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1 Language Policy, Curriculum & Methodology 1. Introduction Language forms a significant aspect of communication, personal interactions, and education. The Common European Framework of References for Languages (CEFR / CEFL / CEFRL) was launched in 2001, as a standard for the definition of the progress made by foreign language learners in Europe (Hulstijn, 2014). Despite its introduction in 2001, the concept of CEFRL was developed by the Council of Europe in the 1980s as a strategy of promoting free movement of people, technology and information across Europe after the second world war and the formation of the European Union (EU). CEFRL is now used in many countries outside Europe such as Japan, China, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia. It provides a basis upon which syllabuses, language guidelines, and examinations are developed. The Council of Europe established CEFRL as a fundamental element in the project dubbed "Language Learning for European Citizenship" that ran from 1989 to 1996 (Rață, 2010).

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2 Students and teachers of all languages use CEFRL for learning, teaching, and evaluation. There are currently approximately 40 languages under CEFRL. C contains six reference levels which are now commonly used and accepted as the European standard for gauging a learner's proficiency in a language; these levels are; A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2.; these can further be regrouped into three basic levels, basic, independent and proficient user. Each level defines the progress a learner is expected to have made in reading, listening, speaking and writing the language. A1 is the beginner stage, A2 the elementary stage, B1 intermediate stage, B2, is the upper intermediate stage, C1 the advanced stage and C2 the mastery stage. 2. Context The context of this paper is the implementation of CEFRL in the teaching of the main languages of the United Nations where I would like to work as a language teacher. My main responsibility as a language teacher in the UN would be to organize and manage courses within the organization. The United Nations has six approved lanugages; Chinese, French, Spanish, Russian, English and Arabic. In the UN, an ESL instructor works for an average of 32 hours a week; 16 hours are devoted to teaching English to students, and an equivalent 16 hours is devoted to course preparation. As an English teacher, my role would also be to give staff who do not have adequate knowledge of English an opportunity to learn. This role also involves preparing a teaching syllabus and administering language examinations and working conjointly with language coordinators in the UN to achieve the goals of the United Nations Language and Communications Program. The United Nations is a multicultural non-religious environment that emphasizes diversity and equality; as such, due to the frequent interaction and contact with speakers of foreign languages, it is essential for

3 the UN to support workers who do not speak its main languages to learn a second language. This knowledge helps staff acquire a more in-depth comprehension of their work and facilitates effective teamwork.

3. CEFRL Ideologies There are different education systems in the various countries across Europe, which may result in language barriers due to the differences in language learning in each of these systems. CEFRL was established to facilitate coordination despite the differences in the education systems and reduce challenges that may arise (Rivers, 2015). CEFRL was established to enhance international synergy in the learning of modern languages through providing a clear description of the objectives and content of each language. CEFRL facilitates the achievement of the primary goal of the Council of Europe’s language policy which is to attain a higher level of unity among member states through the adoption of common cultural methods. The policy adheres to three main principles; these are; to protect and develop European languages and eliminate the barriers to effective learning; secondly, to facilitate better interactions and communication among Europeans despite their different mother-tongues to enhance the mobility of labor, co-operation, and resources, as well as eliminate prejudice (Liddicoat, & Baldauf, 2008). Thirdly, to create continued convergence, cooperation, and coordination of the policies used in modern language learning among the member states. CEFRL promotes the development of new innovations and approaches to use in the development of teaching programs. It also strives to facilitate comparability of language proficiency between countries while respecting language proficiency standards.

4 3.1 CEFRL Levels In language learning among European countries, learners use CEFRL levels to gauge their proficiency levels. For instance, an individual might read and comprehend Dutch at B1 level or French at the C2 level. On attaining the different levels of language proficiency, learners receive a CEFRL certificate which is usually used in the selection of university courses, employment and in school admissions. Learners also use the CEFRL levels to ascertain their progress in learning a language. 3.2 Political Objectives of CEFRL CEFRL plays an essential role in the achievement of the cohesion of European countries by reducing xenophobia and cultural intolerance. Learning different languages creates closer cooperation in the fields of education, science, trade, industry, and culture. It allows people of different cultures, languages, and nationalities to interact more effectively thus leads to mutual tolerance, respect, and understanding. CEFRL enables the preservation and enhancement of the richness and diversity of European culture by increasing people's knowledge of different languages, including those that are not considered key languages (North, 2014). Additionally, learning a variety of languages leads to greater development and innovation among European states since it leads to better relationships among countries, effective communication, and thus enhanced collaboration in innovation, trade, industry and the ease of mobility of labor and other factors of production. Learning languages improves independent thinking and action, and also develops an individual's social skills. 3.3 CEFRL Criteria CEFRL has a wide variety of objectives to achieve and must, therefore, be allinclusive, clear and coherent. All-inclusiveness refers to its ability to develop broad language

5 comprehension and skills. It also refers to having a precise series of steps through which language proficiency is defined and measured. It considers that there are other dimensions of measuring language proficiency besides the linguistic such as sociocultural awareness, ease of learning and effective relations. The clarity criterion refers to its clear and explicit formulation, ease of availability and comprehensibility (VanPatten, & Benati, 2015). Coherence refers to the lack of inconsistencies and ambiguity. To fully achieve its objectives, CEFRL should be multi-purpose, adaptable to different contexts and circumstances, open, continuously evolving, easily understandable and readable and non-dogmatic (Ziegler, 2013). 4. Compatibility with Context CEFRL was created as a means of enhancing the teaching of languages in Europe by determining the learners’ levels of competence. CEFRL is compatible with my role as a language teacher in the United Nations in several aspects; firstly, it is geared towards promoting the learning of languages. It is keen on monitoring the progress of students who are learning English as a second language. The objective of teaching the primary languages in the UN is to enable the staff to advance their communication skills and create an environment that helps to overcome their barriers to effective communication. CEFRL, through the UN’s language-learning curriculum sets high expectations for both the learners and teachers through establishing standards that should be adhered to in the teaching and learning of English and foreign languages. CEFRL and the language syllabus of the UN are therefore compatible because they are structured to meet the linguistic needs of learners. 5. Challenges in the Implementation of the Policy

6 The impact of CEFRL on the design and pedagogy of curriculums has not been significant as its impact on testing. This occurs because proficiency development requires a shift in teaching methodologies from traditional to modern techniques. Additionally, the implementation of CEFRL has been a challenge because its creators were vague about what needs to be done to achieve the required level of mastery at each level. 5.1 Low Political Will The level of mastery of foreign languages in the United Kingdom is still at a low level due to the government's inadequate involvement in encouraging citizens to develop their language skills. As a result, many Europeans are unable to communicate effectively in different languages even though they live on the same continent (Extra, & Gorter, 2008). The second challenge to the implementation of CEFRL is that many teachers are still not sufficiently proficient in the languages they teach due to inadequate training, practice or experience (Byram, & Parmenter, 2012). Several teachers do not know what CEFRL is and its relevance to teaching. CEFRL has also been criticized for its unclear objectives, relatively low accessibility 6. Principles and Challenges before Implementing CEFRL The use of CEFRL is not compulsory but has been widely accepted due to its benefits and the conveniences it introduces to the learning of languages. To ensure the effective implementation of CEFRL among member states, the Committee of Ministers established principles and challenges that practitioners should consider. These are CEFRL is descriptive, it is language neutral, it is context neutral, it attempts to be all-inclusive to ensure that it covers all aspects of language knowledge and skills, the implementation of CEFRL should

7 lead to higher transparency and comparable learning outcomes. CEFRL implementation should also facilitate social inclusion, cultural tolerance, democratism, and language diversity. 6.1 Lack of Empirical Proof There has been no observed evidence to indicate that there is a link between CEFRL levels and learning outcomes, curriculum objectives and examination since in most countries research studies have not been done to examine the link between CEFRL and the documents and exams that accompany it (Kaplan, Baldauf, & Kamwangamalu, 2016). Several practitioners have highlighted a challenge in describing learning outcomes in terms of CEFRL levels since in many cases there is no distinct difference between some levels and the level descriptions are in some cases too wide and can, therefore, be easily interpreted in different ways. 6.2 Lack of Clear Strategy Implementing CEFRL in the learning context requires a strategy that is different from normal teaching. Practitioners must be able to adopt an action-oriented approach consistently which means emphasizing how to use the language in practice more than the use of grammar. In the Netherlands, for instance, schools have the autonomy to decide their education programs and interpete CEFRL as they deem suitable, and therefore at risk of undermining its ideologies. Sweden, the main issue with regard to the implementation of CEFRL IS that Swedish teachers do not use CEFRL consistently as a classroom tool. 7. CEFRL Implementation CEFRL requires an action-oriented methodology which is centered on the learner; it aims to ensure that the learning experience is relevant and meaningful to the users.

8 Practitioners are advised to use real-life scenarios as the basis of learning and emphasize on the use of the language for communicative uses as opposed to merely theoretical purposes. In 2005, research done on the implementation and effectiveness of CEFRL in 111 institutions across Europe revealed that the levels and descriptor scales were particularly useful to teachers, trainers and course work writers. However, the concept was complex to most practitioners and required a lot of simplification to make it easier to comprehend fully. CEFRL is a rich resource for the learning of languages, but due to teachers' inadequate training and knowledge of it, it has been reduced to levels. 8. CEFRL Teaching Approaches 8.1 Action-Oriented Approach Under CEFRL, practitioners and learners are expected to adopt an action-oriented strategy where the learners are viewed as members of society who have specific objectives to achieve through specific activities and within a specific environment. The action-oriented strategy requires the user to develop a range of competencies. In this context, competencies are described as the combination of experiences, skills, and qualifications that enable a person to become adept at performing specific actions. There are two types of competencies; general competencies and communicative language competencies (Ricento, 2015). General competencies do not specifically refer to language but are used in all types of actions, including those that involve language learning. They consist of the knowledge, skills and existential competence and as well as an individual’s ability to learn. Knowledge is obtained from learning and experience; human communication is dependent on the shared knowledge of a language. The depth of comprehending a language goes beyond academic knowledge to empirical and cultural awareness. In many cases, the methods used to acquire a language

9 influences a learner's comprehension of it; for instance, an individual who learns a language theoretically in class and begins to use often in practice develops better communicative competence than a learner who only learns a language theoretically and not practically. When assessing a learner’s language proficiency, it is essential to ascertain the difference between knowledge and communicative competence. Language skill and proficiency are acquired through the repetitive use of a language and experience over a period. It refers to the actual ability to communicate in a language than merely having declarative knowledge. When an individual is in the initial stages of learning a language, they have difficulty speaking, reading or writing; however, with the continued increase of knowledge and practice, they develop confidence, and certain aspects of language such as pronunciation and grammar become easier to use. Existential competence refers to the combination of an individual's character traits and personality which determines their willingness to engage with people in social interactions. Existential competencies are primarily determined to a significant extent related to culture and can, therefore, be interpreted in different ways depending on inter-cultural perceptions (Liddicoat, & Baldauf, 2008). For instance, what one culture perceives as friendliness and openness may be perceived by another culture as aggression and lack of respect for privacy. Ability to learn refers to the ability to develop competence in a new language with ease. It is influenced by factors such as willingness to listen attentively to what is said, ask for clarification where necessary, interact with native speakers of the language and understand a new culture. 8.2 Communicative Language Competence Developing competence in speaking a language comprises three main elements. These are; pragmatic, sociolinguistic and linguistic. Linguistic competence relates to the learner’s

10 quality of knowledge in the language and the depth of their vocabulary and the ease with which they speak a language. Sociolinguistic competence refers to the ability to comprehend the sociocultural intonations of a language through sensitivity to the social structures and norms such as politeness and the rules of interacting with different generations, sexes, and social classes. Pragmatic competences relate to the functional and practical use of a language. It is concerned with the ability to effectively engage in an interaction that makes use of linguistic devices such as irony and paradox. 8.3 Language Activities Developing communicative competence in a language involves several activities; these include; receiving, producing, mediating and interacting. These activities facilitate the learner's development of a language in oral or written form. Reception is crucial to the process of learning since it is the process of taking in information through reading and listening. Interactive activities occur whereby two or more individuals communicate verbally or in writing (North, 2014). The parties involved in the communication take turns speaking and listening to each other, or they may both be speaking and listening to each other simultaneously. It is crucial however for each of the parties to take an active role in the communicative exchange. 9. The Tasks and Purposes of Communication Communicative activities are carried out by a language used to fulfill specific needs. In the personal context, communication takes place to exchange information on family, friends, hobbies, and experiences. Communicative language competencies are those that specifically relate to the development of linguistic skills. In a professional context, communication is necessary for business transactions; and in the educational context,

11 communication is essential for the exchange of academic information in written or spoken form through seminars. At work, a learner should have sufficient language skills to undertake activities such as seeking work permits, making inquiries about the nature and terms of employment, understand instructions, participate in teamwork activities and communicate with colleagues and supervisors. 10. Modern Methods of Teaching Language Skills The use of modern, playful methods of learning contributes significantly to effective language development in the educational, social and professional domains. Some of these learning methods include board games, charades, puzzles and telling stories with mistakes. To develop the learner’s language skills, it is essential to engage in aesthetic activities that make learning more interactive and interesting (Huber, & Roberson, 2014). These activities include; singing, retelling stories, performing plays and listening to, reading or writing imaginative stories. 10.1 Language Learning Strategies The activities involved in communication such as listening, speaking, reading and writing are interactive. Effective language learning involves developing suitable strategies to aid in the various activities involved in communication (Beinhoff, 2014). These are productive, receptive, interactive and mediating strategies. Productive strategies include oral and writing activities. In oral activities, the speaker produces an oral message which is received by an audience of one or more people. Speaking activities may take the form of speeches, lectures, sermons and presentations. In a speaking engagement, the speaker may either speak spontaneously, read from a visual aid or written text, sing or act out a role. Writing strategies involve producing a written message to be received by one or more readers.

12 In language learning, writing strategies include, report writing, creative writing, writing letters and filling forms and questionnaires. Production strategies involve organizing resources and creating a balance between different competences to take advantage of strengths and minimize weaknesses (Gass, Behney, & Plonsky, 2013). An individual’s skill and knowledge is developed through continuous practice and experimenting with different styles of the language. The language user has to match their resources to their ambitions effectively; whether scarce, adequate or abundant. In situations where resources are limited, the practitioners may have to downscale their plans in order to achieve success; this is referred to as the avoidance strategy (Morgan, & Neil, 2014). In other situations, where resources are in abundant supply, practitioners upscale their plans and also increase their plans and ambitions; this is referred to as the achievement strategy. In the lower levels of language learning, the language user may express themselves by ‘foreignising’ some words or using them experimentally. In the course of non-interactive activities such as making a presentation or writing an essay the language user is better able to monitor and identify their mistakes such as mispronunciation and overusing certain words. This gives them an opportunity to rectify the mistake by themselves. Receptive strategies include listening and reading activities. In the listening process, the language user receives information that is spoken by one or more speakers and processes it to make it comprehendible (Coulmas, 2013). In active listening, the user listens for intonation, gist and implications. Audio-visual reception involves simultaneous visual and auditory input such as watching videos. Interactive strategies refers to the alternating exchange of information between the speaker and the listener in a conversation. In this process, the communication skills of

13 reception and production are used constantly. Conversations are a necessary part of daily social, formal and educational activities such as transactions, conversations, discussions, interviews, debates, negotiations and planning. Under interactive strategies, the user’s progress is measured in terms of conversation and discussion skills, the ability to exchange the intended information and ability to understand a native speaker of the language even on complex topics (Long, & Doughty, 2011). Written interaction involves communicating in writing through mediums such as exchanging notes, emails, contracts and computer software such as Hangouts and WhatsApp. In mediating strategies, the language user’s objective is not to express their opinion but to act as the moderator in the conversation between two or more people who are not able to understand each other clearly. This is common with speakers of different languages. Examples of mediating include spoken and written interpretation, and paraphrasing a message in a different language in cases where the original message cannot be understood by its recipient (Barrault-Méthy, 2012). There are two types of mediation; oral and written mediation. Oral mediation is common in simultaneous interpretation, for instance in conferences and seminars, consecutive interpretation such as in guided tours, social conversations, transactional conversations and in road signs and notices. Written mediation provides an interpretation of text from one language to another and the summarization of the essence of a movie or article. The process of interpreting occurs in four steps; preparation, execution, assessment and repair. The preparation stage involves studying the background of the story or information, preparing the vocabulary of words to be used and identifying the speaker’s needs. The process of execution involves processing information as it is related and converting it from one language to another.

14 The assessment process involves checking similarities and differences between the two versions of information, while the repair stage involves using a thesaurus or consulting language experts to assist in correcting any errors. In addition to the written and spoken forms of language, there are also non-verbal forms of communication, which include practical actions such as nodding and pointing (Smith, 2012). Paralinguistics include body-language and extra-linguistic communications such as grunting with disgust, sighing as a sign of tiredness and saying ‘sh’ to request silence. 11. Accommodations Made by Teachers and Students To become fully competent in a language, a student must acquire the necessary linguistic competences and be able to convert the competences into action. Additionally, the user should be able to employ the strategies that are required to make the competences actionable. In the process of learning and improving their competence levels, students may frequently make errors and mistakes, especially at the lower levels of competence. In many cases, teachers and students have a negative attitude towards errors; some of these perceptions are that it is an indicator of failure to comprehend and that it shows poor teaching (Ricento, 2015). In some cases, teachers and students have a positive attitude towards errors such as; they are part of the learning process and are inevitable and making mistakes is an indicator of a learner’s openness to learning. The teacher has a crucial role in the process of learning because they are responsible for identifying students strengths and weaknesses, and correcting errors and mistakes as soon as they occur. To determine the specific competences of the student, the teacher should assign tasks that have a well defined objective and detailed learning outcome. The teacher should develop tasks that are varied in nature to develop different aspects of the learner’s

15 competence. For instance, to develop the learner’s creative skill, the teacher should assign tasks such as creative writing, to develop the learner’s problem solving skill, the teacher should assign tasks such as puzzles, to develop oral communication skills the teacher assigns tasks such as story-telling and making a presentation. The teacher must also be willing to engage in different forms of communication with learners to enable the student acquire different forms of knowledge on the language. Additionally, the instructor should develop tasks that suit the student’s personality and preferred mode of learning. For instance, there are students who learn more effectively through practicing, such as student should be assigned story-telling or presentation tasks more frequently. Students also need to make a variety of accommodations to enable their effective learning. One of the most important adjustments is to develop a positive attitude towards the learning process; developing a high level of competence in a language requires patience and constant practice. The student must monitor their work to note whether they are making progress and also to note where they constantly make mistakes. The student should allocate sufficient time to performing the tasks assigned by the practitioner and also to interact with other learners and native speakers of the language in order to learn from hearing themselves and hearing others. Students with a healthy self-image are likely to be successful in language learning since they are motivated to persist despite failure and difficulties, and are not afraid to experiment or take risks in their learning process (Barrault-Méthy, 2012). To facilitate successful task performance, the student must be fully committed and disciplined. This will enable them to create a goal and work resolutely towards it, to allocate time towards their learning, to be consistent, and to focus on their tasks until they are completed. 12. Conclusion

16 CEFRL is a creation of the Council of Europe, whose aim is to promote coherence and transparency in the teaching of languages in Europe. The CEFRL has led to major developments in the learning of languages not only in Europe but across the world in the fifteen years that it has been in existence. Countries across Europe use CEFRL to varying degrees; those that implement it in primary policy documents such as school curricula implement it to a higher degree in schoolbooks, training and examinations. One of the major challenges in the implementation of CEFRL is the lack of evidence to link CEFRL levels to learning outcomes and secondly, it is challenging to integrate it fully into the learning curriculum. For CEFRL to be effectively incorporated into learning curricula, governments should ensure that it is implemented in the law and national curricula. There is a direct correlation between the degree of implementation and the level of language proficiency. CEFRL is essential in the learning of languages because it facilitates trade, and transfer of labor among countries. CEFRL also enables countries to leave harmoniously with each other, in harmony, multiculturalism and acceptance of diversity among different people.

17 References Barrault-Méthy, A. (2012). Institutional language policy regarding universities: The contribution of positioning theory. European Journal Of Language Policy, 4(2), 191216. doi: 10.3828/ejlp.2012.12 Beinhoff, B. (2014). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: a European framework for foreign language speech development?. Language Value, (6), 51-73. doi: 10.6035/languagev.2014.6.5 Byram, M., & Parmenter, L. (2012). The Common European Framework of Reference: The Globalisation of Language Education Policy. Multilingual Matters. Coulmas, F. (2013). A Language policy for the European Community. Walter de Gruyter. Extra, G. and Gorter, D. (2008). Multilingual Europe. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Gass, S., Behney, J., & Plonsky, L. (2013). Second language acquisition. New York: Routledge. Huber, T., & Roberson, P. (2014). Inquiries into literacy learning and cultural competencies in a world of borders. Routledge. Hulstijn, J. (2014). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: A challenge for applied linguistics. ITL - International Journal Of Applied Linguistics, 165(1), 3-18. doi: 10.1075/itl.165.1.01hul Kaplan, R., Baldauf, R., & Kamwangamalu, N. (2016). Language Planning in Europe. Routledge. Liddicoat, A., & Baldauf, R. (2008). Language planning and policy. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters.

18 Long, M., & Doughty, C. (2011). The handbook of language teaching. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Morgan, C., & Neil, P. (2014). Teaching Modern Foreign Languages. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. North, B. (2014). The CEFR in practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rață, G. (2010). Teaching foreign languages. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. Ricento, T. (2015). Language Policy and Political Economy: English in a Global Context. Oxford University Press. Rivers, D. (2015). Social identities and multiple selves in foreign language education. London [u.a.]: Bloomsbury Academic. SMITH, A. (2012). Teaching Languages to Students with Specific Learning Differences. Bristol: Channel View Publications. VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. (2015). Key terms in second language acquisiton. Witte, A., Harden, T., & Ramos de Oliveira Harden, A. (2012). Translation in Second Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Lang, Peter, AG, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften. Ziegler, G. (2013). Multilingualism and the language education landscape: challenges for teacher training in Europe. Multilingual Education, 3(1). doi: 10.1186/2191-5059-3-1

19 Extracts of Common European Framework of References for Languages Part 1: Introduction 1. The Nature of CEFRL CEFRL provides a method of measuring the proficiency of language learners across Europe and other countries across the world. It also makes it possible for schools and organizations to assess a candidate’s level of language knowledge prior to admission or employment. It provides a common guideline for developing language curriculums, courses and exams. CEFRL is divided into six levels of measuring an individual’s knowledge of a language; the lowest level if A1, while the highest level is C2. Language competence is measured on the basis of the learner’s ability to read, listen, speak, write, comprehend, translate and interpret. 2. Language Knowledge The learner’s level of language knowledge is determined by their level of proficiency in the language’s reception, production, interaction and mediation. CEFRL provides a guide, which if properly followed, enables effective learning. Additionally, it is essential for teachers and learners to work collaboratively to develop effective learning methods and enhance the students learning capacity.

3. Learning Strategies CEFRL suggests the use of a combination of techniques to facilitate the acquisition of language mediation, reception, interaction and production skills. These techniques include; informal discussions, reading, writing, monologues, dialogues, watching films, listening to audio recordings and translating speech from one language to another. CEFRL suggests these multiple learning resources to expand the methods of knowledge acquisition.

Part 2: Curriculum Content and Objectives CEFRL is a tool whose primary objective is to create a benchmark of the skills that a language learner is expected to possess at each level of learning. It is not language-specific, therefore can be applied to the learning and teaching of any language. It was implemented in 2001 to allow the ease of information exchange, communication and trade among members of European countries, most of which have different languages. CEFRL is commonly used in developing the curriculums used in school textbooks and also acts as a guide in preparing examinations.

Part 3: Recommendations CEFRL has been successful in improving language teaching and learning. However, to further improve its efficiency, modern education technology should be used. This include programs that are designed to appraise the student’s proficiency, and develop a suitable learning strategy and curriculum based on the individual student’s needs.