1 ABA Specialization Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a therapy whose purpose is to improve the behavior of children and adults living with mental disorders. It focuses on equipping people who might struggle with social skills, communication, reading, and adaptive learning skills such as motor skills, hygiene, grooming, job competence, punctuality, and domestic duties. ABA helps people living with mental disorders cope in an array of settings, from school to work, and at home. When applied consistently, ABA results in significant positive changes in an individual’s behaviors and skills, making them more independent despite their psychological disorder. ABA has proven to be a successful intervention for autistic people and aged adults undergoing challenges that come with the loss of memory, strength and motor skills. ABA provides various approaches to treating psychological and behavioral disorders. One of the most impactful ones is reinforcements.
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2 Differential Reinforcement ABA therapists use this approach to teach on the consequences of both positive and negative behavior. Differential reinforcement refers to the methods used to rectify behavior in ABA. It helps to identify the root of undesired behavior and use reinforcements to reward or punish the individual’s actions in order to encourage desired behavior (Costello, & Fuqua, 2017). Generally, people prefer to perform the behaviors that are rewarded and avoid those that do not receive a reward. Differential reinforcement can be categorized into two; reinforcing the desired behavior, and lack of reinforcement of the undesired behavior. The desired behavior is also known appropriate behavior and it includes anything that leads to a positive response. Differential reinforcement differs from traditional forms of discipline whose emphasis is on rewarding positive behavior and punishing negative behavior. When applying the concept of differential treatment, negative behavior is not punished; in fact, it is not acted upon. The adult only focuses on rewarding and reinforcing positive behavior. The child tends to repeat the behavior that will be recognized; which in this case, is the positive one. By ignoring the negative behavior, it tends to decrease until they eventually opt for positive behavior. Essentially, negative behavior is ignored (Trump, et al. 2020). Ignoring the inappropriate actions may take the form of keeping a physical distance from the child, avoiding eye contact and not communicating with the child. When withholding reinforcement is implemented, the child will not have a clear picture of what is going on, therefore, their behavior is likely to deteriorate even further before it finally begins to improve. However, for the process of withholding reinforcement to be successful, positive behavior must be rewarded immediately it occurs (Pipkin, Vollmer, & Sloman, 2013). Implementation of Differential Reinforcement
3 There are various ways through which differential reinforcement can take place. These are; Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI) DRI is the process through which the adult rewards behavior that cannot occur simultaneously with the undesired behavior. For example, in the case of a student who fails to complete their assignments; when they do the world assigned, they will be rewarded but when they fail to do it, the teacher ignores this behavior. Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA) In DRA, the behavior that can be used in the place of the desired behavior is reinforced. For instance, when a child refuses to share their toys, his parents would ignore him, refusing to give him their attention. When he shares his toys, they pay him attention and given a sticker. To ensure the success of this reinforcement method, it is crucial to teach the child the right behavior and the alternative behavior (Welch, & Polatjako, 2016). Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO) DRO is a technique used to reinforce positive behavior where the adult gives the child a reward when negative behavior does not occur within a certain timeframe. An example of this would be a child who takes long to get ready in the morning, when they get ready within the desired thirty-minute time frame, they will be given a reward. However, if they take longer than thirty minutes to get ready, the adult will ignore them. To thrive, the average human being requires a sense of community, where they are recognized for their positive actions and allowed the opportunity to interact with others. Being ignored leads to a desire to change. Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL)
4 DRL is the process through which the adult implements measures to train the child to reduce their frequency of the performance of a behavior. In this case, the problem is not the behavior but the high frequency with which it occurs. An example of this is where the child is participative in class, but answers questions out loud instead of waiting for the teacher to select them. Their participation is good, however, it is disruptive when wrongly done. The teacher can give them a sticker every time they wait to be called out instead of shouting their response. Uses of Differential Treatment Differential reinforcement is mostly used to promote good behavior in children but can also be used in a variety of other contexts (Briggs et al., 2019). For instance, in the workplace, a human resource manager will find it useful for encouraging employees to act in a certain undesired manner and instead perform positive behavior. When using differential reinforcement, select a reinforcement schedule and use it consistently. It is crucial to select a reinforcement schedule that not only reduces the negative behavior, but also teaches the appropriate behavior. Secondly, it is also important for the adult to select the behavior that would replace the negative behavior, especially when using DRA or DRI. Part Two: Apply Differential Reinforcement to a Case The client in this case is Edgardo, who is diagnosed with oppositional defiance disorder. He is in fifth grade in an inclusion classroom where there is a regular education teacher, a special education teacher, a classroom aide and his own one-on-one aide. His disorder causes a challenge in his ability to pay attention in class and complete his schoolwork since he often displays behavioral issues such as an inability to comply to authority, and being physically disruptive in class. His behavior is of much concern to the district, and they are considering transferring him to a classroom environment where his behavior will be controlled better.
5 Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) has not been applied to this case yet because most of his teachers do not have knowledge of it. This section examines whether his behavior can be rectified using applied behavior analysis, and specifically, the differential reinforcement approach. Hypothesized Function of Problem Behavior Edgardo has difficulty following instructions in class. His disorder causes him to be disruptive in the classroom. He is disobedient, and often fails to comply with his teachers’ instructions. He also has a tendency to swipe materials from tables, pushu furniture around and throw items on the ground. He is unable to keep up with his school work because of this behavior. If an effective differential reinforcement approach is applied, Edgardo’s behavior might be reformed, reducing his noncompliance and allowing him to study in an inclusion classroom without causing disruption. Edgardo’s replacement behavior will be to take a time-out when he feels the urge to disobey or disrupt the class. This will help him learn to control himself. Antecedent Considerations. The events that occur prior to the negative behavior are referred to as antecedents and may guide an ABA specialist on the root of the undesired behavior. The person’s environment is assessed to determine whether there is anything that increases or decreases the risk of his aggressive behavior. This assessment may be done by observing Edgardo in class on a typical day. Additionally, the assessment should also be done by interviewing his parents, teachers, and. classmates In this case, Edgardo is extremely defiant, and has an uncontrollable rage, as evidenced by throwing objects. The first step in the treatment process is to find out whether there is
6 anything that might be triggering the behavior. For instance, is he getting enough sleep? Does he engage in any hobbies or extra-curricular activity that might calm him? Is there anyone or anything in his environment that might be antagonizing him? Are any consequences imposed on him when he misbehaves? The responses to these questions should help an ABA specialist determine the way forward with the student’s treatment. The teachers must work in unison to implement the correctional measures. To help Edgardo, the teachers must learn more about ABA and ensure that it is implemented consistently. ABA, when properly used, may help to control this student’s behavior. All behavior, whether negative or positive, is performed with the knowledge that there are certain consequences to it. ABA, when properly used, may help to control this student’s behavior. All behavior, whether negative or positive, is performed with the knowledge that there are certain consequences to it. Differential treatment will help to control Edgardo’s behavior because it will help to highlight positive behavior while eliminating the negative behavior. In the process of ascertaining the most effective differentiation strategy to use in Edgardo’s case, the strengths and weaknesses of each will be assessed. The Process of Identifying Reinforcers Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) would be used in this case to determine alternative behaviors that will replace the undesirable behavior. When the student, who in this case is Edgardo, replaces their wrong behavior with the desired alternative behavior, it will make the classroom conducive for everyone involved. DRA is only appropriate to use as an intervention strategy when three conditions are met (Fong, Ficklin, & Lee, 2017). Firstly, there should be a positive behavior that needs to be reinforced. Secondly, the student must already possess the alternative behavior, and thirdly, there must be an effective method of
7 reinforcing the behavior. There are chances that DRA might not be effective in this case because Edgardo has no know positive behaviors. Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) bears significant similarity to DRA. The incompatible behavior is usually the opposite of the desired behavior. Therefore, they cannot occur simultaneously. In this case, Edgardo would be reinforced for sitting still and paying attention in class instead of being defiant and disruptive. Differential reinforcement of low rates of behavior (DRL) is an intervention technique that involves reinforcing the individual for reducing their negative behavior. The undesired behavior should have reduced to a significantly low level. DRL cannot be appropriate in Edgardo’s case because it works best when the negative behavior can be tolerated at low levels. It does not require a drastic change in behavior. Edgardo’s behavior, even at low levels, cannot be withstood because it affects other students’ learning. His behavior would need to transform completely. Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) involves reinforcing the new desired behavior, while completely eliminating the undesired behavior. This is the most appropriate course of action in Edgardo’s case. This reinforcement technique results in the reduction of a negative behavior because it is never followed by reinforcement. In this case study, Edgardo will only be reinforced when he does not defy instructions and does not disrupt the class. As the positive behavior is continually and consistently reinforced by his teachers, classmates, and parents, he will gradually begin to respond to their affirmations by increasing the occurrences of the positive behavior. DRO is thought to be most effective when the trigger for the negative behavior can be identified and eliminated. It also works best when the reinforcement is offered after the disruptive behavior has not been demonstrated for a relatively long period. It is most effective in
8 the treatment of psychological disorders such as Edgardo’s oppositional defiance disorder. There are four main steps to the successful that have proven successful in the effective implementation of DRO ( Shyman, 2016). The Reinforcement of Ableism: Normality, The Medical Model Of Disability,. The first step is to identify the reinforcer of the undesired behavior. The second step is to identify the reinforcement that will be used in the DRO reinforcement technique. While the third step is to select the time interval over which DRO will be implemented. The final step is implement the reinforce for the positive behavior and eliminate the reinforce for the negative behavior. For DRO to be properly implemented, it requires data collection on the frequency of the occurrence of the negative behavior and the time that passes between each incidence of the behavior. This data is crucial because it helps to design the reinforcement schedule that will be enforced in case the undesired behavior fails to occur. For instance, if the data collected shows that Edgardo exhibits the disruptive behavior every half hour, the reinforcement will be provided at the end of the half hour where he acts in the desired manner. DRO is effective as a training mechanism for clients with severe psychological disorders. It focuses on reinforcing positive behavior instead of punishing negative behavior, which in the long run, is more realistic. It is not punitive, thus despite being effective, thus the person on whom it is implemented does not have to ensure the fear of being punished (Roane et al., 2016).. During DRO conditioning, the teacher should be watchful of the student’s actions, in order to keep track of when the target behavior begins. Verbal affirmation is important to reassure the student that it is the undesired behavior and not the student that seeks to be eliminated. The teachers will tally the number of times Edgardo behaves disruptively during baseline. During treatment, the teacher will give him candy at the end of every period where be
9 behaves well. The teacher records the time interval between the time he behaves appropriately and the time he behaves inappropriately. In the course of the treatment, this time will continue to become longer until eventually he will go for a full lesson, a few hours or a full day without doing the wrong thing (Vollmer et al., 2016).. Part Three: Important Considerations Whereas the student does not give legal consent for the behavioral correction procedure to be performed on him, it is for his benefit and there is no malicious intent behind it. Correcting his behavior will enable him adjust to society in a more meaningful. People living with mental health encounter several challenges which are left undiagnosed or untreated. They are able not to utilize the opportunities handed to them, and as a result, they are more likely to lack skills that will guarantee them good employment in the job market. It is therefore common to find them underemployed, and living in the margins of poverty. Applied Behavioral analysis, when implemented early, helps children and adults with psychological disabilities live a fairly welladjusted life. Assessing ethical, legal, cultural and social validity enables professionals involves in behavior correction determine whether their actions are in the best interests of the client, and whether their actions have any negative implications (Athens, & R. Vollmer, 2013). Differential reinforcement ought to have minimal, if any, social, legal, and cultural issues. One of the fundamental principles of differential reinforcement is that it only uses reinforcers that have proven to be effective. If the positive behavior increases, it means that the reinforcement is effective, if there is no change or it reduces, it means it is not the reinforcement. In determining whether there are ethical issues arising from the application of ABA techniques, one should ask themselves what is the right thing to do? Is the right thing worth doing? Have any of the person’s rights been violated in the process of implementing the strategies? These
10 questions will point to whether there is any wrongdoing in the process of assisting the client. In the case of Edgardo’s treatment using DRO, it is worth noting that this is done to make it easy for him to learn, which in the long run, will impact his life positively. There are no unethical methods used to administer the therapy, therefore, no issues should arise. The behavioral analyst should however stay informed about changing norms in in the rules and regulations of practicing ABA. Despite the intent being positive, one of the main legal implications is that there is none among the four teachers who is fully trained and certified in ABA. It is considered illegal for untrained individuals to perform duties that require professional training, such as, in this case, behavorial therapy. It is also crucial to obtain informed consent from the client. This means that Edgardo should have the capacity to understand that he is undergoing therapy and correction. It is also necessary to obtain consent from the child’s parents or guardians. When applied correctly, ensuring that all the legal, ethical, and social validity guidelines are followed, differential reinforcement could be one of the most beneficial treatments that a person with psychological challenges undergoes.
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12 Fong, E., Ficklin, S., & Lee, H. (2017). Increasing Cultural Understanding And Diversity In Applied Behavior Analysis. Behavior Analysis: Research And Practice, 17(2), 103-113. Https://Doi.Org/10.1037/Bar0000076 Pipkin, C., Vollmer, T., & Sloman, K. (2013). Effects Of Treatment Integrity Failures During Differential Reinforcement Of Alternative Behavior: A Translational Model. Journal Of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(1). Https://Doi.Org/10.1901/Jaba.2010.43-47 Roane, H., Fisher, W., & Carr, J. (2016). Applied Behavior Analysis As Treatment For Autism Spectrum Disorder. The Journal Of Paediatrics, 175, 27-32. Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Jpeds.2016.04.023 Shyman, E. (2016). The Reinforcement of Ableism: Normality, The Medical Model Of Disability, And Humanism In Applied Behavior Analysis And ASD. Intellectua And Developmental Disabilities, 54(5), 366-376. Https://Doi.Org/10.1352/1934-955654.5.366 Trump, C. E., Ayres, K. M., Quinland, K. K., & Zabala, K. A. (2020). Differential Reinforcement Without Extinction: A Review Of The Literature. Behavior Analysis: Research And Practice, 20(2), 94–107. Https://Doi.Org/10.1037/Bar0000169 Vollmer, T., Roane, H., Ringdahl, J., & Marcus, B. (2013). Evaluating Treatment Challenges With Differential Reinforcement Of Alternative Behavior. Journal Of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32(1). Https://Doi.Org/10.1901/Jaba.1999.32-9 Welch, C., & Polatjako, H. (2016). Applied Behavior Analysis, Autism, And Occupational Therapy: A Search For Understanding. The American Journal Of Occupational Therapy, 70. Https://Doi.Org/10.5014/Ajot.2016.018689
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