research strategy are cross-checked against the results of using a method associated with the other research strategy.

Page reference: 574 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 27 - Question 12 12) How can qualitative research facilitate quantitative research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: There are several ways in which qualitative research can be used to guide quantitative research.

• Providing hypotheses. Because of its tendency towards an unstructured, open-ended approach to data collection, qualitative research is often very helpful as a source of hypotheses or hunches that can be subsequently tested using a quantitative research strategy…

• Aiding measurement. The in-depth knowledge of social contexts acquired through qualitative research can be used to inform the design of survey questions for structured interviewing and self-completion questionnaires.

Page reference: 576 *a. Provides hypothesis *b. Aids measurement c. Confirms theories d. Tests hypothesis Type: true-false Title: Chapter 27 - Question 13 13) Quantitative research brings out a static picture of social life while qualitative is more processual *a. True Feedback: One of the contrasts suggested by Table 17.1 is that, whereas quantitative research tends to bring out a static picture of social life, qualitative research is more processual.

Page reference: 578 b. False

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Feedback: One of the contrasts suggested by Table 17.1 is that, whereas quantitative research tends to bring out a static picture of social life, qualitative research is more processual.

Page reference: 578 Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 27 - Question 14 14) Which two factors have led to a rise in the use of mixed methods research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: There can be little doubt that mixed methods research is becoming far more common than when one of us first started writing about it (Bryman1988a).Two particularly significant factors in prompting this development are: 1. a growing preparedness to think of research methods as techniques of data collection or analysis that are not as encumbered by epistemological and ontological baggage as is sometimes supposed; and 2. a softening in the attitude towards quantitative research among feminist researchers, who had previously been highly resistant to its use (see Chapter 17 for a discussion of this point).

Page reference: 585 *a. To consider research methods as techniques not rigidly determined by ontological and epistemological baggage b. A requirement by journals for different types of evidence to be presented *c. A softening of the attitudes of feminist researchers toward quantitative methods d. More methodological eclecticism within business schools more generally Type: multiple response question Title: Chapter 27 - Question 15 15) What are indicators of quality in mixed methods research? Please select all that apply.

Feedback: Rather than include all possible quality criteria that can or have been applied to mixed methods research (e.g. O’Cathain 2010), the approach taken here is to emphasize criteria that recur in discussions of quality in connection with mixed methods research (Bryman 2014).

1. Mixed methods research, like mono-method research, must be competently designed and conducted. Poorly conducted research will yield suspect findings, no matter how many methods are employed.

2. Just like mono-method or mono-strategy research, mixed methods research must be appropriate to the research questions or research area with which you are concerned. There is no point collecting more data sim- ply on the basis that ‘more is better’. Mixed methods research has to be dovetailed to research questions, just as all research methods must be. It is, after all, likely to consume considerably more time and financial resources than research relying on just one method.

3. It is best to be explicit about why you have conducted mixed methods research. Providing a rationale for its use gives the reader a better sense of the relationship between the research questions and the research methods and also what the use of two or more methods was meant to achieve in terms of the overall project.

4. Try not to think of mixed methods research as made up of separate components. It is best to consider how the quantitative and qualitative components are related to each other from the outset. There is a feeling among many writers with an interest in such research that many socalled mixed methods projects are not really mixed at all, because the researchers do not adequately integrate their quantitative and qualitative findings. This is particularly evident when researchers present and discuss their quantitative and qualitative findings separately rather than bringing the evidence together. We will return to this issue in Chapter 29.

5. Make sure that you provide a sufficiently detailed account of all of the methodological details of the research for both the quantitative and the qualitative components. Sometimes researchers provide more detail concerning one element or give only a surface treatment of both. So, make sure that information about sampling, design, and administration of research instruments, analysis of the data, and the like are provided for both components.

6. As awareness of the different types of mixed methods design has spread, there is a growing expectation that the researcher stipulates the kind of design he or she is using and the

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reasons for that choice. The designs out- lined in the section above on ‘Different types of mixed methods design’ provides an outline of the fundamental types of design.

Page reference: 585 *a. Is the research competently designed and conducted? b. Have the researchers collected as much data as possible? *c. Has the case for using mixed methods being sufficiently made? d. Are the most complicated forms of quantitative analysis applied to verify the theory?

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Questions 1. Consider some broader societal events that you feel may influence a topic for business research and try to frame a research question relevant to business based upon your interpretation of these events.

Suggested response: There are a plethora of societal events that could influence business research. They include: • • • • • •

Political elections (US election, UK election, French elections, etc.)

Corporate scandals (Volkswagen’s “Dieselgate”) Climate change (the warmer summers) Societal change (healthier lifestyles) Cultural change (more secularity or religion in society) Working conditions (zero-hour contracts)

The challenge for students is to reflect upon the world around them and consider how this could be relevant to a topic within business research. They should then try to consider how they would frame a research question that would be relevant to business research in these areas, for example: • • • • • •

How has political marketing changed in the past 20 years?

What role does Public Relations have in the addressing of corporate scandals?

Is climate change happening and are corporations to blame?

Are we becoming healthier and how are our lifestyles changing?

Are younger people adopting the religious attitudes of their parents and what impact does this have upon their consumption?

Are zero-hours contracts negative for the people who work them?

2. Why are representative research samples important and discuss some examples where nonrepresentative research samples have led to incorrect conclusions being drawn.

Suggested response: Representative samples are extremely important, as they do try to represent the population in an accurate way. One consequence of not using representative samples in research is that the findings cannot be relied upon for accuracy. Three very high-profile examples of opinion polls predicting incorrectly the results of major events due to non-representative sampling: • • •

The EU referendum in the United Kingdom (2016) The US General Election (2016) The UK General Election (2017)

These could be discussed as examples where non-representative or non-scientific polling led to findings which were unreliable. A good example of how representative sampling can lead to reliable results is in the 2017 UK General Election where the polling company “Survation” correctly predicted the results of the election based on their representative sampling method (probability sampling). An

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition interesting video of their CEO doing just this, much to the derision of others at the time, can be found here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W3lx2oopccI&t=115s It is a very interesting case study in how representative sampling can produce reliable results and correctly predict outcomes in politics as well as business.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Questions: 1. Why are the philosophical concepts of ontology and epistemology important to understand before undertaking business research?

2. What role do you feel scientific paradigms have in terms of the global discussion on climate change?

The first question students should first consider what each concept implies, the first evaluating the nature of reality and the second how it is possible to know about reality.

Students should consider why it is important to understand each philosophical position and the impact this will have on the methodology chosen for a particular research problem.

For the second question, the impact of paradigms on the climate change discussion is important, as there is a growing scientific consensus that climate change is manmade and caused by the actions of humans. This scientific consensus is sometimes refuted by those who do not believe in curtailing human actions and behaviour (such as the US President Donald Trump, amongst others), however the prevailing scientific paradigm is tending to dictate many governments policies toward this issue.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question Why do business researchers use reliability, replication and validity as quality criteria?

Suggested Answer Here, students should consider the use of reliability measures (to ensure whether the results are repeatable), replication (to replicate the findings of others) and validity (the integrity of the conclusions) as criteria for evaluating business research. Each quality criteria provides a unique way of assessing research and taken together ensure that the findings of business research are robust. The instructors should evaluate each criteria in-depth in the class.

Discussion Question Why are case studies so popular in business research and what value do you feel they may add?

Suggested Answer Case studies are used quite a lot in business research (as they are in other disciplines), they tend to provide useful analysis of events, people, organisations or locations and allow researchers to examine one or many cases in-depth. Examples include cases such as Balmer (2009) examining corporate branding at British Airways: Balmer, J.M.T., Stuart, H. and Greyser, S.A. (2009) ‘Aligning identity and strategy: Corporate branding at British Airways in the late 20th century’, California Management Review, 51(3), pp. 6-23.

Cases, while suffering from the limitation of not being generalizable, do allow researchers to study a particular case in-depth to understand what can be learned about business or management practice, and as such they do have a lot of value for theory generation.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question Research questions can usually come from one of the following sources: Personal interest/experience Theory Research literature Puzzles New organizational developments Organizational problems Consider which of these sources will be most useful for your research project and why?

Suggested Answer In this question, instructors should discuss the role of each source for finding a research question based on this chapter, and the student should then reflect upon which source they will find most valuable for their own research project.

Discussion Question Develop a short presentation for the class outlining the following: • Your research topic • Your research question • The literature you will analyse • The research methods you will use to investigate it • Any ethical issues you foresee with your project?

• How you will analyse your data Suggested Answer This exercise is designed to be a proposal workshop for students and the instructor, to encourage them to think about their projects early. Instructors are advised to provide students with this exercise at least a month in advance.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question Outline the key differences between a systematic and narrative literature review and justify which approach you will use for your research project and why.

Suggested Answer The systematic literature review is more quantitative and delimiting than a narrative review but some might argue it produces more rigorous and focussed results. Students should consider the key differences between these approaches and justify which one they plan to use for their dissertation.

Discussion Question Should you reference non-academic publications in your literature review? Discuss this with reference to your project.

Suggested Answer It is true that the majority of your references should be academic in focus, however there is value in reading and referencing some non-academic sources (industry reports, statistics, newspaper articles, etc.) once they are relevant to your research topic. Students should be encouraged to consider the broader research conversation in relation to their work.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question Should researchers always seek informed consent from participants and consider scenarios where informed consent is neither practical nor desirable.

Suggested Answer The short answer is that informed consent should be obtained wherever possible. However, there are sometimes situations where this is not possible, for example observing fan participation at a football match where over 50,000 people are present, or engaging in covert observation of particular practices or activities. In cases where this is not practical or desirable, researchers must have a clear rationale for not obtaining informed consent and it must be approved by a university ethics committee in advance.

Discussion Question Why is it important for researchers to declare affiliations and funding and consider some situations where a conflict of interest could potentially arise.

Suggested Answer It is very important for researchers to declare affiliations and funding. For example, if a university department’s research is funded by a particular industry, and that department produces findings that support the position or contention of that industry, then the links between the industry and the university must be declared. There have been examples of pseudoscience research produced by academics to support the tobacco or food industries, and this can create a conflict of interest as academics are supposed to be objective and impartial, particularly in relation to the findings of their research. The instructor could provide numerous examples of such conflicts of interest and the importance of declaring funding and affiliations as part of one’s research.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question Academic researchers are often concerned with the study of rhetoric. Why is rhetoric important in how we write our studies up?

Suggested Answer Rhetoric is concerned with how researchers use persuasive language to write their articles.

Research which has a more “scientific” style can appear to be more authoritative than that written in a more humanistic style. Sometimes quantitative and qualitative papers can differ enormously in the ways in which they are written and in the rhetorical style which is used.

Instructors are advised to perhaps use examples of papers written in each style and to compare them for their rhetorical strategy, and ask students to consider the rhetorical style that will be most relevant to their work.

Discussion Question What do you understand by reflexivity and why is it important in business research?

Suggested Answer Reflexivity concerns thinking about the knowledge generation process and acknowledging one’s role within the research process. There are good examples of this and how it can impact upon how we consider and think about research, recent cases such as Sudhir Venkatesh’s “Gang leader for a day” and Alice Goffman’s “On the run” are useful contemporary cases in point, as the researchers’ had to reflect very deeply upon their research problems and the ways in which their presence impacted upon the research sites and communities which they studied. It should be highlighted to students that they never study a context without having some sort of impact upon it, similarly we rarely do research that doesn’t impact upon us in some profound way. For this reason, it is useful to consider the role of reflexivity in business research and the role it will play in our own research process, students should be encouraged to consider their research within the broader ecosystem of business management research.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question Quantitative research is often concerned with the effect of independent variables upon a dependent variable. Consider the impact of the following independent variables (listed first) on the dependent variable (listed second) and evaluate whether you feel a causal relationship may be present: • • • •

University education and personal wealth Job satisfaction and employee performance Corporate social responsibility and positive brand image Customer satisfaction and corporate performance

How do you feel these could be correlated and how might researchers investigate them?

Do you feel the independent variables listed are the most important factors in terms of the dependent variable outlined?

Suggested Answer A key aspect of this exercise is to enable students to distinguish between an independent and dependent variable, all four examples are useful as they highlight the potential dependent variable and the role of independent variables. Students in each case can usefully consider the role of each independent variable on the dependent variable and whether these are the most important factors.

Students should also be guided through examples of papers which have examined the relationship between independent and dependent variables and be introduced to the concept of causality – there are several examples in the textbook (such as “8.4 – Research in Focus”) in chapter 8 (Page 171, new edition) which are useful to point to in this regard.

Discussion Question Consider the four critiques of quantitative research as outlined on page 181 (new edition).

Are these valid and fair, and how would you respond to them if you were a researcher working within the quantitative paradigm?

Suggested Answer This is very much encouraging quantitative researchers to develop robust defences of their approaches to their topic. The four criticisms are: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Quantitative researchers fail to distinguish people and social institutions from ‘the world of nature’.

The measurement process possesses an artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy.

The reliance on instruments and procedures hinders the connection between research and everyday life.

The analysis of relationships between variables creates a static view of social life that is independent of people’s lives.

Students should be encouraged to develop rhetorical responses to these for their thesis (and particularly methodology chapter) and how to defend their methodological strategy.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question Consider what circumstances it is best to use a probability sample? Should it be used for all forms of commercial marketing research?

Suggested Answer Random sampling is very useful for macro issues where a sample representative of the entire population is required. Examples include political polling, opinion polling (IPSOS Mori, Pew research etc.) where a more general understanding of the attitudes of the public is required. Probability sampling is not appropriate for all research questions, for example a company seeking to research customer attitudes to their website would not use a probability sample as it is not appropriate to questions about specific issues or consumer segments, and in such scenarios a non-probability sample would be more appropriate.

Discussion Question If you are planning on using an online survey for your research project, outline the pros and cons of using this method instead of a postal survey and consider which approach you will use having balanced the pros and cons.

Suggested Answer This question is following up from page 202, where sampling issues for online surveys are outlined. Some of the pros of using an online survey would be: 1. Time 2. Cost 3. Convenience 4. Reach However, some disadvantages could be: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Response error Sampling error Non-response error Reaching the right sample

These are aspects of doing online research that students need to consider, and listing them will be useful in finalising the research approach for the relevant project.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question Consider the common sources of error in survey research and explain how you would mitigate against each form of error in your research project?

Suggested Answer Some common sources of error in survey research include (page 209, new edition): 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

a poorly worded question; the way the question is asked by the interviewer; misunderstanding on the part of the interviewee; memory problems on the part of the interviewee; the way the information is recorded by the interviewer; the way the information is processed, either when answers are coded or when data are entered into the computer.

Students should consider how they would mitigate against such errors by: • • • •

Pilot-testing the questionnaire with a smaller sample of people.

Ensuring that all research team members are well-briefed and understand the survey.

Considering if the participant can adequately remember the information (for example, their last visit to a supermarket) and will be able to provide the information required.

How information will be recorded and processed – this is particularly useful to consider if the student is using an online survey.

These sources of error are useful to evaluate and students would benefit from considering how to mitigate them prior to collecting their data for their research project.

Discussion Question Sometimes sensitive topics are better researched in-person or by email/telephone surveys, depending upon the topic in question. Consider each of the following scenarios, and recommend whether they would be better to be researched either by personal interview or email/telephone interview by an individual researcher or organisation: 1. Political voting intentions 2. Sexual health 3. Personal addiction Suggested Answer Voting intentions are typically researched either online or by phone, as they do not require much probing on behalf of the researcher (but are often considered to be quite personal questions). Sexual health surveys are areas where email/telephone interviewing has been very successful in improving response rates, as people are often more willing to discuss their sexual health anonymously by email/telephone survey than they are with an individual faceto-face. Finally, for areas such as personal addiction, individuals may find the interview topic upsetting given the subject matter and may require significant aftercare on behalf of the researcher if they need additional support (counselling, etc.), so personal interviews would

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition be more appropriate in this case. The purpose of this discussion is to consider which topics are more appropriate to study either personally or remotely, and evaluate why this may be the case.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question Consider the advantages of a self-completion questionnaire over a structured interview and justify which approach you will use for your research project.

Suggested Answer The advantages of a self-completion questionnaire are outlined on pages 233 – 234, which are: • • • • •

Cheaper to administer Quicker to administer Absence of interview effects No interviewer variability Convenience for respondents

The student should consider all of these advantages and justify which approach (selfcompletion questionnaire versus structured interview) is most appropriate to their study.

Discussion Question Outline some examples of studies where a research diary would be appropriate and discuss some ethical concerns with the use of such an approach.

Suggested Answer Examples of some areas where diary research may be appropriate are: • Food consumption.

• Dreams.

• Social media consumption.

• Social confrontation.

• Bullying.

• Alcohol consumption.

• Well-being.

It is a method which has the potential to unlock important insights. However, there are some ethical concerns surrounding the use of diaries for social scientific research, such as: • • • • • •

The impact the diary may have upon the participant.

How the researcher treats the diary data and particularly how it is interpreted.

How the findings are shared with participants.

Whether the diary data is stored or potentially shared with others (researchers or third parties).

How the diary data is disposed of after the research is complete.

How such diary data could be used in certain situations (by private corporations, for example).

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

These ethical concerns also must be evaluated before the use of a diary for social scientific research could be considered in full.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question Consider the use of open questions in a survey. Why are they useful but what difficulties could you anticipate in using them?

Suggested Answer This refers specifically to pages 253-254 of the new text. Open questions are useful because responses can answer in their own terms, they allow for unusual responses, they are useful for exploring new areas and can be used for the development of fixed-choice questions. So, they offer the possibility for new knowledge and a better, more accurate survey. They do have several disadvantages however, such as being time-consuming to administer and complete, being difficult for analysis, requiring additional effort from respondents and they can mean a high variability in response. They can be particularly useful in a pilot phase of research, it should be outlined that they are useful but they should be used only sparingly in a survey for the above reasons.

Discussion Question What are the advantages of using an existing questionnaire and justify which approach you will adopt in your own research project.

Suggested Answer An existing study is very helpful as it often contains validated scales and tested items; it is also a standard in how research tends to be done within the quantitative tradition within business research. It is likely studies which use an existing scale may also be more publishable in the longer term, which could have advantages for a research project, particularly at postgraduate or PhD levels. However, it does have the disadvantage of not necessarily being bespoke to one’s research questions and perhaps somewhat lacking in originality. Students should consider the above factors and provide justification for the approach they will use in their own research project.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question

Outline some scenarios in which a structured observation may be useful in organisational research. Are there any epistemological issues associated with structural observation?

Suggested Answer

For the first question, students should consider which aspects of organisational life could be observed via structured observation. These could include: • • • • • •

Gender relations Productivity Workplace culture Customer service Employee motivation Management practice

There are several examples from the management literature, such as Mintzberg (Research in Focus 13.2), which are useful examples of this method. However, in epistemology we consider how it is possible to know what we know, and if employees know they are being observed or researched, is it more likely their behaviour is going to somewhat change? This exercise allows us to consider the scenarios which could be researched via structured observation and how this method trades off on reality. It may also be useful to include covert observation in this particular discussion.

Discussion Question Consider how each of the following topics could be researched via content analysis and discuss what value as study such as this would provide: • • •

Gender relations Race Neoliberalism

Suggested Answer This is a good opportunity to examine content analysis at a workbench level. Research in Focus 13.6 provides a useful example of how courage and managerial decision making could be studied. Examples on how the above could be studied is the following: • • •

How relations between the genders are discussed in publications, such as magazines or newspapers during a particular time period.

How race is represented in advertising, by conducting content analysis on advertising in a publication during a particular time period.

How neoliberalism is constructed within the discourse of business publications, such as The Economist during a particular time period.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

This discussion is useful as it enables students to consider how content analysis could be used for their research study and the types of research questions it can help address. The value added is that it helps us to address issues of wide societal interest and how they are represented in the mass media and other social and cultural discourses.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question Would you consider using secondary analysis for your research project and if so which data sources would you use?

Suggested Answer Sometimes students select secondary analysis as they consider it an easier option to primary data; however secondary data projects require careful consideration and often indepth analysis. In this exercise, students should outline their research project and research questions, justifying why secondary analysis is most appropriate to their research project, outlining the data sources they will use and even at this early stage, the types of data analysis they will conduct with this secondary data.

Discussion Question What types of research topics lend themselves most readily to secondary analysis and why?

Suggested Answer There are a number of projects which lend themselves well to secondary analysis, such as: • • • • • •

Workplace patterns Population studies Social attitudes studies Family structures Religious beliefs and identity Sexuality

These are just some examples of a range of studies which could be discussed. Often secondary research studies allow for longitudinal analysis over a longer period of time than primary research studies which tend to provide a snapshot rather than an historical chronology. Students should evaluate the types of research projects and questions which are more appropriate for secondary analysis, and should take away that it is research topics and research questions, rather than time and convenience, that will determine whether one should use secondary analysis for a research project.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question

Provide a question example of each of the following: • • • •

Interval/Ratio variables Ordinal variables Nominal variables Dichotomous variables

Consider which variables will be most useful in the analysis of the data for your research project and why.

Suggested Answer

In the first question, students should consider examples of variables that could be categories as the above, such as: • • • • •

Likert scales (interval) Proportion of time spent on a particular task (ratio) Rank order of favourites (ordinal) Ethnicity (nominal) Gender (dichotomous)

Students need to consider the design of the questions on their questionnaires and how they will construct them. They also need to evaluate what category each question falls into, and which category is likely to be most useful in addressing the research question of their project.

Discussion Question

There are three types forms of analysis outlined in this chapter: 1. Univariate 2. Bivariate 3. Multivariate Consider which form analysis will be most useful for your research project and why.

Suggested Answer

This question is designed for students to consider which form of analysis they will use in the project and why. If they are analysing one variable only, univariate analysis will suffice. If they are analysing two variables at a time, bivariate will be most appropriate. If they are particularly ambitious and analysing three or more variables, they should use multivariate analysis. This session is designed to encourage students to consider which form of analysis is most appropriate to their research project and questions.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question Follow the example through in this chapter using the data provided on the accompanying site for the textbook. How easy did you find this exercise and would you consider using SPSS for your project based on this exercise?

Suggested Answer One important aspect of using SPSS is the tactile aspect of getting one’s hands dirty with the task and the data. Students should download the data and work through the example, and consider whether they could use this programme for the analysis of the data for their own research project. Group reflections on the exercise would be particularly helpful here to provide some guidance around its usage.

Discussion Question Consider how SPSS variables are coded and analysed. What critique could be made of this process from a qualitative analysis perspective?

Suggested Answer Another discussion exercise could be to consider some epistemological aspects of using software to analyse quantitative data. Qualitative researchers may find the analytical process mechanical, static and reductive (the usual critiques made of quantitative analysis), but it’s important for the instructor to highlight how each method trades off on reality, and the strengths and weaknesses of each research approach. This should enable an interesting discussion around the epistemology of quantitative analysis amongst the cohort.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question Quantitative research focuses more upon numbers while qualitative tends to focus more upon words. The predominant approach within business research is overwhelmingly quantitative. Why do you believe this is the case and do you feel it should continue?

Suggested Answer First, the discussion should consider the focus of each approach, quantitative being numerical while qualitative being discursive. Quantitative research is by far the most dominant paradigm in business research, there could be many reasons for this. Tadajewski (2006), for example, argues that the influence of the Cold War in the USA led many American marketing academics to study quantitative methods which in-turn influenced their research approach and subsequently the shape of the marketing discipline. This paper may be interesting to discuss in the context of this issue: Tadajewski, M. (2006) ‘The ordering of marketing theory: the influence of McCarthyism and the cold war’, Marketing Theory, 6(2), pp. 163—199.

Other factors may also be at play however – the cultural disposition toward quantification in certain societies, the focus upon “hard numbers” within the business field, the demand of business leaders for quantitative research to help with business problems – these all may be factors that have influenced the quantitative bias of business research more generally.

Students should discuss whether this quantitative focus has been productive and desirable, and should speculate regarding future vistas for business research as a whole.

Discussion Question Consider some examples where “Action Research” may be appropriate to a business research project however also highlight some potential pitfalls of this approach.

Suggested Answer Action research is where business researchers and organisations can collaborate upon diagnosing problems and developing solutions based on this diagnosis. Examples where this may be useful include: • • • •

Customer research Employee engagement Brand architecture Creative workspaces

Action research can be mutually beneficial for both the researcher and the organisation, as the researcher gains access to an important site and the organisation can benefit from the findings of the research. However, there are potential drawbacks. Firstly, the organisation may drive the research in a direction that is not fruitful for the researcher in terms of his/her focus and it may not have mutual benefits. The organisation may experience a change of management who are less enthusiastic about the research which could lead to a cessation of activities. Finally, the researcher may become so embedded within the

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition organisation that he/she may “go native” and lose any objective viewpoint with regards to the social processes he/she is observing. It should be highlighted that Action Research is a very useful tool, but not one without potential drawbacks.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question Can purposive sampling be considered “scientific” and if not, how can it be improved to make it more so?

Suggested Answer Purposive sampling is very pragmatic and specific to the purpose of the research, but it could not be considered as systematic as probability sampling methods. It possibly needs to be highlighted that probability sampling is not appropriate to qualitative methods, but there are ways that researchers can improve the reliability of purposive sampling. They can try to ensure that the researchers are recruited beyond their immediate networks, that they do not personally know the participants (which can sometimes aid with the candidness of an interview) or try alternative modes of recruiting participants (online, newspaper adverts, etc.). Purposive sampling is very appropriate to qualitative methods, but this does not mean researchers should rest on their laurels and recruit the most convenient participants, effort should be made to broaden the sampling and recruitment approach as much as possible to ensure that a wide variety of attitudes and opinions are obtained.

Discussion Question Snowball sampling is used in a lot of qualitative business research. Discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of this approach and provide some justification as to why you will use it in your study.

Suggested Answer Snowball sampling is used in a lot of qualitative business research. It has some specific advantages, namely: • It is possible to recruit more participants.

• Participants can actually recruit others, helping the researcher broaden the sample.

• The sample can cooperate and act as a research community for the study.

• The researcher can develop tangential networks with other groups as a result of his/her initial contact with the first participants.

However, it is not a method without its potential drawbacks: • • •

The sample could be skewed toward particular views that are not credible for the research questions.

The sample could end up being rather homogenous and not varied enough, leading to bias in the answers provided and potentially shutting down research avenues.

The sample could collectively decide to no longer participate in the research.

Students should consider these positives and negatives, and then provide justification as to why they would favour this approach (or not, as the case may be) in their own research study.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question Overt rather than covert ethnography is more common in business research. Discuss why this is the case and outline some scenarios in which covert ethnography may be justified.

Suggested Answer Covert ethnography is considered extremely risky, particularly if the organisation being researched is unaware that the researcher is working within the organisation. This is generally a less common approach because: 1. It is considered unethical research practice.

2. It could leave the researcher and the university open to legal action or prosecution.

3. It could potentially harm the researcher or the participants either during the research process (if their identity becomes known) or afterwards once the results are published.

There is an epistemological concern with overt ethnography however – will participants behave the way they normally would if they are aware they are being observed? There have been examples in the UK, particularly in social care homes, where BBC researchers have uncovered shocking mistreatment of patients which was observed covertly, this data simply would not have been gathered had this research been conducted in an overt way. There are certainly instances where covert ethnography is justified, but it must be in the most exceptional of circumstances, academic and social policy justifications must be developed and safeguards put in place to protect the researcher, the participants, the university and the organisation in question. It does have the potential to unlock important insights, but because informed consent cannot be given and ethical clearance can be more difficult to obtain, overt ethnography is likely to remain the more popular approach.

Discussion Question Gold (1958) has classified four participant observer roles in the context of an ethnographic study. These are: • Complete participant • Participant-as-observer • Observer-as-participant • Complete observer If you are considering using ethnography for your research project, outline which strategy you would use and why.

Suggested Answer This is more of an open discussion question. Students should read the section “Roles for Ethnographers” on page 413 and consider what the most appropriate role to their research question may be – the guidance of the tutor will be invaluable in this session to help them understand the best approach (or combination of them) that will be appropriate to their research.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition Discussion Question If you have never conducted a qualitative interview before, apart from reading this book outline some ways you can hone your skills before beginning data collection for your research project.

Suggested Answer This text and others (such as Kvale, (1996), as an example) offers some very useful and practical advice for doing interviews. However, there are some other sources that students could look to, specifically: • • • • •

Television news interviews.

Chat shows.

Youtube interviews (both good and bad – Michael Parkinson’s interview with Meg Ryan, available online, is a poignant example of the latter).

Interviews with television hosts.

Newspaper interviews.

The point of this session is that interviewing is a very accessible yet difficult skill to master, but there are plenty of exemplars of good (and bad) interviewing practice, and students should be encouraged to engage with the world around them for examples of both.

Discussion Question Outline some research topics for which a life history or oral history interview would be an appropriate research method.

Suggested Answer This is a somewhat less utilised method in business research generally, but examples where it may be appropriate include: • • • • • •

Career reflections Consumer identity Brand consciousness Organisational memory Historical events (wars, holocaust, etc.)

Family role structures

This is a very deep and involving method and only certain research questions will necessitate life history or oral history methods – it’s useful to have students consider this point and also to evaluate where this method could be best utilized and where.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question

Focus groups are a more popular tool in business management practice than academic business research. Speculate on why this may be the case and outline some potential uses for focus groups in academic research.

Suggested Answer

Focus groups are not completely erased from academic research although they are much less common than other methods such as interviews, ethnography, netnography, etc. There are many reasons for this, some of which have been alluded to in the chapter, such as: • • • • • •

They are difficult to organize.

They are difficult to control.

They are difficult to interpret.

They are difficult to generalise from.

They tend to be expensive to run.

They are only appropriate to certain types of topics.

This should lead the discussion on to the types of topics where focus groups may be particularly appropriate, this will be useful if any student is considering adopting this method. Some examples may be: • • • • • •

Children’s use of brands.

Group workplace cultures.

Female participation in the workplace and “glass ceiling” issues.

People’s use of products and services.

Attitudes toward political parties.

Adoption of innovations.

While the focus group may not be in favour in certain journals, it is still a method with utility, both for business management research and management practice generally.

Discussion Question

If you are considering using focus groups for your research project, develop the following: • An outline of your research questions.

• A rationale as to why focus groups are the most appropriate methodology to address your research questions.

• A topic agenda for the focus group.

• An outline of the type of demeanour or stance you plan to adopt as the moderator for the focus group.

Suggested Answer

This is both a discussion and an exercise to encourage students using focus groups to develop a rationale for their use, consider the topics that the focus group will cover and the

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition stance that the researcher will take as the moderator of the focus groups. Exercises like this are useful as they help students to consider their research project and the utility of the method they plan to adopt.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question

Discourse analysis concerns how people use language to produce versions and accounts of their social world. Outline some areas of business research where this approach may be useful and why?

Suggested Answer

Discourse analysis is a methodology that has found expression within business and management research, some areas where this approach would be useful are: • • • •

Managers accounting for their roles.

How particular subjects (racism, economics, etc.) are constructed within mass media discourse.

The rhetorical strategies used in particular texts (management books, etc.).

How children make sense of their social world.

What’s key in this session is to unlock the potential of discourse analysis for students and to consider its application to business research issues. The use of language in our world is ever more into focus, and discourse analytical methods are likely to grow in importance in the future.

Discussion Question

Narrative analysis has become popular in business research, particularly in organisational studies. Discuss why this may be the case and outline some topics for which this methodology may be useful and why.

Suggested Answer

Narrative analysis has been well represented in business and management research. Within organisational studies, it has been particularly popular as organisations are often created and comprised by narratives which create coherent identities and senses of belongings within them. There are many useful applications for narrative analysis in business research, such as: • • • •

How managers describe their jobs.

Customers’ relationships with organisations.

Salespeople’s relationships with their customers.

Interdepartmental relationships within organisations.

The key to this session is to allow students to understand the application of narrative and the wide number of areas it can be usefully applied to. We need to evaluate the role of stories in our lives and how this can be applied to our research projects.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question

If you are considering using documents for your research project, consider which ones you would use, how you would access them and what analytical process you will follow to make sense of them?

Suggested Answer

This discussion is for students to reflect upon which documents would be most relevant to their research questions and the types of analysis they may consider using to evaluate them.

As from the chapter, there are a range of different analytical approaches (semiotics, discourse analysis, content analysis, etc.) at the disposal of students and they should consider how they would approach the topic of their research and why.

Discussion Question

It has been suggested that the use of history has been limited in business research. Why is this the case and do you feel it is justified?

Suggested Answer

History has undoubtedly the power to unlock important ideas in business and management research but its use has been rather limited. This is largely because many business researchers lack the appropriate training in the historical method to do archival historical research. However, there are signs this is changing (“Business History” is a thriving discipline) and while history has been a minority concern, it is undoubtedly gaining more traction within business research, which is a very positive development overall.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question

What types of projects would be suitable for a grounded theory approach and is it something you could consider using in your own research?

Suggested Answer

A suitable grounded theory project would be a project where there is perhaps less known about the subject or there is a sparsity of literature on the topic (consumer-technology interface, for example). It has the potentially to unlock some very big ideas in business research, but does require enormous amounts of time, skill and dedication. It is also a risky research strategy and should perhaps be only recommended to researchers engaged in doctoral research project or those with a suitable research topic. It is a strategy that could be recommended to students, albeit cautiously.

Discussion Question

If you plan on doing qualitative data analysis, what sort of coding strategy will you follow and why?

Suggested Answer

Having reviewed the chapter, students should consider what coding strategy they may use for their data analysis. Do they plan on using grounded theory as a process of analysis? A more general coding approach? Or a more thematic (non-systematic) approach? It really depends upon the research question and approach, but the importance of rigor in analysis should be emphasised and how the use of a coding strategy can be very helpful in convincing examiners of the robustness of the approach to the research project.

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Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question

Would you consider using a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis package for your research project and what would you see as the advantages and disadvantages of using this software?

Suggested Answer

Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis packages are useful, but they tend to be more suitable for large data sets (as outlined in the chapter) so unless students are generating such data sets it may be best to avoid the very steep learning curve associated with these packages. There could be a lot of value in learning the package anyway as it could be useful for one’s future career.

Some of the advantages are: • Better organisation of data.

• Easier to retrieve data.

• Coding structures can be managed on a screen.

• Data analysis can be more easily charted.

However, there are also some significant disadvantages, such as: • The time it takes to master the software.

• The reductionist nature of the package.

• The potential for the researcher to be give too much leeway to the software and not think enough about one’s data.

These are all considerations and the researcher must choose for him/herself, but a discussion about the merits of this software would be a fruitful one for a methodology class.

Discussion Question

Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis packages have not been universally accepted by qualitative researchers in business. Why do you feel this is and how could the manufacturers of the software address this?

Suggested Answer

This is a rather curious discussion, as we use software for so many tasks in our lives, why has it not been more prevalent for business research?

There could be a number of factors at play: • This technology is at a relatively early stage in development.

• Many researchers have learned to do qualitative research “by hand” without the use of software and many may be reluctant to learn a new approach.

• Some of the criticisms outlined of the software in the chapter around reductionism and decontextualization of data may also be concerns.

• Qualitative researchers can often be sceptical of the use of technology for research purposes.

It is clear that this software does have a lot of potential for researchers, but there are currently barriers to its use. The company could address these by: • Attending academic conferences.

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition • Engaging with universities and researchers.

• Organising training days for interested researchers.

• Engaging with the research communities using webcasts or YouTube broadcasts.

The discussion around its lack of adoption and ways to overcome this would be particularly useful for a management or marketing classroom, where such issues may be relevant to other modules as well.

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question

There is often a qualitative-quantitative divide in business researchers, sometimes academics working on the similar issues in the same discipline will not cite each other’s work owing to the paradigmatic differences. Do you feel this is productive and if not, what can be done to create rapprochement in the discipline?

Suggested Answer

The issue of “paradigm wars” between qualitative and quantitative researchers is very prevalent in most business disciplines. While the separation is healthy, it can also be destructive and lead to unhealthy schisms in the discipline. While the paradigms can be incommensurable to some, there can be ways to bring researchers from different paradigms together, such as: • • •

Themed conferences around theories not methodologies.

Special issues of journals devoted to an eclectic range of approaches.

Workshops where researchers in different paradigms can be brought together to discuss areas of interest.

Business research needs researchers in both paradigms but cross and interdisciplinary research is incredibly valuable and an attitude of snobbish superiority on either “side” of the divide is not particularly helpful or productive. Students should see the value of collaborative research across paradigmatic lines.

Discussion Question

The fault lines of the divide between qualitative and quantitative methods are based around the following: • • • •

Meaning versus behaviour Theory testing versus theory generation Numbers versus words Artificial versus natural

Evaluate each of these fault lines, consider how real they actually are and whether there is any merit in upholding them in business research.

Suggested Answer

This book from pages 562–563 provides some excellent contrasts between qualitative and quantitative research. Students need to consider the validity these divides, as the book brilliantly exposes many of these are simply either lazy, misguided or plain wrong.

Highlighting this could demonstrate to students that qualitative and quantitative researchers are not all that different and the divides created between them are often not particularly substantive or real.

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018

Bell, Bryman & Harley: Business Research Methods, 5th edition

Discussion Question

Discuss the philosophical and technical or practical versions of the debate about combining quantitative and qualitative research (see page 570) and discuss which version of this debate would be of more interest to: • Business Academics • Business Practitioners

Suggested Answer

The philosophical version of the debate (see page 570) is one concerned with the commensurability (the extent to which it is possible, or desirable, to combine paradigmatic positions) between constructionist and objectivist paradigms as well as the potential difficulties of combining different methods associated with each paradigm. The technical version on the other hand gives greater prominence to the techniques associated with each method and how they can be practically combined. Researchers who use mixed methods can mitigate both the philosophical and practical/technical risks or difficulties and combine different methods theoretically fruitfully and philosophically coherently. However, it must be relevant to the research topic and question and should add a key dimension to the theory generation process.

As regards the different audiences, the philosophical version would often be of more interest to business academics while the technical or practical version would be of more interest to the business practitioner. The reasons for this (different priorities, interests, foci etc.) would also be useful to tease out for a session of this nature.

Discussion Question

If you plan on using mixed methods for your research project please outline the priority and sequence (outlined on page 572) in which you will execute each and provide justification for your broad approach?

Suggested Answer

This is a more practical, workbench session where students should consider why they are adopting a mixed methods approach for their research project and provide adequate justification for this. They should also be able to outline which method will take priority as well as the sequence in which they will take place (exploratory, explanatory, embedded etc.

– see page 574 for details). This session should allow students to consider their research project and the value that each research approach can add in addressing their research question.

© Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018