Grandsons of Genghis Gamebook. by Pravas Acharya

Grandsons of Genghis The Mongol Qurultai of 1246 A Reacting to the Past Roleplaying Game Student Gamebook Dr. John Giebfried (East Georgia State College)

One arrow alone is frail, but when bundled together, these arrows become unbreakable – so too must you be, my sons. Likewise, a state without a leader, is like a snake with many heads, when winter comes it will not know which hole to go down and will perish out in the cold. -Genghis Khan

Contents Part One - Game Overview............................................................................................................................ 1 Prologue: Brother John of Plano-Carpini’s Arrival ................................................................................... 1 How to React ............................................................................................................................................. 2 1. Game Set-up: ..................................................................................................................................... 2 2. Game Play:......................................................................................................................................... 3 3. Game Requirements........................................................................................................................... 4 4. Skill Development ............................................................................................................................. 5 Counterfactuals .......................................................................................................................................... 5 Part Two - Historical Background ................................................................................................................. 6 Timeline of the Mongol Empire ................................................................................................................ 6 Part Three: The Game .................................................................................................................................. 27 Overview of Game Structure: .................................................................................................................. 27 The Game opens with a prologue to serve as an introduction and liminal moment and then proceeds in Three Phases: ................................................................................................................................... 27 Rules and Procedures:.......................................................................................................................... 27 Winning the Game: .................................................................................................................................. 29 Assignments and Grading:....................................................................................................................... 29 Part Four – Roles and Factions .................................................................................................................... 29 Factions .................................................................................................................................................... 29 Indeterminates.......................................................................................................................................... 30 Character Biographies ............................................................................................................................. 30 Jochid Faction: ..................................................................................................................................... 30 Chaghadid Faction: .............................................................................................................................. 31 Ogeidid Faction: .................................................................................................................................. 31 Toluid Faction:..................................................................................................................................... 31 Independent Mongols: ......................................................................................................................... 32 Foriegners: ........................................................................................................................................... 32 Part Five— The Mongol World in Primary Sources ................................................................................... 33 Section One: The Sons of Genghis Khan ................................................................................................ 33 Section Two: The Reign of Ogedei ......................................................................................................... 38 Section Three: The Religion of the Mongols .......................................................................................... 46

Part 6: Guidebook to the Mongol World in Primary Sources ..................................................................... 48 Section One) The Travels of Rabban Bar Sauma .................................................................................... 49 Section Two) The Practice of Commerce By Francesco Balducci Pegolotti .......................................... 56 Section Three) Marco Polo – The Description of the World ................................................................... 59 Section Four: The Travels of Benjamin of Tudela .................................................................................. 64 Section Five) The travels of Ibn Battuta .................................................................................................. 71 Part 7: Warfare in the Mongol World .......................................................................................................... 83 Section One) John of Plano-Carpino on the Mongols at War ................................................................. 84 Section Two) A Muslim Manual of War by ‘Umar Ibn Ibrahim Al-Awsi Al-Ansari............................. 86 Section Three: Las Siete Partidas: Laws concerning warfare and the military by Alfonso X . ............... 97

Part One - Game Overview Prologue: Brother John of Plano-Carpini’s Arrival “Look Brother Benedict, I can see the Great Khan’s camp!” Holding the reigns of your fast trotting horse you see a great array of tents with a great round tent at its heart. Unlike the cities of your homeland - Rome, Florence or Milan, there are no permanent structures, just and endless plain of the most exquisite tents, filled with a greater variety of people than you have ever been seen. This is Golden Ordo, the mobile heart of the Mongol empire - where men from all over the world wait to see who shall be the next Great Khan. Your mission from his holiness Pope Innocent IV began a year and a half ago, as you left France and set off across Eastern Europe in search of the Mongols. Finding them in the far reaches of Russia you first met their great Prince Batu, before being sent East, riding on horse across countless miles of bare, empty grassland. Now you’ve reached the place where the great invaders call home. The men who have turned the world upside-down – the Tartars, or as they prefer to be called, the Mongols. As you horse slows you see men gathered here from all over the world, Russian princes, Turks, Saracens, Armenians, and strange-looking men in blue and yellow silks from lands so far East that no European has yet travelled. Yet so too come Mongols, riding their horses, drinking the fermented milk drink they call Kumis. It is a time of celebration for them, but also, you can tell a time of great danger. No one knows who the new Khan will be, but soon we shall have an answer. Whatever the choice, the world will never be the same again. God willing, the new khan will smite the Saracens and pagans, yet he could also return to Europe and finish what they started just a decade ago. It is all in God’s hands now.

How to React

Reacting to the Past is a series of historical role-playing games. Students are given elaborate game books, which place them in moments of historical controversy and intellectual ferment. The class becomes a public body of some sort; students, in role, become particular persons from the period, often as members of a faction. Their purpose is to advance a policy agenda and achieve their victory objectives. To do so, they will undertake research and write speeches and position papers; and they will also give formal speeches, participate in informal debates and negotiations, and otherwise work to win the game. After a few preparatory lectures, the game begins and the players are in charge; the instructor serves as adviser or “gamemaster.” Outcomes sometimes differ from the actual history; a post-mortem session at the end of the game sets the record straight. The following is an outline of what you will encounter in Reacting and what you will be expected to do. While these elements are typical of every Reacting game, it is important to remember that every game has its own special quirks. 1. Game Set-up: Your instructor will spend some time before the beginning of the game helping you to understand the historical background. During the set-up period, you will read several different kinds of material: The game book (from which you are reading now), which includes historical information, rules and elements of the game, and essential documents; and Your role, which describes the historical person you will play in the game. You may also be required to read primary and secondary sources outside the game book (perhaps including one or more accompanying books), which provide additional information and arguments for use during the game. Often you will be expected to conduct research to bolster your papers and speeches. Read all of this contextual material and all of these documents and sources before the game begins. And just as important, go back and reread these materials throughout the game. A second reading while in role will deepen your understanding and alter your perspective: ideas take on a different aspect when seen through the eyes of a partisan actor. Players who have carefully read the materials and who know the rules of the game will invariably do better than those who rely on general impressions and uncertain recollections. 2

2. Game Play: Once the game begins, certain players preside over the class sessions. These presiding officers may be elected or appointed. Your instructor then becomes the game master (GM) and takes a seat in the back of the room. While not in control, the GM may do any of the following: • Pass notes to spur players to action; • Announce the effects of actions taken inside the game on outside parties (e.g., neighboring countries) or the effects of outside events on game actions (e.g., a declaration of war); and • Interrupt and redirect proceedings that have gone off track. Presiding officers may act in a partisan fashion, speaking in support of particular interests, but they must observe basic standards of fairness. As a failsafe device, most Reacting games employ the “Podium Rule,” which allows a player who has not been recognized to approach the podium and wait for a chance to speak. Once at the podium, the player has the floor and must be heard. In order to achieve your objectives, outlined in your role sheet, you must persuade others to support you. You must speak with others, because never will a role contain all that you need to know, and never will one faction have the strength to prevail without allies. Collaboration and coalition-building are at the heart of every game. Most role descriptions contain secret information that you are expected to guard. Exercise caution when discussing your role with others. You may be a member of a faction, which gives you allies who are generally safe and reliable, but even they may not always be in total agreement with you. In games where factions are tight-knit groups with fixed objectives, finding a persuadable ally can be difficult. Fortunately, every game includes roles that are undecided (or “indeterminate”) about certain issues. Everyone is predisposed on certain issues, but most players can be persuaded to support particular positions. Cultivating these players is in your interest. (By contrast, if you are assigned an "indeterminate" role, you will likely have considerable freedom to choose one or another side in the game; but often, too, indeterminates have special interests of their own.) Cultivate friends and supporters. Before you speak at the podium, arrange to have at least one supporter second your proposal, come to your defense, or admonish those in the body not paying attention. Feel free to ask the presiding officer to assist you, but appeal to the GM only as a last resort. Immerse yourself in the game. Regard it as a way to escape imaginatively from your usual "self"-- and your customary perspective as a college student in the 21st century.

At first, this may cause discomfort because you may be advocating ideas that are incompatible with your own beliefs. You may also need to take actions which you would find reprehensible in real life. Remember that a Reacting game is only a game and that you and the other players are merely playing roles. When they offer criticisms, they are not criticizing you as a person. Similarly, you must never criticize another person in the game. But you will likely be obliged to criticize their persona. (For example, never say, "Sally's argument is ridiculous." But feel free to say, Guyuk's argument is ridiculous"-- though you would do well to explain exactly why!) Always assume, when spoken to by a fellow player—whether in class or out of class—that that person is speaking to you in role. Help to create this world by avoiding the colloquialisms and familiarities of today’s college life. Never should the presiding officer, for example, open a session with the salutation, “Hi guys.” Similarly, remember that it is inappropriate to trade on out-of-class relationships when asking for support within the game. ("Hey, you can't vote against me. We're both on the tennis team!") Reacting to the Past seeks to approximate of the complexity of the past. Because some people in history were not who they seemed to be, so, too, some roles in Reacting may include elements of conspiracy or deceit. (For example, Brutus did not announce to the Roman Senate his plans to assassinate Caesar.) If you are assigned such a role, you must make it clear to everyone that you are merely playing a role. If, however, you find yourself in a situation where you find your role and actions to be stressful or uncomfortable, tell the GM. 3. Game Requirements Your instructor will explain the specific requirements for your class. In general, a Reacting game will require you to perform several distinct but interrelated activities: • Reading: This standard academic work is carried on more purposefully in a Reacting course, since what you read is put to immediate use. • Research and Writing: The exact writing requirements depend on your instructor, but in most cases you will be writing to persuade others. Most of your writing will take the form of policy statements, but you might also write autobiographies, clandestine messages, newspapers, or after-game reflections. In most cases papers are posted on the class website for examination by others. Basic rules: Do not use big fonts or large margins. Do not simply repeat your position as outlined in your role sheets: You must base your arguments on historical facts as well as ideas drawn from assigned texts--and from independent research. (Your instructor will outline the requirements for footnoting and attribution.) Be sure to consider the weaknesses in your argument and address them; if you do not your opponents will. • Public Speaking and Debate: Most players are expected to deliver at least one formal speech from the podium (the length of the game and the size of the class will affect the 4

number of speeches). Reading papers aloud is seldom effective. Some instructors may insist that students instead speak freely from notes. After a speech, a lively and even raucous debate will likely ensue. Often the debates will culminate in a vote. .. • Strategizing: Communication among students is a pervasive feature of Reacting games. You should find yourself writing emails, texting, and attending meetings 16 on a fairly regular basis. If you do not, you are being outmaneuvered by your opponents. 4. Skill Development A recent Associated Press article on education and employment made the following observations: “The world’s top employers are pickier than ever. And they want to see more than high marks and the right degree. They want graduates with so-called soft skills—those who can work well in teams, write and speak with clarity, adapt quickly to changes in technology and business conditions, and interact with colleagues from different countries and cultures... And companies are going to ever-greater lengths to identify the students who have the right mix of skills, by observing them in role-playing exercises to see how they handle pressure and get along with others . . . and [by] organizing contests that reveal how students solve problems and handle deadline pressure.” Reacting to the Past, probably better than most elements of the curriculum, provides the opportunity for developing these “soft skills.” This is because you will be practicing persuasive writing, public speaking, critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration. You will also need to adapt to changing circumstances and work under pressure. Counterfactuals This game strives for historical accuracy as much as possible, but a few liberties have been taken to create a more robust debate. All the Mongol characters in the game are historical figures active in Qurultai, as are all the European and Middle Eastern visiting dignitaries. Lacking historical evidence on the East Asian figures at the Qurultai, other than references to their presence, this game has taken historical figures from the time of the Qurultai who could have theoretically attended and assumed that they did. The first phase is very strongly based on history and mirrors the historical debate. We do not have any record of a religious debate at the Qurultai of 1246, but the one depicted in this game is exactly modeled on a debate held after the Qurultai of 1251, as recorded by the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck. The third phase represents the scale of Mongol ambitions in the mid-thirteenth century and models a Mongol council of war, although the participation of foreigners in the game is much larger than it would be historically.

Part Two - Historical Background Timeline of the Mongol Empire •

1162(?) Temujin was born to a poor family struggling to survive.

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1177(?) Temujin was captured by a rival tribe and imprisoned, only to escape.

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1178-1206 Temujin makes allies and works to unite the disparate Mongol tribes under his rule.

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1206 Mongol and Turkic tribes unite under Temujin, proclaiming him Genghis Khan.

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1207-1210 The Mongols attack the Western Xia which ruled northwest China and parts of Tibet.

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1211-5 Genghis defeats the Jin Dynasty in northern China.

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1218 Genghis sends an envoy to the Khwarezmid Empire under Shah Muhammad. The Shah has the envoy put to death.

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1219-21 Genghis and his army go to war against the Khwarezmid Empire.

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1223: A Mongol army division of 20,000 under the generals Jebe and Subutai cross the Caucasus. They defeated the kingdom of Georgia and triumphed over the Cumans and Russians at the Battle of the Kalka River. They then headed back to Mongolia.

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1227 Genghis dies on campaign in Western China at the age of about 65.

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1229 Following Genghis’ wishes, a Mongol Qurultai elects his third son, Ogedei, as his successor.

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1229-1234 Under Ogedei, the war in northern China continues against the Jin dynasty.

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1235-1238 Ogedei constructs a Mongol capital city at Qaraqorum.

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1236 The Mongols invade Korea.

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1237 The grandson of Genghis, led by Batu, a son of Jochi, begins a campaign to conquer Eastern Europe.

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1237-1242 The Mongols sack Kiev, invade Armenia, Georgia, Hungary, Poland and Bulgaria.

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1241 Ogedei dies.

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1241-1246 Odegei’s wife, Toregene, rules as regent.

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1246 Our Game begins

Family Tree of Genghis Khan Note: This has been simplified to reflect the characters in the game. Children are listed in age order.White Boxes indicate Grandsons of Genghis Khan who died before the game begins.

Glossary of Terms: Golden Ordo – The Tent of the Great Khan, this was not kept in a fixed location Khan – A tribal lord of a steppe peoples like the Mongols, ruler of a family or tribe. The leaders of one of the four houses of the Mongol royal family can claim the title of khan. Great Khan, Qa’an or Khagan – All three of these terms refer to the leader of a steppe empire like the Mongol, although Genghis Khan and Ogedei Khan have just Khan in their name in most English texts – that was not their full title. Some sources will use Qa’an as part of their name, e.g. Ogedei Qa’an, or call use the title Great Khan Ogedei or the Khagan Ogedei, omitting the Khan at the end. Kumis – a drink of fermented mare’s milk which was favored by the Mongols. It was of low alcohol content relative to beer or wine, so it was drunk in great quantities. Noyan – a title for a Mongol commander or viceroy serving the Great Khan, normally it is added to the end of their name, e.g. Eljigidei Noyan. Qaraqorum – a small city in central Mongolia built by Ogedei which functioned as a quasipermanent Mongol capital. Although the Great Khan would not spend all the year in that place, and spent most of the year on the move around Mongolia, it was as much of a settled capital that the Mongol state had before it completed the conquest of China. Qurultai – an assembly of steppe peoples to settle issues of military and political importance. Most commonly they are called to elect and enthrone a Great Khan – but they can also be called to determine where, when and how to direct a large military campaign. Saracens – a medieval term used primarily by Christians to denote an Arab Muslim, although the term was loosely used to refer to all Muslims. Steppe – a semi-arid grassland region, the largest example of which is the Eurasian Steppe, stretching from Mongolia to Hungary. This region is characterized by low levels of rainfall, huge temperature variations and long endless stretched of grassland unsuitable for agriculture, but perfect for pastoral nomadism. Tartars – This is a term used to refer to the Mongols, mostly by European sources that is a misunderstanding of steppe politics that often offended the Mongols. Europeans mistook them with another steppe tribe: the Tatars – who were the greatest enemy of the Mongols – because the term Tartars sounded like a Greek word for Hell – Tartarus – where some thought the Mongols came from. Tumen – Genghis Khan divided the Mongol army into units of 10, 100, 1000 and 10,000 – the largest of these units was known as a tumen. Yasa – The law code issued by Genghis Khan that declared the central rules of the Mongol state. This code was kept orally and has not survived in full. After his father’s death, Chaghadai Khan took it as his responsibility to be the keeper of this law code.

Historical Essay: The Rise of the Mongol Empire

The World of the Steppe At its height, the Mongol Empire covered a land area the size of six Roman Empires and more than a quarter of world’s population answered to the Great Khan. It connected the world in ways never before seen and created a world of peace, religious toleration, and trade. It is said that a woman could walk alone from one end of the Mongol Empire to another with a gold bar on her head without any concern for her body or property. Yet, however enlightened the Mongols were as rulers, as conquerors – few in world history can match their cruelty or their body count. Cities whose populations numbered in the hundreds of thousands were put to the sword, sadistic torture was often the fate of their foes, and captured women were handed out to the conquerors as ‘wives’ without any consent. If one were to guess in the year 1146 which peoples would be the masters of the world a century later, no one would have picked the Mongols. However, the Mongols do come from a long line of conquerors hailing from a region known as the Eurasian Steppe. The steppe is a strip of open grasslands running almost uninterrupted from Hungary to the Pacific Ocean. The steppe is frigid cold in the winter and blazing hot in the summer, and receives very little annual rainfall. It gets just enough rain for grass to grow, but too little for trees or settled agriculture. The Eastern Steppe is colder and dryer than the West, in fact, during winter all fresh water sources freeze. This has lead generations of peoples from the Eastern Steppe to migrate westward or southward in search of literally greener pastures.

Because the region is not suited for agriculture, the people who live there are traditionally herders, living off herds of sheep, cows and especially horses. The steppe peoples, both men and women, are born horse riders – most learn to ride before they can walk. In fact, it was the people of the steppe who first domesticated the horse between 3500 and 2000 BC. This allowed them to move faster than anyone else had ever done. Until the introduction of railways in the 19th century, the fastest that mankind could travel on land was the speed of a horse. Nomadic peoples lived in the saddle, following herds of animals to hunt and bringing their own herds of domesticated animals from pasture to pasture. Thus their diet was overwhelmingly based on meat and dairy products and a favored alcoholic drink, kumis, was made from fermented mare’s milk. When not riding, they would live in large circular tents known as yurts, the largest of which would be picked up and dragged across the steppe by a team of oxen, rather than being disassembled when they moved. Social structures in this region are based on ties of kinship. Closely related families band together as clans, related clans form the various tribes and sub-tribes, and occasionally tribes banded together to form formidable confederations and challenge their settled neighbors. The Mongols are the greatest example of one of these tribal confederations, but they are not the first. Throughout the centuries many steppe confederations have come to play an important role in

global geopolitics. As early as 2500 BC, a steppe group who would be known as the IndoEuropeans, brought their language and culture with them as they migrated to Europe, Iran and India. After them, settled Greek, Mesopotamian and Persian sources speak of steppe confederations called the Cimerians and Sythians around 800 BC, the Sarmatians, Alans and Huns in the first centuries AD, followed by the Avars, Bulgars, Magyars, Khazars, Pechenegs, and Cumans between 500 and 1100. Before the Mongols however perhaps the most consequential recent steppe migration was that of various groups of Turks, who arrived in the Middle East as mercenaries, before usurping the power of the Abbasid Caliphate, fracturing the Middle East, and defeating and destabilizing the Byzantine Empire - leading directly to the Crusades. The nation that had to deal with these steppe nomads most directly was, however, China. The defining project of their first emperor, Qin Shi Huang, was the construction of an array of border fortifications which are now known as the Great Wall of China. Throughout the centuries, Chinese policy was to keep their northern border quiet not only by building walls, but by interfering in steppe politics, bribing one tribe to fight another to keep any one from being too powerful. Thus, when Genghis Khan’s great-grandfather, Khabul Khan, looked poised to unite the eastern steppe in the 1130s, the Chinese backed his rival the Tatars, who destroyed his empire. That being said, China did not always have the upper hand; steppe invasions were responsible for the fall of great Chinese imperial dynasties, such as the Han, and steppe nomads frequently took over all or part of China. The Tang dynasty, perhaps the most powerful medieval Chinese state, was led by the Xianbei – a Turko-Mongol tribe who subsequently intermarried with the local Han Chinese aristocracy. At the time Genghis Khan was born, China was divided between three ruling dynasties – two of whom were originally Steppe peoples. In the northwest was the Xi Xia, or Western Xia, led by a steppe peoples called the Tanguts, in the northeast, ruling the traditional northern heartland of China, was the Jin dynasty, led by another steppe tribe called the Jurchen, who came from modern Manchuria. The Jurchen had invaded Northern China in the 1120s, forcing the ethnically Han-Chinese Song dynasty to shift their base of power from the north to the south of China. From Temujin to Genghis Khan To understand the rise of Genghis Khan, it is necessary to understand the political world he was born into. At the time of his birth the steppe was divided between five major tribes, the Mongols, the Tatars, the Keraites, the Naiman, the Merkit and a number of lesser tribes, like the 11

Oirat and the Onggirat. The Mongols were a tribe on the decline at the time of Genghis Khan’s birth, their attempt to unite the Eastern Steppe had failed when Khabul Khan was betrayed by the Tatars, at the behest of the Jin dynasty. The Tatars were the oldest and richest of the tribes of the steppe and the closest to China, meaning they received more gold, silks and luxury goods through trade and tribute. The Keraites were a tribe based to the southwest of the Mongols. They were led by Ong Khan, a mentor and later rival for Genghis Khan. The Keraites, as well as the eastern Naiman tribe were Nestorian Christians. Nestorian Christians split with the rest of the Christian community in the 400s AD over the issue of the unity of the human and divine natures of Jesus, which they rejected. However, this faith became the dominant Christian sect in India, Central Asia and China. While the Naiman and Keraites were both Christians, the two were archrivals. Finally, there are the Merkit, who lived to the north of the Mongols. They would play a central part in the early rise of Genghis Khan’s family.

Genghis Khan was born Temujin in or around the year 1162. It is said he was born clutching a blood clot in his hand, suggesting he would become a great conqueror someday. His father was named Yesügei and he was the nominal leader of the Mongol tribe, although he faced many challenges to his rule from rival clans. He kidnapped his principle wife, and Temujin’s mother, Hoelun on the way back from her wedding feast to another man. She had just been married to a leader of the Merkit tribe, but she would now be the mother of Mongol royalty. Hoelun and Yesügei had five children, an eldest daughter, Temülün, and then 4 sons Temujin, Qasar,

Qachiun, and Temüge. Yesügei also had another wife with whom he had two sons, including Behter, his eldest son overall, and Belgutei. At the age of nine, Temujin was engaged to Borte, from another minor steppe tribe and he was delivered by his father to live with her family until they could be married at the age of twelve. On the way back home, Yesügei was invited to a feast by Tartars and although he tried to conceal his identity, he was discovered and poisoned by the Tartars. He had asked the Mongols to accept Temujin as leader, but since he was still a pre-teen, the Mongols chose to push him and his family aside, making them outcasts living alone. It is at this time, Temujin made friends with another Mongol named Jamukha. They became blood brothers, equal to full brothers in Steppe culture and pledged themselves to always work together. Temujin’s first rival was his older half-brother Behter. By Mongol custom, once he reached adulthood, he could force his unmarried step-mother to marry him, giving him sole control over the family. Using his authority, Behter stole food from Temujin on two occasions, leading Temujin to kill him while the two were out hunting together. Temujin thus took over the leadership of his family, but for his crime the Mongol leadership captured and imprisoned him. Yet he soon escaped and at age 16 married Borte, despite the fact that he was an outlaw. From his wedding he was given as a dowry a fine black sable jacket. Instead of keeping it for himself, he gave it to Ong Khan, the leader of the Keraites, and an old ally of his father. In doing this he gained a powerful patron. Shortly thereafter, the Merkits attacked Temujin in revenge for his father stealing a bride from them two decades earlier. They kidnapped his wife Borte and ‘married’ her to one of their leaders. Temujin went to Ong Khan and his friend Jamukha for help and with their aid the Merkit were defeated and Borte returned eight months pregnant. Temujin accepted the child as his son and named him Jochi. He would have three other sons with Borte, Chaghadai, Ogedei and Tolui. These four children, among the countless hundreds he likely fathered, were set apart to rule, because they were sons of his first and principal wife – which held a special place in Mongol culture – what was his, should eventually be divided among them.

At age 28, Temujin called his fellow Mongol tribesmen to a qurultai, a gathering of all the leaders of a tribe or tribal confederation which was tasked with naming a ruler and/or determining a plan of battle for an upcoming war. At his qurultai, Temujin was elected as leader of all the Mongols. Rather than turning on the other clans who had once exiled him, he looked to people outside his clan for help and brought the best and brightest to him. However, this triumph was short lived. His former blood brother, Jamukha, launched a surprise attack on Temujin, defeating him and boiled seventy of his supporters in cauldrons to intimidate all who might oppose his rule over the Mongol tribe – this alienated many of the Mongol elite to Jamukha’s rule – but Temujin was once again a man on the run. For the next decade, Temujin had to gradually rebuild his power base, eventually he got the chance to return to the historical stage when the Jurchen Jin Dynasty of Northern China decided its Tatar vassals were getting too powerful. Thus, the Jin allied with Ong Khan and the Keraites against the Tatars and Temujin and the Mongols loyal to him joined the campaign. The campaign was a success, and Ong Khan named Temujin as his heir. Shortly thereafter Ong Khan got cold feet and plotted against Temujin, suggesting an attack on his archrivals, the Naiman. Ong Khan’s plan was to withdraw his forces the night before a decisive battle leaving Temujin surrounded. The Naiman ignored the Mongol force and instead attacked the withdrawing Ong Khan, who begged for Temujin’s help. Temujin saved Ong Khan from certain defeat and once again was publicly declared as Ong Khan’s heir. War between the two finally came when Ong Khan refused to marry one of his daughters to Jochi. Ong Khan appealed to Jamukha, but the two could not defeat Temujin. Ong Khan was killed by Naiman to whom he was trying to flee for exile. The Keraites were not destroyed but instead incorporated into the Mongol army, their leaders joining with the Mongols as a showdown with the other steppe tribes loomed. This ended the cycle of violence between the tribes and allowed Temujin to pick the best and brightest from among the steppe peoples. One of Ong Khan’s nieces, Sorghaghtani Beki, was given to Temujin’s youngest son, Tolui and became his principal wife, giving him four sons, Mongke, Kublai, Hulegu and Ariq Boke, who would each play a decisive role in the next century. It was now Jamukha who called his own Qurultai, consisting of all of Temujin’s enemies, 13 tribes in total, including the Merkit, Naimans and Tartars who made him leader and proclaimed 14

him as Gur Khan, or universal ruler. The showdown between the two former blood brothers was set for the next year, but was cancelled by snow – finally the following year the two met in battle and after being defeated, Jamukha was handed over to Temujin by his own men. This act of disloyalty got the plotters executed. Temujin offered Jamukha a second chance and offered to still accept him as a blood brother, but he refused and was executed by Temujin. The rival tribes were then defeated one by one, with the worst fate being reserved for the Tatars. He ordered all the males of the tribe lined up, and beheaded everyone taller than the lynchpin of a wagon, the remaining women and boys were taken into the Mongol tribe. Finally all of Mongolia was united – now Temujin held another Qurultai in the year 1206 where he was proclaimed ruler of all men who dwelt in felt tents, not just those he conquered, but of all the Eurasian Steppe. There he was given the title by which we know him today – Genghis Khan, a name whose translation is seriously debated, but probably means oceanic or wide-spreading ruler. With the steppe united behind him, Genghis Khan was ready to make his mark on the settled world beyond the grassy plains. The World of the Settled People To understand the conquest of Genghis Khan, his sons and grandsons, it is necessary to discuss the world they were about to conquer. The Mongol moment happened not only because of the brutal and effective tactics of the Mongol army, but because they came along at one of the most fragmented periods of Eurasian history – East Asia, the Middle East and Europe were all at one of their most fragmented moments in the first half of the thirteenth century and it is to these regions that this essay will now briefly turn. As mentioned previously, Chinese history is divided into periods where the region is united by a strong dynasty, and others where multiple kingdoms vie for control. The Song dynasty ruled all of China from 960 to 1127, overseeing a golden age of Chinese culture. Under their rule the nation’s population doubled to 120 million people – the population of all of medieval Europe combined was only around 60 million. The Song dynasty was the golden age of Chinese invention, China invented moveable type-printing, paper money, porcelain, the mass production 15

of tea, restaurants, gunpowder, and the compass. However, after 1127, a nomadic steppe tribe from Manchuria, the Jurchen, took over the northern half of the empire and proclaimed the Jin dynasty. The Song reformed their empire south of the Huai River and built a new capital at Hangzhou – building it into the largest city in the world. The two states would be bitter rivals, so much so that the Song would ally with the Mongols against their Jin rivals. For their part, the Jin did much to consolidate their rule over Northern China in the twelfth century. In a mass migration, three million Jurchen took over as the ruling class of northern China, but they quickly became absorbed into the sea of their more than thirty million subjects. Nevertheless the kingdom’s army was known for its cavalry core and they constantly interfered in the politics of the steppe. The last major Chinese kingdom was that of Xi Xia or the Western Xia. Its ruling dynasty were not Han Chinese, but instead Tanguts, a people from the Tibetan plain, displaced by the Tibetans. The Tanguts grabbed an important corridor along the Silk Road as the Tang dynasty collapsed. As such they were just as old as the Song, and older than the Jin. They were fervent Buddhists and their economy was based on being the trade link between Jin and Song China and the rest of Eurasia. The Middle Ages in Europe are commonly said to have begun when Germanic ‘barbarians’ sacked Rome and deposed the last Roman Emperor in 476 AD. However, the Eastern half of the Roman Empire ruling from Constantinople, survived and more or less thrived for another thousand years. This empire known today as the Byzantine Empire (after the name of the ancient Greek port, Byzantium, on which Constantinople was built) was ruled by a Greek emperor who for centuries worked with and against the last vestige of Roman power in Western Europe – the pope. While formerly Roman Europe was divided among Germanic kings, the efforts of the Roman Catholic church created a unified spiritual sphere under the guidance of the papacy. However, political and religious conflicts continued to brew between the pope and the emperor. This helped lead to the crowning of Charlemagne as the first Holy Roman Emperor by the pope on Christmas day 800, and the excommunication of the Byzantine emperor and the church members who accepted his authority over that of the papacy in 1056.

At the time of his death, Charlemagne’s empire stretched across most of continental Eastern Europe, but upon the death of his son, it was divided, and the modern map of Europe began to take shape. The next few centuries saw the landscape become dotted with knights and castles in response to a new period of invasions from the Vikings in the North and the Hungarians coming from the steppe. Viking-descended Normans took control of England, Northern France and Sicily, while the Hungarians built a large kingdom on the Pannonian plain – the westernmost fringe of the Eurasian steppe. Both groups quickly became a part of the wider Western Christian community. While the papacy expected support from the German Holy Roman emperors, the two were consistently at odds over the limits of the spiritual power of the pope and the temporal power of the emperor. By the time of the Mongol invasions, Pope Innocent IV and his two predecessors were openly at war with the emperor Frederick II, and were preparing to call a church council to depose him and perhaps even call a crusade against him.

The Middle East was likewise at its most fractured moment. Between the death of the prophet Mohammed and the late 9th century, the Islamic world was led by a series of caliphs – literally the successors to the prophet Mohammed - who ruled as the spiritual and temporal heads of the Sunni Islamic world. The height of medieval Islamic civilization came under the Abbasid dynasty, which established the city of Baghdad as their capital. Under threat from a rival Shia dynasty, known as the Fatimids, who set themselves up in Egypt, and in the mid-11th century seized Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph turned to a Turkish warlord named Tughril, who himself was a steppe leader from central Asia. Tughril drove the Fatamids from Baghdad and established himself as the Sultan of the Seljuk Sultanate – taking over day-to-day rulership of Mesopotamia, Persia and Western Anatolia, leaving the caliph as a largely ceremonial figure. Although Tughril married the daughter of the caliph, he died childless and Turkish power fragmented between his many relatives. As if this fragmentation was not enough, the late 11th century saw the outbreak of the Crusades. This was spurred on by the actions of a mentally unstable Fatamid Caliph named Al-Hakim, who mercilessly persecuted Christians, something prohibited under Islamic law, and destroyed the 18

holiest site in the Christian world, the church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. However, the moment that did the most to spark the crusades was the defeat of the Byzantine Empire by Tughril’s nephew, Alp Arslan at the battle of Manzikert. After this defeat, the Turks swept across the formerly Greek and Armenian peninsula of Anatolia, settling there and gradually turning it into the country we now know as Turkey. The Byzantine emperor appealed to the pope asking for military aid, Urban II, who called the First Crusade. This medieval holy war was set with the goal of aiding the Greeks and the other Eastern Christians and retaking Jerusalem. Because of the divisions between the Turkish princelings who came after Tughril, and their constant wars with the Shia Fatamids, and the inability of the Caliph in Baghdad to take control of the situation, not only did the crusade succeed despite being outnumbered and far away from any logistical supply, their kingdom held onto the entire eastern Mediterranean coastline for almost a century. Finally, a united Islamic response to the crusade was spearheaded by Saladin, a Sunni Kurdish general, working for one of the squabbling Turkish princelings. He had been first tasked with conquering Fatimid Egypt for his lord. But once in power there he accepted the spiritual authority of the Caliph of Baghdad and sent the Shia caliph into exile. From there he usurped the throne of his former Turkish lord and united the bulk of modern Egypt, Jordan and Syria against the crusaders. He retook Jerusalem and then began a campaign to wipe out all the fortified crusader strongholds along the Mediterranean coast. In response, the pope called the Third Crusade, famously led by King Richard the Lionheart, who was able to save the coastal cities and fortresses, but not retake the city of Jerusalem. This led to the calling of further crusades, including the Fourth Crusade, which due to a shortage of funds and a charismatic Byzantine pretender, went to Constantinople, eventually sacking the city and putting a crusader emperor on the throne and establishing papal supremacy over the church, much to the dislike of the local Greeks, who allied with the Bulgarians to oppose them. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II briefly took back Jerusalem in a peace deal with one of Saladin’s nephews in the 1220s, but that restoration was short-lived. As this game begins, a new crusade is being prepared by the king of France Louis IX to try to retake Jerusalem.

The world of the Middle East in the early thirteenth century is fractious. Saladin’s heirs rule Syria, Jordan, Jerusalem and Egypt. Seljuq Turks rule northern Mesopotamia and Anatolia and the Caliph rules Baghdad - still the crown jewel of Islamic art, culture and learning - as well as Central and southern Mesopotamia, and most of the Middle East accepts his spiritual authority. With no rival Shia caliph, the only major Shia power are the secretive community of the assassins. Based in the mountains of Lebanon and especially Northern Persia, their name became synonymous with targeted killings – nevertheless they are great patrons of literature, philosophy and astronomy. The last major player of the Islamic world was the also the newest – the Khwarazmian dynasty was formed in 1017, when former slave soldiers fighting for the Seljuk sultanate seized control of Khwarazm in Central Asia south of the Aral Sea. Slowly but surely, they made alliances with other Central Asian steppe peoples and in the first decade of the thirteenth century pushed south into Persia, conquering the entire region. However, they would make the mistake of disrespecting the other rising power on the steppe – Genghis Khan’s Mongols. 21

The Campaigns of Genghis Khan

After uniting the tribes of the Eastern Steppe, Genghis Khan would go on to lead four major campaigns that would seal his reputation as a world conqueror. The first of these would be against the weakest of the three Chinese kingdoms, the Xi Xia. From 1207 to 1210 he would lead a successful campaign to reduce that empire to a state of vassalage to the Mongols. Here his cavalry dominated the battlefield, but his army proved inexperienced at siege warfare. While besieging their capital, Genghis attempted to divert a river to flood the city, but only succeeded in flooding his own camp, forcing him to retreat to higher ground. The Xi Xia had hoped the Jin dynasty would come to their aid, but when it was clear this wouldn’t happen, they accepted Mongol overlordship, gave the emperor’s daughter to Genghis Khan as a wife, as well as mountains of gold and trade goods as tribute, and they promised him aid in future wars. Next Genghis Khan turned his attention to the Northern Chinese Jin dynasty. The Jurchen who ruled this kingdom expected that other steppe tribes who had been integrated into their army and 22

administration would remain loyal to them. However, in the face of the Mongol advance, many Khitan generals and officials joined the Mongol cause. Soon their capital at Zhongdu (modern Beijing), home to more than a million people, was besieged, and eventually fell after several years of siege. The city’s population was massacred and every valuable was taken as spoils. The Jin reorganized further south and set up a new capital at Kaifeng, but the Mongol conquest of the northern third of China was complete. After a decade of war in China, Genghis took time to recover, he sent out trade delegations and merchants to build ties further west, however his merchants were massacred by a governor working for the Sultan of Khwarazm. When he sent ambassadors to the sultan demanding compensation for this crime – the Sultan murdered one of his ambassadors, sparking a major war and the greatest of Genghis Khan’s campaigns. While other steppe confederacies had conquered parts of Northern China, it would be this invasion that made him a world conqueror. In this campaign, he would give a great deal of agency to his four sons and his top generals Subutai and Jebe to take the initiative in the conquest. This campaign also cemented the Mongol reputation for brutality in war. Coming upon the fortified cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, Merv and Urgench, the Mongols besieged the cities and massacred the populations when they chose not to surrender. Although medieval population estimates should always be taken with more than a grain of salt, Persian historians suggest that as many as 1.2 million people were killed in the sack of Urgench, and modern historians estimate that a quarter of the population of the Persia was killed in this invasion. Ultimately the Mongols were victorious, and the sultan was driven into exile. The generals Jebe and Subetai were sent to track him down with an army of only 20,000 men and in doing so led what is considered the greatest cavalry raid in world history, as they made a triumphant lap around the Caspian Sea. There they defeated the kingdom of Georgia, made contact with Italian merchants on the Black Sea, and then defeated an alliance of the Cumans – a steppe people on the Northern Black Sea who refused to accept Mongol overlordship – and half a dozen leading Russian princes at the battle of the Kalka River, before returning to Mongolia.

Now in his sixties, Genghis Khan was left to decide his own succession as Great Khan of the Mongols. His sons had already begun fighting among themselves in the campaign against the Sultan of Khwarazm. While Genghis Khan always accepted the legitimacy of his oldest son, Jochi – many other Mongols were doubtful, including his second son Chaghadai – who called Jochi a bastard of the Merkit. Eventually the sons compromised on the choice of the third son, Ogedei as the next Great Khan. However, it was probably the fact that Jochi died before his father that prevented a civil war between the sons of Genghis. The great khan’s final campaign was against the Xi Xia once again. They had not lived up to their promises to come to his aid and refused to help against the sultan of Khwarazm. Once again, the Mongol army was dominant in the field, but now they had also become masters of siege warfare after years of fighting in China, Central Asia and Persia. However, while besieging the Tangut capital Genghis Khan fell ill and died in August 1227. Reports of exactly how he died differ, but the most likely story is that he died from injuries from a fall from his horse. This was kept secret however, until the end of the campaign. The Xi Xia emperor finally surrendered the following month, but he received no mercy – he was executed, his capital was looted, and its population was massacred. Genghis’ body was taken back to Mongolia and buried in secret. To this day, the location of his tomb is unknown. The Reign of Ogedei After a two-year regency under the leadership of Tolui, a Qurultai was called in 1229 which confirmed what Genghis Khan had decreed – Ogedei was named the second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. He quickly picked up where his father had left off. He appointed Chormaqan to complete the conquest of Persia and subjugate the Caucasus region, including the kingdom of Georgia. Meanwhile, with his brother Tolui, Ogedei led the final conquest of the Jin. In this venture, he was joined by the Song Chinese, who saw a chance to get rid of their hated rival, although once the Jin were defeated and the Mongol army withdrew, the Song immediately tried to seize the capital of Kaifeng for themselves, alienating the Mongols. During this campaign, the Mongols also invaded Korea, forcing king Gojong of Goryeo to pay tribute, but knowing the Mongols had no navy, to avoid future conquests Gojong moved his capital to Ganghwa Island 24

just off the coast of modern Seoul. On this campaign, Ogedei fell deathly ill. The Mongol shamans said that to save his life, another person would have to take the sickness upon himself instead. Tolui volunteered to sacrifice his life by taking a specially-created poisonous potion. Miraculously, Ogedei recovered and immediately showed great gratitude to Tolui’s widow, Sorghetani Beke, giving her full possession of her husband’s lands and offering her his son Guyuk in marriage to cement an alliance between the two houses. She turned down the marriage saying she wanted to devote her efforts to helping educate her sons. The greatest campaign of Ogedei’s reign was the invasion of Europe. This would be led by the grandsons of Genghis with the help of Subotei who had fought in Russia two decades previously. The most senior of the grandsons, Jochi’s son, Batu (Orda was the eldest, but he always deferred to Batu) was nominally in command, but other princes including Mongke, Guyuk, Baidar and Buri all played large roles. This invasion turned upside-down one of the key laws of military strategy, namely – never invade Russia in winter. Instead the Mongols used the frozen rivers as highways to ride from city to city subduing and sacking every major principality, save Novgorod in the far northwest. The army then divided, with half heading into Poland and the other half going into Hungary. Two days apart, the Mongols crushed Polish armies at the battle of Legnitza and Hungarian armies at the battle of Mohi. The two armies then met up in Hungary and looted the country for several months before returning back to the Russian Steppe. For Europeans this retreat was a miracle. One contemporary noted that basically no major army stood between the Mongols and the Atlantic, yet they failed to capitalize. Why they did so is debated, some say it was to return and resupply – others say it was because they received word that Ogedei had died and they needed to return for a qurultai to name a successor. Other more recent historians have also suggested that it was the difficulty in capturing the fortified castles of Central Europe that sent them back in search of more troops and better siege weapons to deal with their stone walls. Upon Ogedei’s death, control of the empire fell to his widow Torregene, who faced off a challenge from Genghis Khan’s youngest brother Temuge who attempted to seize the throne. In this, she was helped by Chaghadai, who helped and supported her rule until his death the following year. Ogedei had planned to name his younger son Kochu as his heir, but he died during the conquest of China. Rather than offer it to either of his surviving sons, Guyuk and 25

Koten, he named his young grandson, Shiremun, as heir. However, it will be up to the Qurultai and all of the grandsons of Genghis to make the final decision on who will lead the next generation of the Mongol world conquest and where it will be led. While the Mongols gather, so to does their empire’s vassals and neighbors to try and influence the outcome of the events and gain benefits for their assistance.

Part Three: The Game Overview of Game Structure: The Game opens with a prologue to serve as an introduction and liminal moment and then proceeds in Three Phases: Prologue – The Arriving Banquet: Empress Torrogene welcomes the arriving Mongol nobles and then the visiting foreigners. 1) Who Will be the Next Great Khan? Students assigned as Mongol characters will debate who should succeed Ogedei as the third Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. Foreign dignitaries may provide input and try to influence the proceedings. 2) A Religious Debate The Mongol characters will hold a religious debate between Christian, Muslim and Buddhist dignitaries at their court, who will try to convince them to convert to their faith. 3) Where will the Mongols attack next? Mongol characters, in consultation with foreign dignitaries will determine where they will launch their next offensive or offensives: Europe, the Middle East or China. Rules and Procedures:

Objectives and Victory Conditions: Although students may work together as parts of teams, called factions, most members of these factions have different personal objectives. Thus your goals will often be very different and come into conflict with your teammates. So victory in this game is achieved by completing individual objectives. These objectives can be found on each character sheet. Completing some or all of your objectives can result in bonus points being added to a students’ final grade, at the instructor’s discretion.

Rules of Order: The game opens with the arrival of the various Mongol families coming to the Ordo. The House of Ogedei is present and one by one Mongol characters will arrive with their houses and chose to sit and drink Kumis (fermented mare’s milk) either with the Empress, one of her family members, or to sit by themselves. They are then followed by the indeterminate Mongols who can chose to do the same. Once they have all arrived, each of the foreign dignitaries will introduce 27

themselves and can choose to pledge their fealty and give gifts to the regent or future great khan. Mongol characters can also offer the dignitaries a drink of kumis. Once all the dignitaries arrive the game begins. In the first phases of the game, the regent Torrogene will preside over a debate as to who should be the next Great Khan. She will first call for nominations for the position, which the nominated character can either accept or refuse. If they accept, they or their surrogates, will make their case and accept questions from the assembled crowd, including visiting dignitaries. The Mongol characters will then adjourn in secret to debate and any character who receives an outright majority of votes cast by secret ballot will be named great khan and control the proceedings of the game going forward. If no character wins a majority on the first ballot, nominations for new candidates will be accepted, two additional names must join before proceeding to a second vote. If no character wins a majority on the second ballot, the two candidates with the highest vote totals advance to a final round of voting, with the winner being elected as great khan. In phase two, the new great khan will call for a religious debate between the assembled foreigners. All Mongols are free to ask questions and to attempt to steer the debate towards their preferred side but cannot directly join the debate. The Christian, Muslim and Buddhist characters will work together with their co-religionists to try and best their rivals and win converts. At the end of the debate, each Mongol character can say who they feel won the debate and, if they choose, publicly convert to one of these religions. In the third phase the characters will debate where the Mongol armies will attack next: Europe, the Middle East or China. They will also get the opportunity to launch campaigns against secondary targets, including Tibet, Korea, the Black Sea Basin, and the mountaintop fortress of the secretive Assassins at Alamut. Mongol characters can present their respective battle plans to the Qurultai, and solicit help from the assembled dignitaries, who may join or oppose any campaign. For example, should the Mongols attack the Middle East, European crusaders could join the fight on the Mongol side. Each Mongol army can have only one commander and one subcommander who receive bonus points if their attack is successful. Factors for success include the size of the Mongol army, whether a great khan leads, how many dignitaries from that region submit to or oppose Mongol rule and how many dignitaries send aid or use special powers in conjunction with the campaign. Rivalries between the houses have the possibility of tearing apart the Mongol Empire. The gamemaster will be keeping track of the stability of empire, based on decisions made by players in the game. A more united empire will be more formidable against its foes, but a divided empire risks civil war.

Winning the Game: Every character in the game wins or loses as individuals. Each character sheet has a list of three conditions, one listing what needs to happen to achieve a complete victory, one listing the criteria for a partial victory and the final listing what would constitute a total defeat. It is possible, but not likely, that the game will end with a player not winning a complete or partial victory, and also not suffering a total defeat. In that case, the player neither wins nor loses. Mongol characters who receive gifts and tribute from foreign ambassadors may use that to achieve a partial or full victory, even if they have not completed all their objectives. Assignments and Grading: Your instructor will give you detailed instructions on what is expected from you as part of playing this game. Most will require you to participate fully in the game by making at least three formal speeches from the podium in character. Such a speech will show your ability to construct an argument based in the primary sources found in this book. In terms of writing assignments, it is suggested that students be required to write either a short paper on the collected primary sources before the game, hand in an elaborated version of one of their speeches, or write a post-game reflection to be share in the post-mortem session - or some combination of these three. The topics for the pregame paper are up to instructors, but the game author offers these as suggestions. 1)What can we learn about Mongol daily life and customs from the primary sources described in Part Five of the gamebook? 2) After reading the descriptions of the medieval Eurasian world in Part Six of the gamebook, what are the key similarities and differences in the way that these five world travelers approach the world and what can we learn about Eurasia from the accounts of their journeys? 3) Compare and contrast the Mongol, Islamic and European ways of war as described in Part Seven of the gamebook. Part Four – Roles and Factions

Factions Most students in game will play characters aligned with one of four factions, representing the families of Genghis Khan’s four sons. These players work together with the members of their faction to achieve shared goals, but will often also differ on individual objectives. The Jochids are made up of the sons of Jochi, the eldest of Genghis’ sons. Although he was the eldest son, Jochi was not chosen to succeed his father, not only because he died before Genghis, 29

but because his legitimacy was questioned by his younger brother Chaghadai. Today, his second son, Batu, rules over his lands which include not only large parts of the Eurasian Steppe but also of Russia as well. Batu himself has chosen not to attend this Qurultai, citing ill-health, but has sent his brothers in his place to argue for the rights of their family. The Chaghadids are the heirs of Genghis’ second son Chaghadai. Chaghadai outlived his other three brothers, but passed away before this Qurultai could begin. His heirs maintain their father’s close bond with Ogedei’s family, but are divided amongst themselves over who shall carry on their father’s legacy. The Ogedids are the heirs of Great Khan Ogedei, however there is great disunity among the family over which of them should be the next Great Khan. Ogedei named his young grandson Shiremun as his heir, but his adult sons Guyuk and Koten both desire the crown as well. The Toluids are the sons of Genghis’ fourth son Tolui, a successful general, faithful advisor and, as the youngest son, by Mongol tradition, the keeper of the family hearth. Tolui gave his life in a shamanistic ritual to save Ogedei’s life when the Great Khan fell ill and his name is greatly respected by all. Likewise, his widow, Sorghagtani, is among the most respected Mongol women, having raised her sons with the highest level of education available to the Mongol elite. Indeterminates Some characters do not belong to any faction. These players are called Indeterminates. They are free agents, able to support any faction which they feel supports their interests. They may join any faction at any time or may remain free from factional entanglements. The choice is up to them. There are two types of Indeterminates in this game. First there are Mongol Indeterminates, who are the younger brothers and close associates, rather than grandsons and great-grandsons, of Genghis Khan. They represent a different generation and a different way of thinking. They are also greatly respected by the Mongol elite. As such, they receive two votes in electing a Great Khan and setting Mongol military objectives. Second there are the visiting dignitaries, who are aligned to no Mongol faction, but can side with factions to help achieve their own ends. While they cannot vote in the qurultai, each of these dignitaries brings with them gifts which can be given to win over Mongol allies and secret abilities which can be used to shape the course of the qurultai and the Mongol conquests. Character Biographies Jochid Faction: Orda: The eldest son of Jochi and eldest grandson of Genghis Khan. Orda’s younger brother Batu was chosen by their father to sit on his throne, but both were granted half of their father troops. Batu was made commander of the right wing and Orda the left. Orda rules the eastern parts of their father’s realm along the Steppe. 30

Berke: The third son of Jochi and a devout Muslim. Berke keeps his camp north of the Caucasus Mountains and visiting Muslim dignitaries often pass though on their way to Batu or Qaraqorum. Berkecher: The fourth son of Jochi, a capable Mongol general and loyal brother. Siban: Jochi’s fifth son, Siban was an excellent military commander who led one of the columns in the Mongol invasion of Hungary and helped bring victory at the battle of Mohi. Toga-Temur: One of the princes of the left wing, he resides in Orda’s camp and works with his elder brother to rule their lands. Chaghadid Faction: Yesü-Möngke: The eldest son of Chaghadai, passed over by their father as heir in favor of his nephew. He was a close friend and drinking companion of Guyuk. Addicted to alcohol, he was less effective as a ruler than some of his younger brothers and nephews. Qara-Hulegu: The son of Chaghadai’s favorite son of Mö'etügen, who died besieging Bamiyan in 1221. Chosen by his grandfather as the heir to his throne. Büri: The second son of Mö'etügen, Chaghadai raised Buri as his own son. Buri was one of the leading commanders in the invasion of Russia and Eastern Europe. Baidar: The second son of Chaghadai, he led the Mongol invasion of Poland alongside Orda, defeating the Germans, Czechs and Poles at the battle of Liegnica. Ogeidid Faction: Torrogene: The widow of Ogedei Khan and mother of Guyuk and Koten. She consolidated her role as regent of the Mongol empire after her husband’s death. Guyuk: The eldest son of Ogedei Khan, a stern and capable general with a reputation for alcoholism. Qadaqach: The widow Guyuk’s son Kochu and the mother of Shiremun, Guyuk’s chosen heir. Koten: An often sickly son of Guyuk who had led the Mongol invasions of Tibet and who Genghis Khan once thought could rule the empire. Toluid Faction: Sorghagtani Beke: A Keraite princess married to Genghis’ youngest son Tolui, she was the mother and educator of her four sons and one of the most respected women in the Mongol Empire. Mongke: The eldest son of Tolui, a capable and literate prince who has fought in China and Russia to expand the Mongol empire. Kublai: Tolui’s second son, more an administrator than a general, Kublai already rules over Hebei in China, reforming and stamping out corruption. Hulagu: The third son of Tolui, a literate and skilled general waiting for an opportunity to make history. Ariq-Boke: The youngest son of Tolui and Sorghagtani an ambitious traditionalist who favors the life of the steppe. 31

Independent Mongols: Temuge: The youngest full brother of Genghis Khan, after Ogedei’s death he tried to seize the throne without a Qurultai, only to be foiled by Torregene. Subotei: The greatest general in Mongol history, an elderly and skilled commander of Genghis and Ogedei sudueing lands from China to Hungary Belgutei: Genghis’ younger half-brother, a skilled wrestler and diplomat in service to the khans. Foriegners: John of Plano-Carpini: An Italian Franciscan friar sent by Pope Innocent IV to open relations with the Mongol court. Fakr ad-Din: The chief qadi of Baghdad and the envoy of the Caliph of Baghdad to the Mongol court. Jai Sidao: A rising imperial official and eunuch from the court of the Southern Song Emperor Zhao Yun and the brother of the emperor’s favorite concubine. Grand Prince Yaroslav II of Vladimir: A Russian prince whose lands were conquered by the Mongols during their invasion of Russia and who has been summoned to Qaraqorum. Shihab-ad-Din: An ambassador from ‘Ala ad-Din, the lord of Alamut and head of the secretive Shi’a group known as the Assassins. Sakya Pandita: A wise and learned Tibetan Buddhist abbot summoned by Guyuk’s son Koten to discuss the surrender of Tibet to Mongol rule. Shi Tianze: A Northern Chinese official whose family joined the Mongols and who now serves as their administrator in Northern China. Sultan Rukn-ad-Din: One of the sons of the Turkish Sultan Kaykhusraw II defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Kose Dagh who is competing with his brothers to succeed their father. King Gojong of Goryeo: The King of Korea who has been at war with the Mongols for the last three decades. Baron Smbat: The Constable of Armenia and brother of the king of Armenia, recently defeated by the Mongols alongside the Turks at Kose Dagh. Badr al-Din Lu’lu: A Mamluk general who serves as ruler of Mosul Rabban bar Sauma: A Nestorian Christian monk living in Mongol-controlled China

Part Five— The Mongol World in Primary Sources

Note: One of the central problems of Mongol history is that it is done by authors in many languages from across Eurasia. Documents below have been translated from languages as different as Latin, Persian, Chinese and Mongolian, all of which have different spellings for names and specialized terms. This means you will see these different spellings throughout the texts below. I will occasionally give the standardized name given in the gamebook above in brackets for clarity, if I feel the name is different enough that students may have difficulty understanding the text. Section One: The Sons of Genghis Khan

Introduction: While this game focuses on the grandsons of Genghis, it was the division between the sons of the great conqueror which would do the most to draw the lines for the conflict to come. By his chief wife, Borte, Genghis Khan had four sons and five daughters. The four sons (Jochi, Chaghadai, Ogedei and Tolui) would all reach adulthood and all play a crucial role in their fathers’ conquests. However, the disputed parentage of Jochi, whose mother returned home pregnant after being kept prisoner by the Merkit, meant that the question of succession was fraught. The following two descriptions of the politics of the sons of Genghis come from one outside source, Rashid al-Din, who worked as a court historian for Mongol rulers in Persia, and an inside source, the so-called “Secret History” of the Mongols, written in Mongolian and intended only for the eyes of the princes of the empire. 1) Rashid al-Din on the Sons of Genghis With the exception of his elder sister Füjin Beki, Jochi Khan was the oldest of Genghis Khan’s children. He was born of Genghis Khan’s chief wife, Börtä Füjin, the daughter of Däi Noyan of the Qunqirat, who was the mother of four sons and five daughters. The second son was Chaghadai, to whom was turned over governance of the realm from the beginning of Turkistan to the farthest end of the Oxus River… The third son was Ogödei Qa’an, who became qa’an after Chinggis Khan’s death and ruled for thirteen years… Ogödei was known for his intelligence, competence, knowledge of tactics and strategy, gravity and self possession, courage, and justice, although he was also pleasure loving and a drinker for which Genghis Khan sometimes took him to task and gave him advice. The fourth son was Tolui, whose nickname (laqab) was Yäkä Noyan and Ulugh Noyan. Chinggis Khan called him noker, and most of the time he was in his father’s service and with him on his campaigns. In the Mongolian language tolui means mirror. From the time he died until now this 33

word for mirror has been taboo (nām-i ghurūq). The word for mirror in Turkish is küzgü (kūzkū), (ed., p. 301) and now the Mongols also call a mirror küzgü (gūzgū) for this reason… Other branches of his progeny have become qa’ans and padishahs in every clime, and the story of each will come separately. These four sons of Chinggis Khan were all intelligent, competent, courageous, and valiant, and they were loved by their father, the army (lashkar), and the subjects (raʿiyyat). They were like four pillars to Chinggis Khan’s realm, and he envisioned each of them as a ruler and called them the “four külügs (kūlūg)”—külüg being a word applied to a man or horse and so on that is superior to or faster than others. Aside from those [sections] we will write for each, there are many stories connected to these four sons that will come in the course of the narrative about Chinggis Khan. From these will be learned the commanders and armies that were formed and given to each son. There also the particulars of the commanders will be given, God willing.

On Jochi and his Legitimacy: In the beginning, before Genghis Khan had achieved the status of world conqueror, his pregnant wife was carried off by a tribe that was then on terms of truce with Ong Khan of the Kerayit, although they had been at enmity prior to that. Because of their status then, they sent Börtä Füjin to Ong Khan. Inasmuch as he had been friends with Genghis Khan’s father and called Genghis Khan “son,” he held her in honor and respect and gave her status as a daughter-in-law to preserve her from the gaze of strangers and non-intimates. Because she was extremely pure and competent, Ong Khan’s amirs asked one another why Ong Khan didn’t take Börtä Füjin. “She is like my own daughter-in-law,” he replied, “and she is in my safe keeping. To look upon her with treachery would not be chivalrous.” When Genghis Khan learned what had happened, he sent an amir of the Ongqa’ut of the Jalayir, Säbä by name (the grandfather of the Sartaq who served as the amir-ordu in Khurasan and Mazanderan during Arghun Khan’s childhood by order of Abaqa Khan), to Ong Khan to ask for the return of Börtä Füjin. Ong Khan responded by sending her with Säbä, and along the way home a son was born unexpectedly, for which reason he was named Jochi. Since the road was dangerous and there was no opportunity to make a cradle, Säbä made a bit of dough, wrapped the child in it, and took it on his lap to protect it from harm until he delivered them to Genghis Khan. When he grew up, Jochi was always in his father’s service and helpful in good times and bad. There were, however, constant obstinacy, bickering, and disagreements between him and his brothers Chaghatai and Ögödäi. On the other hand, there was always agreement between him and Tolui Khan and his family, who never taunted him but considered him legitimate. Although from ancient times the custom was that the father's yurt, home, tent taken by his youngest son, eventually Ogödei took the rule and Tolui took the yurt, home, flock, treasures and 34

armies. When Genghis Khan got ill in Tangqut territories he made Ogödei as his heir, settling the throne and office of qa'an on him. He also assigned each son with separate path, saying anyone who is desirous of …[the text here is lost]… join Jochi, anyone who desire to know customs and wisdom should go to Chagatai, and anyone who is inclined to manliness, generosity and desires good things and possessions should go to Ogödei. Everyone who is desirous of courage and renown, the fray of battle , territorial expansion, and world rule serve Tolui.

On the last campaigns and death of Jochi: At Genghis Khan’s order, Jochi Khan was continually mounted on expeditions, and he conquered many lands and territories. When Genghis Khan set out on campaign for Tajik lands and reached the area of Otrar, he assigned Jochi Khan to conquer Otrar and stationed him there. As has been said in the history of Genghis Khan, Jochi took Otrar, destroyed the fortress, and returned, conquering the territories that lay on his path until he rejoined his father in the vicinity of Samarkand. Once again Genghis Khan sent him out, this time with his brothers Chaghatai and Ögödäi, to conquer Khwarazm. Because of his inability to agree with Chaghatai, the conquest was not possible. Genghis Khan ordered Ögödäi to lead the assault. He cleverly made peace between his two brothers, and together they took Khwarazm. Chaghatai and Ögödäi set out to rejoin their father in the fortress at Taligan, and Jochi left Khwarazm and headed for the Irtysh, where his aghruq was, to rejoin his camps. Prior to that, Genghis Khan had ordered Jochi to conquer the northern territories like Bular, Bashghurd, Rus, Circassia, the Qipchaq Steppe, and other areas. When he excused himself from that labor and returned to his own tents, Genghis Khan was extremely angry and said, “I will subject him to the Yasa without seeing what was in his mind.” Jochi was afflicted with an illness, and therefore, when his father returned from the lands of the Tajiks and settled in his homeland, he was unable to attend him. He sent several loads of prey and apologized. Several times thereafter Genghis Khan ordered him to present himself, but he was too ill to come and sent apologies. After that, someone from the Mangqut tribe was passing by Jochi’s yurts, among which Jochi was moving and proceeding, although ill. Coming to a mountain that was his hunting preserve, Jochi sent his amirs out to hunt even though he himself was too weak to participate. When the passer-by saw the assemblage hunting, he thought it was Jochi, and when he came to Genghis Khan and was asked about Jochi’s illness, he reported, “I know nothing of his illness, but at such-and-such a mountain he was busy hunting.” At these words the flames of Genghis Khan’s wrath blazed, for he imagined that Jochi had rebelled and was disregarding his father’s orders. “Jochi has gone mad,” he said, “to do such things.” He ordered the army to mount and proceed in the direction of Jochi, with Chaghatai and Ögödäi in the lead while he himself followed behind. Just at this time news of Jochi’s death arrived, and Genghis Khan was sorely grief-stricken. When the matter was investigated, the report was 35

proven false and it was established that Jochi had been ill at the time and not on the hunting field. The man was summoned to be executed, but he couldn’t be located.

2) The Secret History on the Four Sons of Genghis When he was about to set out, there and then Yisüi Qatun [One of his secondary wives] respectfully gave the following advice to Chinggis Qa’an [Genghis Khan]: ‘The Qa’an has thought of Establishing order over his many people, Climbing high passes, Crossing wide rivers And waging a long campaign. Still, living beings who are but born to this world are not eternal: When your body, like a great old tree, Will fall down, To whom will you bequeath your people Which is like tangled hemp? When your body, like the stone base of a pillar, Will collapse, To whom will you bequeath your people Which is like a flock of birds? Of your four sons, the heroes whom you have begotten, which one will you designate as your successor? I have given you this advice on what, thinking about it, we - the sons, younger brothers, the many common people and my poor self - understood to be an important question. Your order shall decide!’ So she advised him and Chinggis Qa’an declared: ‘Even though she is only a woman, Yisüi’s words are more right than right. No matter who - younger brothers and sons, and you Bo’orchu, Muqali and others - no one has advised me like this. And also I forgot, As if I would not follow the forefathers; I slept, As if I would not be caught by death.’ Having said this, he said, ‘The eldest of my sons is Jochi. What do you, Jochi, say? Speak up!’ But before Jochi could utter a sound, Cha’adai [Chaghadai] said, ‘When you say, “Jochi, speak 36

up!”, do you mean by that that you will appoint Jochi as your successor? How can we let ourselves be ruled by this bastard offspring of the Merkit?’ At these words, Jochi rose and grabbing Ca’adai by the collar, said, ‘I have never been told by my father the Qan that I was different from my brothers. How can you discriminate against me? In what skill are you better than I? Only in your obstinacy you are, perhaps, better. If we shoot arrows at a long distance and I am outdone by you, I shall cut off my thumb and throw it away! If we wrestle and I am defeated by you, I shall not rise horn the place where I have fallen! Let the order of my father the Qan decide which of us is better!’… Thereupon, Chinggis Qan said to Cha'adai, ‘How can you speak thus about Jochi? Isn’t Jochi the eldest of my sons? In future do not talk like that!’ So he said, and at these words Cha’adai smiled and said, ‘I shall not dispute Jochi’s strength, nor shall I reply to his claims of skill: “Game that one has killed only with one’s mouth Cannot be loaded on one’s mount; Game that one has slain only with one’s words Cannot be skinned.” The eldest sons are Jochi and I. We shall, in cooperation with each other, serve our father the Qan. Whichever of us evades his duty Shall have his head split open; Whichever of us lags behind Shall have his heels cut across. But it is Ögödei among us who is steady and reliable: let us, therefore, agree on Ögödei. As Ögödei is close to our father the Qan, if the Qan instructs him on the great array of the “teachings of the hat”, this will be fine!’ So he spoke, and at these words Chinggis Qa’an said, ‘What do you say, Jochi? Speak up!’ Whereupon, Jochi said, ‘Cha’adai has just said it: Cha’adai and I shall, in cooperation with each other, serve the Qan. Let us agree on Ögödei.’ So he spoke, and Chinggis Qa’an declared as follows: ‘Why should you two go so far as to cooperate with each other? Mother Earth is wide: its rivers and waters are many. Extending the camps that can be easily divided, We shall make each of you rule over a domain and We shall separate you.’ And he said, ‘You Jochi and Cha’adai, keep to your word: Do not let yourselves be scorned by people, Do not let yourselves be laughed at by men. Formerly, Altan and Quchar had pledged their word like that, but because they failed to keep their word, how were they dealt with? What happened to them? Now, with you, We shall separate also some of the offspring of Altan and Quchar: seeing them, how can you be remiss in your duties?’ Having spoken thus, Chinggis Qa’an said, ‘Ögödei, what do you say? Speak up!’ Ögödei said, ‘When my father the Qa’an, favouring me, tells me to speak, what am I to say? How can I say that 37

I am not able to do so? I shall say that I will certainly try according to my ability. Later, if perchance some among my descendants will be born so worthless that Even if one wrapped them in fresh grass, They would not be eaten by an ox; Even if one wrapped them in fat, They would not be eaten by a dog, [p. 188] will they not “miss the elk breadthwise just as the rat lengthwise?” I’ll say as much as that. What else shall I say?’ So he spoke, and at these words Chinggis Qa’an declared as follows: ‘If Ögödei speaks such words, that will do.’ Further, he said, ‘Tolui, what do you say? Speak up!’ Tolui said, ‘Being at the side of my elder brother whom our father the Qa’an has just designated, I shall remind him of what he has forgotten, I shall wake him up when he has fallen asleep. I shall become a friend of the word “yes” And the whip of his chestnut horse. Not being remiss in my “yes”, Not being absent from the ranks, I shall go forth for him on a long campaign Or fight in a short fight.’ When Tolui had spoken thus, Chinggis Qa’an approved, saying, [The following individuals are all the brothers of Genghis Khan] ‘Descendants of Qasar, appoint one of you to govern. Descendants of Alchidai, appoint one of you to govern. Descendants of Otchigin [Temuge], appoint one of you to govern. Descendants of Belgütei, appoint one of you to govern. If, thinking in this way and appointing one of my descendants to govern, you do not rescind my order by contravening it, then you will not err, you will not be at fault. Supposing that the descendants of Ögödei are all born so worthless that Even if one wrapped them in fresh grass, They would not be eaten by an ox; Even if one wrapped them in fat, They would not be eaten by a dog, is it possible that among my descendants not even a single one will be born who is good?’ So he spoke. Section Two: The Reign of Ogedei

Introduction: The events of the reign of Ogedei are crucial to understanding the disputes between the grandsons of Genghis. Below are several of those events, ranging from his coronation, the creation of his capital at Qaraqorum, his campaigns in China and the invasion of Europe. Make special note of the sacrifice of Tolui during the invasion of China and the disputes between the grandsons of Genghis, especially Guyuk and Batu, during the invasion of Europe. Along with the previously mentioned sources, Rashid al-Din and the “Secret History”, this section contains sources from another Persian chronicler Juwayni, the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck, and the official Chinese history of the Mongol occupation, the Yuan Shi.

1) Rashid al-Din on the election of Ogedei as the Great Khan 38

...and from the East came their uncles Otchigin [Temuge] and Belgütäi Noyan, and their cousins, and Qachi'un's son Elj'idäi Noyan. From all directions came commanders and dignitaries of the army, and they all gathered at Kerulen. Tolui Khan who was called Yäkä Noyan and Ulugh Noyan and was the lord of his father's hearth and home yurt, was there too. Everyone spent 3 days in revelry and enjoyment, and eventually decided that Ögödei will be the next khan, in accordance with Genghis Khan's will. Rashid al-din describes the dialogue in which Ögödei so called have tried to persuade the quriltai's audience that his younger brother Tolui fits more to sit on the Qa'an's chair. After much insistence Ögödei took the position. It was the year of the Ox 626 [1229]: Chagatai took his right arm, Tolui Khan took his left arm. Otchigin took his belt. Everyone around bent their knees, and he was named: Qa'an.

2) Juwayni on the justice of Ogedei It is laid down in the yasa [laws] and customs of the Mongols that in the season of spring and summer no one may sit in water by day, nor wash his hands in a stream, nor draw water in gold or silver vessels, nor lay out washed garments upon the plain; it being their belief that such actions increase the thunder and lightning. For in the country where they live it rains most of the time from the beginning of spring until the end of summer, and the clashing of the thunder is such [162] that when it roars ‘they thrust their fingers into their ears because of the thunder-clap, for fear of death’,(10) and the flashing of the lightning is such that ‘the lightning almost snatcheth away their eyes; (11) and it has been observed that when it lightnings and thunders they become ‘as mute as fishes’.(12) Every year that one of them is struck by lightning they drive his tribe and household out from amongst the tribes for a period of three years, during which time they may not enter the ordu of the princes. Similarly if an animal in their herds and flocks is so struck, they proceed in the same manner for several months. And when such a happening occurs they eat no food for the remainder of the month, and as in the case of their periods of mourning, they hold a celebration(süyürmishī) at the end of that month. One day Qa’an was returning from his hunting ground together with Chaghatai when at noon they beheld a Moslem sitting in midstream washing himself. Now Chaghatai was extremely zealous in enforcing the yasa and spared no one who had deviated even slightly from it. When he caught sight of this man in the water, from the flame of the fire of his anger he wished to commit the earth of his being to the wind of annihilation and to cut off the source of his life. But Qa’an said: ‘To-day it is late and we are tired. This man shall be held in custody until to-morrow, when 39

we can inquire into his case and ascertain the reason for his violating our yasa.’ And he ordered Danishmand Hajib to take charge of the man till the morning, when his innocence or guilt might be discovered; he also told Danishmand, in secret, to have a balish of silver thrown in the water where the man had been sitting and to instruct the man, when he was examined, to say that he was a poor man with many obligations, that this balish was his whole capital and that it was for this reason that he had acted so rashly. On the next day the guilty man was examined in Qa’an s presence. Qa’an listened to the excuse with the ear of acceptance, but by way of precaution someone went to the spot and the balish was taken out of the water. Then Qa’an said: ‘To whom could it occur to meditate breaking our yasa and commandment or swerving a single hair’sbreadth therefrom? But it seems to be that this man is a person of poor estate and little property and so has sacrificed himself for a single balish.’ He commanded that the man should be given ten more balish in addition to the one; and a written statement was taken from him that he would not commit a similar action again. And so he not only escaped with his life but acquired property. And on this account freemen became the slaves of this act, which was better than immense treasures. And from his fair sword there came blades wherewith the freeman was enslaved and the careworn liberated.

3) William of Rubruck on Qaraqorum (1) At Caracorum, the Great Khan has a large encampment, near the city walls and. enclosed by a brick wall just as are the priories of our own monks. Here there is a great palace where he holds his drinking sessions twice a year, once at Easter when he passes by there and once in the summer when he is on his way back.1 The latter occasion is the more important, inasmuch as then there gather at his court all the nobles from any place up to two months* journey away; and he then confers on them garments and presents, and parades his great grandeur. There are numerous other buildings there the length of barns, where his supplies and treasure are stored. (2) At the entrance to this great palace, since it was unfitting that skins of milk and other drink should be brought through there, Master William of Paris has constructed for him a large tree made of silver, with four silver lions at its roots, each one containing a conduit-pipe I and spewing forth white mare’s milk. There are four conduits leading into the tree, right to the top, with their ends curving downwards, and over each of them lies a gilded serpent with its tail twined around the trunk of the tree. One of the pipes discharges wine, a second caracomos (refined mare's milk), a third boal (a drink made from honey), and a fourth rice ale, known as terracina. Each beverage has its own silver vessel at the foot of the tree, ready to receive it. Between the four pipes, at the top, he made an angel holding a trumpet, and beneath the tree a cavity capable of concealing a man; and there is a pipe leading up to the angel through the very core of the tree. (Originally he had constructed bellows, but they failed to blow with sufficient force.) Outside the palace there is a chamber where drink is stored and where stewards stand ready to pour when they hear the angel sound the trumpet. The branches, leaves and fruit of the tree are of silver. (3) So when drink is required, the head butler calls to the angel to sound the trumpet. On hearing this, the man concealed in the cavity , then blows strongly on the pipe that leads to the angel, the angel puts the trumpet to its mouth, and the trumpet gives out a very loud blast. When the 40

stewards in the chamber hear this, each pours his drink into the appropriate pipe, and the pipes spurt it out, down into the vessels designed for the purpose; whereupon the butlers draw it up and convey it through the palace to the men and women. (4) The palace resembles a church, with a middle nave and two sides beyond two rows of pillars and three doors on the south side. The tree stands inside, opposite the middle door, and the Chan sits at the northern end, in an elevated position so that he is visible to all. There are two stairways leading up to him, and the man who brings him his cup goes up the one and comes down the other. The space in the middle, between the tree and the stairways that give access to him, is clear: there stands the cup-bearer, and also envoys bringing gifts, while he sits up above like some god. To the right, namely on the west side are the men, and to the left the women; for the palace extends from north to south. Near the pillars on the right there are raised pews rather like a balcony, where his son and his brothers are seated; and there is a corresponding arrangement on the left, occupied by his wives and daughters. Only one wife is seated up there by his side, though not at such a high level as he is himself… Regarding the city of Caracorum, you should know that, discounting the Chan’s palace, it is not as fine as the town of St Denis [a small city outside if Paris], and the monastery of St Denis is worth ten of the palace. It contains two Quarters one for the Saracens, where there are bazaars and many traders gather due to the constant proximity of the camp to the great number of envoys; the other is the quarter of the Cataians, who are all craftsmen. Set apart from these quarters lie large palaces belonging to the court secretaries. There are twelve idol temples belonging to different peoples, two mosques [mahumnerie] where the religion of Mahomet is proclaimed, and one Christian church at the far end of the town. The town is enclosed by a mud wall and has four gates. At the east gate are sold millet and other kinds of grain, though they are seldom imported; at the western, sheep and goats are on sale; at the southern, cattle and wagons; and at the northern, horses.

4) The Yuan Shi on Ogedei’s conquest of Northern Jin-dynasty China In the second year of Taizong (Ogedei) [1230-1231], there was a big punitive operation against Jin. The troops crosses Huanghe and moved southwards. Tolui Khan, as a younger brother of the khan, commanded troops, crossed Han River and moved northward. Both armies met (united) on the Sanfeng Mountain of Henan. An important Jin minster Heda [i.e. Qada Sengüm] and others waited for the battle, [having under their command] a few thousands of infantry and cavalry. Subedei, who followed Tolui Khan, exited (or: went through) the Niutou Pass and suggested a plot (against the enemy), saying: “The soldiers from cities and towns are not good for the war in the open space, it will be easy to crash them!” The army [then] gathered on the Sanfeng [Mountain]. The Jin army circled the mountain a few times, [the Mongol?] officers and soldiers feared very much. After a while a strong snowstorm and wind started, the Jin soldiers numbed [with the cold] and [started] collapsing [dying]. In the result of this the moral and the military spirit of the Mongol army raised significantly, and all the enemies were exterminated. All the areas of Henan submitted one after another. In the spring of the fourth year [of Ögedei’s reign], Subedei attacked Bian[liang] with the troops, [surrounding the city] from all sides. Yizong of Jin [i.e. Aizong 哀宗] went to Weizhou, then went to Guide Prefecture, and then moved to Caizhou. In the autumn of 41

the guisi year (i.e. 1233-1234), the commanders of Bian[liang] surrendered the city, in the winter of the same year Caizhou surrendered as well. In the spring of the sixth year [of Ögedei’s reign] [the state of] Jin collapsed. Due to the fact, that the population of Bian[liang] starved, Subedei had let them [to leave the city and to] cross Huanghe in ordert to find food. This was seen by people as a sign of virtue.

5) The Secret History on Ogedei’s illness and Tolui’s sacrifice Having put Oldaqar Qorchi in charge of the Great Palaces, in the Year of the Hare (1231) Ögödei Qa’an set out against the Kitat people. He sent forth Jebe as vanguard. Thus he crushed the Kitat troops, slaying them until they were like heaps of rotten logs. He crossed Chabchiyal and [p. 203] ordered his troops to advance and attack their towns and cities in every direction. Then Ögödei Qa’an pitched camp at Shira Degtür. There Ögödei Qa’an fell ill. When he lost his speech and was in great distress, various shamans and soothsayers were ordered to divine the cause of the illness. They said, ‘The lords and rulers of the land and rivers of the Kitat are raging violently against the Qa’an now that their people are plundered and their cities and towns are destroyed.’ When they divined by inspecting the entrails of victims and said to the lords and rulers of the land and rivers, ‘We shall give, as substitute for the Qa’an, people, gold and silver, cattle and food’, the illness did not abate and they raged even more violently. When they divined further by inspecting the entrails and said, ‘Could a person from the Qa'an’s family serve as a substitute?’, the Qa’an, opening his eyes, requested water, drank it and asked, ‘What has happened?’ The shamans then reported to the Qa’an as follows: ‘The lords and rulers of the land and rivers of the Kitat people are raging violently against you now that their land and waters are destroyed and their people plundered. When we divine by inspecting the entrails of victims and say, “We shall give anything as substitute”, with renewed anger they rage even more violently. When we say, “Could a person from the Qa’an’s family serve as a substituted, the illness abates. Now your order shall decide!’ After they had made their report, the Qa’an said, ‘Who is at my side from among the princes?’ To these words Prince Tolui, who was at his side, said, ‘Even though there were elder brothers above you and younger brothers below you, our fortunate father Chinggis Qa’an chose you, elder [p. 204] brother the Qa’an, as one would choose a gelding, feeling you as one would feel a wether to make sure it is fat. To your person he showed the great throne and upon you he placed the burden of many people for you to govern. As for myself, I was told by him, “Being at the side of your elder brother the Qa’an, Do remind him of what he has forgotten, Do wake him up when he has fallen asleep.” Now, if I lose you, my elder brother the Qa’an, Whom shall I remind of what he has forgotten, 'Whom shall 1 wake up when he has fallen asleep? In truth, if my elder brother the Qa’an dies, 42

The numerous Mongol people Would be left orphans; The Kitat people Would rejoice at their good fortune. I shall take the place of my elder brother the Qa’an. I have cleft the back of the trout, I have rent the back of the sturgeon; I have conquered those in the fore, I have pierced those afar. And fair of face, And tall of stature am I. Shamans, cast your spells and make your incantations!’ Thus he spoke, and as the shamans made their incantations Prince Tolui drank the magic water. Then he sat for a moment and said, ‘I have become drunk. While I recover from my drunkenness, let elder brother the Qa’an decide how best to take care of his younger brothers who [p. 205] are orphaned and young, and of his younger sister-in-law Berüde who is widowed, until they are able to look after themselves. I have said all I have to say. I have become drunk.’ On that, he passed out. Such is the manner in which he died.

6) The Secret History on the Invasion of Eastern Europe Earlier on, Sübe’etei Ba’atur [Subotei], campaigning against Meket, Menkermen Keyibe and other cities, had crossed the rivers Adil and Jayaq rich in waters, and had reached as far as the Qanglin, Kibcha’ut, Bajigit, Orusut, Asut, Sesüt, Majar, Keshimir, Sergesüt, Buqar and Kerel peoples. As Sübe’etei Ba’atur had been put in a difficult situation by these peoples, Ögödei Qa’an sent forth Batu, Büri, Güyük, Möngge [Mongke] and several other princes in support of Sübe’etei. He ordered that Batu should be in command of all those princes who went on the campaign and that Güyük should be in command of all the troops coming from the centre. He further ordered, with regard to those who went on the campaign, that the princes in charge of a domain should send the eldest of their sons into the field and that the princes who were not in charge of a domain, the commanders of ten thousand, of a thousand, of a hundred and of ten, and any commoners, whoever they might be, should also send the eldest of their sons into the field. Likewise, the princesses and imperial sons-in-law should send the eldest of their sons into the field. Further, Ögödei Qa’an said, ‘This principle of sending the eldest sons on a campaign originates from elder brother [p. 202] Cha’adai. Elder brother Cha’adai came and said to me, “I shall send Büri, the eldest of my sons, on the campaign in support of Sübe’etei. If the eldest of the sons goes into the field, the army will be larger than before. If the troops who set forth are numerous, they shall go to fight looking superior and mighty. The enemy people beyond consist of many states, and there, at the end of the 43

world, they are hard people. They are people who, when they become angry, would rather die by their own swords. I am told they have sharp swords.” So he said when he came.’ Then Ögödei Qa’an said, ‘By these words and by the zeal and strength of Our elder brother Cha’adai, let us send out the eldest of the sons.’ And he proclaimed this order everywhere. Such is the way in which he sent Batu, Büri, Güyük, Möngge and the other princes into the field… From the Kibchaq campaign, through messengers, Batu sent the following report to Ögödei Qa’an: ‘By the strength of Eternal Heaven and the good fortune of my uncle the Qa’an, I have destroyed the city of Meget, I have ravaged the Orusut people and brought eleven countries and peoples duly under submission. When we turned back, pulling in the golden reins, (2) we decided to hold a parting feast. A large tent was set up and, as we began feasting, since I was quite the eldest among those princes who were present, I was the first to drink one or two bowls of the ceremonial wine. Büri and Güyük became angry with me because of that, refused to join the feast and rode off. As they rode off, Büri said, “Since Batu, then, is equal to us, why should he have drunk first? Old women with beards like him, Who pretend to be one’s equal, One should push with one’s heels, One should trample under one’s feet.” On that Güyük said, “Those old women with quivers like Batu - let us also strike their bosoms with a stick of burning wood - those ones!” And Eljigidei’s son Harqasun said, “Let’s attach a wooden tail to them!” (3) So, just at the time when, having been sent to ride against a rebellious people of a different race, (4) we were asking ourselves whether we had [p. 207] been successful, Büri and Güyük spoke to us in this way and we parted in disaccord. Now, the order of my uncle the Qa’an shall decide the matter!’ Thus he reported. At these words of Batu, the Qa’an became very angry. He did not allow Güyük into his presence but said, ‘Following whose counsel does this mean creature fill his mouth with talk against a person senior to him? May he and he alone rot like an egg! He has turned against the bosom of a person who is senior to him. Therefore, We shall place him in the vanguard: We shall make him climb the town walls Which are as high as mountains Until the nails of his ten fingers are worn away; We shall place him in the garrison army: We shall make him climb the town walls Which are made of hard-pounded earth Until the nails of his five fingers are ground down. And you, wretched, wicked, mean Harqasun, in imitation of whom have you filled your mouth with such boastful talk against Our family? Let us send Güyük and Harqasun away together. We could cut down Harqasun, but you would then say that We showed partiality. As for Büri, tell Batu to send him to elder brother Cha’adai, informing him of the matter. Let elder brother Cha’adai decide on it!’

7) The Yuan Shi on the Invasion of Eastern Europe In the xinchou year [1241-1242], Taizong [Ogedei] ordered Batu, prince of blood, and other to go with the punisment campaign on Yuri-ban, the chief of the Rus people. He was defeated, the city of Torsk was enclosed, but not taken. Batu memorialized the Emperor to send Subedei to supervise the military operations on spot. Subedei chose fifty people of the habichi and gerun ko’ud and 44

moved [there]. He captured Yuri-ban after only one battle. [Then he] attacked the city of Torsk [?] (*) and captured it after three days, capturing completely all those of the Rus and then returned back. [Then] they crossed the Carpathian Mountains and attacked the king (**), the ruler of the Magyar [Hungarian] people. Subedei was in the vanguard and moved together with the princes of blood Batu, Hülegü, Shiban and Qadan along the five separate roads. [There were talks] in the army, saying: “The army of the king is strong, we will not be able to move forward”. Subedei suggested an excellent plan, [namely] to guide his [the king’s] army to the Huoning River. The armies of [all] the princes of blood were in the upper reaches of the river. The water there was shallow and also there was a bridge in the middle [of the river?]. The lower reaches of the river were deep. Subedei wanted to bind rafts to cross the river, so that to make a detour and to appear behind the enemy’s back. [Subedei still] did not cross the river, and the princes of blood crossed the river first for the battle. The army of Batu fought in order to cross the bridge, but the enemies took advantage [of this and attacked them], so that thirty of his warriors drowned. [Besides this], his [Batu’s] subbordinate general Bahatu (***) also died. After they crossed the river, due to the big amount of the enemies, prince of blood [Batu] wanted Subedei to return, [in order to again] plan everything deliberately. Subedei said: “If the prince of blood wants returns, let him himself return, I do not return until I arrive at Pesht city on the Danube”. Then he galloped towards Pesht, all the princes of blood also moved there, in the result together attacked the city, conquered it and returned back. When all the princes gather together, Batu said: “In the time of the battle at the Huoning River, Subedei arrived late with the help, so that my Bahadu was killed”. Subedei answered: “Zhuwang only knew that the waters in the upper reaches of the river are shallow and that there is a bridge, so he crossed the river and entered the battle, without recognizing, that I was in the lower reaches of the river and still did not finish to tie the rifts. But now he says I was late, and think this was the reason [of the defeat]”. Then Batu realized, [what happened]. Later there was a great gathering, and [all] drunk horse milk and grape wine. When he spoke about the campaigns against the king, Batu said: “Everything that we captured during that campaign is the achievement of Subedei”. In the year renyin[1242-1243], Taizong passed away. In the guimao year [1243-1244], there was a big gathering [quriltai] of all the princes of blood, and Batu did not want to go [there]. Subedei said: “The great prince [dawang] is the oldest in the lineage, how would it be possible not to go?” In the jiachen year [1244-1245], there was a gathering on the Ezhili River.

8) Rashid al-Din on the invasion of Eastern Europe, the death of Ogedei and its aftermath Genghis Khan had earlier ordered Jochi to go with the army, take and bring under control all the lands to the north, from Ibir-Sibir, Bolad, the Qipchaq Steppe, Bashghurd, Rus, and Circassia to the Caspian Straits, which the Mongols call Temür Qahalqa, but Jochi had retired. When Ögödäi Qa’an was enthroned as emperor, he ordered Batu to take over, and he assigned his nephew Mänggü [Mongke], his [half-]brother Böchök, and his son Güyük Khan to go with great commanders like Sübätäi Bahadur [Subodei], the general from the Uriangqat who came to this realm with Jäbä, to join Batu and complete the conquest of the north. In Bechin Yil, the Year of 45

the Monkey that began in Jumada ii 633 [February 1236], they set out and conquered most of those territories. In the spring of Quluqana Yil, the Year of the Rat corresponding to 637 [1240], Güyük and Möngkä returned to the Qa’an by his order. For some time after that Batu and his brothers and generals continued to conquer those territories, as his offspring still do. After the return of the princes Möngkä Qa’an and Güyük Khan, he [Jochi Khan] and his brothers, as has also mentioned at the end of the section on him, occupied themselves with conquering the remaining territories. In the first part of the year 637 [1239], when Ögödäi Qa’an died, Batu was already suffering from flaccidity be because of old age, and when he was summoned to a quriltai, he excused himself on that account. Because of his absence, however, he being the eldest of all, the matter of the Qa’anate was undecided for nearly three years, during which time the eldest of Ögödäi Qa’an’s wives, Törägänä Khatun [Torrogene], ruled. It was during that time that disturbances and chaos befell both the periphery and the center of the empire. The Qa’an had made his grandson Shirämün [Shiremun] his designated heir, but Törägänä Khatun and some of the amirs withheld their consent, saying that Güyük Khan was older. In order to enthrone him they summoned Batu once again, and although he had been insulted several times by them and was fearful of disastrous consequences from past actions, he nonetheless set forth and proceeded slowly. Section Three: The Religion of the Mongols

Introduction: The following section provides detailed descriptions of Mongol religion. This is given to help inform the worldview of the Mongol characters during the religious debate, and complements the dossiers given to ambassadors about their faiths.

1) The Armenian historian Kirakos of Ganjak on the Mongol’s appearance and Religion We gladly leave a testament for the generations to come for we have hope of salvation from the difficulties of this world, which surround us. Therefore we shall briefly set forth for the inquisitive [an account of] what [the Mongols] looked like, and what their language was like. They had a hellish and frightening appearance. They had no beards, although some of them had a few hairs above their lips or on their chins. They had narrow and quick-seeing eyes, high, shrill voices; they were hardy and long-lived. Whenever possible they ate and drank insatiably, but when it was not possible, they were temperate. They ate all sorts of animals both clean and unclean, and especially cherished horsemeat. This they would cut into pieces and cook or else roast it without salt; then they would cut it up into small pieces and sop it in salt water and eat it that way. Some eat on their knees, like camels, and some eat sitting. When eating, lords and servants share equally. To drink kumiss [fermented mare’s milk] or wine, one of them first takes a great bowl in his hand and, taking from it with a small cup, sprinkles the liquid to the sky, then to the east, west, [g271] north and south. Then the sprinkler himself drinks some of it and offers it to the nobles. If someone 46

brings them food or drink, first they make the bearer eat and drink of it, and then they themselves [will accept it] lest they be betrayed by some poison. They take as many women as they want but they do not let prostitutes live among their women. However, wherever they chance upon foreign women, they copulate with them indiscriminately. [The Mongols] loathe theft so much that they torture to death anyone caught at it. There is no religion or worship among them, but they [235] frequently call on the name of God in all matters. We do not know (nor do they) if this is to thank the God of Being or some other thing that they call god. However, usually they say that their king is a relative of God. God took heaven as his portion and gave earth to the Khan, for they say that Chingiz-Khan, the father of the [present] Khan was not born from the seed of man but that a light came from the unseen, entered through a skylight in the home, and announced to his mother: "Conceive and you will bear a son who will be ruler of the world." And they say that [Chingiz-Khan] was born from that. When one of them dies or they kill him, they do as follows: some they take around with them for many days since [they believe that] a devil entered the body and would say frivolous things; and there were those that they burned. Others they buried in the ground in deep ditches, placing with the deceased his weapons and clothing, gold and silver, whatever was his share. And if the deceased was one of the great ones, they place some of his servants and maids in the grave with him so that, they say, they will serve him. They also put the horse in since, they say, warfare there is fierce. If they want to remember the dead [with a memorial], they cut open the belly of a horse and pull out all the flesh without the bones. Then they burn the intestines and bones and sew up the skin of the horse as though its body were whole. Sharpening a great piece of wood, they pierce the horse's abdomen and draw it out of the mouth, and so erect it on a tree or in some elevated spot. Their women are witches and divine everything. Without a command from the witches and sorcerers, they go on no journey; only if [the sorcerers] permit it. [The Mongolian] language is barbarous and [was] unknown to us. They call God t'angri.

2) Peng Daya and Xu Ting’s Heida shilüe, A Northern Chinese view of Mongol religion As for their idioms, they always say: “By the strength of eternal Heaven, and the good fortune and blessing of the Emperor.” When they undertake a matter, they say: “By the teaching of Heaven and the support of Earth.” If another has already accomplished a matter, they say: “Heaven knows.” Not one matter is not referred back to Heaven. From the Tatar lord to the common people, there is no one who does not speak [like this.]

3) Gamq'relidze’s History of Georgia on Mongol belief, writings, food and clans The Mongols worshiped a single god, whom they called Tengri. And they began their writings with the words: “Mangu Tengri Kuchundur,” which means: “By the power of immortal God.” They got by with little food, for they ate all living creatures: cat meat, dog meat, or any other kind of animal. Their kin consisted, in the past as well as today, of many clans, among 47

which we will mention just twelve: the foremost among them was the clan – Saq’irs, (then) Kindis, Q’atis, Jalairs, Oirids, Suldus’, Nahims, Q’onghards, Manghuts, Tanghuts, Q’aits and Uighurs. The Uighurs worshiped an idol which they called Kujin.* They called themselves in their language “Mongols,” though the Georgians called them – Tatars, and I am representing them as one whole tribe. They believed in a single God, and in the morning, at dawn, they knelt three times facing the East, and that was all. And to confirm their oath they dipped a piece of pure gold three times in water and (then) removing it, drank the water. Much consideration was shown to those who took the oath. Confirming an oath meant they would not break it. No lie left their lips, and they destroyed resolutely robbers and other atrocious people. Many good laws were introduced by Genghis Khan.

4) A conversation between Mongke, son of Tolui and the Franciscan William of Rubruck [Mongke] began confiding to me his creed: "We Mongols," he said, "believe that there is only one God, by whom we live and by whom we die, and for whom we have an upright heart." Then I said: "May it be so, for without His grace this cannot be." He asked what I had said; the interpreter told him. Then he added: "But as God gives us the different fingers of the hand, so he gives to men divers ways [several paths]. God gives you the Scriptures, and you Christians keep them not. You do not find (in them, for example) that one should find fault with another [abuse another], do you?" "No, my lord," I said; "but I told you from the first that I did not want to wrangle with anyone." "I do not intend to say it," he said, "for you [I am not referring to you]. Likewise you do not find that a man should depart from justice for money." "No, my lord," I said. "And truly I came not to these parts to obtain money; on the contrary I have refused what has been offered me." And there was a secretary present, who bore witness that I refused an iascot and silken cloths. "I dare not say it," he said, "for you. God gave you therefore the Scriptures, and you do not keep them; He gave us diviners, we do what they tell us, and we live in peace."

Part 6: Guidebook to the Mongol World in Primary Sources Introduction: This game weaves together the history of Eurasia through the lives of those caught in the web of the Mongols, who in the 1240s seemed poised to unite that whole world under their rule. Therefore it is necessary for students to understand the world that these characters lived in through the eyes of those who were there. Therefore this section will try to paint a picture of the medieval world through the eyes of medieval travelers. This section will contain excerpts from five travel itineraries that are roughly contemporary with the period of Mongol rule – although none take place in the years immediately before or after the Qurultai. These accounts are chosen because of the diversity of their perspectives and the coverage of the travels. Each shed light on the parts of the world they visit. These travellers include the Chinese Christian monk Rabban Bar Sauma, the Jewish scholar Benjamin of 48

Tudela, the Florentine merchant Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, the Moroccan scholar Ibn Battuta, and Marco Polo – who is famous enough to need no introduction.

Section One) The Travels of Rabban Bar Sauma Introduction: Rabban Bar Sauma (or Rabban Sawma as in the text below) was a Chinese Nestorian Christian hermit monk who along with his disciple Rabban Markos decided to make a pilgrimage to the West in the 1270s. Along the way, Markos was elected as the leader of the Nestorian Church, based in Baghdad, and he sent Bar Sauma on a mission for the Mongol ruler of the Middle East to Europe as his ambassador. This selection of his account discusses the start of his journey and his travels in Europe. RABBAN SAWMA AND RABBAN MARKOS WISH TO GO TO JERUSALEM One day they meditated, saying, "It would be exceedingly helpful to us if we were to leave this region and set out for the West, for we could then [visit] the tombs of the holy martyrs and Catholic Fathers and be blessed [by them]. And if Christ, the Lord of the Universe, prolonged our lives, and sustained us by His grace, we could go to Jerusalem, so that we might receive complete pardon for our offences, and absolution for our sins of foolishness. Now although RABBAN SAWMA opposed RABBAN MARK, and [tried to] frighten him with the toil of the journey, and the fatigue of travelling, and the terror of the ways, and the tribulations that would beset him in a (13) foreign country, RABBAN MARK burned to set out on the road. His mind seemed to reveal to him that there were treasures laid up for him in the West, and he pressed RABBAN SAWMA with his words, and importuned him to depart. And the two of them having agreed together that neither of them should be separated from his companion, even if one of them might have to submit to what was evil for his sake, they rose up and distributed their furniture, and the objects which they used in everyday life, among the poor, and they went to that city (i.e. Pekin) so that they might take companions for the journey [i.e. join a caravan] and provide themselves with food for the way. Now when the Christians who were living there became acquainted with them, and knew their intention, they gathered together about them so that they might make them abandon their plan. And they said [unto them}, "Peradventure ye do not know how very far off that region is to which ye would go? Or, perhaps ye have not the least idea in your minds, or have forgotten, how difficult it will be for you to travel over the roads, and that ye will never reach there? Nay, sit ye down here, and strive to perform the works whereunto ye have been called. For it is said, 'The kingdom of heaven is within you'"(Luke xvii. 21). And RABBAN SAWMA and RABBAN MARK replied, "It is a long time since we (14) put on the garb of the monastic life, and we have renounced the world; we consider ourselves to be dead men in respect of it. Toil doth not terrify us, neither doth fear disturb us. There is, however, one thing which we ask of you: for the love of Christ pray for us. And ye shall cast away the word which would produce doubt (or hesitation), and shall make supplication to God that our desire may be fulfilled."[And the Christians of that city] said, "Depart in peace."And they kissed each other, and parted with bitter tears and distressful words, saying, "Depart in peace. And may our Lord, Whom ye seek, be with you, and may He allot to you that which is pleasing to Him, and will be of help to you! Amen."

… Then RABBAN SAWMA said, "I desire this embassy greatly, and I long to go."Then straightway King ARGHON wrote for him "Authorities"(pukdane) to the king of the Greeks, and the king of the PEROGAYE (Franks?) that is to say Romans, and Yarlike [i.e. the "Ordinances"of the Mongolian kings], and letters, and gave him gifts for each of the kings [addressed by him]. And to RABBAN SAWMA he gave two thousand mathkale ( £1,000?) of gold, and thirty good riding animals, and a Paiza (see above, pp. 19, 20). And RABBAN SAWMA came to the cell of the Catholicus to obtain letter from MAR YAHBH-ALLAHA, and to say farewell to him. The Catholicus gave his permission to depart (49), but when the time for 49

his departure arrived, it did not please the Catholicus to permit him to go. For he said [unto Rabban Sawma], "How can this possibly take place? Thou hast been the governor of my cell, and thou knowest that through thy departure my affairs will fall into a state of utter confusion."And having said such words as these they said farewell to each other, weeping as they did so. And the Catholicus sent with him letters, and gifts which were suitable for presentation to Mar Papa (the Pope), and gifts [i.e. offerings] according to his ability. RABBAN SAWMA IN BYZANTIUM And RABBAN SAWMA set out on his journey, and there went with him a number of excellent men from among the priests and deacons of the Cell of the Catholicus. And he arrived at BETH RHOMAYE [i.e. the territory of the Romans] on the borders of the Sea of Meka [the Black Sea?], he saw the church that was there, and [then] went down [i.e. embarked] in a ship and his companions were with him. Now there were more than three hundred souls in the ship, and each day he consoled them with [his] discourse on the Faith. Now the greater number of those who dwelt in the ship were Romans (i.e. Byzantine Greeks), and because of the savour of his speech they paid him honour in no small degree. And after [some] days he arrived at the great city of CONSTANTINOPLE (50), and before they went into it he sent two young men to the Royal gate (Sublime Porte) to make known there that an ambassador of King Arghon had come. Then the king commanded certain people to go forth to meet them, and to bring them in with pomp and honour. And when RABBAN SAWMA went into the city, the king allotted to him a house, that is to say, a mansion in which to dwell. And after RABBAN SAWMA had rested himself, he went to visit the king Æ [Andronicus II] and after he had saluted him, the king asked him, "How art thou after the workings of the sea and the fatigue of the road?"And RABBAN SAWMA replied, "With the sight of the Christian king fatigue hath vanished and exhaustion hath departed, for I was exceedingly anxious to see your kingdom, the which may our Lord establish!" And after they had enjoyed food and drink RABBAN SAWMA asked the king to be allowed to see the churches and the shrines [or tombs] of the Fathers [i.e. Patriarchs], and the relics of the saints that were therein. And the king handed RABBAN SAWMA over to the nobles of his kingdom and (51) they showed him everything that was there. First of all he went unto the great church of , [i.e. the Hagia Sophia], which has three hundred and sixty doors [i.e. pillars] all made of marble. As for the dome of the altar it is impossible for a man to describe it [adequately] to one who hath not seen it, and to say how high and how spacious it is. There is in this church a picture of the holy MARY which LUKE, the Evangelist, painted. He saw there also the hand of MAR JOHN the Baptist, and portions [of the bodies of] LAZARUS, and MARY MAGDALENE, and that stone which was laid on the grave of our Lord, when Joseph the brought Him down from the Cross. Now MARY wept on that stone, and the place hereon her tears fell is wet even at the present time; and however often this moisture is wiped away the place becometh wet again. And he saw also the stone bowl in which our Lord changed the water into wine (52) at KATNE (Cana) of Galilee; and the funerary coffer of one of the holy women which is exposed to public view every year, and every sick person who is laid under it is made whole; and the coffer of MAR JOHN OF THE MOUTH OF GOLD (Chrysostom). And he saw also the stone on which SIMON PETER was sitting when the cock crew; and the tomb of King CONSTANTINE, the Conqueror, which was made of red stone (porphyry?); and also the tomb of JUSTINIAN, which was [built of] green stone; and also the BETH KAWMA (resting place) of the Three Hundred and Eighteen [orthodox] Bishops who were all laid in one great church; and their bodies have not suffered corruption because they had 50

confirmed the [True] Faith. And he saw also many shrines of the holy Fathers, and many amulets of a magical character (talismata) and image[s] in bodily form made of bronze and stone (Eikons?). And when RABBAN SAWMA went [back] to King Æ he said, “May the king live for ever! I give thanks unto our Lord that I have been held worthy to see these things. And now, if the king will permit me, I will go and fulfil the command (53) of King ARGHON, for the command to me was to enter the territory of the Progaye [i.e. Franks]." Then the king entreated him with great kindness, and gave him gifts of gold and silver. RABBAN SAWMA IN ITALY AND IN GREAT ROME And he departed from Constantinople and went down to the sea. And he saw on the sea-shore a monastery of the Romans, and there were laid up in its treasure-house two funerary coffers of silver; in the one was the head of MAR JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, and in the other that of MAR PAPA who baptized CONSTANTINE. And he went down to the sea [i.e. embarked on a ship] and came to the middle thereof, where he saw a mountain from which smoke ascended all the day long and in the night time fire showed itself on it. And no man is able to approach the neighbourhood of it because of the stench of sulphur [proceeding therefrom]. Some people say that there is a great serpent there. This sea is called the "Sea of Italy."Now it is a terrible sea, and very many thousands of (54) people have perished therein. And after two months of toil, and weariness, and exhaustion, RABBAN SAWMA arrived at the sea-shore, and he landed at the name of which was NAPOLI (Naples); the name of its king was IRID SHARDALO [ =IL RE SHARL DU or, the King Charles II?]. And he went to the king and showed him the reason why they had come; and the king welcomed him and paid him honour. Now it happened that there was war between him and another king, whose name was IRID ARKON [=the King of Aragon, JAMES II?]. And the troops of the one had come in many ships, and the troops of the other were ready, and they began to fight each other, and the King of ARAGON (?) conquered King CHARLES II, and slew twelve thousand his men, and sunk their ships in the sea. [According to Chabot this naval engagement took place in the Bay of Sorrento on St. John's Day, June 24, 1287, and the great eruption of Mount Etna on June I8]. Meanwhile RABBAN SAWMA and his companions sat upon the roof the mansion in which they lived, and they admired the way in which the Franks waged war for they attacked none of the people except those who were actually combatants (55). And from that place they travelled inland on horses, and they passed through towns and villages and marvelled because they found no land which was destitute of buildings. On the road they heard that MAR PAPA [Honorius IV who died in 1287] was dead. After some days they arrived in Great Rome (56). And RABBAN SAWMA went into the church of PETER and PAUL, for the Cell [Vatican?] of the throne of Mar Papa was situated therein. Now after the death of Mar Papa, twelve men who were called "Kaltunare" [not chartularii, but Cardinals] administered the [papal] throne. And whilst they were taking counsel together in order to appoint a new Pope, Rabban Sawma sent a message to them saying, "We who are ambassadors of King ARGHON and of the Catholicus of the East [have arrived]" ; and fhe Cardinals ordered them to come in. And the Franks who accompanied RABBAN SAwmA [and his companions] informed them that when they were going into the Cell [Vatican ?] of Mar Papa [they would find] there an altar at which they must bow [or kneel down ?], land then they must go in and salute the Cardinals… Then the Cardinals summoned the Amir of the city and certain monks and commanded them to show him the churches and the holy places that were there; and they went forth straightway and 51

saw the places which we will now mention. First of all they went into the church of PETER and PAUL. Beneath the Throne is a naos, and in this is laid (63) the body of SAINT PETER, and above the throne is an altar. The altar which is in the middle of that are, temple has four doorways, and in each of these two folding doors worked with designs in fro; MAR PAPA celebrates the Mass at this altar, and no person besides himself may stand on the bench of that altar. Afterwards they saw the Throne of MAR PETER whereon they make MAR PAPA to sit when they appoint him. And the also saw the strip of fine [or thin] linen on which our Lord impressed His image and sent to King ABHGAR of URHAI (Edessa). Now the extent of that temple and its splendour cannot be described; it stands on one hundred and eight pillars. In it is another altar at which the King of their Kings receives the laying on of hands [i.e. is consecrated and crowned], and is proclaimed "Ampror (Emperor) King of Kings,"by the Pope. And they say that after the prayer Mar Papa takes up the Crown with his feet and clothes the Emperor with it (64), that is to say, places it upon his own head [to show], as they say, that priesthood reigneth over sovereignty[or kingship]. And when they had seen all the churches and monasteries that were in Great Rome, they went outside the city to the church of MAR PAUL the Apostle, where under the altar is his tomb. And there, too, is the chain wherewith Paul was bound when he was dragged to that place. And in that altar there are also a reliquary of gold herein is the head of MAR STEPHEN the Martyr, and the hand of MAR KHANANYA (ANANIAS) who baptized PAUL. And the staff of PAUL the Apostle is also there. And from that place they went to the spot where PAUL the Apostle, was crowned [with martyrdom]. They say that when his head was cut off it leaped up thrice into the air, and at each time cried out CHRIST! CHRIST! And that from each of the three places on which his head fell there came forth waters which were useful for healing purposes, and for giving help to all those who were afflicted. And in that place there is a great shrine (65) wherein are the bones of martyrs and famous Fathers, and they were blessed by them. And they went also to the Church of my Lady MARYAM, and of MAR JOHN the Baptist, and saw therein the seamless tunic of our Lord. And there is also in that church the tablet [or slab] on which our Lord consecrated the Offering and gave it to His disciples. And each year Mar Papa consecrates on that tablet the Paschal Mysteries. There are in that church four pillars of copper [or brass], each of which is six cubits in thickness; these, they say, the kings brought from Jerusalem. They saw also there the vessel in which CONSTANTINE, the victorious king, was baptized; it is made of black stone [basalt?] polished. Now that church is very large and broad, and there are in the nave (haikla) one hundred and forty white marble pillars. They saw also the place where SIMON KIPA [i.e. Simon the Rock] disputed with SIMON [Magus], and where the latter fell down and his bones were broken. From that place they went into the church of MART MARYAM, and [the priests] brought out for them reliquaries made of beryl (crystal?), wherein was (66) the apparel of MART MARYAM, and a piece of wood on which our Lord had lain when a child. They saw also the head of MATTHEH the Apostle, in a reliquary of silver. And they saw the foot of PHILIP, the Apostle, and the arm of JAMES, the son of ZABHDA! (ZEBEDEE}, in the Church of the Apostles, which was there. And after these [sights] they saw buildings which it is impossible to describe in words, and as the histories of those buildings would make any description of them very long I abandon [the attempt]. After this RABBAN SAWMA and his companions returned to the Cardinals, and thanked them for having held him to be worthy to see these shrines and to receive blessings from them. And RABBAN SAWMA asked from them permission to go to the king who dwelleth in Rome; and 52

they permitted him to go, and said, "We cannot give thee an answer until the [new] Pope is elected." And they went from that place to the country of TUSZKAN (TUSCANY), and were honourably entreated, and thence they (67) went to GINOH (GENOA). Now the latter country has no king, but the people thereof set up to rule over it some great man with whom they are pleased. And when the people of GENOA heard that an ambassador of King ARGHON had arrived, their Chief went forth with a great crowd of people, and they brought him into the city. And there was there a great church with the name of SAINT SINALORNIA (SAN LORENZO), in which was the holy body of MAR JOHN the Baptist, in a coffer of pure silver. And RABBAN SAWMA and his companions saw also a six-sided paten, made of emerald, and the people there told them that it was off this paten from which our Lord ate the Passover with His disciples, and that it was brought there when Jerusalem was captured. And from that place they went to the country of ONBAR, [according to Bedjan, Lombardy] and they saw that the people there did not fast during the first Sabbath of Lent. And when they asked them, "Wherefore do ye do thus, and separate yourselves from all [other] Christians"(68), they replied, "This is our custom. When we were first taught the Gospel our fathers in the Faith were weakly and were unable to fast. Those who taught them the Gospel commanded them to fast forty days only." RABBAN SAWMA IN FRANSA OR FRANGESTAN Afterwards they went to the country of PARIZ (Paris), to king FRANSIS [i.e. Philippe IV le Bel]. And the king sent out a large company of men to meet them, and they brought them into the city with great honour and ceremony. Now the territories of the French king were in extent more than a month's journey. And the king of France assigned to Rabban Sawma a place wherein to dwell, and three days later sent one of his Amirs to him and summoned him to his presence. And when he had come the king stood up before him and paid him honour, and said unto him, "Why hast thou come? And who sent thee?"And RABBAN SAWMA said unto him, "King ARGHON and the Catholicus of the East have sent me concerning the matter of JERUSALEM."And he showed him all the matters (69) which he knew, and he gave him the letters which he had with him, and the gifts, that is to say, presents which he had brought. And the king of FRANCE answered him, saying, "If it be indeed so that the MONGOLS, though they are not Christians, are going to fight against the Arabs for the capture of JERUSALEM, it is meet especially for us that we should fight [with them], and if our Lord willeth, go forth in full strength." And RABBAN SAWMA said unto him, "Now that we have seen the glory of thy kingdom, and have looked upon the splendour of your strength with the eye of flesh, we ask you to command the men of the city to show us the churches and the shrines, and the relics of the saints, and everything else which is found with you, and is not to be seen in any other country, so that when we return we may make known in the [various] countries what we have seen with you."Then the king commanded his Amirs, saying, "Go forth and show them all the wonderful things which we have here, and afterwards I myself will show [them] what I have."And the Amirs went out with them. (70) And RABBAN SAWMA and his companions remained for a month of days in this great city of Paris, and they saw everything that was in it. There were in it thirty thousand scholars [i.e. pupils] who were engaged in the study of ecclesiastical books of instruction, that is to say of commentaries and exegesis of all the Holy Scriptures, and also of profane learning; and they studied wisdom, that is to say philosophy and [the art of] speaking (rhetoric?), and [the art of] healing, geometry, arithmetic, and the science of the planets and the stars; and they engaged 53

constantly in writing [theses], and all these pupils received money for subsistence from the king. And they also saw one Great Church wherein were the funerary coffers of dead kings, and statues of them in gold and in silver were upon their tombs. And five hundred monks were engaged in performing commemoration services in the burial-place [i.e. mausoleum] of the kings, and they all ate and drank at the expense of the king. And they fasted and prayed continually in the burial-place of those kings. And the crowns of those kings, and their armour (71), and their apparel were laid upon their tombs. In short RABBAN SAWMA and his companions saw everything which was splendid and renowned. And after this the king sent and summoned them, and they went to him in the church, and they saw him standing by the side of the altar, and they saluted him. And he asked RABBAN SAWMA saying, "Have you seen what we have? And doth there not remain anything else for you to see?"Then RABBAN SAWMA thanked him [and said "There is not"]. Forthwith he went up with the king into an upper chamber of gold, which the king opened, and he brought forth from it a coffer of beryl wherein was laid the Crown of Thorns which the Jews placed upon the head of our Lord when they crucified Him. Now the Crown was visible in the coffer, which, thanks to the transparency of the beryl, remained unopened. And there was also in the coffer a piece of the wood of the Cross. And the king said to RABBAN SAWMA and his companions, "When our fathers took Constantinople, and sacked Jerusalem, they brought these blessed objects from it."And we blessed the king and besought him to give us the order to return. (72) And he said unto us, "I will send with you one of the great Amirs whom I have here with me to give an answer to King Arghon"; and the king gave RABBAN SAWMA gifts and apparel of great price. RABBAN SAWMA GOES TO THE KING OF ENGLAND [i.e. EDWARD I] And they went forth from that place, that is to say, from PARIS, to go to the king of England, to Kasonia (GASCONY?). And having arrived in twenty days at their city [BORDEAUX?], the inhabitants of the city went forth to meet them, and they asked them, "Who are ye?"And RABBAN SAWMA and his companions replied, "We are ambassadors, and we have come from beyond the eastern seas, and we are envoys of the King, and of the Patriarch, and the Kings of the Mongols."And the people made haste and went to the king and informed him [of their arrival], and the king welcomed them gladly, and the people introduced them into his presence. And those who were with RABBAN SAWMA straightway gave to the king the PUKDANA [i.e. letter of authorisation] of King Arghon, and the gifts which he had sent to him, and the Letter of Mar Catholicus (73). And [King Edward] rejoiced greatly, and he was especially glad when Rabban Sawma talked about the matter of Jerusalem. And he said, "We the kings of these cities bear upon our bodies the sign of the Cross, and we have no subject of thought except this matter. And my mind is relieved on the subject about which I have been thinking, when I hear that King Arghon thinketh as I think."And the king commanded Rabban Sawma to celebrate the Eucharist, and he performed the Glorious Mysteries; and the king and his officers of state stood up, and the king partook of the Sacrament, and made a great feast that day. Then RABBAN SAWMA said unto the king, "We beseech thee, O king, to give [thy servants] in order to show us whatever churches and shrines there are in this country, so that when we go back to the Children of the East we may give them descriptions of them."And the king replied, "Thus shall ye say to King Arghon and unto all the Orientals: We have seen a thing than which there is nothing more wonderful, that is to say, that in the countries of the Franks there are not two Confessions of Faith, but only one Confession of Faith, namely, that which confesseth Jesus

Christ; and all the Christians confess it."And King Edward gave us many gifts and money for the expenses of the road (74). RABBAN SAWMA RETURNS TO ROME And from that place we came to the city of Genoa, in order to pass the winter there. And when we arrived there we saw a garden which resembled Paradise; its winter was not [too] cold, and its summer is not [too] hot. Green foliage is found therein all the year round, and trees, the leaves of which do not fall, and which are not stripped of their fruit. There is in the city a kind of vine which yields grapes seven times a year, but the people do not press out wine from them. … And when they arrived MAR PAPA sent out a Metropolitan bishop and a large company of men to meet them. And starightway RABBAN SAWMA went into the presence of MAR PAPA, who was seated on his throne. And he drew nigh to the Pope, bowing down to the ground as he did so, and he kissed his feet and his hands, and he withdrew walking backwards, with his hands clasped [on his breast]. And he said to MAR PAPA, "May thy throne stand for ever, O our Father! And may it be blessed above all kings and nations! And may it make peace to reign in thy days (77) throughout the Church to the uttermost ends of the earth! Now that I have seen thy face mine eyes are illuminated, and I shall not go away brokenhearted to the countries [of the East]. I give thanks to the goodness of God who hath held me to be worthy to see thy face."Then RABBAN SAWMA presented unto him the gift of King Arghon and his Letters, and the gift of MAR YAHBH-ALLAHA the Catholicus, that is to say a blessing [i.e. gift] and his Letter. And MAR PAPA rejoiced and was glad, and he paid more honour to RABBAN SAWMA than was customary, and he said unto him, "It will be good if thou wilt keep the festival with us, for thou wilt see our use."Now that day [marked] the half of our Lord's Fast [i.e. Mid-Lent]. And RABBAN SAWMA made answer, "Your command is high and exalted."And MAR PAPA assigned to him a mansion in which to dwell, and he appointed servants to give him everything he might require. Some days later RABBAN SAWMA said to MAR PAPA, "I wish to celebrate the Eucharist so that ye might see our use"; and the Pope commanded him to do as he had asked. And on that day a very large number of people were gathered together in order to see how the ambassador of the Mongols celebrated the Eucharist (78). And when they had seen they had rejoiced and said, "The language is different, but the use is the same."Now the day on which he celebrated was the Sunday [on which the prayer beginning] "ainaw asya"[i.e. Who is the physician"] is recited. And having performed the mysteries, he went to MAR PAPA and saluted him. And the Pope said unto RABBAN SAWMA, "May God receive thy offering, and bless thee, and pardon thy transgressions and sins."Then RABBAN SAWMA said, "Besides the pardon of my transgressions and sins which I have received from thee, O our Father, I beseech thy Fatherhood, O our holy Father, to let me receive the Offering from thy hands, so that the remission [of my sins] may be complete."And the Pope said, "So let it be!" And on the following First Day of the Week, which was the Festival of Hosannas [i.e. Palm Sunday], from the break of day onwards, countless thousands and tens of thousands of people gathered together before the papal throne, and brought branches of olives, which the Pope blessed and gave to the Cardinals, and then to the Metropolitans and then to the Bishops, and then to the Amirs, and then to the nobles, and then he cast them among all the people. And he rose up from the throne (79), and they brought him into the church with great ceremony. And he went into the apse of the altar and changed his apparel, and he put on a red vestment with threads of gold [running through it], and ornamented with precious stones, and jacinths, and pearls down 55

to the soles of his feet, that is to say, sandals. And he went to the altar, and then went forth to the pulpit, and addressed the people and admonished them. And he consecrated the Mysteries and gave the Eucharist Mystery to RABBAN SAWMA first of all--he having confessed his sins--and the Pope pardoned his transgressions and his sins and those of his fathers. And RABBAN SAWMA rejoiced greatly in receiving the Eucharistic Mystery from the hand of MAR PAPA. And he received it with tears and sobs, giving thanks to God and meditating upon the mercies which had been poured out upon him. … And MAR PAPA said, "If we had been in the habit of giving away these relics to the people [who come] in myriads, even though the relics were as large as the mountains, they would have come to an end long ago. But since thou hast come from a far country, we will give thee a few."And he gave to RABBAN SAWMA a small piece of the apparel of our Lord Christ, and a piece of the cape () that is to say, kerchief of my LADY MARY, and some small fragments of the bodies of the saints that were there. And he sent to MARR YAHBH-ALLAHA a crown for his head which was of fine gold and was inlaid with precious stones; and sacred vestments made of red cloth through which ran threads of gold; and socks and sandals on which real pearls were sewn; (84) and the ring from his finger; and a "Pethikha"or Bull which authorized him to exercise Patriarchal dominion over all the Children of the East. And he gave to RABBAN SAWMA a "Pethikha"which authorized him to act as Visitor-General over all Christians. And Mar Papa blessed him and he caused to be assigned to him for expenses on the road one thousand, five hundred mathkale of red gold. And to King Arghon he sent certain gifts. And he embraced RABBAN SAWMA and kissed him and dismissed him. And RABBAN SAWMA thanked our Lord who had held him to be worthy of such blessings as these.

Section Two) The Practice of Commerce By Francesco Balducci Pegolotti Introduction: Francesco Balducci Pegolotti was an Italian merchant, born in Florence and working for the famous Bardi Company and its bank, which in the mid-1300s was the most powerful commercial force in Europe, loaning money to everyone from the king of England to the Pope. Pegolotti travelled extensively and wrote an account of global commerce based on his own experiences, a selection of which is detailed below. IN THE NAME OF THE LORD, AMEN! This book is called the Book of Descriptions of Countries and of measures employed in business, and of other things needful to be known by merchants of different parts of the world, and by all who have to do with merchandize and exchanges; showing also what relation the merchandize of one country or of one city bears to that of others; and how one kind of goods is better than another kind; and where the various wares come from, and how they may be kept as long as possible. The book was compiled by Francis Balducci Pegolotti of Florence, who was with the Company of the Bardi of Florence, and during the time that he was in the service of the said Company, for

the good and honour and prosperity of the said Company, and for his own, and for that of whosoever shall read or transcnbe the said book.... [He then provides several pages of terminology and definitions, for example, giving the words for "customs duties" and "market" in several languages.] CHAPTER I Information regarding the journey to Cathay, for such as will go by Tana and come back with goods. In the first place, from Tana [Azov, at the mouth of the Don R.] to Gintarchan [Astrakhan, at the mouth of the Volga R.] may be twenty-five days with an ox-waggon, and from ten to twelve days with a horse-waggon. On the road you will find plenty of Moccols [Mongols], that is to say, of gens d'armes. And from Gittarchan to Sara [Sarai, the Mongol Capital a ways up the Volga] may be a day by river, and from Sara to Saracanco [Sarachik, on the lower reaches of the Ural R.], also by river, eight days. You can do this either by land or by water; but by water you will be at less charge for your merchandize. From Saracanco to Organci [Urgench, on the lower Amu Darya R.] may be twenty days journey in camel-waggon. It will be well for anyone travelling with merchandize to go to Organci, for in that city there is a ready sale for goods. From Organci to Oltrarre [Otrar, in today's Kazakhstan] is thirty-five to forty days in camel-waggons. But if when you leave Saracanco you go direct to Oltrarre, it is a journey of fifty days only, and if you have no merchandize it will be better to go this way than to go by Organci. From Oltrarre to Armalec [?Kulja, on the Ili R.] is forty-five days' journey with pack-asses, and every day you find Moccols. And from Armalec to Camexu [Ganchau, in Gansu province] is seventy days with asses, and from Camexu until you come to a river called...is forty-five days on horseback; and then you can go down the river to Cassai [Qinsai], and there you can dispose of the sommi of silver that you have with you, for that is a most active place of business. After getting to Cassai you carry on with the money which you get for the sommi of silver which you sell there; and this money is made of paper, and is called balishi. And four pieces of this money are worth one sommo of silver in the province of Cathay. And from Cassai to Garnalec [Cambalec, Beijing], which is the capital city of the country of Cathay, is thirty days' journey. CHAPTER II. Things needful for merchants who desire to make the journey to Cathay above described. In the first place, you must let your beard grow long and not shave. And at Tana you should furnish yourself with a dragoman [translator/guide]. And you must not try to save money in the matter of dragomen by taking a bad one instead of a good one. For the additional wages of the good one will not cost you so much as you will save by having him. And besides the dragoman It will be well to take at least two good men servants, who are acquainted with the Cumanian [Tatar] tongue. And if the merchant likes to take a woman with him from Tana, he can do so; if he does not like to take one there is no obligation, only if he does take one he will be kept much more comfortably than if he does not take one. Howbeit, if he do take one, it will be well that she be acquainted with the Cumanian tongue as well as the men.

And from Tana travelling to Gittarchan you should take with you twenty-five days' provisions, that is to say, flour and salt fish, for as to meat you will find enough of it at all the places along the road. And so also at all the chief stations noted in going from one country to another in the route, according to the number of days set down above, you should furnish yourself with flour and salt fish; other things you wilt find in sufficiency, and especially meat. The road you travel from Tana to Cathay is perfectly safe, whether by day or by night, according to what the merchants say who have used it. Only if the merchant, in going or coming, should die upon the road, everything belonging to him will become the perquisite of the lord of the country in which he dies, and the officers of the lord will take possession of all. And in like manner if he die in Cathay. But if his brother be with him, or an intimate friend and comrade calling himself his brother, then to such an one they will surrender the property of the deceased, and so it will be rescued. And there is another danger: this is when the lord of the country dies, and before the new lord who is to have the lordship is proclaimed; during such intervals there have sometimes been irregularities practised on the Franks, and other foreigners. (They call Franks all the Christians of these parts from Romania westward'.) And neither will the roads be safe to travel until the other lord be proclaimed who is to reign in room of him who is deceased. Cathay is a province which contained a multitude of cities and towns. Among others there is one in particular, that is to say the capital city, to which is great resort of merchants, and in which there is a vast amount of trade; and this city is called Cambalec. And the said city hath a circuit of one hundred miles, and is all full of people and bouses and of dwellers in the said city. You may calculate that a merchant with a dragoman, and with two men servants, and with goods to the value of twenty-five thousand golden florins, should spend on his way to Cathay from sixty to eighty sommi of silver, and not more if he manage well; and for all the road back again from Cathay to Tana, including the expenses of living and the pay of servants, and all other charges, the cost will be about five sommi per head of pack animals, or something less. And you may reckon the sommo to be worth five golden florins. You may reckon also that each oxwaggon will require one ox, and will carry ten cantars Genoese weight; and the camel-waggon will require three camels, and will carry thirty cantars Genoese weight; and the horse-waggon will require one horse, and will commonly carry six and half cantars of silk, at 250 Genoese pounds to the cantar [a Genoese pound was apparently about 12 ounces]. And a bale of silk may be reckoned at between 110 and 115 Genoese pounds. You may reckon also that from Tana to Sara the road is less safe than on any other part of the journey; and yet even when this part of the road is at its worst, if you are some sixty men in the company you will go as safely as if you were in your own house. Anyone from Genoa or from Venice, wishing to go to the places above-named, and to make the journey to Cathay, should carry linens with him, and if he visit Organci he will dispose of these well. In Organci he should purchase sommi of silver, and with these he should proceed without making any further investment, unless it be some bales of the very finest stuffs which go in small bulk, and cost no more for carriage than coarser stuffs would do.

Merchants who travel this road can ride on horseback or on asses, or mounted in any way that they list to be mounted. Whatever silver the merchants may carry with them as far as Cathay the lord of Cathay will take from them and put into his treasury. And to merchants who thus bring silver they give that paper money of theirs in exchange. This is of yellow paper, stamped with the seal of the lord aforesaid. And this money is called balishi; and with this money you can readily buy silk and all other merchandize that you have a desire to buy. And all the people of the country are bound to receive it. And yet you shall not pay a higher price for your goods because your money is of paper. And of the said paper money there are three kinds, one being worth more than another, according to the value which has been established for each by that lord. And you may reckon that you can buy for one sommo of silver nineteen or twenty pounds of Cathay silk, when reduced to Genoese weight, and that the sommo should weigh eight and a half ounces of Genoa, and should be of the alloy of eleven ounces and seventeen deniers to the pound.

You may reckon also that in Cathay you should get three or three and a half pieces of damasked silk for a sommo; and from three and a half to five pieces of nacchetti of silk and gold, likewise for a sommo of silver.

Section Three) Marco Polo – The Description of the World Introduction: There is no medieval traveller more famous than Marco Polo. His father and uncle had accidentally ended up traveling as far as China in the 1260s, and were sent home by the Great Khan to bring relics and religious experts to his court. On their return voyage young Marco Polo joined as well and entered the service of the Great Khan. Upon returning to Europe he wrote an account of the world he saw and heard about that became a medieval best-seller. Below are excerpts from that account focusing on the cities of China and the lands of the Assassins. The Great Yearly Revenue The Great Khan Receives From Hangchow Now I will tell you about the great revenue the Great Khan draws every year from the said city of Kinsay (Hangchow) and its territory, which forms a ninth of the country. First there is the salt, which brings in a great revenue. For its produces every year, in round numbers, a vast sum of money! (This province, you see, adjoins the ocean, on the shores of which are many lagoons or salt marshes, in which the sea-water dries up during the summer time; and thence they extract such a quantity of salt as suffices for the supply of five of the kingdoms of Manzi (South China) besides this one.) In this city and its dependencies they make great quantities of sugar, as indeed they do in the other eight divisions of the country; so that I believe the whole of the rest of the world together 59

does not produce such a quantity, at least, if that be true which many people have told me; and the sugar alone again produces an enormous revenue. All spices pay three and a third percent on the value; and all merchandise likewise pays three and a third percent. (But sea-borne goods from India and other distant countries pay 10 percent.) The rice-wine also makes a great return, as does coal, of which there is a great quantity; and so do the twelve guilds of craftsmen that I told you of, with their 12,000 stations apiece, for they must pay tax on every article they make. The silk which is produced in such abundance brings an immense return since they must pay 10 percent on it or more as on many other articles. Marco Polo, who relates all this, was several times sent by the Great Khan to inspect the amount of his customs and revenue from this ninth part of the country, and he found it to be one of the most enormous revenues that ever was heard of. And if the ruler has such a revenue from oneninth of the country, you may judge what he must have from the whole of it! However, this part of the country is the greatest and most productive; and because of the great revenue that the Great Khan derives from it, it is his favorite province, and he takes all the more care to watch it well, and to keep the people contented. On the Noble City of Soochow Soochow is a very great and noble city. The people are subjects of the Great Khan, and have paper money. They possess silk in great quantities, from which they make gold brocade and other stuffs, and they live by their manufactures and trade. The city is very great, as large as 60 square miles. It contains merchants of great wealth and an incalculable number of people. Indeed, if the men of this city and of the rest of the country had the spirit of soldiers they would conquer the world; but they are not soldiers at all, only accomplished traders and most skilled craftsmen. There are also in this city many great philosophers and others who do not appear to work. In this city there are 6,000 bridges, all of stone, and so lofty that two ships together could pass underneath them. In the mountains belonging to this city, rhubarb and ginger grow in great abundance. The city has 16 other great trading cities under its rule. Description of the Great City of Kinsay (Hangchow) Which Is the Capital of the Whole Country of Manzi (South China) [Note: Kinsay, or Hangchow, was the capital of the Southern Sung dynasty when the Mongols captured it, thereby taking over all of China and establishing the Yuan dynasty in 1279. Hangchow, with a population of more than a million, was indeed the largest city in the world at the time, several times larger than the cities of Europe. It greatly impressed Marco Polo, as we shall see. Today Hangchow is still one of the most beautiful cities in all China, with its West Lake.] 60

When you have left the city of Soochow and have traveled for four days through a splendid country, passing a number of towns and villages, you arrive at the most noble city of Kinsay, which is in our language "City of Heaven." I will enter into particulars about its magnificence since the city is beyond dispute the finest and noblest in the world. First and foremost, then, Kinsay is so great that it is 200 square miles. In it there are 12,000 bridges of stone, with most so lofty that a great fleet could pass beneath them. And let no man marvel that there are so many bridges, for you see the whole city stands as it were in the water and surrounded by water, so that a great many bridges are required to give free passage around it. In this city there are 12 guilds of different crafts, and each guild has 12,000 houses in the occupation of its workmen. Each of these houses contain at least 12 men, while some contain 20 and some 40, including the apprentices who work under the masters. All these craftsmen had full employment since many other cities of the kingdom are supplied by this city. Inside the city there is a lake of some 30 miles: and all round it are beautiful palaces and mansions, of the richest and most exquisite structure that you can imagine, belonging to the nobles of the city. There are also two islands, on each of which stands a rich, beautiful, and spacious edifice, furnished in such style fit for the palace of an emperor. And when anyone of the citizens desire to hold a marriage feast or to give any other entertainment, it is done at one of these palaces. And everything would be found there ready to order, such as silver plate, trenchers, and dishes (napkins and table cloths), and whatever else was needed. The king made this provision for the gratification of his people, and the place was open to everyone who desired to give an entertainment. (Sometimes there would be at these palaces a hundred different parties; some holding a banquet, others celebrating a wedding; and yet all would find good accommodations in the different apartments and pavilions, and that all was so well ordered that one party was never in the way of another.) The houses of the city are provided with lofty towers of stone in which articles of value are stored for fear of fire; for most of the houses themselves are of timber and fires are very frequent in the city. Both men and women are fair and comely, and for the most part clothe themselves in silk, so vast is the supply of that material, both from the whole district of Kinsay and from the imports by traders from other provinces. Since the Great Khan occupied the city he has ordained that each of the 12,000 bridges be provided with a guard of ten men, in case of any disturbances or of any being so bold as to plot treason or rebellion against him. Part of the watch patrols the quarter, to see if any light or fire is burning after the lawful hours; if they find any they mark the door, and in the morning the owner is summoned before the magistrates, and unless he can plead a good excuse he is punished. Also if they find anyone going about the streets at unlawful hours they arrest him, and in the morning they bring him before the magistrates. Likewise if in the daytime they find any poor cripple unable to work for his livelihood, they take him to one of the hospitals, of which there are many, founded by the 61

ancient kings, and endowed with great revenues. Or if he be capable of work they oblige him to take up some trade. If they see that any house has caught fire they immediately beat upon that wooden instrument to give the alarm, and this brings together the watchmen from the other bridges to help extinguish it, and to save the goods of the merchants or others, either by removing them to the towers or by putting them in boats and transporting them to the islands in the lake. For no citizen dares leave his house at night, or to come near the fire; only those who own the property, and those watchmen who clock to help of whom there shall come one or two thousand at least. The Khan watches this city with special diligence because it forms the head of this part of China and because he has an immense revenue from the taxes levied on the trade here, the amount of which is so high no one would believe it. All the streets of the city are paved with stone or brick, as indeed are all the highways throughout this area so that you ride and travel in every direction without inconvenience. Were it not for this pavement you cannot do so, for the country is very low and flat, and after rain deep in mud and water. The city of Kinsay has some 3,000 baths, the water of which is supplied by springs. They are hot baths, and the people take great delight in them, frequenting them several times a month, for they are very cleanly in their persons. They are the finest and largest baths in the world; large enough for 100 persons to bathe together. This city of Kinsay is the seat of one of the kings who rules over 100 great and wealthy cities. For in the whole of this part of the country, there are more than 1,200 great cities, without counting the towns and villages, which are also in great numbers. In each of those 1,200 cities the Great Khan has a garrison, and the smallest of such garrisons musters 1,000 men; while there are some of 10,000, 20,000, and 30,000; so that the total number of troops is something scarcely calculable. You must not suppose they are by any means all cavalry; a very large proportion are foot-soldiers, according to the special requirements of each city. And all of them belong to the army of the Great Khan. The people of this country have a custom, that as soon as a child is born they write down the day and hour and the planet and sign under which its birth has taken place; so that everyone knows the day of his birth. And when anyone intends a journey he goes to the astrologers, and gives the particulars of his birth in order to learn whether he shall have good luck. Sometimes they will say no, and in that case the journey is put off till such day as the astrologer may recommend. These astrologers are very skillful at their business, and often their words come to pass, so the people have great faith in them. It is also the custom for every burgess of this city, and in fact for every person in it, to write over his door his own name, the name of his wife, and those of his children, his slaves, and all in his house, and also the number of animals that he keeps. And if anyone dies in the house then the name of that person is erased, and if any child is born its name is added, so in this way the ruler

is able to know exactly the population of the city. And this is the practice also throughout the country. In this part are the ten main markets, though besides these there are a vast number of others in the different parts of town. They are all squares of half a mile to the side, and along their front passes the main street, which is 40 paces in width, and runs straight from end to end of the city, crossing many bridges. At every four miles of its length comes one of those great squares of two miles in compass. In each of the squares is held a market three days a week, frequented by 40,000 or 50,000 persons, who bring there for sale every possible necessity of life, so that there is always an ample supply of every kind of meat and game, as of roebuck, red-deer, fallow-deer, hares, rabbits, partridges, pheasants, quails, fowls, ducks and geese. Then there are the buildings where the large animals are slaughtered, such as calves, beef, kids, and lambs, the flesh of which is eaten by the rich and the great dignitaries. Those markets make a daily display of every kind of vegetable and fruit; and among the latter there are in particular certain pears of enormous size, weighing as much as ten pounds apiece, and pulp of which is white and fragrant like a confection, besides peaches in their season both yellow and white, of every delicate flavor. Neither grapes nor wine are produced there, but very good raisins are brought from abroad, and wine likewise. The natives, however, do not much care about this wine, being used to that kind of their own made from rice and spices. From the Ocean Sea also come daily supplies of fish in great quantity, brought 25 miles up river, and there is also great store of fish from the lake, which is the constant resort of fishermen, who have no other business. Their fish is of sundry kinds, changing with the season; and it is remarkably fat and tasty. Anyone who should see the supply of fish in the market would suppose it impossible that such a quantity could ever be sold; and yet in a few hours the whole shall be cleared away; so great is the number of inhabitants who are accustomed to delicate living. Indeed they eat fish and flesh at the same meal. All the ten market places are encompassed by lofty houses, and below these shops is where all sorts of crafts are carried on, and all sorts of wares are on sale, including spices and jewels and pearls. Some of these shops are entirely devoted to the sale of wine made from rice and spices, which is constantly made fresh. The houses of the citizens are well built and elaborately finished; and the delight they take in decoration, in painting and in architecture, leads them to spend in this way sums of money that would astonish you. The natives of this city are men of peaceful character, both from education and from the example of their kings, whose disposition was the same. They know nothing of handling arms, and keep none in their houses. You hear of no feuds or noisy quarrels or dissentions among them. Both in their commercial dealings and in their manufactures, they are thoroughly honest and truthful, and there is such a degree of good will and neighborly attachment among both men and women that you would take the people who live in the same street to be all one family.

They treat the foreigners who visit them with great politeness and entertain them in the most winning manner, offering advice on their business. On the lake there are numbers of boats and barges of all sizes for parties of pleasure. These will hold 10, 15, 20, or more persons, and are from 15 to 20 paces in length, with flat bottoms and ample breadth of beam, so that they always keep afloat. Anyone who desires to go with the women or with a party hires one of these barges which are always to be found completely furnished with tables and chairs and all the other apparatus for a feast. The roof forms a level deck, on which the crew stands and poles the boat along whithersoever may be desired for the lake is not more than two paces in depth. The inside of this roof and the rest of the interior is covered with ornamental painting in gay colors, with windows all round that can be shut or opened, so that the party at table can enjoy all the beauty and variety of the prospects on both sides as they pass along. The lake is never without a number of other such boats, laden with pleasure parties, for it is the great delight of the citizens here, after they have finished the day's business, to pass the afternoon in enjoyment with their ladies, either in these barges or in driving about the city in carriages.

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Section Four: The Travels of Benjamin of Tudela Introduction: Benjamin of Tudela was a Jewish traveller who left his native Spain to travel across the Mediterranean and the Middle East in the 1160s and early 1170s. It is the only account here that predates the Mongol invasions and give a good picture of Europe and especially the Middle East before their arrival. From Marseilles one can take ship and in four days reach Genoa, which is also upon the sea. Here live two Jews, R. Samuel, son of Salim, and his brother, from the city of Ceuta, both of them good men. The city is surrounded by a wall, and the inhabitants are not governed by any king, but by judges whom they appoint at their pleasure. Each p.7householder has a tower to his house, and at times of strife they fight from the tops of the towers with each other. They have command of the sea. They build ships which they call galleys, and make predatory attacks upon Edom and Ishmael[19] and the land of Greece as far as Sicily, and they bring back to Genoa spoils from all these places. They are constantly at war with the men of Pisa. Between them and the Pisans there is a distance of two days' journey. Pisa is a very great city, with about 10,000 turreted houses for battle at times of strife. All its inhabitants are mighty men. They possess neither king nor prince to govern them, but only the judges appointed by themselves. In this city are about twenty Jews, at their head being R. Moses, R. Chayim, and R. Joseph. The city is not surrounded by a wall. It is about six miles from the sea; the river which flows through the city provides it with ingress and egress for ships.

From Pisa it is four parasangs to the city of Lucca, which is the beginning of the frontier of Lombardy. In the city of Lucca are about forty Jews. It is a large place, and at the head of the Jews are R. David, R. Samuel, and p.8R. Jacob. Thence it is six days' journey to the great city of Rome. Rome is the head of the kingdoms of Christendom, and contains about 200 Jews, who occupy an honourable position and pay no tribute, and amongst them are officials of the Pope Alexander, the spiritual head of all Christendom. Great scholars reside here, at the head of them being R. Daniel, the chief rabbi, and R. Jechiel, an official of the Pope[20]. He is a handsome young man of intelligence and wisdom, and he has the entry of the Pope's palace; for he is the steward of his house and of all that he has. He is a grandson of R. Nathan, who composed the Aruch[21] and its commentaries. Other scholars are R. Joab, son of the chief rabbi R. Solomon, R. Menachem, head of the academy, R. Jechiel, who lives in Trastevere, and R. Benjamin, son of R. Shabbethai of blessed memory. Rome is divided into two parts by the River Tiber. In the one part is the great church which they call St. Peter's of Rome. The great Palace of Julius Caesar was also in Rome[22]. There are many wonderful structures in the city, p.9different from any others in the world. Including both its inhabited and ruined parts, Rome is about twenty-four miles in circumference. In the midst thereof[23] there are eighty palaces belonging to eighty kings who lived there, each called Imperator, commencing from King Tarquinius down to Nero and Tiberius, who lived at the time of Jesus the Nazarene, ending with Pepin, who freed the land of Sepharad from Islam, and was father of Charlemagne. There is a palace outside Rome (said to be of Titus). The Consul and his 300 Senators treated him with disfavour, because he failed to take Jerusalem till after three years, though they had bidden him to capture it within two[24]. In Rome is also the palace of Vespasianus, a great and very strong building; also the Colosseum[25], in which edifice there are 365 sections, according to the days of the solar year; and the circumference of these palaces is three miles. There were battles fought here in olden times, and in the palace more than 100,000 men were slain, and there their bones remain piled up to the present day. The king caused to be engraved a p.10representation of the battle and of the forces on either side facing one another, both warriors and horses, all in marble, to exhibit to the world the war of the days of old. In Rome there is a cave which runs underground, and catacombs of King Tarmal Galsin and his royal consort who are to be found there, seated upon their thrones, and with them about a hundred royal personages. They are all embalmed and preserved to this day. In the church of St. John in the Lateran there are two bronze columns taken from the Temple, the handiwork of King Solomon, each column being engraved "Solomon the son of David." The Jews of Rome told me that every year upon the 9th of Ab they found the columns exuding moisture like water. There also is the cave where Titus the son of Vespasianus stored the Temple vessels which he brought from Jerusalem. There is also a cave in a hill on one bank of the River Tiber where are the graves of the ten martyrs[26]. In front of St. John in the Lateran there are statues of p.11Samson in marble, with a spear in his hand, and of Absalom the son of King David, and another of Constantinus the Great, who built Constantinople and after whom it was called. The last-named statue is of bronze, the horse being overlaid with gold[27]. Many other edifices are there, and remarkable sights beyond enumeration. 65

From Rome it is four days to Capua, the large town which King Capys built. It is a fine city, but its water is bad, and the country is fever-stricken[28]. About 300 Jews live there, among them great scholars and esteemed persons, at their heads being R. Conso, his brother R. Israel, R. Zaken and the chief rabbi R. David, since deceased. They call this district the Principality. From there one goes to Pozzuoli which is called Sorrento the Great, built by Zur, son of Hadadezer, when he fled in fear of David the king. The sea has risen and covered the city from its two sides, and at the present day one can still see the markets and towers which stood in the midst of the city[29]. A spring issues forth from beneath the ground containing the oil which is called petroleum.p.12 People collect it from the surface of the water and use it medicinally. There are also hot-water springs to the number of about twenty, which issue from the ground and are situated near the sea, and every man who has any disease can go and bathe in them and get cured. All the afflicted of Lombardy visit it in the summer-time for that purpose. From this place a man can travel fifteen miles along a road under the mountains, a work executed by King Romulus who built the city of Rome. He was prompted to this by fear of King David and Joab his general[30]. He built fortifications both upon the mountains and below the mountains reaching as far as the city of Naples. Naples is a very strong city, lying upon the sea-board, and was founded by the Greeks. About 500 Jews live here, amongst them R. Hezekiah, R. Shallum, R. Elijah Hacohen and R. Isaac of Har Napus, the chief rabbi of blessed memory. Thence one proceeds by sea to the city of Salerno, where the Christians have a school of medicine. About 600 Jews dwell there. Among the scholars are R. Judah, son of R. Isaac, the son ofp.13 Melchizedek, the great Rabbi[31], who came from the city of Siponto; also R. Solomon (the Cohen), R. Elijah the Greek, R. Abraham Narboni, and R. Hamon. It is a city with walls upon the land side, the other side bordering on the sea and there is a very strong castle on the summit of the hill. Thence it is half a day's journey to Amalfi, where there are about twenty Jews, amongst them R. Hananel, the physician, R. Elisha, and Abu-al-gir, the prince. The inhabitants of the place are merchants engaged in trade, who do not sow or reap, because they dwell upon high hills and lofty crags, but buy everything for money. Nevertheless, they have an abundance of fruit, for it is a land of vineyards and olives, of gardens and plantations, and no one can go to war with them. Thence it is a day's journey to Benevento, which is a city situated between the sea-coast and a mountain, and possessing a community of about 200 Jews. At their head are R. Kalonymus, R. Zarach, and R. Abraham. From there it is two days' journey to Melfi in the country of Apulia, which is the land of Pul[32], where about 200p.14 Jews reside, at their head being R. Achimaaz, R. Nathan, and R. Isaac. From Melfi it is about a day's journey to Ascoli, where there are about forty Jews, at their head being R. Consoli, R. Zemach, his son-in-law, and R. Joseph. From there it takes two days to Trani on the sea, where all the pilgrims gather to go to Jerusalem; for the port is a convenient one. A community of about 200 Israelites is there, at their head being R. Elijah, R. Nathan, the expounder, and R. Jacob. It is a great and beautiful city. … A three days' voyage brings one to Abydos, which is upon an arm of the sea which flows between the mountains, and after a five days' journey the great town of Constantinople is reached. It is the capital of the whole land of Javan, which is called Greece. Here is the residence of the King Emanuel the Emperor. Twelve ministers are under him, each of whom has a palace in 66

Constantinople and possesses castles and cities; they rule all the land. At their head is the King Hipparchus, the second in command is the Megas Domesticus, the third Dominus, and the fourthp.20 is Megaa Ducas, and the fifth is Oeconomus Megalus; the others bear names like these[41]. The circumference of the city of Constantinople is eighteen miles; half of it is surrounded by the sea, and half by land, and it is situated upon two arms of the sea, one coming from the sea of Russia, and one from the sea of Sepharad. All sorts of merchants come here from the land of Babylon, from the land of Shinar, from Persia, Media, and all the sovereignty of the land of Egypt, from the land of Canaan, and the empire of Russia[42], from Hungaria, Patzinakia[43], Khazaria[44], and the land of Lombardy and Sepharad. It is a busy city, and merchants come to it from every country by sea or land, and there is none like it in the world except Bagdad, the great city of Islam. In Constantinople is the church of Santa Sophia, and the seat of the Pope of the Greeks, since the Greeks do not obey the Pope of Rome. There are also churches according to the number of the days of the year. A quantity of wealth beyond telling is brought hither year by year as tribute from the two islands and the castles and villages which are there. And the like of this wealth is not to be foundp.21 in any other church in the world. And in this church there are pillars of gold and silver, and lamps of silver and gold more than a man can count. Close to the walls of the palace is also a place of amusement belonging to the king, which is called the Hippodrome, and every year on the anniversary of the birth of Jesus the king gives a great entertainment there. And in that place men from all the races of the world come before the king and queen with jugglery and without jugglery, and they introduce lions, leopards, bears, and wild asses, and they engage them in combat with one another; and the same thing is done with birds. No entertainment like this is to be found in any other land. This King Emanuel built a great palace for the seat of his Government upon the sea-coast, in addition to the palaces which his fathers built, and he called its name Blachernae[45]. He overlaid its columns and walls with gold and silver, and engraved thereon representations of the battles before his day and of his own combats. He also set up a throne of gold and of precious stones, and a golden crown was suspendedp.22 by a gold chain over the throne, so arranged that he might sit thereunder[46]. It was inlaid with jewels of priceless value, and at night time no lights were required, for every one could see by the light which the stones gave forth. Countless other buildings are to be met with in the city. From every part of the empire of Greece tribute is brought here every year, and they fill strongholds with garments of silk, purple, and gold. Like unto these storehouses and this wealth, there is nothing in the whole world to be found. It is said that the tribute of the city amounts every year to 20,000 gold pieces, derived both from the rents of shops and markets, and from the tribute of merchants who enter by sea or land. The Greek inhabitants are very rich in gold and precious stones, and they go clothed in garments of silk with gold embroidery, and they ride horses, and look like princes. Indeed, the land is very rich in all cloth stuffs, and in bread, meat, and wine.p.23 Wealth like that of Constantinople is not to be found in the whole world. Here also are men learned in all the books of the Greeks, and they eat and drink every man under his vine and his fig-tree. They hire from amongst all nations warriors called Loazim (Barbarians) to fight with the Sultan Masud[47], King of the Togarmim (Seljuks), who are called Turks; for the natives are not warlike, but are as women who have no strength to fight. … 67

Two days' journey brings one to Damascus, the great city, which is the commencement of the empire of Nur-ed-din, the king of the Togarmim, called Turks. It is a fair city of large extent, surrounded by walls, with many gardens and plantations, extending over fifteen miles on each side, and no district richer in fruit can be seen in all the world. From Mount Hermon descend the rivers Amana and Pharpar; for the city is situated at the foot of Mount Hermon. The Amana flows through the city, and by means of aqueducts the water is conveyed to the houses of the great people, and into the streets and market-places. The Pharpar flows through their gardens and plantations. It is a place carrying on trade with all countries. Here is a mosque of the Arabs called the Gami of Damascus; there is no building like it in the whole world, and they say that it was a palace of Ben Hadad. Here is a wall of crystal glass of magic workmanship, with apertures according to the days of the year, and as the sun's rays enter each of them in daily succession the hours of the day can be told by a graduated dial. In the palace are chambers built of gold and glass, and if people walk round the wall they are able to see one another, although the wall is between them. And there are columns overlaid with gold and silver, and columns of marble of all colours[101]. And in the court there is a gigantic head overlaid with gold and silver, and fashioned like a bowl with rims of gold and silver. It is as big as a cask, and three men can enter therein at the same time to bathe. In the palace is suspended the rib of one of the giants, the length being nine cubits, and the width two cubits; and they say it belonged to the King Anak of the giants of old, whose name was Abramaz[102]. For so it was found inscribed on his grave, where it was also written that he ruled p.48over the whole world. Three thousand Jews abide in this city, and amongst them are learned and rich men[103]. The head of the Academy of the land of Israel resides here[104]. His name is R. Azariah, and with him are his brother, Sar Shalom, the head of the Beth Din: R. Joseph, the fifth of the Academy: R. Mazliach, the lecturer, the head of the order: R. Meir, the crown of the scholars: R. Joseph ben Al Pilath, the pillar of the Academy: R. Heman, the warden: and R. Zedekiah, the physician. One hundred Karaïtes dwell here, also 400 Cuthim, and there is peace between them, but they do not intermarry. It is a day's journey to Galid, which is Gilead, and sixty Israelites are there, at their head being R. Zadok, R. Isaac, and R. Solomon. It is a place of wide extent, with brooks of water, gardens, and plantations. Thence it is half a day to Salkat, which is Salchah of old[105]… From Baalbec to KarjatĪn, which 1s Kirjathim, is a distance of half a day; no Jews live there except one dyer. Thence it is a day's journey to Emesa, which is a city of the Zemarites, where about twenty Jews dwell[107]. Thence it is a day's journey to Hamah, which is Hamath. It lies on the river Jabbok at the foot of Mount Lebanon[108]. Some time ago there was a great earthquake in the city, and 25,000 souls perished in one day, and p.50of about 200 Jews but seventy escaped. … Thence it is two days to Haleb (Aleppo) or Aram Zoba, which is the royal city of Nur-ed-din. In the midst of the city is his palace surrounded by a very high wall. This is a very large place. There is no well there nor any stream, but the inhabitants drink rainwater, each one possessing a cistern in his house[110]. The city has 5,000 Jewish inhabitants, at their head being R. Moses el Constantini and R. Seth. Thence it is two days to Balis[111], which is Pethor on the river Euphrates, and unto this day there stands the turret of Balaam, which he built to tell the hours of the day. About ten Jews live here. Thence it is half a day to Kalat Jabar, which is Selah of the wilderness, that was left unto the Arabs at the time the Togarmim took their land and p.51caused them to fly into the wilderness. About 2,000 Jews dwell there, at their head being R. Zedekiah, R. Chiya, and R. Solomon. 68

… Thence it is two days to Bagdad, the great city and the royal residence of the Caliph Emir al Muminin al Abbasi of the family of Mohammed. He is at the head of the Mohammedan religion, and all the kings of Islam obey him; he occupies a similar position to that held by the Pope over the Christians[123]. He has a palace in Bagdad three miles in extent, wherein is a great park with all varieties of trees, fruit-bearing and otherwise, and all manner of animals. The whole is surrounded by a wall, and in the park there is a lake whose waters are fed by the river Hiddekel. Whenever the king desires to indulge in recreation and to rejoice and feast, his servants catch all manner of' birds, game and fish, and he goes to his palace with his counsellors and princes. There the great king, Al Abbasi the Caliph (Hafiz) p.55holds his court, and he is kind unto Israel, and many belonging to the people of Israel are his attendants; he knows all languages, and is well versed in the law of Israel. He reads and writes the holy language (Hebrew). He will not partake of anything unless he has earned it by the work of his own hands. He makes coverlets to which he attaches his seal; his courtiers sell them in the market, and the great ones of the land purchase them, and the proceeds thereof provide his sustenance. He is truthful and trusty, speaking peace to all men. The men of Islam see him but once in the year. The pilgrims that come from distant lands to go unto Mecca which is in the land El-Yemen, are anxious to see his face, and they assemble before the palace exclaiming "Our Lord, light of Islam and glory of our Law, show us the effulgence of thy countenance," but he pays no regard to their words. Then the princes who minister unto him say to him, "Our Lord, spread forth thy peace unto the men that have come from distant lands, who crave to abide under the shadow of thy graciousness," and thereupon he arises and lets down the hem of his robe from the window, p.56and the pilgrims come and kiss it[124], and a prince says unto them "Go forth in peace, for our Master the Lord of Islam granteth peace to you." He is regarded by them as Mohammed and they go to their houses rejoicing at the salutation which the prince has vouchsafed unto them, and glad at heart that they have kissed his robe. Each of his brothers and the members of his family has an abode in his palace, but they are all fettered in chains of iron, and guards are placed over each of their houses so that they may not rise against the great Caliph. For once it happened to a predecessor that his brothers rose up against him and proclaimed one of themselves as Caliph; then it was decreed that all the members of his family should be bound, that they might not rise up against the ruling Caliph. Each one of them resides in his palace in great splendour, and they own villages and towns, and their stewards bring them the tribute thereof, and they eat and drink and rejoice all the days of their life[125]. Within the domains of the palace of the Caliph there are great buildings of marble and columns of silver and gold, andp. 57 carvings upon rare stones are fixed in the walls. In the Caliph's palace are great riches and towers filled with gold, silken garments and all precious stones. He does not issue forth from his palace save once in the year, at the feast which the Mohammedans call El-id-bed Ramazan, and they come from distant lands that day to see him. He rides on a mule and is attired in the royal robes of gold and silver and fine linen; on his head is a turban adorned with precious stones of priceless value, and over the turban is a black shawl as a sign of his modesty, implying that all this glory will be covered by darkness on the day of death. He is accompanied by all the nobles of Islam dressed in fine garments and riding on horses, the princes of Arabia, the princes of Togarma and Daylam (Gilān) and the princes of Persia, Media and Ghuzz, and the princes of the land of Tibet, which is three months' journey distant, and westward of which lies the land of Samarkand. He proceeds from his palace to the great mosque of Islam which is by the Basrah Gate. Along the road the walls are adorned with silk and purple, and the inhabitants receive him with all 69

kinds of song and exultation, and they dance before the great king who is styled the Caliph. They salute him with a loudp.58 voice and say, "Peace unto thee, our Lord the King and Light of Islam!" He kisses his robe, and stretching forth the hem thereof he salutes them. Then he proceeds to the court of the mosque, mounts a wooden pulpit and expounds to them their Law. Then the learned ones of Islam arise and pray for him and extol his greatness and his graciousness, to which they all respond. Afterwards he gives them his blessing, and they bring before him a camel which he slays, and this is their passover-sacrifice. He gives thereof unto the princes and they distribute it to all, so that they may taste of the sacrifice brought by their sacred king; and they all rejoice. Afterwards he leaves the mosque and returns alone to his palace by way of the river Hiddekel, and the grandees of Islam accompany him in ships on the river until he enters his palace. He does not return the way he came; and the road which he takes along the river-side is watched all the year through, so that no man shall tread in his footsteps. He does not leave the palace again for a whole year. He is a benevolent man. p.59 He built, on the other side of the river, on the banks of an arm of the Euphrates which there borders the city, a hospital consisting of blocks of houses and hospices for the sick poor who come to be healed[126]. Here there are about sixty physicians' stores which are provided from the Caliph's house with drugs and whatever else may be required. Every sick man who comes is maintained at the Caliph's expense and is medically treated. Here is a building which is called Dar-al-Maristan, where they keep charge of the demented people who have become insane in the towns through the great heat in the summer, and they chain each of them in iron chains until their reason becomes restored to them in the winter-time. Whilst they abide there, they are provided with food from the house of the Caliph, and when their reason is restored they are dismissed and each one of them goes to his house and his home. Money is given to those that have stayed in the hospices on their return to their homes. Every month the officers of the Caliph inquire and investigate whether they have regained their reason, in which case they are discharged. All this the Caliph does out of charity to those that come to the city of Bagdad, whether they be sick or insane. The Caliph is a righteous man, and all his actions are for good. In Bagdad there are about 40,000 Jews[127],p.60 and they dwell in security, prosperity and honour under the great Caliph, and amongst them are great sages, the heads of Academies engaged in the study of the law … In Bagdad there are twenty-eight Jewish Synagogues, situated either in the city itself or in AlKarkh on the other side of the Tigris; for the river divides the metropolis into two parts. The great synagogue of the Head of the Captivity has columns of marble of various colours overlaid with silver and gold, and on these columns are sentences of the Psalms in golden letters. And in front of the ark are about ten steps of marble; on the topmost step are the seats of the Head of the Captivity and of the Princes of the House of David. The city of Bagdad is twenty miles in circumference, situated in a land of palms, gardens and plantations, the like of which is not to be found in the whole land of Shinar. People come thither with merchandise from all lands. Wise men live there, philosophers who know all manner of wisdom, and magicians expert in all manner of witchcraft.

Section Five) The travels of Ibn Battuta Introduction: After Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta is probably the most famous medieval traveler. Setting out from his home in Morocco a year after the Venetian explorer died, Battuta would become the best travelled man in recorded history to that point. His journeys took him 72,000 miles, more than quadruple Polo’s travels. I arrived at length at Cairo, mother of cities and seat of Pharaoh the tyrant, mistress of broad regions and fruitful lands, boundless in multitude of buildings, peerless in beauty and splendour, the meeting-place of comer and goer, the halting-place of feeble and mighty, whose throngs surge as the waves of the sea, and can scarce be contained in her for all her size and capacity. It is said that in Cairo there are twelve thousand water-carriers who transport water on camels, and thirty thousand hirers of mules and donkeys, and that on the Nile there are thirty-six thousand boats belonging to the Sultan and his subjects which sail upstream to Upper Egypt and downstream to Alexandria and Damietta, laden with goods and profitable merchandise of all kinds. A pleasure garden On the bank of the Nile opposite Old Cairo is the place known as The Garden, which is a pleasure park and promenade, containing many beautiful gardens, for the people of Cairo are given to pleasure and amusements. I witnessed a fete once in Cairo for the sultan's recovery from a fractured hand; all the merchants decorated their bazaars and had rich stuffs, ornaments and silken fabrics hanging in their shops for several days. Religious institutions The mosque of 'Amr is highly venerated and widely celebrated. The Friday service is held in it and the road runs through it from east to west. The madrasas [college mosques] of Cairo cannot be counted for multitude. As for the Maristan [hospital], which lies "between the two castles" near the mausoleum of Sultan Qala'un, no description is adequate to its beauties. It contains an innumerable quantity of appliances and medicaments, and its daily revenue is put as high as a thousand dinars. There are a large number of religious establishments ["convents "] which they call khanqahs, and the nobles vie with one another in building them. Each of these is set apart for a separate school of darwishes, mostly Persians, who are men of good education and adepts in the mystical doctrines. Each has a superior and a doorkeeper and their affairs are admirably organized. They have many special customs one of which has to do with their food. The steward of the house comes in the morning to the darwishes, each of whom indicates what food he desires, and when they assemble for meals, each person is given his bread and soup in a separate dish, none sharing with another. They eat twice a day. They are each given winter clothes and summer clothes, and a monthly allowance of from twenty to thirty dirhams. Every Thursday night they receive sugar cakes, soap to wash their clothes, the price of a bath, and oil for their lamps. These men are celibate; the married men have separate convents.

At Cairo too is the great cemetery of al-Qarafa, which is a place of peculiar sanctity and contains the graves of innumerable scholars and pious believers. In the Qarafa the people build beautiful pavilions surrounded by walls, so that they look like houses. They also build chambers and hire Koran-readers who recite night and day in agreeable voices. Some of them build religious houses and madrasas beside the mausoleums and on Thursday nights they go out to spend the night there with their children and women-folk, and make a circuit of the famous tombs. They go out to spend the night there also on the "Night of midSha'ban," and the market-people take out all kinds of eatables. Among the many celebrated sanctuaries [in the city] is the holy shrine where there reposes the head of alHusayn. Beside it is a vast monastery of striking construction, on the doors of which there are silver rings and plates of the same metal. The great river Nile The Egyptian Nile surpasses all rivers of the earth in sweetness of taste, length of course, and utility. No other river in the world can show such a continuous series of towns and villages along its banks, or a basin so intensely cultivated. Its course is from South to North, contrary to all the other great rivers. One extraordinary thing about it is that it begins to rise in the extreme hot weather at the time when rivers generally diminish and dry up, and begins to subside just when rivers begin to increase and overflow. The river Indus resembles it in this feature. The Nile is one of the five great rivers of the world, which are the Nile, Euphrates, Tigris, Syr Darya and Amu Darya; five other rivers resemble these, the Indus, which is called Panj Ab [i.e. Five Rivers], the river of India which is called Gang [Ganges]--it is to it that the Hindus go on pilgrimage, and when they burn their dead they throw the ashes into it, and they say that it comes from Paradise-the river Jun [Jumna or perhaps Brahmaputra] in India, the river Itil [Volga] in the Qipchaq steppes, on the banks of which is the city of Sara, and the river Saru [Hoang-Ho] in the land of Cathay. All these will be mentioned in their proper places, if God will. Some distance below Cairo the Nile divides into three streams, none of which can be crossed except by boat, winter or summer. The inhabitants of every township have canals led off the Nile; these are filled when the river is in flood and carry the water over the fields. Upriver From Cairo I travelled into Upper Egypt, with the intention of crossing to the Hijaz. On the first night I stayed at the monastery of Dayr at-Tin, which was built to house certain illustrious relics-a fragment of the Prophet's wooden basin and the pencil with which he used to apply kohl, the awl he used for sewing his sandals, and the Koran belonging to the Caliph Ali written in his own hand. These were bought, it is said, for a hundred thousand dirhams by the builder of the monastery, who also established funds to supply food to all comers and to maintain the guardians of the sacred relics. Thence my way lay through a number of towns and villages to Munyat Ibn Khasib [Minia], a large town which is built on the bank of the Nile, and most emphatically excels all the other towns of Upper Egypt. I went on through Manfalut, Asyut, Ikhmim, where there is a berba with sculptures and inscriptions which no one can now read-another of these berbas there was pulled down and its stones used to build a madrasa--Qina, Qus, where the governor of Upper Egypt resides, Luxor, a pretty little town containing the tomb of the pious ascetic Abu'l-Hajjaj, Esna, and thence a day and a night's journey through desert country to Edfu.

Camels, Hyenas, and Bejas Here we crossed the Nile and, hiring camels, journeyed with a party of Arabs through a desert, totally devoid of settlements but quite safe for travelling. One of our halts was at Humaythira, a place infested with hyenas. All night long we kept driving them away, and indeed one got at my baggage, tore open one of the sacks, pulled out a bag of dates, and made off with it. We found the bag next morning, torn to pieces and with most of the contents eaten. After fifteen days' travelling we reached the town of Aydhab, a large town, well supplied with milk and fish; dates and grain are imported from Upper Egypt. Its inhabitants are Bejas. These people are blackskinned; they wrap themselves in yellow blankets and tie headbands about a fingerbreadth wide round their heads. They do not give their daughters any share in their inheritance. They live on camels milk and they ride on Meharis [dromedaries]. One-third of the city belongs to the Sultan of Egypt and two-thirds to the King of the Bejas, who is called al-Hudrubi. On reaching Aydhab we found that al-Hudrubi was engaged in warfare with the Turks [i.e. the troops of the Sultan of Egypt], that he had sunk the ships and that the Turks had fled before him. It was impossible for us to attempt the sea-crossing [across the Red Sea], so we sold the provisions that we had made ready for it, and returned to Qus with the Arabs from whom we had hired the camels. Back downriver to Cairo; from Cairo to Syria and Jerusalem We sailed thence down the Nile (it was at the flood time) and after an eight days' journey reached Cairo, where I stayed only one night, and immediately set out for Syria. This was in the middle of July, 1326. My route lay through Bilbays and as-Salihiya, after which we entered the sands and halted at a number of stations. At each of these there was a hostelry which they call a khan, where travellers alight with their beasts. Each khan has a water wheel supplying a fountain and a shop at which the traveller buys what he requires for himself and his beast. Crossing the border into Syria At the station of Qatya customs-dues are collected from the merchants, and their goods and baggage are thoroughly examined and searched. There are offices here, with officers, clerks, and notaries, and the daily revenue is a thousand gold dinars. No one is allowed to pass into Syria without a passport from Egypt, nor into Egypt without a passport from Syria, for the protection of the property of the subjects and as a measure of precaution against spies from Iraq. The responsibility of guarding this road has been entrusted to the Badawin [Bedouin]. At nightfall they smooth down the sand so that no track is left on it, then in the morning the governor comes and looks at the sand. If he finds any track on it he commands the Arabs to bring the person who made it, and they set out in pursuit and never fail to catch him. He is then brought to the governor, who punishes him as he sees fit. The governor at the time of my passage treated me as a guest and showed me great kindness, and allowed all those who were with me to pass. From here we went on to Gaza, which is the first city of Syria on the side next the Egyptian frontier. On the road to Jerusalem: Hebron and Bethlehem pp. 55-57 From Gaza I travelled to the city of Abraham [Hebron], the mosque of which is of elegant, but substantial construction, imposing and lofty, and built of squared stones At one angle of it there is a stone, one of whose faces measures twenty-seven spans. It is said that Solomon commanded the jinn to build it. Inside it is the sacred cave containing the graves of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, opposite which are three graves, which are those of their wives. I questioned the imam, a 73

man of great piety and learning, on the authenticity of these graves, and he replied: "All the scholars whom I have met hold these graves to be the very graves of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and their wives. No one questions this except introducers of false doctrines; it is a tradition which has passed from father to son for generations and admits of no doubt." This mosque contains also the grave of Joseph, and somewhat to the east of it lies the tomb of Lot, which is surmounted by an elegant building. In the neighbourhood is Lot's lake [the Dead Sea], which is brackish and is said to cover the site of the settlements of Lot's people. On the way from Hebron to Jerusalem, I visited Bethlehem, the birthplace of Jesus. The site is covered by a large building; the Christians regard it with intense veneration and hospitably entertain all who alight at it. Jerusalem and its holy sites We then reached Jerusalem (may God ennoble her !), third in excellence after the two holy shrines of Mecca and Medina and the place whence the Prophet was caught up into heaven. Its walls were destroyed by the illustrious King Saladin and his Successors, for fear lest the Christians should seize it and fortify themselves in it. The sacred mosque is a most beautiful building, and is said to be the largest mosque in the world. Its length from east to west is put at 752 "royal" cubits and its breadth at 435. On three sides it has many entrances, but on the south side I know of one only, which is that by which the imam enters. The entire mosque is an open court and unroofed, except the mosque al-Aqsa, which has a roof of most excellent workmanship, embellished with gold and brilliant colours. Some other parts of the mosque are roofed as well. The Dome of the Rock is a building of extraordinary beauty, solidity, elegance, and singularity of shape. It stands on an elevation in the centre of the mosque and is reached by a flight of marble steps. It has four doors. The space round it is also paved with marble, excellently done, and the interior likewise. Both outside and inside the decoration is so magnificent and the workmanship so surpassing as to defy description. The greater part is covered with gold so that the eyes of one who gazes on its beauties are dazzled by its brilliance, now glowing like a mass of light, now flashing like lightning. In the centre of the Dome is the blessed rock from which the Prophet ascended to heaven, a great rock projecting about a man's height, and underneath it there is a cave the size of a small room, also of a man's height, with steps leading down to it. Encircling the rock are two railings of excellent workmanship, the one nearer the rock being artistically constructed in iron and the other of wood. The Christian holy places Among the grace-bestowing sanctuaries of Jerusalem is a building, situated on the farther side of the valley called the valley of Jahannam [Gehenna] to the east of the town, on a high hill. This building is said to mark the place whence Jesus ascended to heaven. In the bottom of the same valley is a church venerated by the Christians, who say that it contains the grave of Mary. In the same place there is another church which the Christians venerate and to which they come on pilgrimage. This is the church of which they are falsely persuaded to believe that it contains the grave of Jesus [Church of the Holy Sepulcher]. All who come on pilgrimage to visit it pay a stipulated tax to the Muslims, and suffer very unwillingly various humiliations. Thereabouts also is the place of the cradle of Jesus which is visited in order to obtain blessing. Ibn Battuta arrives at Damascus pp. 65-73 74

I entered Damascus on Thursday 9th Ramadan 726 [9th August, 1326], and lodged at the Malikite college called ash-Sharabishiya. Damascus surpasses all other cities in beauty, and no description, however full, can do justice to its charms. The Ummayad Mosque The Cathedral Mosque, known as the Umayyad Mosque, is the most magnificent mosque in the world, the finest in construction and noblest in beauty, grace and perfection; it is matchless and unequalled. The person who undertook its construction was the Caliph Walid I [AD 705-715]. He applied to the Roman Emperor at Constantinople, ordering him to send craftsmen to him, and the Emperor sent him twelve thousand of them. The site of the mosque was a church, and when the Muslims captured Damascus, one of their commanders entered from one side by the sword and reached as far as the middle of the church, while the other entered peaceably from the eastern side and reached the middle also. So the Muslims made the half of the church which they had entered by force into a mosque and the half which they had entered by peaceful agreement remained as a church. When Walid decided to extend the mosque over the entire church he asked the Greeks to sell him their church for whatsoever equivalent they desired, but they refused, so he seized it. The Christians used to say that whoever destroyed the church would be stricken with madness and they told that to Walid. But he replied "I shall be the first to be stricken by madness in the service of God," and seizing an axe, he set to work to knock it down with his own hands. The Muslims on seeing that followed his example, and God proved false the assertion of the Christians. This mosque has four doors. The southern door, called the "Door of Increase," is approached by a spacious passage where the dealers in second-hand goods and other commodities have their shops. Through it lies the way to the [former] Cavalry House, and on the left as one emerges from it is the coppersmiths' gallery, a large bazaar, one of the finest in Damascus, extending along the south wall of the mosque. This bazaar occupies the site of the palace of the Caliph Mu'awiya I, which was called al Khadri [The Green Palace]; the Abbasids pulled it down and a bazaar took its place. The eastern door, called the Jayrun door, is the largest of the doors of the mosque. It also has a large passage, leading out to a large and extensive colonnade which is entered through a quintuple gateway between six tall columns. Along both sides of this passage are pillars, supporting circular galleries, where the cloth merchants amongst others have their shops; above these again are long galleries in which are the shops of the jewellers and booksellers and makers of admirable glass-ware. In the square adjoining the first door are the stalls of the principal notaries, in each of which there may be five or six witnesses in attendance and a person authorized by the qadi to perform marriage-ceremonies. The other notaries are scattered throughout the city. Near these stalls is the bazaar of the stationers who sell paper, pens, and ink. In the middle of the passage there is a large round marble basin, surrounded by a pavilion supported on marble columns but lacking a roof. In the centre of the basin is a copper pipe which forces out water under pressure so that it rises into the air more than a man's height. They call it "The Waterspout" and it is a fine sight. To the right as one comes out of the Jayrun door, which is called also the "Door of the Hours," is an upper gallery shaped like a large arch, within which there are small open arches furnished with doors, to the number of the hours of the day. These doors are painted green on the inside and yellow on the outside, and as each hour of the day passes the green inner side of the door is turned to the outside, and vice versa. They say that 75

inside the gallery there is a person in the room who is responsible for turning them by hand as the hours pass. The western door is called the "Door of the Post"; the passage outside it contains the shops of the candlemakers and a gallery for the sale of fruit. The northern door is called the "Door of the Confectioners "; it too has a large passageway, and on the right as one leaves it is a khanqah, which has a large basin of water in the centre and lavatories supplied with running water. At each of the four doors of the mosque is a building for ritual ablutions, containing about a hundred rooms abundantly supplied with running water. A controversial theologian One of the principal Hanbalite doctors at Damascus was Taqi ad-Din Ibn Taymiya, a man of great ability and wide learning, but with some kink in his brain. The people of Damascus idolized him. He used to preach to them from the pulpit, and one day he made some statement that the other theologians disapproved; they carried the case to the sultan and in consequence Ibn Taymiya was imprisoned for some years. While he was in prison he wrote a commentary on the Koran, which he called " The Ocean," in about forty volumes. Later on his mother presented herself before the sultan and interceded for him, so he was set at liberty, until he did the same thing again. I was in Damascus at the time and attended the service which he was conducting one Friday, as he was addressing and admonishing the people from the pulpit. In the midst of his discourse he said "Verily God descends to the sky over our world [from Heaven] in the same bodily fashion that I make this descent," and stepped down one step of the pulpit. A Malikite doctor present contradicted him and objected to his statement, but the common people rose up against this doctor and beat him with their hands and their shoes so severely that his turban fell off and disclosed a silken skull-cap on his head. Inveighing against him for wearing this, they haled him before the qadi of the Hanbalites, who ordered him to be imprisoned and afterwards had him beaten. The other doctors objected to this treatment and carried the matter before the principal amir, who wrote to the sultan about the matter and at the same time drew up a legal attestation against Ibn Taymiya for various heretical pronouncements. This deed was sent on to the sultan, who gave orders that Ibn Taymiya should be imprisoned in the citadel, and there he remained until his death. The Plague of 1348 One of the celebrated sanctuaries at Damascus is the Mosque of the Footprints (al-Aqdam), which lies two miles south of the city, alongside the main highway which leads to the Hijaz, Jerusalem, and Egypt. It is a large mosque, very blessed, richly endowed, and very highly venerated by the Damascenes. The footprints from which it derives its name are certain footprints impressed upon a rock there, which are said to be the mark of Moses' foot. In this mosque there is a small chamber containing a stone with the following inscription "A certain pious man saw in his sleep the Chosen One [Muhammad], who said to him 'Here is the grave of my brother Moses.'" I saw a remarkable instance of the veneration in which the Damascenes hold this mosque during the great pestilence on my return journey through Damascus, in the latter part of July 1348. The viceroy Arghun Shah ordered a crier to proclaim through Damascus that all the people should fast for three days and that no one should cook anything eatable in the market during the 76

daytime. For most of the people there eat no food but what has been prepared in the market. So the people fasted for three successive days, the last of which was a Thursday, then they assembled in the Great Mosque, amirs, sharifs, qadis, theologians, and all the other classes of the people, until the place was filled to overflowing, and there they spent the Thursday night in prayers and litanies. After the dawn prayer next morning they all went out together on foot, holding Korans in their hands, and the amirs barefooted. The procession was joined by the entire population of the town, men and women, small and large; the Jews came with their Book of the Law and the Christians with their Gospel, all of them with their women and children. The whole concourse, weeping and supplicating and seeking the favour of God through His Books and His Prophets, made their way to the Mosque of the Footprints, and there they remained in supplication and invocation until near midday. They then returned to the city and held the Friday service, and God lightened their affliction; for the number of deaths in a single day at Damascus did not attain two thousand, while in Cairo and Old Cairo it reached the figure of twenty-four thousand a day. The good and pious works of the Damascenes The variety and expenditure of the religious endowments at Damascus are beyond computation. There are endowments in aid of persons who cannot undertake the pilgrimage to Mecca, out of which are paid the expenses of those who go in their stead. There are other endowments for supplying wedding outfits to girls whose families are unable to provide them, andothers for the freeing of prisoners. There are endowments for travellers, out of the revenues of which they are given food, clothing, and the expenses of conveyance to their countries. Then there are endowments for the improvement and paving of the streets, because all the lanes in Damascus have pavements on either side, on which the foot passengers walk, while those who ride use the roadway in the centre. The story of a slave who broke a valuable dish Besides these there are endowments for other charitable purposes. One day as I went along a lane in Damascus I saw a small slave who had dropped a Chinese porcelain dish, which was broken to bits. A number of people collected round him and one of them said to him, "Gather up the pieces and take them to the custodian of the endowments for utensils." He did so, and the man went with him to the custodian, where the slave showed the broken pieces and received a sum sufficient to buy a similar dish. This is an excellent institution, for the master of the slave would undoubtedlv have beaten him, or at least scolded him, for breaking the dish, and the slave would have been heartbroken and upset at the accident. This benefaction is indeed a mender of hearts-may God richly reward him whose zeal for good works rose to such heights! The hospitality and friendship received by Ibn Battuta The people of Damascus vie with one another in building mosques, religious houses, colleges and mausoleums. They have a high opinion of the North Africans, and freely entrust them with the care of their moneys, wives, and children. All strangers amongst them [i.e., among North Africans like Ibn Battuta] are handsomely treated and care is taken that they are not forced to any action that might injure their self-respect. When I came to Damascus a firm friendship sprang up between the Malikite professor Nur adDin Sakhawi and me, and he besought me to breakfast at his house during the nights of 77

Ramadan. After I had visited him for four nights I had a stroke of fever and absented myself. He sent in search of me, and although I pleaded my illness in excuse he refused to accept it. I went back to his house and spent the night there, and when I desired to take my leave the next morning he would not hear of it, but said to me "Consider my house as your own or as your father's or brother's." He then had a doctor sent for, and gave orders that all the medicines and dishes that the doctor prescribed were to be made for me in his house. I stayed thus with him until the Fastbreaking when I went to the festival prayers and God healed me of what had befallen me. Meanwhile, all the money I had for my expenses was exhausted. Nur ad-Din, learning this, hired camels for me and gave me travelling and other provisions, and money in addition, saying "It will come in for any serious matter that may land you in difficulties"--may God reward him ! Funeral customs The Damascenes observe an admirable order in funeral processions. They walk in front of the bier while reciters intone the Koran in beautiful and affecting voices, and pray over it in the Cathedral mosque. When the reading is completed the muezzins rise and say "Reflect on your prayer for so-and-so, the pious and learned," describing him with good epithets, and having prayed over him they take him to his grave. Ibn Battuta leaves Damascus with the annual pilgrim caravan When the new moon of the month Shawwal appeared in the same year [1st September 1326], the Hijaz caravan left Damascus and I set off along with it. At Bosra the caravans usually halt for four days so that any who have been detained at Damascus by business affairs may make up on them. Thence they go to the Pool of Ziza, where they stop for a day, and then through al-Lajjun to the Castle of Karak. Karak, which is also called "The Castle of the Raven," is one of the most marvellous, impregnable, and celebrated of fortresses. It is surrounded on all sides by the riverbed, and has but one gate, the entrance to which is hewn in the living rock, as also is the approach to its vestibule. This fortress is used by kings as a place of refuge in times of calamity, as the sultan an-Nasir did when his mamluke Salar seized the supreme authority. The caravan stopped for four days at a place called ath-Thaniya outside Karak, where preparations were made for entering the desert. Thence we Journeyed to Ma'an, which is the last town in Syria, and from 'Aqabat as-Sawan entered the desert, of which the saying goes: " He who enters it is lost, and he who leaves it is born." Crossing the desert from Syria to Medina After a march of two days we halted at Dhat Hajj, where there are subterranean waterbeds but no habitations, and then went on to Wadi Baldah (in which there is no water) and to Tabuk, which is the place to which the Prophet led an expedition. The great caravan halts at Tabuk for four days to rest and to water the camels and lay in water for the terrible desert between Tabuk and al-Ula. The custom of the watercarriers is to camp beside the spring, and they have tanks made of buffalo hides, like great cisterns, from which they water the camels and fill the waterskins. Each amir or person of rank has a special tank for the needs of his own camels and personnel; the other people make private agreements with the watercarriers to water their camels and fill their waterskins for a fixed sum of money.

From Tabuk the caravan travels with great speed night and day, for fear of this desert. Halfway through is the valley of al-Ukhaydir, which might well be the valley of Hell (may God preserve us from it). One year the pilgrims suffered terribly here from the samoom-wind; the watersupplies dried up and the price of a single drink rose to a thousand dinars, but both seller and buyer perished. Their story is written on a rock in the valley. Five days after leaving Tabuk they reach the well of al-Hijr, which has an abundance of water, but not a soul draws water there, however violent his thirst, following the example of the Prophet, who passed it on his expedition to Tabuk and drove on his camel, giving orders that none should drink of its waters. Here, in some hills of red rock, are the dwellings of Thamud. They are cut in the rock and have carved thresholds. Anyone seeing them would take them to be of recent construction. [The] decayed bones [of the former inhabitants] are to be seen inside these houses. Al-Ula, a large and pleasant village with palm-gardens and water-springs, lies half a day's journey or less from al-Hijr. The pilgrims halt there four days to provision themselves and wash their clothes. They leave behind them here any surplus of provisions they may have, taking with them nothing but what is strictly necessary. The people of the village are very trustworthy. The Christian merchants of Syria may come as far as this and no further, and they trade in provisions and other goods with the pilgrims here. On the third day after leaving al-Ula the caravan halts in the outskirts of the holy city of Medina. Ibn Battuta visits the holy sites of Medina pp. 74-77. That same evening [the third day after leaving al-Ula, on the route from Syria and Damascus] we entered the holy sanctuary and reached the illustrious mosque, halting in salutation at the Gate of Peace; then we prayed in the illustrious "garden" between the tomb of the Prophet and the noble pulpit, and reverently touched the fragment that remains of the palm-trunk against which the Prophet stood when he preached. Having paid our meed of salutation to the lord of men from first to last, the intercessor for sinners, the Prophet of Mecca, Muhammad, as well as to his two companions who share his grave, Abu Bakr and 'Omar, we returned to our camp, rejoicing at this great favour bestowed upon us, praising God for our having reached the former abodes and the magnificent sanctuaries of His holy Prophet, and praying Him to grant that this visit should not be our last and that we might be of those whose pilgrimage is accepted. On this journey, our stay at Medina lasted four days. We used to spend every night in the illustrious mosque, where the people, after forming circles in the courtyard and, lighting large numbers of candles, would pass the time either in reciting the Koran from volumes set on rests in front of them, or in intoning litanies, or in visiting the sanctuaries of the holy tomb. From Medina to Mecca through a final desert, the vale of Bazwa We then set out from Medina towards Mecca, and halted near the mosque of Dhu'l-Hulayfa, five miles away. It was at this point that the Prophet assumed the pilgrim garb and obligations, and here too I divested myself of my tailored clothes, bathed, and putting on the pilgrim's garment I prayed and dedicated myself to the pilgrimage. Our fourth halt from here was at Badr, where God aided His Prophet and performed His promise. It is a village containing a series of palmgardens and a bubbling spring with a stream flowing from it. Our way lay thence through a frightful desert called the Vale of Bazwa for three days to the valley of Rabigh where the 79

rainwater forms pools which lie stagnant for a long time. From this point (which is just before Juhfa) the pilgrims from Egypt and Northwest Africa put on the pilgrim garment. Three days after leaving Rabigh we reached the pool of Khulays which lies in a plain and has many palmgardens. The Bedouin of that neighbourhood hold a market there, to which they bring sheep, fruits, and condiments. Thence we travelled through 'Usfan to the Bottom of Marr, a fertile valley with numerous palms and a spring supplying a stream from which the district is irrigated. From this valley fruit and vegetables are transported to Mecca We set out at night from this blessed valley, with hearts full of joy at reaching the goal of our hopes, and in the morning arrived at the City of Surety, Mecca (may God ennoble her !), where we immediately entered the holy sanctuary and began the rites of pilgrimage. The pious kindness of the people of Mecca The inhabitants of Mecca are distinguished by many excellent and noble activities and qualities, by their beneficence to the humble and weak, and by their kindness to strangers. When any of them makes a feast, he begins by giving food to the religious devotees who are poor and without resources, inviting them first with kindness and delicacy. The majority of these unfortunates are to be found by the public bakehouses, and when anyone has his bread baked and takes it away to his house, they follow him and he gives each one of them some share of it, sending away none disappointed. Even if he has but a single loaf, he gives away a third or a half of it, cheerfully and without any grudgingness. Another good habit of theirs is this. The orphan children sit in the bazaar, each with two baskets, one large and one small. When one of the townspeople comes to the bazaar and buys cereals, meat and vegetables, he hands them to one of these boys, who puts the cereals in one basket and the meat and vegetables in the other and takes them to the man's house, so that his meal may be prepared. Meanwhile the man goes about his devotions and his business. There is no instance of any of the boys having ever abused their trust in this matter, and they are given a fixed fee of a few coppers. The cleanliness of the people of Mecca The Meccans are very elegant and clean in their dress, and most of them wear white garments, which you always see fresh and snowy. They use a great deal of perfume and kohl and make free use of toothpicks of green arak-wood. The Meccan women are extraordinarily beautiful and very pious and modest. They too make great use of perfumes to such a degree that they will spend the night hungry in order to buy perfumes with the price of their food. They visit the mosque every Thursday night, wearing their finest apparel; and the whole sanctuary is saturated with the smell of their perfume. When one of these women goes away the odour of the perfume clings to the place after she has gone. On the caravan route to Basra from Mecca to Medina pp. 86-87. Three days' march through this district brought us to the town of Wisit. Its inhabitants are among the best people in Iraq--indeed, the very vest of them without qualification. All the Iraqis who wish to learn how to recite the Koran come here, and our caravan contained a number of students who had come for that purpose.

The customs of the Ahmadi dervishes at Umm 'Ubayda As the caravan stayed here [Wisit] three days, I had an opportunity of visiting the grave of arRifai which is at a village called Umm 'Ubayda, one day's journey from there. I reached the establishment at noon the next day and found it to be an enormous monastery containing thousands of darwishes [dervishes]. After the mid-afternoon prayer drums and kettledrums were beaten and the darwishes began to dance. After this they prayed the sunset prayer and brought in the meal, consisting of rice-bread, fish, milk and dates. After the night prayer they began to recite their litany. A number of loads of wood had been brought in and kindled into a flame, and they went into the fire dancing; some of them rolled in it and others ate it in their mouths until they had extinguished it entirely. This is the peculiar custom of the Ahmadi darwishes. Some of them take large snakes and bite their heads with their teeth until they bite them clean through. Ibn Battuta comes to Basra After visiting ar-Rifai's tomb I returned to Wasit and found that the caravan had already started, but overtook them on the way, and accompanied them to Basra. As we approached the city I had remarked at a distance of some two miles from it a lofty building resembling a fortress. I asked about it and was told that it was the mosque of 'Ali. Basra was in former times a city so vast that this mosque stood in the centre of the town, whereas now it is two miles outside it. Two miles beyond it again is the old wall that encircled the town, so that it stands midway between the old wall and the present city. Basra is one of the metropolitan cities of Iraq and no place on earth excels it in quantity of palmgroves. The current price of dates in its market is fourteen pounds to an Iraqi dirham, which is one-third of a nuqra. The qadi sent me a hamper of dates that a man could scarcely carry; I sold them and received nine dirhams, and three of those were taken by the porter for carrying the basket from the house to the market. The kindness and ignorance of the inhabitants The inhabitants of Basra possess many excellent qualities; they are affable to strangers and give them their due, so that no stranger ever feels lonely amongst them. They hold the Friday service in the mosque of 'Ali mentioned above, but for the rest of the week it is closed. I was present once at the Friday service in this mosque and when the preacher rose to deliver his discourse he committed many gross errors of grammar. In astonishment at this I spoke of it to the qadi and this is what he said to me: "In this town there is not a man left who knows anything of the science of grammar." Here is a lesson for those who will reflect on it--Magnified be He who changes all things! This Basra, in whose people the mastery of grammar reached its height, from whose soil sprang its trunk and its branches, amongst whose inhabitants is numbered the leader whose primacy is undisputed--the preacher in this town cannot deliver a discourse without breaking its rules! Ibn Battuta leaves Basra by boat At Basra I embarked in a sumbuq, that is a small boat, for Ubulla, which lies ten miles distant. One travels between a constant succession of orchards and palm-groves both to right and left, with merchants sitting in the shade of the trees selling bread, fish, dates, milk and fruit. Ubulla

was formerly a large town, frequented by merchants from India and Firs, but it fell into decay and is now a village. Ibn Battuta describes the city of Baghdad pp. 99-101. Thence we travelled to Baghdad, the Abode of Peace and Capital of Islam. Here there are two bridges like that at Hilla on which the people promenade night and day, both men and women. The town has eleven cathedral mosques, eight on the right bank and three on the left, together with very many other mosques and madrasas, only the latter are all in ruins. The baths at Baghdad are numerous and excellently constructed, most of them being painted with pitch, which has the appearance of black marble. This pitch is brought from a spring between Kufa and Basra, from which it flows continually. It gathers at the sides of the spring like clay and is shovelled up and brought to Baghdad. Each establishment has a large number of private bathrooms, every one of which has also a wash-basin in the corner, with two taps supplying hot and cold water. Every bather is given three towels, one to wear round his waist when he goes in, another to wear round his waist when he comes out, and the third to dry himself with. In no town other than Baghdad have I seen all this elaborate arrangement, though some other towns approach it in this respect. The western part of Baghdad was the earliest to be built, but it is now for the most part in ruins. In spite of that there remain in it still thirteen quarters, each like a city in itself and possessing two or three baths. The hospital (maristan) is a vast ruined edifice, of which only vestiges remain. The eastern part has an abundance of bazaars, the largest of which is called the Tuesday bazaar. On this side there are no fruit trees, but all the fruit is brought from the western side, where there are orchards and gardens. Ibn Battuta leaves Baghdad for Persia and the city of Tabriz I left Baghdad with the mahalla of Sultan Abu Sa'id, on purpose to see the way in which the king's marches are conducted and travelled with it for ten days, thereafter accompanying one of the amirs to the town of Tabriz. Ibn Battutta journeys to Tabriz pp. 101-102. I left Baghdad with the mahalla of Sultan Abu Sa'id, on purpose to see the way in which the king's marches are conducted, and travelled with it for ten days, thereafter accompanying one of the amirs to the town of Tabriz. We reached the town after ten days' travelling, and encamped outside it in a place called ash-Sham. Here there is a fine hospice, where travellers are supplied with food, consisting of bread, meat, rice cooked in butter, and sweetmeats. The riches of the Ghazan bazaar in Tabriz The next morning I entered the town and we came to a great bazaar, called the Ghazan bazaar, one of the finest bazaars I have seen the world over. Every trade is grouped separately in it. I passed through the jewellers' bazaar, and my eyes were dazzled by the varieties of precious stones that I beheld. They were displayed by beautiful slaves wearing rich garments with a waistsash of silk, who stood in front of the merchants, exhibiting the jewels to the wives of the Turks, 82

while the women were buying them in large quantities and trying to outdo one another. As a result of all this I witnessed a riot--may God preserve us from such! We went on into the ambergris and musk market, and witnessed another riot like it or worse. Ibn Battuta meets the Sultan We spent only one night at Tabriz. Next day the amir received an order from the sultan to rejoin him, so I returned along with him, without having seen any of the learned men there [in Tabriz]. On reaching the camp the amir told the sultan about me and introduced me into his presence. The sultan asked me about my country, and gave me a robe and a horse. The amir told him that I was intending to go to the Hijaz, whereupon he gave orders for me to be supplied with provisions and to travel with the cortege of the commander of the pilgrim caravan, and wrote instructions to that effect to the governor of Baghdad. I returned therefore to Baghdad and received in full what the sultan had ordered. As more than two months remained before the period when the pilgrim caravan was to set out, I thought it a good plan to make a journey to Mosul and Diyar Bakr to see those districts and then return to Baghdad when the Hijaz caravan was due to start.

Part 7: Warfare in the Mongol World Introduction: As for the primary enemies of the Mongols in Europe, the Middle East and Song China, each had strengths and weaknesses that tested the Mongol military. Europe could not put together an army as large as their Middle Eastern or especially Chinese counterparts, but in single combat or in a massed cavalry charge, a European knight was the strongest and best equipped pound-for-pound fighter in the world. European stone castles were also the most formidable defensive structure in Eurasia, allowing a small number of soldiers to hold off much larger forces for weeks or months. Because of the Turkish invasions at the turn of the first millennium, Middle Eastern armies most closely resembled Islamic ones in terms of battle tactics. Another reason for this is because settled Islamic states regularly imported slave soldiers from the Steppe known as mamluks, which would make up the core of their armies. Islamic armies also had advanced siege weapons like the trebuchet and has the advantage of living in difficult desert terrain which could frustrate Mongol armies in hot and dry summer weather. Yet the Islamic world largely lacked defensive fortifications like castles (with exceptions for the Assassins and fortresses near the Crusader-states) and its cities, although walled, were less well defended than European and especially Chinese counterparts. Finally Song China has the largest military by numbers, and gigantic cities surrounded by packed-earth walls. Nevertheless, the quality and battle-readiness of its armies were the weakest of their contemporaries and were rarely a match for Mongol armies in a fair fight. Nonetheless they had gigantic technological advantages over their rivals, especially in the use of gunpowder.

What follows are sources on the ways of war of the Mongols and their rivals, the first is a description of Mongol battle tactics by the European emissary John of Plano-Carpini. The second is an excerpt from a Muslim manual of war written by an Egyptian mamluk commander ‘Umar Ibn Ibrahim Al-Awsi AlAnsari. The third is a set of rules for warfare promulgated by the Spanish monarch Alfonso X of Castille, describing European ways of war. Finally, as there are no comparable Chinese manuals, this section ends with a contemporary image of their army on the move.

Section One) John of Plano-Carpino on the Mongols at War Chapter 15: HOW THE TARTARS CONDUCT THEMSELVES IN WAR Genghis Khan divided his Tartars by captains of ten, captains of a hundred, and captains of a thousand, and over ten millenaries, or captains of a thousand, he placed one colonel, and over one whole army he authorized two or three chiefs, but so that all should be under one of the said chiefs. When they join battle against any other nation, unless they do all consent to retreat, every man who deserts is put to death. And if one or two, or more, of ten proceed manfully to the battle, but the residue of those ten draw back and follow not the company, they are in like manner slain. Also, if one among ten or more be taken, their fellows, if they fail to rescue them, are punished with death. Moreover they are required to have these weapons: two long bows or one good one at least, three quivers full of arrows, and one axe, and ropes to draw engines of war. But the richer have singleedged swords, with sharp points, and somewhat crooked. They have also armed horses, with their shoulders and breasts protected; they have helmets and coats of mail. Some of them have jackets for their horses, made of leather artificially doubled or trebled, shaped upon their bodies. The upper part of their helmet is of iron or steel, but that part which circles about the neck and the throat is of leather. Some of them have all their armour of iron made in the following manner: They beat out many thin plates a finger broad, and a hand long, and making in every one of them eight little holes, they lace through three strong and straight leather thongs. So they join the plates one to another, as it were, ascending by degrees. Then they tie the plates to the thongs, with other small and slender thongs, drawn through the holes, and in the upper part, on each side, they fasten one small doubled thong, that the plates may firmly be knit together. These they make, as well for their horses as for the armour of their men; and they scour them so bright that a man may hold his face in them. Some of them upon the neck of their lance have a hook, with which they attempt to pull men out of their saddles. The heads of their arrows are exceedingly sharp, cutting both ways like a two-edged sword, and they always carry a file in their quivers to sharpen their arrowheads. They are most efficient in wars, having been in conflict with other nations for the space of these forty-two years. When they come to any rivers, the chief men of the company have a round and light piece of leather. They put a rope through the many loops on the edge of this, draw it together like a purse, and so bring it into the round form of a ball, which leather they fill with their garments and other necessaries, trussing it up most strongly. But upon the midst of the upper part thereof, they lay their saddles and other hard things; there also do the men themselves 84

sit. This, their boat, they tie to a horse’s tail, causing a man to swim before, to guide over the horse, or sometimes they have two oars to row themselves over. The first horse, therefore, being driven into the water, all the others’ horses of the company follow him, and so they pass through the river. But the common soldiers have each his leather bag or satchel well sewn together, wherein he packs up all his trinkets, and strongly trussing it up hangs it at his horse’s tail, and so he crosses the river. Chapter 16: OF THEIR SPIES AND HOW THEY MAY BE RESISTED No one kingdom or province is able to resist the Tartars; because they use soldiers out of every country of their dominions. If the neighbouring province to that which they invade will not aid them, they waste it, and with the inhabitants, whom they take with them, they proceed to fight against the other province. They place their captives in the front of the battle, and if they fight not courageously they put them to the sword. Therefore, if Christians would resist them, it is expedient that the provinces and governors of countries should all agree, and so by a united force should meet their encounter. Soldiers also must be furnished with strong handbows and crossbows, which they greatly dread, with sufficient arrows, with maces also of strong iron, or an axe with a long handle. When they make their arrowheads, they must, according to the Tartars’ custom, dip them red-hot into salt water, that they may be strong enough to pierce the enemies’ armour. They that will may have swords also and lances with hooks at the ends, to pull them from their saddles, out of which they are easily removed. They must have helmets and other armour to defend themselves and their horses from the Tartars’ weapons and arrows, and they that are unarmed, must, according to the Tartars’ custom, march behind their fellows, and discharge at the enemy with longbows and crossbows. And, as it has already been said of the Tartars, they must dispose their bands and troops in an orderly manner, and ordain laws for their soldiers. Whosoever runs to the prey or spoil, before the victory is achieved, must undergo a most severe punishment. For such a fellow is put to death among the Tartars without pity or mercy. The place of battle must be chosen, if it is possible, in a plain field, where they may see round about; neither must all troops be in one company, but in many, not very far distant one from another. They which give the first encounter must send one band before, and must have another in readiness to relieve and support the former in time. They must have spies, also, on every side, to give them notice when the rest of the enemy’s bands approach. They ought always to send forth band against band and troop against troop, because the Tartar always attempts to get his enemy in the midst and so to surround him. Let our bands take this advice also; if the enemy retreats, not to make any long pursuit after him, lest according to his custom he might draw them into some secret ambush. For the Tartar fights more by cunning than by main force. And again, a long pursuit would tire our horses, for we are not so well supplied with horses as they. Those horses which the Tartars use one day, they do not ride upon for three or four days after. Moreover, if the Tartars draw homeward, our men must not therefore depart and break up their bands, or separate themselves; because they do this also upon policy, namely, to have our army divided, that they may more securely invade and waste the country. Indeed, our captains ought both day and night keep their army in readiness; and not to put off their armour, but at all time to 85

be prepared for battle. The Tartars, like devils, are always watching and devising how to practice mischief. Furthermore, if in battle any of the Tartars be cast off their horses, they must be captured, for being on foot they shoot strongly, wounding and killing both horses and men.

Section Two) A Muslim Manual of War by ‘Umar Ibn Ibrahim Al-Awsi Al-Ansari BOOK SEVENTEEN : about what should be done while encountering the enemy and fighting him. In it are three chapters.

Chapter One : about [what should be done] when the army marches out against the enemy before the enemy marches out. If the soldiers take the initiative in marching out against the enemy, their march should be from a high place, elevated above the ground so that the army will be higher than the enemy. Their going forth should be steady and cautious and slow. There should be in front of the cavalry those of the infantry who will defend it and protect it from the infantry of the enemy. When the infantry of the army have put the enemy's infantry to flight, it may happen that the cavalry of the army will follow upon them in the work of routing. If the infantry of the enemy is routed, and falls back upon their cavalry, it causes their horses to panic and their pursuit by the infantry of the army might be continued. This will be the cause of the break-up of the enemy and his rout. If the center is required to march out against the enemy, its men should proceed slowly, little by little, without rushing or haste. If haste in movement towards the enemy occurs, perhaps those behind the [center's] ranking will think that they have arrived at the enemy's [position) and that they will be sengaged] with him. They will become disturbed because of this and will be affected by it. If a troop of men attack the enemy and then are required to retire to their [original] station, they should avoid anything unseemly or hurried in their retreat, for such would indicate fear and anxiety. Rather their retreat should be the most ordered and steadiest of retreats. The unseemliness of their retreat could enhance the covetousness of the enemy towards [the army). He will pursue it, and rout will ensue. If the men who attacked the enemy were those of the center in their totality and they are compelled to retreat, they should retreat to a place behind their backs, swerving and looking sideways, some inclining shoulders and heads, and [with] chests in the direction of the chests of the enemy. They should not cease doing this until they reach their (original] positions. While doing this, they (must) display power [by] calling for victory, exhorting steadiness and conquest, so that their companions hear [this call]. This gives notice of the presence of the center and of its power in such cases where the hearts grow faint. If one of the men of the center attacks and takes advantage of an opport unity against the enemy(i.e., for individual combat) and then has to retire, he should incline leftwards and towards the left flank or towards what is between the wings of the center and left flank. If those who attack are men of the right flank, they should retire, [if forced to], by walking backwards to their [original] positions. Should one of the men of the right flank attack and take advantage of an opportunity [against] the enemy and [then] wishes to retire, he should incline 86

leftwards towards the center or towards what is between the center wing and right flank. This latter method is easier in retreating than retiring towards the left flank and its vicinity would be. .. If all of the left flank attacks, they should retire [by] moving back wards to their positions, as has been noted for the right flank. And if one of the left flank attacks, then retires, he should incline [in retreating towards ] the left. If the warrior of the left flank, after the attack, moves towards the area of the center, it [will be] easier for him than [a motion] towards the right flank. And among that which attentiveness demands is the knowledge that the return of the horseman after the engagement to his station, from which he sallied forth, is most salutary, if it be possible; so that he will be in the position established for him, [making him easier to find later on]. If it isn't possible, he should stand in its vicinity. There should be no altercation about this, because the object is simply that he remain in his [proper] ranking and not [necessarily] in that par ticular place. It is required of the warrior [charging] against the enemy that he does not exhaust himself in rushing his horse and that he does not pursue his adversary beyond a third of the distance between him and the enemy. Thus there would be between him and the army a third of the distance, and between him and the enemy two-thirds. To go beyond this is heedlessness. “For the heedless, no praise E'en though he come through safe.” [Though] the enemy be put to rout before him, the attacker should not feel secure, because this [rout] might be like a stratagem such as [to enable) the springing of an ambush and the like; unless, of course, the failure of the enemy and his defeat are apparent. In the latter case pursuing the enemy is necessary, but the warrior should not hasten to thrust [too] deeply into the army of the enemy, even if the latter's failure is apparent and his horses are delayed [in retreat], until the men of bravery and patience from his own army join him and the battle cavalry have come together once more. If the enemy simulates flight and raises dust, the attack against him should not occur until this dust has settled, for fear of an ambush. If the enemy turns his back and his rout is certain, the entire army should not follow him, rather some of the army should pursue him while others plunder, and the remainder are employed to cover these opera tions. For the army, as a whole, to pursue [the enemy] is judged blameworthy. Should the enemy remain standing after his [appaent] defeat, the standard bearer (or flag commander), sāḥib al-liwa', should advance a little distance, while the cavalry, who are chosen and prepared for that [eventuality], attacks. In this circumstance, it is incumbent upon the army to make every effort to surround them from every side. The commander of the army should set out (towards the enemy] with the largest standard, al-band al-a'zam, and all of the cavalry should surround and protect him. Verily, in all this there is dread and fright brought upon the enemy, especially if they have [already] tasted the edge of iron. When the enemy dallies at this point, it is the onset of victory, God willing If a combatant from the army rides out for single combat, his position should be at a point one third of the distance between his comrades and the enemy. Should the latter simulate flight, he 87

[can proceed] to two-thirds of the distance, but he must not go beyond that. Indeed some have said that he should not exceed a third of the distance between his comrades and the enemy under any circumstances.

Chapter Two : about what [should be done] when the enemy marches out against the army before the army takes the field. Men of exploits in wars hold that if the enemy attacks the army before it can attack the enemy or before its organization and mobili zation for battle can be carried out thoroughly, the men of the army should kneel on one knee and point their spears from the upper part of the chest, concealing themselves behind leather shields and cuirasses, arrayed in a single ranking, assisting one another until the enemy is repelled or until [the cavalry's] mounting and engagement have been effected. Those experienced in war say that [this]) is the hour of adversity for he who is not accustomed to its like. Should the attack of the enemy occur after the tightening of the battle array of the soldiers, the infantry, of the army should engage them and point their spears from the upper part of the chest and remain fixed in their places; and the archers of the army should assist them by shooting [arrows] at the faces [of the enemy]. If the infantry is unable to stand [the attack] in this manner, the cavalry will then respond. Patience is most beneficial at this time. None but the people of 3 strength and valor and he who has the practice of battle engagement is firm in this [quality of] patience. [Beneficial, too,] is cautiousness against the army's crumbling during the first attack of the enemy in the first moment [of battle). The cowards will vacate their positions, and this will be a reason for the break-up [of the army's formation). Should this happen, the correct procedure is to order their control by placing with them experienced warriors who will stand firmly with them, so that they will be made constant by their constancy, strengthening that which had softened their hearts. If it happen that one of the men of the army should retire because of his fear of battle or the suffering of wounds, no other person of the army should obstruct him by standing in his way or should send him back to [his] position among the warriors; but rather he should be treated gently and be placated until he attains the rear of the battle rankings. If the enemy overwhelms [a group] of the army and they fail to repulse his assault, they should return to the [main ranks] of the army, maintaining their zeal until they close ranks, and regroup their cavalry and their infantry and protect themselves with (their] weapons and send to seek assistance and the hastening of it. If ranks are closed and the assistance they sought comes to them, they can join battle again to the degree that the situation demands. If the enemy gives battle to the army right up to the trenches, the men should be prepared for this in the completest manner possible, and they should attack the enemy in a single foray, observing the footsteps of the enemy rather than their faces. Should the enemy hold forth to meet them at this time, nothing remains for them but to descend upon [the enemy) with swords and pointed maces, al-dabābis al-muḥarrafah, 4 and battle axes. And when the army has taken of the battle-

field a distance from that held by the enemy equal to the length of [the hurl of] a spear, and this happens again and again, the men of exploits count it among the beginnings of victory. It is necessary that the men of the army hold to their positions with solid rankings [within the area] where the enemy had aimed at them and that they do not cease pointing their spears from their chests or to shoot [arrows] at them from every side. Should the enemy protract [his efforts] and remain patient (under attack], the men of the army should not become disquieted or anxious, because the suffering. [of the encounter] is shared by both factions. God pointed this out in His saying: “If you are suffering, they also are suffering as you are suffering, and you are hoping from God for that for which they cannot hope,” (4:104) Should the right flank of the enemy enter the other parts (reserves ?)' of the army, no one of the men of the army should leave the ranks unless Those who turn their backs to the enemy bring disorder into the line for mation. They are guilty of the crime of causing a rout. They somehow cause the Muslims to be routed and enable the enemy to gain power over them. This is a great sin, because the resulting damage is general and effects Islam ... in that it makes a breach in the protecting fence. Therefore, it is considered one of the great sins.': He is confident that he can defeat his equal before returning to his battle position, for holding fast in his place and repulsing the enemy [from there] is better than being diverted from it; for he who is cut off from his place cannot foresee what his situation will be, unless he knows that the enemy who is advancing on him cannot escape [defeat]. Then engaging him [elsewhere] is permitted at this time.

Chapter Three : about what is required of cautiousness at the time of meeting the enemy. Those accustomed to and experienced in wars say if a group of enemy's cavalry comes upon the army from the rear at the time of mobilization [for battle], or should spring an ambush upon them at that time, the commander of the army should establish a group of cavalry, which he sets aside for this purpose, to repel [the enemy] away from the army. If he has not done this, he should choose horse men from the left flank to frustrate them and prevent them from [succeeding] in this action. [The experts] say that it is incumbent upon those who go out against the enemy that they do not retreat except at the command of the com mander of the army, and that they do not proceed beyond the limit set by him for them, because he knows better what he is directing them toward. In these circumstances, he is like the physician for the sick. : If night covers them and battle has not abated, it is necessary that the infantry and cavalry do not leave battle-stations until their enemy retires from the battle; after which they should retire [to their encamp ment] in their rankings according to their battle-array, one [ranking] after the other. In this circumstance, cautiousness against sudden attack by the enemy and the entrance of his spies is necessary.

When the men have entered their stations in the camp), the cavalry officers retire to their posts. They close up the entrance ways over the trenches. The night patrols and the [detailed] officers go round about with the corps commanders, ru’asā al-ajnād, [visiting those] on watch duty until morning arrives. . If the rankings are arrayed for battle, and night descends and there is no escape from passing the night (in battle formation), the ranks of the left flank should bend towards the middle part of the center and the edge of the right flank should bend until it is linked to the left flank. The [entire] army will wheel about, the baggage being at this time in the middle [of the formation) and the cavalrymen will surround it. In the darkness before the dawn they [all] return to their regular positions. There should be shrewd men on all sides of the army who can look upon the faces of people and scrutinize them. He who sees a suspicious person, or imagines one to be such, should seize him and inquire about his business. The nature of a suspicious person is apparent from his face, and the shrewd men, those skilled in physiognomy, will know him as such. If he doubts the outward appearance of a person, and moves to arrest him, he should be wary of him at this moment, for perhaps [the suspect] thinks himself able to kill and hastens towards killing the one who had seized him in order to save himself or to take vengeance before being slain [himself]. Similarly, it is necessary to control those who have sought safe-conduct, al-mustaʼminin, and any) capitves and to bind them after the terms given them have been fulfilled. Know that the conditions of war do not run according to a single plan but vary and change, and perhaps the commander of the army or some of his deputies, having disposed of a matter [in a certain way,] find that circumstances call for another method. He must do at that time what his opinion thinks necessary and his judgment will lead him to it. It has been related that a fleet of ships, ufrūtah? min marākib, of the Franks sought (to capture] the city of Sabtah (Ceuta) in the lands of the Maghrib. An opposing force went out to engage it and a great battle ensued between them. Victory went finally to the Muslims. The Christians raised the sails of their ships and sailed away. But one large ship was delayed because of the difficulty in maneuvering it. The archers of the Muslims gathered to do battle against it. (The Franks] shielded it with leather shields and cuirasses. One of the Muslim shaykhs called out to the archers, "Look you to the rope of the Christians. Shoot at it.” They did and the arrows became entangled in it and its flow through the pulleys was stopped, because of the arrows entangled in it. The Muslims overtook [the ship] and captured it.

BOOK EIGHTEEN : about what should be done while putting the enemy to rout. In it are two chapters.

Chapter One : about that which is related to the completion of the battle when the enemy has been routed. The managers of the affairs of war said that when the rout of the enemy and his flight are certain, following them and riding in their footsteps, taking up this 90

matter with haste and diligence, are mandatory before they (i.e., the enemy) are able to close their ranks and reassemble their divided cavalry. [It should be done ) with caution against ambush and vigilance against its eventuality. It may be that the apparent rout of the enemy is a stratagem or trick similar to that which has been discussed; whereas a real routing can hardly be concealed from the vigilant; yet it may be concealed even from [the vigilant] because of the running out of luck. Should it prove to be a thorough rout, [the commander] must detail the right flank and the left flank only to seek the enemy. The commander of the army and his banners should be in the center, the standards unfurled, going forward at a gentle pace, little by little. When he arrives at a place in which he prefers to halt, those with him of the center should halt, while the right and left flanks continue [further on] to seek the enemy, but only to the degree that they do not become hidden to the sight of the commander of the army. If the cavalry have to be dispatched to hunt them down, it is necessary to have the infantry attack the enemy so that they might divert the enemy's infantry from hindering the [pursuing] cavalry. If the commander of the army sees this (i.e., the hindering of his cavalry), and if the numerical strength of the enemy after the rout is still feared, the commander of the center (obviously the commander of the army himself who is with the center group) orders the men of the right and left flanks to march (retreat) towards him but without exposing their backs; rather their retreat should be in a swerving motion, moving in a deviating fashion with their chests in the direction of the enemy, as has been discussed. Among that which attentiveness requires concerning those put to rout of the enemy is that no man of the army should attempt to get in front of them, nor should they be shunted from their path of flight, nor should they be denied access to water if they seek it. Verily, the routed warrior, when his destruction is apparent to him, attacks with his full strength, fighting a strong battle, in order to purchase his safety. Rather, immediate fears should be dispelled from them; then they may be surrounded, so that they can be seized from all sides. In general, standing in the direct path of a routed warrior is not sagacious.

Chapter Two : about that which is related to the matter of booty. Among that which should be considered first in this matter is that, if the rout of the enemy actually happens, the men of the army should not divert from the matter of the battle to seek plunder and booty. If the rout be a true one, the booty will not escape them; if it be a trick of the enemy, it may lead to some villainy which will overtake the army on the heels of the trick. An example of this occurred to the Companions of the Prophet, the blessing of God upon them, all of them, in the raid on Uḥud. God had reproved them about this matter: and it concerned the Prophet's ordering some archers to guard a certain place; appointing them to it especially. When the rout of the polytheists had taken place, those archers, whom the Prophet had ordered to protect that place, hastened to the plunder. A great misfortune befell the Muslims because of this. God sent down [the following verses) because of this [defection]: “... after He had shown you (what] you longed for. Some of you there are that desire this world, and some of you there are that desire the next world." (3:152) The division of booty is mentioned in the books of jurisprudence, fiqh. For he who is concerned with the matter in this place (suffice it to say] that the madhhab of al-Shafi'i, the blessing of God upon him, holds that the infantryman be awarded one portion and the cavalryman three portions, for the horse in this matter is equal to two portions; and that the madhhab of Abū Hanifah, the blessing of God upon him, holds that the infantryman be awarded one portion and the cavalry 91

man two portions - here the horse being equal to one portion. There is no further need to discourse upon the rules of this matter here.

BOOK NINETEEN : about the description of the practice of taking fortresses and the method of accomplishing this. In it are three chapters...

Chapter One : citation of the types of fortresses and that which each one of them needs of special treatment in order to capture it. Know that "fortresses”, al-ḥuşūn, in the language refers to anything in which a fortifier entrenches himself, such as citadels and walled cities and mountain forts and trenches and caves and subterranean caverns and thickets of trees and reedbeds and upon the waters and beaches and similar phenomena. For each of these there is a special method for investing and capturing. There may be gathered in any one fortified place a number of the familiar types, such as a citadel on a hill in the interior of a walled city, and about the latter a circumferencing moat; and in the fortress there may be subterranean caverns for concealment and such things. Each of these types requires operations special to its [proper] functioning and management to the degree that its nature demands. And among them are [types] which call for procrastination and endurance and building of fortifications against them and remaining to besiege them for a prolonged period, such as walled cities and citadels filled with provisions and engines of war. Others for which the merest trick and a few days [of siege] suffice. And between these types of strength are various categories of conditions. Each of them needs special war engines and proper management for investing and offense.

Chapter Two : a description of the method of facilitating the capture of fortified places. The men of exploits ,relative to this matter of the most profitable of actions in the capturing of fortified places according to their differentiation, said that the commander of the army should arrive before (the fortress] at a time of inattentiveness on the part of its inhabitants; and if it chance that this takes place when the gates are open, it will be most opportune. This good fortune happened to al-Malik al-Zāhir Baybars al-Bunduqdārī, may God have mercy upon him, in capturing the city of Anțākiyah (Antioch) in the region of Halab (Aleppo). Its conquest was among the easiest of conquests in spite of its impregnability. When this (i.e., the gates being open) does not happen, then a trick will accomplish the submission of those who are in the fortress and their entering into obedience. Or gaining the assent of those who are amenable among them, so that they will be an aid against the others before the melee, will be preferable. If [the commander of the army] finds no one who will convey this report to them, he should write letters aiming at the stirring up of sedition among them such that it is apparent that some [of those] in the fortress are with him [in secret]. These [letters] he places on arrows and shoots them into the fortress. · He should make apparent to the people within the fortress [his guarantee] of justice and faithfulness, the continuing bounty and respect for those who would descend to him and the 92

promise) of kind treatment for them. If he should gain a reputation [for these qualities] and it is confirmed by him, it will quicken their submission to him and make more conducive their entering into obedience to him. If they seek safe-conduct, he should bestow it upon them. If there comes out to him from among them one who seeks safe conduct, he should give him gifts, out of piety, as he is able to do with caution without letting him feel this [caution]. Should a criminal come out to him, he should quiet his fears and promise him every benefit. If he is able to attract the close associates of the commander of the fortress, so that they would turn against [the latter or save [him the trouble of dealing with the commander), this would be among the most beneficial actions [in] capturing [the fortress) and among the most important. If their obedience and submission are not secured, he should attempt a trick which will bring about the sallying forth of the people within the fortress to battle, such that they are emboldened to defeat him; or to turn away from them, or to seem to be departing from them, so that they will come forth in pursuit of the army. If they do come out, and [the commander of the army] can elude them and enter the fortress suddenly, this would be most helpful in gaining the objective.

Chapter Three : about the method of investment. People experienced in the investment [of fortified places] say that the first of the things done in the action of investment is that one's men, from the moment of their alighting, surround them (i.e., the people in the fortress) so that no one of them is able to leave and no one can enter to them; nor can they hear from anyone a single word, nor can they see from anyone a sign (or signal), nor can the shooting of an arrow reach them. It may be that a report about the army can reach them by word of mouth had they been able to hear the speech of anyone; or one might make a signal to them about the army which they would understand, or one might write them a letter and place it on an arrow and shoot it to them, thus causing them to take caution (on the basis of any one report relayed to them by these methods] Great care must be taken about their messengers, and the commander should not entrust a single one of his army to approach them except those who are conversant with diplomatic exchange, its forms and its techniques. Care [too] should be taken that no one of them (i.e., the enemy's messengers) should gain a single word or more than this. A single word can open a door fastened against evil. One's emissary to those (within the fortress] should be from among those whose counsel and piety and integrity and sound management are trusted. [The commander of the army] should know the conditions of the fortress, the inaccessible places and those with ease of access; the impos sible and the possible places for [military] action; the positions of the fording-places and caves, of the pontoon and vaulted bridges which he must cross to reach the place he chooses from among [the possible] positions [of entrance] to the fortress. Further, he should know the positions for mining [the walls) and for scaling ropes, siege ladders and grappling irons.4 Similarly [he should be conversant] with the erection of mangonels and the directing of the stones used in them; of the positions for the archers, the slings and the naptha-throwers, and of the method of operating these machines and using them. He who has erected them for battling against the fortress should place them in a position which enemy [fire] cannot attain. In this matter, he should do the most convenient things first.

[ The commander of the army ] must assemble all types of warriors and workmen, that which he requires of iron and wood and similar materials, and the craftsmen of all engines related to war. These craftsmen should begin the construction of the machines and armaments. [The commander] should not-neglect this matter or delay it, and the construction of these should be apparent to the people within the fortress. It should not be concealed, because, by doing it [openly), fright and terror and weakening of their hearts occur.5 He should also supervise the raising of the mangonels and their firing, for by so doing dread is visited upon the people of the fortress. Whenever an opportunity presents itself [to use the mangonels], he should seize it and he should hasten to do so, without warning the people in the fortress before doing so. In delay is respite for them and their taking to arms and the consolidation of opinion amongst them; such delay merely benefits the objective of the enemy [within] and that which redounds to his interest. Verily, for every thing there is a right time; to exceed it is to lessen its degree of usefulness. When the investment is under way, there should be no pause in the discharging of the mangonels against them, and there should be no abating of the amount of mangonel fire] in any hour of the day or night. To desist in attack against them is among that which cools their fright and strengthens their hearts. And when the armed attack takes place, it is necessary that [the men of the army] fight with the most convenient [of arms] first and then the next most convenient, delaying the use of the largest of the machines (of war] to the last of those [implements] which they employ in attacking. [In this manner] it becomes apparent to the people in the fortress that each [successive] implement is a little more powerful than the preceding one. [This procedure is employed] except when necessity calls for beginning (the investment] with the most powerful weapon; then the commander begins with this one. If the people of the fortress opt for a strong initial action of attack, [the commander of the army] should counter their design and handle them by procrastinating [in engaging them in quick battle], because they would not have opted for quick action unless they had been disquieted. And if they opt for procrastination, he should treat them to quick attack, though procrastination in war is the chief stratagem, and it is the one which requires cool resolution. In general, the foundation of battle is opposition to the design of the enemy. And among the most laudable actions is that the commander of the army or one of his army whom he deputized should circumambulate the fortress every day or two, consulting the people of judgment on the matter of its capture or about the work to be done] in taking it. This will frighten those within. It must also be stressed that the besieger of the enemy is also besieged in the sense that he is not secure from their going out against him and their hastening to do so when the opportunity, during the day or night, presents itself to them; for they desire victory as much as the besieger desires it over them. Hence it is incumbent upon the commander to be cautious with respect to himself and those of the army with him as much as possible. He should use trenches if there is need of them, and their construction is possible; for this is among the strongest [factors] of resolution and conquest. And he should put, at the distance of an arrow-shot from the gate of the fortress, some cavalrymen, posted about [this position], who will observe those who leave it; thus they will be 94

in the position of scouts for the army. When they see someone leave the fortress, they will hasten to become informed about him, so that the soldiers of the army can take care of him, or some of their own number will offer opposition to him. When the besieger of a fortress accomplishes its capture and gains mastery over it, the aims of rulers have varied about [the matter of the fortress' future]. Some insist upon destroying and demolishing the fortress, so that it cannot become a refuge for that one among the enemy who would fortify it another time. Thus the Turkish rulers (i.e., the Mamlūks) destroyed the cities of the coast of Syria, such as Şūr (Ture), “Akkā (Acre) and 'Asqalān and others of the leading cities, 6 fearing that the Franks would gain possession of them and refortify themselves within them. This was the method also of the Tartar rulers, such as Hūlākū and Ghāzān and those after them. They had demolished many of the cities and fortresses, some whose rebuilding ensued, and some which remained as they were. Other rulers did not desire the razing of the fortresses, because the object in building up the land is not its destruction; for the king who rules over that which he demolished among the fortresses will need to build them anew. This entails the extreme of difficulty and expense. When the Mongols (may God defeat them) occupied Syria, they began to destroy the forts and walls.. They demolished the walls of the fort of Damascus, and the forts of Şalt, 'Ajlūn, Şarkhad, Bușra, Ba'albak, Subaibah, Shaizar and Shumaimis. When the sultan took charge of affairs and God established him as the support of the Faith, he took an interest in the reconstruction of these forts and the completion of the destroyed buildings, because these were the strongholds of Islam. All these were repaired during his time; their fosses were cleared out, the flanks of their walls were broadened, equipment was transported to them, and he sent mamlūks and soldiers to them." It is Sulțân Baybars who is referred to here.

BOOK TWENTY : a description of the method of the defense of fortified places and of their protection. In it are two chapters.

Chapter One : about that which the commander of the fortified place must do by way of preparing for the attack of the enemy before the investment of the fortress. Men of exploits, investigators of this matter say that the first thing which the commander of a fortress needs to do vis-a-vis its condition of security before the enemy falls upon it unexpectedly is to strengthen its fortification and assign positions to its defenders, and to see that it has a sufficiency of men and of all war implements and equipment for a long siege and for vexing the enemy during the attack. By making apparent the readiness of all this, of that by which the enemy, alighting against the fortress, will know that the commander of the fortress is alert against him who attacks it, he will be ready for the siege. This will be a reason for the enemy's] retiring from the siege and his returning (to his own country]. Among the matters of caution which (the commander of the fortress] should oversee is its unceasing readiness for the enemy at all times; for, if the enemy aims at him, he should find him ready. Neither should he be remiss about any of the matters of defense against thc enemy in the period before the investment, nor in any detail of operation and management lest there be 95

involved some weakness or defect. He who delays doing a thing or misses the proper time [for doing it) can reproach no one but himself. One thing which dashes the hopes of one who seeks to take the fortress is what he sees of the maintenance of precaution. Among the most important matters relative to the incipient investment is the presence of [sufficient] water and food and those necessities which benefit the besieged group. The presence of these favors procrastination which will vex the enemy, and it may be a reason for his retiring.

Chapter Two : about that which the commander of the fortress must do at the time of the actual investment. [The experts] said that the first thing a besieged [commander] must do is to exhort his companions-in-arms to constancy, informing them of all the rewards of patience, warning them about the enemy and that which they will receive at his hands should he conquer them; promising them every good upon their victory and the retirement of the enemy from against them; with safety for themselves and their wealth, to the amount which would satisfy their souls and enlarge their hopes. He should know the extent of his enemy's arming and the extent of his injury, so that his actions will be relative to these amounts; for he who knows the extent of that which is with his adversary, builds his power relative to the certainty of what he knows. He should employ those machines which counter the operation of the adversary and defend the fortress, and which abrogate [the effect] of the enemy's machines. He should not use any arms or projectiles other than those he is confident will injure the enemy; for, the weapon, when it has gone from the hand of its wielder, without effecting thereby any injury to his enemy, has lost its use to the wielder, notwithstanding his urgent need of it. Perhaps the enemy may gain it and make it part of his battery against the one who threw it in the first place. [The commander of the fortress) should not indulge in rushing the enemy and sallying forth to battle except out of necessity and the need to defend himself; nor should he engage in battle so long as he has resort to trickery and stratagem. He must have recourse to procrastination and (other means of] defense. If the investment continues, he must seize the day and the hour and the moment to effect the stratagem prepared (against the enemy), and be aware of the happenings of the time and whatever relief comes forward. The Verified Truthful One, [The Prophet], has recounted that victory is with the patient. In general, it is necessary that [the commander of the fortress possess the hearts of the common people through justice and beneficience; for the reach of the desire of the common people is for naught but these. He who practices justice and good works, his subjects will be among the most sincere of his soldiers, because of the tranquility of their hearts towards him. They may hold fast to their places when the army of the ruler is absent from them until the coming of one whom the ruler deputizes from among the trustworthy for this [duty of defense). But God knows best.

Section Three: Las Siete Partidas: Laws concerning warfare and the military by Alfonso X. Title XXI Law X – In What Way Castles Should be Furnished with Provisions and with all other things which are Necessary Food is something without which men cannot live; it is necessary that they have it continually, and if they cannot do without it elsewhere, much less are they able to do so in castles where they are, as it were, shut up and guarded, so that they cannot go out anywhere without the order of the governor; and, moreover, it might happen that even if he commands them to go forth, they are powerless to do so; through being besieged or constantly attacked by the enemy. – For this reason it is necessary for him always to keep the castle furnished with provisions and especially with water, which can be less dispensed with than other things, and if there is a supply of it, that he may know how to preserve it, and use it in moderation so that it may not fail. Search must be made, and everything else that is possible be done, in order to have water; for as a castle cannot be defended without men, so they cannot exist or protect it, if they do not have the means of sustenance; therefore the first thing that should be provided is water, for not only is it needed to drink, but for many other purposes which are indispensable, and since, from the lack of it rather than the want of anything else, they may more quickly perish, great care should be taken that it does not fail; for, although water is very common and cheap, among men nothing is more dear when it cannot be obtained, for which reason it should be well guarded. Moreover, bread should be provided, and of such a kind as is understood will keep best in the climate of the country. The same precaution should be taken with regard to meat and fish, nor should salt, oil, vegetables, or other things which are very useful for the provisioning of the castle, be forgotten. Care should also be taken to provide mills or hand-mills, charcoal, wood, and all those other articles called utensils, without which provisions cannot easily be made use of, even although they are supplied; and men’s clothing and shoes should also be included, because they are things which cannot be dispensed with, since they assist them to live and to make a more creditable appearance. It is better for the castle to be provided with what we have specified before it becomes necessary to use haste, wherefore everything which is furnished the governor for the use of the castle, should be deposited in it, not only what we have mentioned, but also all other articles which are necessary. For, if he should act otherwise and the castle be lost through the want of any of these things, he will incur the penalty of treason, as one who had the means to defend the castle of his lord, and did not avail himself of them, for which reason it was lost. Law XI – How Castles Should Be Provided with Arms In order that castles may be guarded and protected whenever it is necessary, they should be well supplied with arms. For, although they maybe furnished with men and with provisions, if they are not provided with arms, all else will be as nothing, for by means of them men must protect themselves. In addition to all the weapons which the lord leaves in his arsenal, the governor should always have his own, in order to show that he desires to protect his loyalty, and he should also keep there everything necessary to make and repair said arms, so that they may be used 97

when required; for a weapon which a man cannot make use of, is rather a hindrance to him, than an advantage. And, above all, care should be taken, that the people in the castle do not steal or reduce them in number in anyway, so that they may be available when needed; and those who do so should be severely punished. For if: he who steals what belongs to another deserves exemplary punishment for the reason that he causes his property to be diminished, how much more does he deserve it who steals that by means; of which he causes the loyalty of another to be diminished, and him to incur the penalty of treason. Wherefore all the arms in the castle, those belonging to the lord as well as those in possession of the governor, should, be well guarded, not only to prevent them from being stolen, or disposed of as we have mentioned, but also to avoid their being injured or destroyed, excepting such as may be lost in the protection and defense of the castle. This should not, however, be done by way of contempt, and by neglecting them, or by making use of them in such a way as will not be for their benefit or protection, or for that of those of the place. Wherefore, a governor who does not keep the castle provided with arms in this way, or makes an ill use of those which he has there by which conduct the castle may be lost, will, on this account, incur the penalty of treason; and although it may not be lost, he should pay double the value of all the arms which are destroyed through his fault. Law XII – How Castles Should be Defended and Protected with Valor and Intrepidity The ancient people of Spain well knew how to preserve their loyalty by paying careful attention to all those matters by which castles may be better defended, so that their lords might not lose them; and after careful investigation of all by which this might be more thoroughly accomplished, they ordained that those who occupied the castles should do two things; first, they should defend them with valor and intrepidity; second, they should do this with wisdom and prudence; and by their acting with valor and intrepidity was meant that they should defend the castle with great boldness, wounding and killing the enemy as vigorously as they could, so as not to permit him to approach it. In doing this, they should not spare father or son, or any lord whom they formerly acknowledged, or any other man in the world who was on the other side, and wished to make them lose the castle; for, it would be very unjust and contrary to law to protect a man who is a traitor. They should, moreover, have the resolution to endure all fears and hardships which may come upon them, not only from watching, but also from the thirst, hunger, and cold, to which they are exposed; for since they must not surrender the castle except to their lord, it is necessary that they derive courage from themselves, in order to be able to do this, and not by their own fault commit treason. Wherefore they should not fear death, or any other danger which can be borne, so much as an evil reputation, which is something that will always attach to them and their descendants, if they should not do their duty in defending the castle. For which reason the ancients deemed it proper that, when a governor saw military engines in course of preparation, or mines opened, or any other way of reducing castles begun, he should explain these things to those who are present, so that they may not be dismayed. For although it is a natural thing, for men to fear death, yet, since they are aware that they must endure it, they should rather wish to die while acting in a loyal and lawful manner, and give persons reason to praise them after death much more than when they were living; leave a glorious name as well as a good reputation to their, descendants, and have a way opened by which the lords with whom 98

they lived would be obliged to confer benefits and honors upon them, and always confide in them; than to exhibit downright cowardice, on which account they will be considered wicked, and be liable to undergo a traitor’s death, or, if they escape this, will be despised and dishonored and render their descendants, infamous forever. For this reason the ancients always placed eminent men in charge of castles, who could clearly show and know how to explain these matters to those who were there, so that they might have courage to behave properly, and be able to avoid incurring the penalty of treason. This should be done in the morning, when all are assembled, before they are scattered, and while fasting, neither having eaten nor drunk, and they should exhort them not to be gamblers, or robbers or quarrelsome persons, or interfere with one another, that they may not be embroiled with or oppose, the governor; and when it is not certainly known that anyone is meditating treason, or any other wicked act by which injury may result to the castle; this should, nevertheless, be established in such a way that it can be proved upon the culprit, or evidence given by which it must be believed. Governors, more than other men, are obliged to do this. Law XIII – Prudence and Wisdom are Necessary for the Defense of Castles Men must have great wisdom and prudence in order to defend castles, for, although valor and intrepidity are very noble qualities in themselves, yet, in most instances, they should be assisted by intelligence and prudence in order that the means which men desire to employ to enable them to conquer, may not cause them to be vanquished. And, although this is very necessary in all warlike operations it is especially requisite for those whose duty it is to defend castles from the enemy, as they are more frequently taken by skill and artifice than by force. The besieged can manifest such boldness in attacking the besiegers that if they do not act with sufficient wisdom and intelligence for the castle to remain in safety, it will be lost. On this account it was decreed, in Spain that, after a castle had been invested, no one should open the gate in order to make a sally, without the order of the governor; for if anyone did so, and the castle were lost on this account, he would be considered a traitor, and should be put to death in the most creel manner in which it could be inflicted, and should forfeit half his possessions. Even if the castle were not lost, he should lose his life for the reason that he disobeyed the order of the governor, at a dangerous time; but they deemed it proper that, so far as the governor was concerned, he should not himself attempt such a proceeding, for if he did, even though he were killed or taken, he would not be exculpated from treason, if at that time the castle were lost; because since it was given to him to defend, he should not leave it without the command of the king, or of the other lord of whom he held it. The order must be positive, so that he can prove it by credible witnesses. Moreover, those charged with the defence of castles should be endowed with prudence, in order to provide arms, stones, and other articles necessary for their protection, so that they may not be obliged to tear down walls, towers, or anything else to defend themselves, for, if they do so, and the castle is lost, they should not escape the penalty aforesaid. They should also take good care of the arms, so that they may not be destroyed, except when this is necessary, as above stated. Law XVIII – In What Way Castles Should be Surrendered to those Lords to Whom they belong, in order for men to maintain their Loyalty

We have mentioned in the laws preceding this one, the three ways in which castles should be received, protected, and defended, as was formerly that if he is not experienced in such matters, he should be notified to have men with him who are so, in order to oppose the military engines of the enemy, or make use of those which he has caused to be constructed inside the fortifications, if it should become necessary. Moreover, the governor, as well as the men whom he has with him in the castle, should be prudent and wise enough to be able to conceal the losses which they suffer, or the injury which they sustain from the besiegers, so that they may strengthen themselves, and the enemy may not have occasion to press upon them, or learn their ill-fortune. Those who act in this manner preserve the loyalty which they are bound to keep, and, moreover, perform deeds far which they should receive honor and distinction from their lords. Law XV – In What Way Castles Should Be Strengthened by Repairing Them Intelligence and prudence are two things which greatly assist men in preserving their loyalty, for intelligence gives them wisdom to show it, and prudence enables them to guard it. Wherefore the ancient Spaniards, who possessed these two qualities, paid especial attention to that by means of which their lord was protected from loss, themselves from evil fortune, and the kingdom from injury. And by careful consideration of this subject, it did not appear to them that providing castles with men, arms, and the other supplies which we mentioned in the preceding laws, was sufficient to defend them perfectly, but they also held that assistance should be furnished in time of war, when they were known to be besieged or attacked. This assistance should be given in two ways; first, by labor; second, through affording succor by means of men, and other things which castles have need of. The first, which relates to labor, should be performed in this way, namely; where any structure has been overthrown, or has recently fallen down in a castle, the men who are there should render assistance, as soon as possible, by making repairs, in order that the castle may not be lost for that reason. And, although this work ought to be performed in time of peace, nevertheless, if the lord did not do it through lack of prudence, or on account of great obstacles by which he was impeded, those who hold the castles should immediately give their aid in repairing them, whenever they think it necessary; and they cannot avoid affording assistance in this matter, in every way possible, on account of their descent, or of any quality which they possess, for loyalty is more precious than lineage, or any other attribute which can exist. Hence where anyone refuses to act, and the castle is lost on this account, he will incur the penalty of treason, which he cannot escape in any way whatever. Title XXII – Concerning Commanders, Light Cavalry, and Foot Soldiers In the preceding Title we described the knights, and now we intend to treat of commanders, light cavalry, and foot soldiers, all of whom are very, necessary in time of war. We shall speak in the first place of commanders, and what kind of men they should be; why they are so called; what matters they should be skilled in how they should be selected; who has power to appoint them; and in what way they should be appointed. We shall also show what kind of men should compose light cavalry; how they should be enlisted and what men they should select to take with them to war.

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Law I – What Qualities a Commander Should Possess, What Kind of a Man He Should Be, and Why He Is So Called The ancients declared that a commander should possess four qualities; first, intelligence; second, Strength; third, good natural prudence; fourth, loyalty. They should be intelligent, in order to protect armies and enable them to avoid bad measures and dangers; and, they should be wise, so as to be able to guide armies and expeditions, not only those that are openly, but also those that are secretly conducted, directing them to places where they can find water, wood, and grass, and all take their rest together; they should, moreover, be acquainted with localities which are favorable for placing ambuscades of infantry as well as cavalry, and know how to instruct them to remain silent while there; and to come forth when it is necessary. It is also proper for them to become well acquainted with the country which they are about to overrun, and where they have to send foraging parties; and this in order that they may do so more quickly and better, and depart in safety with their spoil; and they should understand how to place, scouts and sentinels, not only those which mount guard publicly, but others called secret sentries; and also how to obtain information of their enemies, in order always to have knowledge of their movements. When they are unable to do this in this way, they should exert themselves to seize persons belonging to the neighborhood where they are making war, in order that they may learn from them certainly the condition of their enemies, and in what way they should attack them. One of the things to which they should pay much attention is to ascertain what provisions the army as well as the foraging parties should take with them, and for how many days, and they should know how to make them last longer, if it becomes necessary. Hence the ancients who were well skilled in war, had such a desire to inflict injury upon their enemies that they carried their food tied up in paniers and bags, whenever they went on predatory excursions, and did not wish to take other animals with them. They did this in order to travel more rapidly and more secretly, the higher in rank they were the more pride they took, and they considered themselves superior in knowing how to endure hardship and to subsist on little in time of war. They acted thus in order to conquer their enemies, for it appeared to them that no reward and no pleasure in this world was greater than this: and because they carried their rations, as above stated, they afterwards called it their store of provisions. Therefore commanders should be well informed concerning all the matters which we have mentioned in this law, in order to be able to explain them to all other men, so that they may, become familiar with them; and that, in the performance of their duties, men will willingly obey their orders, not only those of emperors and kings but those issued by others engaged in war, under whose direction they are to act, and, for this reason, their authority is very great. Such as are unwilling to obey their orders should suffer the penalty which the king finds they deserve, in proportion to the injury which those forming the expedition sustained on account of their disobedience. They must also be bold of heart, so that they may not be overcome or dismayed by dangers, when they come upon them, as, for instance, when they lose the way which they desired to take, and come into a more dangerous neighborhood; or when a great force of the enemy suddenly attacks them by surprise, when they are few in numbers; or when other accidents of this kind 101

happen to them; and they should, above all, have good, bold hearts, in order to strengthen and comfort themselves and others, and put their own hands to the work and render them good assistance by this means whenever it becomes necessary. For it is not right that such persons should spare their own bodies, while others under their command are risking theirs. Not only should they be bold in action but also in speech, so that they may be able to encourage and console others by this means; for it is a true saying of the ancients, that good courage often conquers bad fortune. Commanders should also be endowed with sound, natural prudence, in order to be able to make use of these qualities, namely, wisdom and courage, each in its proper place. They should know how to reconcile men when they are at variance, and they ought to share with them what they have, and also honor and reward faithful soldiers who form part of the armies or the foraging parties which they command. But, above all other things it is fitting that they be loyal, so that they may know how to love their religion, their natural lord, and the troops which they command; so that neither hatred, ill will, nor avarice, may induce them to do anything contrary to this. For, since those under their command, trusting in their fidelity, place themselves in the power of their enemies, or venture into places where they have never entered; if their commanders are not loyal, their treason will be more serious and more injurious than that of any other man, because they can inflict upon those over whom they have control all the harm which they desire; for which reason it was formerly decided that a commander should possess all these four qualities; and therefore they were called adalides, which means guides, because they must possess all the qualities aforesaid, in order to be able properly to direct armies and foraging parties, in time of war. Law II – How Commanders Should Be Selected, and Who Has Authority to Do It In ancient times, those who were skilled in war established certain rules for the appointment of commanders which also stated how their lords should honor them, and in what matters they should give them authority, and we desire to explain this in these laws, for it is something which is very essential to warfare. Wherefore, we decree that whenever the king, or any other lord desires to appoint a commander, he shall summon twelve of the wisest commanders that can be found, and these, after being sworn to tell the truth, must state whether he whom it is intended to appoint commander, possesses the four qualities which we have mentioned in the preceding law; and if they state under oath that he does, he should then be appointed. If the lord cannot find a sufficient number of commanders to give this testimony, the places of those who are wanting should be filled with other men who are familiar with war and its operations, and where they give their testimony along the others it is as valid as if they were all commanders. The latter should be selected in this way, and in no other; for the lord by himself cannot appoint a commander, nor has he power to do so even if the party is fitted for the place, unless he be an emperor or king or some one representing him. Where anyone ventures to do this who is not one of the persons mentioned in this law; or if another person, on his own responsibility, assumes power to act as commander – even though he should be fit for the office – they shall both lose their lives on this account, for the reason that they attempt to do that for which they have no authority; and where they cannot be found, they shall forfeit all their possessions.

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Law III – How a Commander Should Be Appointed, What He Who Appoints Him Should Give Him, and What Honor He Obtains After He Had Been Appointed Anyone whom it is desired to appoint a commander, should be honored in the following manner. He whose duty it is to promote and appoint him should provide him with clothing, a horse, arms of wood and iron, according to the custom of the country; and a nobleman who is a lord of knights should be ordered to gird on his sword, but he must not give him a slap on the neck. After he has girded him, a shield should be laid upon the ground with the hollow part of it above, and he who is to be appointed commander must stand upon it, and the king, or whoever is performing the ceremony, should draw the candidate’s sword from its scabbard and place it naked, in his hand. Then the twelve who gave their testimony for him should raise him on the shield as high as they can, and while holding him in this way, they should immediately turn his face to the east, and he must make with the sword two kinds of blows, first raising his arm above and striking downward, and the other blow he should strike in a transverse direction, this forming a cross, and saying at the same time: “I, So-and-So; in the name of God, defy all the enemies of the Faith, and of my lord the King, and of his country.” He should do and say this, turning each time he says it to the other three quarters of the world. Then he should, himself, put his sword into the scabbard, and the king should place a banner in his hand, if he promotes him to be a commander, and say to him at the same time: “I appoint you commander from this time forward;” and where anyone else does this in the name of the king, he should place the banner in his hand and address him as follows: “I appoint you commander in the name of the king;” and from that time he is entitled to bear arms; and to have a horse and a banner, and. sit at the table with knights, whenever he happens to be with them; and he who offers him any indignity must be punished just as if he had treated a knight in this way, on account of the honor of the king. After he has been made commander, as above stated, he is authorized to control men of distinguishing rank and knights by reprimand and light cavalry and foot soldiers by blows and punishments, but not in such a way, or in such a place, that they may be injured. Law IV – For What Reasons Commanders Should Be Appointed with Marked Ceremony, What Authority They Have, and What Punishment They Deserve If They Do Not Perform Their Duties Well The ancients ordained that commander should be appointed in an honorable manner, as we stated in the preceding law. They did this for several reasons; first, on account of the great deeds which they achieve by means of them; second, on account of the great dangers to which they are exposed, and also because of the power which they have to determine many things which other men cannot do. For they have authority to decide all questions arising from those composing foraging parties; and they must be present with them to divide what they obtain, and have restoration made for what they lose. They also have authority to command light cavalry and foot soldiers, and to place sentinels by day and to appoint sentries and patrols at night. It is their duty to direct the movements of foraging parties and ambuscades, each as it should be done. They have the right to appoint commanders of foot soldiers, as stated in the law which treats of this subject, and, for this reason, they should be wise and extremely prudent in order to select proper men for the above-named duties; and if they do not act in this way they should be punished both in person and in property, in proportion to the evil resulting from the offenses which they have 103

committed. Where, however, the offense was not caused through the fault of the commanders, but through that of those whom they appointed, then the others, who did not discharge their duty, should suffer the penalty aforesaid. Law V – What An Almocaden Is, and What Are the Duties of Him Who Is Made One Those formerly called commanders of foot soldiers, are now called almocadenes. These are of great advantage in war, because foot soldiers can enter places and perform deeds which horsemen cannot. For which reason when a foot soldier desires to become an almocaden, he should act in the following manner, namely; he must go first to the adalides, and convince them by whatever arguments he can that he deserves promotion. Then twelve almocadenes should be summoned and compelled to swear, and tell the truth as to whether he who seeks this office possesses four qualities; first, whether he understands war, and how to lead those who accompany him; second, whether he is strong, in order to perform warlike deeds and dominate his soldiers; third, whether he be active, for this is something which is very proper for a foot soldier in order that he may quickly reach what he has to seize and he should also know how to cure wounds when urgent necessity arises; fourth, whether he is loyal, in order to be a friend of his lord and of the troops which he commands. These are the qualifications which a commander of foot soldiers should have at all times. When those selected have testified that the applicant possesses these four qualifications, they should conduct him to the king or to some other officer of the army, or the foraging party, stating that he is a good man for the office of almocaden. After they have presented him to the king, the latter should furnish him with new clothing, according to the custom of the country, and should give him a lance with a small pennon, to mark the halting place of an army; and this pennon should bear whatever device he wishes, so that he may be recognized by it and be better protected by his troops, and also in order that they may know whenever he conducts himself improperly, or well. Law VI – How an Almocaden Should Be Made, and What Punishment He Deserves If He Does Not Make Proper use of His Office The twelve almocadenes having made oath in favor of him whom they desirer to promote to their office, as stated in the preceding law, they should take their lances, and cause the candidate to stand upon the shafts, holding them in such a way that they will not break and he will not fall, and raise him four times from the earth, facing the four quarters of the world; and each time he must repeat the same words which we stated above should be pronounced by the adalid, and while he repeats them, he should hold his lance with its pennon in his hand, with its head always directed towards the quarter to which he turns his face. Even if a party, has qualifications which would entitle him to be an adalid, he cannot become one, unless he has served a certain time as a light horseman; and as the ancients said whatever goes well should always progress and rise from one rank to a greater one; so a good almocaden is made out of a good foot soldier, and a good light horsemen out of a good almocaden, and a good adalid out of him.

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This is the way in which an almocaden should be appointed, and whoever appoints one in any other way should lose the place he holds for venturing to do so, and he should suffer other punishment as well, if from his obtrusiveness any injury results through the fault of the illegally made almocaden; and the penalty which he who made him should undergo ought to be in proportion to that injury; but where he is properly appointed, as above explained, he who created him almocaden will not be at all to blame if he commits any offence; but he himself should suffer for it according to the nature of his act. We declare that the same rule shall apply where his troops refused to obey orders, and that they should be punished in proportion to the injury resulting from their disobedience; this, however, is understood to apply to cases where the almocaden cannot prevent it, for, if he is able to do so, he should bear the blame and suffer the penalty. Law VII – What Kind of Men Foot Soldiers Should Be Throughout the Country, and How They Should Be Chosen and Equipped The frontier of Spain is naturally hot, and animals born there are larger and of stronger constitution than those which belong to the older country. For which reason the infantry who march with the adalides and almocadenes to engage in warfare, should be physically qualified, accustomed to, and prepared for, exposure to the open air and the hardships of their calling; for, where they are not of this description, they cannot long remain healthy, even though they be astute and valiant. Wherefore commanders of horse and of foot should be very careful to take with them in their foraging excursions and other warlike enterprises foot soldiers practiced in war and used to the privations which we mentioned above; and they should also see that they are active, crafty, and have well made limbs, in order to be able to endure the hardships of war, and that they are always provided with serviceable lances, javelins, knives, and daggers. They should, moreover, take with them men who know how to shoot with the crossbow and are provided with the equipment pertaining to archery, for soldiers of this kind are very effective in warfare. And when they are of such as these, the commanders of horse and foot should have great affection for them, and honor them both in word and deed, and divide with them the booty which they take together, as has been previously stated; and where it happens that infantry of the description above mentioned cannot be obtained, they should prefer to enter the enemy’s country with a few good foot soldiers, than with many bad ones. Title XXIII – Concerning the War which all Persons on Earth should engage in War is of two kinds one bad, the other good. And although each of these can be divided with relation to the deeds to which it gives rise, nevertheless, so far as the name and the manner of making it are concerned, both are one and the same thing; for engaging in hostilities, although it involves destruction and the inciting of dissensions and enmity among men, yet, when, it is carried on as it should be, it afterwards brings peace, from which result quiet, rest and friendship. For this reason the ancient sages declared that it was well for men to endure the hardships and dangers of war, because, by this means they eventually obtain beneficial peace and rest; and since the evil inherent in it is productive of good results, and on account of the mistrust which compels men to engage in war, those who desire to inaugurate it should be well informed before they begin. 105

Wherefore, since in the preceding Title we have spoken separately of knights and commanders, and of the things which they are required to observe and do, we intend to show here in the laws of this Title what wars it is proper both should engage in with consideration of the two different advantages which may be obtained by their country through war; first, by learning how to protect and defend it from its enemies; second, how to aggrandize, it by obtaining their property. In the first place, we shall show what war is; how many kinds there are; for what reasons it should be made; with what things those who desire to make it should be provided and equipped; what kind of men those who are selected to act as commanders in the war should be; what they should do and observe; how all the rest of the people should be governed by them; and what benefit arises from this control. We shall also show how many kind of bodies of troops there are; and how they should be divided when they have to invade a country or go into battle; and also how the officers should be vigilant while in command of an army when it marches from one place to another, or when they select a camp for the night, or desire to lay siege to a town or castle; and, above all, we shall speak of foraging parties, ambuscades, forays, and all the other kinds of hostilities which men engage in. Law I – What War Is, and How Many Kinds There Are The ancient sages who treated of the subject of war stated that it is hostility to peace, the motion of things that are quiet, and the destruction of things that are complex. They also described war as something from which proceeds the death and captivity of men, and the injury, loss, and ruin of property. There are four kinds of war. The first is called justa, in Latin, which means, in Castilian, founded upon right. This happens where a man engages in it to recover his own property from the enemy, or to protect himself and it from them; the second is called, in Latin, injusta, which means a war instituted through pride, and contrary to what is right. The third is called civilis, which means one which arises among the inhabitants of a certain locality, as among factions, or in a kingdom on account of some disagreement which the people have among themselves. The fourth is called plusquam civilis, which means a war in which not only the citizens of some locality contend with one another, but also where relative is arrayed against relative, by reason of faction; as was the case with Caesar and Pompey, who were respectively father-in-law and son-in-law, And in which war Romans fought, fathers against their sons, and brothers against their brothers, some of them supporting Caesar and others Pompey. Law II – For What Reasons Men Are Impelled to Make War The inauguration of war, is something which those who wish to, make it should carefully consider before they begin, in order that it may be carried on with reason and justice, for, by doing this, three great advantages are obtained; first, God will afford greater assistance to those who institute it in this manner; second, they will exert themselves more strongly on account of their being in the right; third, those who hear of it, if they are friendly, will assist them with greater good will, and if they are hostile, will withdraw themselves more from them. The right to maintain a just war, is as the ancient sages explained, based upon three considerations; first, to expand the religion of the People, and to destroy those who wish to oppose it; second, for the sake of their lord, by desiring loyally to serve, honor, and defend him; third, in order to protect themselves and aggrandize and honor the country in which they dwell. 106

A war of this kind should be made in two ways, namely; one on enemies who are within the kingdom, who are doing harm to the country by robbing and unjustly depriving men of their property – for kings and those who have the right to sit in judgment should oppose such as these, and see that justice is executed upon them and the whole body of the people should fight them, in order to eradicate and expel them. For, as wise men stated, persons of this kind are malefactors in the kingdom, and resemble poison in the body of a man, who cannot be well as long as it is there. Wherefore, it is proper that war should be carried on with men of this kind, by pursuing them and inflicting upon them as much injury as possible until they are driven from the kingdom or killed, (as we stated above in the laws of the Title treating of this subject,) in order that the people who inhabit the land may be able to live in peace. The second kind of war of which we intend to speak here, is that which is carried on with enemies outside the kingdom, who desire to deprive the people of their country by force, and for the purpose of protecting them in what they should justly possess. We desire to show how this kind of war should be made, as established by the ancient sages, who, as well as other knights, thoroughly understood it, because they were well informed on the subject through their own operations and practice during a long period of time. Law III – With What Supplies Those Who Make War Should Be Provided and Furnished The people, when they desire to make war against their enemies, should be provided thoroughly and in many different ways not only with men, horses, arms, and money, but also with military engines and tools, and everything else which is necessary for the purposes of attack as well as defence, for there are some of these things which are adapted to some operations, and others to others. Therefore they should be ready in time, so as to have all these supplies and not be lacking in them, for if there should be a deficiency when they are needed they will be destroyed and can obtain no advantage, and their wishes will be unfulfilled and they will be thought persons of little prudence. They should, moreover, be vigilant, in order always to know the condition of their enemies, and be constantly on their guard so that they may not acquire any information concerning them; and, for this reason, they will protect themselves and their property when they wish to make war for their own advantage and show themselves to be men of prudence. When they do not act in this manner the opposite will happen to them, for they will be ill-treated and sustain loss, and the war will be to their injury, and they will also be considered men of but little caution. Law IV – Who Should Be Chosen as Generals in War, and for What Reasons Generals occupy a position of great honor, for, without them, nothing can be done by common consent, and this is true of all matters, not only those which are trifling, but those which are important as well. Wherefore, since in the most vital and dangerous enterprises great attention should be paid to this, we desire to describe here what kind of men should be selected as generals, and to show, according to the opinions of the ancients, for what reasons this should be done; and we, therefore, decree that men should be chosen generals for one of the three following qualifications. First, on account of their lineage, for this makes man noble, honorable, and highly esteemed, and hence he can be chosen as a general, although, he may not be very prominent, or very learned. The second is, on account of their power, as is the case with emperors, kings, and other lords, who occupy honorable and exalted positions. For although 107

these may not be of very distinguished lineage, or very learned, they become generals solely on account of the sovereignty and the power which they exercise. The third, which is derived from Wisdom, is of greater force than either of the other two which we mentioned; for when either he who becomes a general through his rank, or he who obtains the office through power, is not well informed, it is proper, by all means, for him to have recourse to such as know how to make war. Wherefore, in everything relating to warfare great attention should be paid to this, namely; that persons of eminence as well as those of good lineage, by whom men are commanded and governed, should have practice in, and knowledge of, command; for such as are not so may bring matters to such a pass that neither authority nor birth will be of any avail; and it is but natural and reasonable for a man to go to look for what he desires where he knows he will find it and can obtain it. Law V – Generals Should Be Valiant Against Their Enemies Valor, skill, and prudence are three qualities, which in all respects are becoming to those who desire to make war successfully; for, through valor, they will be enterprising; and, through skill, masters in making war, by protecting themselves and inflicting injury upon their enemies; and prudence will cause them to employ each of these at the proper time and in the proper place. For which reason those ancients who discussed the subject of war, held that though all, in common, should possess this attribute, it was more suitable for generals than for other men, since they have the power of command; as they should be valiant in order to face dangers, and accustomed to the use of arms through knowing how to bear them, and employ them to advantage. They must also be skilled in, and masters of, the art of war, not only in enduring the hardships and perils which result from it, but they should also understand how to direct other men in what way to conduct it, and be able to issue their orders to them, and make use of them for this purpose before they begin operations, so that when they are engaged in hostilities they may be prepared, and know how to proceed. For this reason the ancients considered it so important for men to be accustomed to be commanded, that their officers-showed them not only how they should obey by the use of words, but also by signals which they communicated to them. They did this in order that the enemy might not; understand what they told them, or obtain any information from this source; for one of the means by which men can most readily inflict injury upon their enemies is by carrying out their measures secretly. The ancient sages also took care, above all else, that a general should be naturally prudent, so that he might know how to protect his honor whenever it was necessary, and preserve his valor and wisdom, each in its proper place because prudence is most essential and be able to make use of each of the other qualities where it becomes necessary, for he employs valor in undertakings that he thinks he can accomplish, and knowledge where it is proper to do so; and he changes his practice in one way and another according to circumstances, and he causes his honor to perceive where it should be protected. And since prudence is superior to all lineage and power, generals have more need of it than other men; for if every man has occasion for it in order to govern himself in time of peace, how much more does he require it who is engaged in warfare, and must command himself and many more. The ancients also declared that commanders should possess two qualities which appear to be of a contradictory character; first, that they should be loquacious; second, that they should be silent. For they should be good reasoners and ready of speech, so as to know how to address their 108

soldiers and instruct them and explain to them what they have to do, before they go into action. Their speech, moreover, should be agreeable and bold, in order to inspire them with comfort and valor, when they are engaged in battle. A general should be silent, so that he may not be continually talking on account of which his conversation will be despised by men; nor should he, moreover, boast too much of what he has done, or relate his achievements in any other way than that in which they occurred, for by praising himself he diminishes the honor of his deeds and renders them contemptible; and, by relating them untruthfully, he will be found to be deceitful, and will not be believed in other matters in which he should be. For which reason a general, by whom the entire army is to be commanded, should be gifted with all the above-named qualities. If the emperor, or king, or other lord whose interests are concerned, is endowed with all these attributes he will be the greater for that reason; and if he is not, a man should be selected for this office who does possess them, and by whom the king himself and others may be commanded, for war is full of dangers and chances, and, moreover, a fault which is committed in conducting it cannot well be corrected afterwards. For this reason a general should not be selected except on account of his prudence and great talents for command. Law VI – Generals Should Be Acquainted with What They Have to Do, Before They Act The exercise of care is one of the natural qualities which men possess, for as they cannot do without eating, drinking, and sleeping, at their proper times, so they cannot avoid reflecting upon matters. Wherefore the ancient sages, who discussed everything thoroughly, declared with great reason, that since thought is something which cannot be avoided men should make use of it as far as they can, in a way which will result in their benefit, and not in their injury. And, although this should be borne in mind in everything which men do, it is much more important in affairs relating to war, which are pregnant with danger anal fear; and, therefore, commanders should, before they proceed to action be careful to reflect upon any mars concerning which they may feel apprehension or anxiety. By doing this they will acquire knowledge of their duties and be able to perform them better and more efficiently, and avoid sustaining injury and incurring shame, which are two things which men should carefully shun on all occasions, and especially in time of war; for the thought which arises simultaneous with the deed is injurious, because one is a hindrance to the other. Moreover, those who act in this manner show that they are imprudent and do not pay proper attention to what they have to do before they act; and, therefore, generals should be cautious, as we stated above, and examine undertakings before they engage in them, and carefully consider the fear and danger which attend warlike deeds, and be apprehensive, when they reflect upon them, and forget them when they go into action. For the thought which will then bring to their remembrance the fear and danger to which they may be exposed, will be such an obstacle in their way that they will not be able to perform good deeds, or obtain any advantage from them; but they will be considered unfortunate and will acquire the reputation of being timorous. For which reason they should not think of such things at that time but of those that will give them courage to accomplish their undertaking, by means of which they may obtain honor and distinction. Law VII – Generals Should Always Endeavor to Obtain Superiority

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For a man to place obstacles in the way of his enemies, when he is compelled to engage in battle with them, is one of the things in the world which, as the ancient sages declared, is of the greatest assistance in deeds of arms; for this is the way to destroy them without great injury to one’s self. For which reason a general, in order to accomplish this, should always attempt to attain the advantage of superiority; as, for instance, when he has but few troops, and the enemy are many in number, and he is aware that he cannot attack them with safety or avoid fighting them, he should seek some locality where he can inflict injury upon them, so that his superior advantage of position may counterbalance their superiority in numbers. Where his troops equal those of the enemy, he should, nevertheless, not avoid securing the advantage, so that if the sun strikes them in the face he will contrive, if he can, that it may strike the others instead; and if not, that the disadvantage may be divided between them, so that the rays of the sun may strike his followers on the left side, and the enemy on the right. We declare also that he should see, if it is very windy, that the wind blows in the faces of the enemy, and interferes with their orders, or carries dust and does them harm by preventing them from seeing, or obscures the devices on their arms, so that they cannot be recognized. He should also be sure, if the enemy has foot soldiers in his army and he has none, to order a certain number of his knights to harass them, so that the infantry may be so occupied with them that they cannot advance along with their cavalry. He should also be very careful, if he is in a place where there are hostile infantry and he cannot make them advance, not to attack them behind fortifications, nor on the summit of a mountain, nor in a disadvantageous situation, but he should endeavor to draw them out into the open field, if he can do so. For as foot soldiers have the advantage over cavalry on high ground, on the other hand, cavalry have the advantage over them in the open fields, on account of their horses and arms which give them superiority, as well as by reason of the ground by which their movements are not impeded. Wherefore commanders, in cases like those above and in others similar to them, should always be careful to obtain the advantage in the best way they can, so that they may conquer their enemies without injury to themselves. Law IX – How Soldiers Should Be Subject to the Commands of Their General, and How He Should Act to Conceal His Own Movements and Learn Those of the Enemy Commands, as those who were skilled in arms and warlike deeds have said should be given in two ways; first, by words; second, by deeds; and those given by speech are such as a commander gives to his troops so that they may observe great secrecy and what they wish to do may not come to the knowledge of their adversaries, but that they may obtain information of the movements of the latter, as stated in certain laws which we have already given. For, as it is an act of flagrant treason for men to reveal secrets of which they are in possession, and great injury results from it; so, on the other hand, those who endeavor to obtain intelligence concerning their enemies, manifest their loyalty, and great benefit will result to them from it. Moreover, men should be directed early to become accustomed to do what they are commanded, and to understand by a few words what is said to them and as signals are employed for good reasons, namely: that they should recognize those made to them and act in accordance with them, just as if their orders had been given them in words; these are two things which a general as well as those under his command should practice, in order to be able to act more quickly and without observation. If the enemy should happen to become acquainted with his signals he should change them for others that he may have constantly in his power the skill and ability to conquer his enemies, and not give them the advantage. He should also issue orders for his troops to keep 110

quiet, and not speak unless they are commanded to do so. This is done for two reasons; first, because the noise of many words prevents men from understanding one another; and second, because those who talk a great deal cannot accomplish as much with their hands as those who are silent; and this is the case because they lose a great part of their energy through the words which they utter. They should, moreover, be cautioned, when they are engaged in any affair of great importance and cannot restrain themselves from talking, to say but few words, and those of a character not to discourage their companions, but to embolden them. They should also constantly admonish them that, in their intercourse with one another, they should not be quarrelsome or meddling; for this is something which, at all times, is productive of great injury, and especially so in time of war, for the reason that the confusion and tumult which they cause may be of such a character that everything which their commander attempts to do may fail on account of it. Wherefore, a general who wishes to command by means of speech should order his men to perform and observe all the aforesaid matters, and if any loss results through error or injury arising therefrom, all the blame should be his, and he deserves a punishment in proportion to the harm which men suffer through the want of what he should have ordered. Law XVI – How Many Kinds of Military Divisions There Are, and How They Should be Distinguished Those of the ancients who understood and practiced deeds of arms, assigned different names to the various divisions of the army, according to their arrangement in facing the enemy. For those which were drawn out and joined to one another, they called a rank; those which were drawn up in the form of a rounded square, they designated a millstone; they styled those who marched in a solid body, which was narrower in front and broad behind, a wedge; and they called those who stood closely together in the form of a square, a wall. There was still another formation which they named an enclosure, which was shaped like a courtyard, and in addition to these there were still others called, in Spain, citaras. And they called a body of men composing a company a troop, whether there were many or few of them, without regard to the manner in which they were divided; and they gave them all these names according to the honor and advantage to be obtained from each of them. They instituted extended ranks in order that the knights might make a better appearance, and seem to be more in number than they really were, which is something that causes ill-disposed people to experience greater fear and to be more readily overcome. There is also another reason why they did this, for where one company was smaller than another, and they wished to make an attack on the center, they could then attack them on all sides, which they could not do in any other way than with extended ranks; and hence the ancients formed divisions of this kind, with ranks drawn up one behind the other, to make a better exhibition of their strength and because, if one rank became fatigued or was destroyed, the next, which was fresh, might go to its assistance. They formed the millstone, so that, if their enemies surrounded them they might always find them in front defending themselves against them; and the other body, called a wedge, was invented, in order that when the ranks of the enemy were strong and thick they could break and divide them, and conquer them more readily, for, by this means, few could overcome many. The wedge should be formed in the following way, namely; by first placing three knights in front, 111

and behind them six, and in the rear of the six twelve, and behind them twenty-four, and thus doubling them and increasing their number constantly, according to the size of the division; but where the soldiers were few in number they could begin with one, and then double the numbers, as above stated. They devised the wall so that when they caught sight of the enemy they could put all their baggage in its center, so that it could not be destroyed, or taken by force. They made use of this formation when kings engaged in battle with one another, and left some to guard the baggage train of the army as above stated, while the others went into action. They formed a corral, or enclosure, to protect their kings, so that they might remain in safety. They formed it with infantry, which was drawn up in three ranks, one behind the other, and they tied their feet together so that they might not be able to run away, and made them hold the butts of their lances resting on the ground, with the blades pointed directly towards the enemy, and placed within their reach stones, darts, crossbows, or bows, by means of which they could shoot and defend themselves at a distance. They did this to preserve the honor of their lord, in order that the enemy might not be able to reach him or do him harm, and if his followers conquered, that he, alone, might appear not to have changed his position, or show that he considered them of no importance; and if they were beaten, that they might find safety and strength where he was, by means of which they might subsequently prevail. They invented the citara, to the end that if the ranks should happen to be widely separated from one another, the enemy could not enter between them by the flank, and also for the reason that when the ranks were united those on the wings reach them more readily, so as to strike the enemy on the flank, or attack him from the rear. Divisions of the troops were invented and arranged for the purpose of dispersing an army, and also to fall upon those who were scattered, by taking them in the rear so as to destroy them. Commanders should be, familiar with all the above named bodies of troops for two reasons; first, to form them and make use of them; whenever it becomes necessary; and second, to know how to put them in disorder when they are formed by the enemy. The general-in-chief should appoint men who are brave and prudent over each of these different kinds of divisions, to command them, and have these matters observed, as above stated, and all should obey the orders of those whom he appoints just as they would if they were issued by himself. Whatever their commanders, including the general-in-chief, may do to any persons who disobey orders by refusing to join the ranks in whatever way they are formed, as we have stated, or who break ranks after they have been formed; as, for instance, if they wound or kill them, or do or say anything else to them by way of punishment, they will not be liable to any penalty for this reason, nor can they be called to account because of the dishonor of those whom they have treated in this manner; nor should they incur the ill-will of them or of their relatives, since the act was committed by him who held the place of their lord, and was for the common benefit of all. But where the commanders are men of such character that they do not punish an offence of this kind, as above stated, they should suffer the same penalty, as he or they deserved who broke ranks and refused to obey orders; where, however, some other and more serious injury results through this dispersion, both those who took part in it, and those who did not forbid them to do so, shall undergo a punishment in proportion to the harm or the injury which the king may decide was caused by them.

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Law XVII – How Armies Should Be Commanded While on a March The ancients showed that troops should be well guarded while moving from one point to another, for it frequently happens that they are defeated or destroyed by the enemy while on the march if they do not know how to protect themselves properly. This occurs in many ways, as, for instance, when the divisions composing an army are separated on several roads, and also when they march through such places as do not permit their formation in ranks, or troops, and it must be made in a long line, and when they desire to halt they are prevented from advancing; and besides the beasts of burden grow weary with their loads and many of them may perish or be injured, which causes great loss to an army; and, moreover, they are sometimes compelled to traverse such strong passes, that a few men are able to put large numbers to rout. In addition to all this they occasionally march near localities where their enemies are posted, for which reason it is necessary that commanders should know how to prevent the army from sustaining injury in the above-named places. Wherefore they should make arrangements, before it begins its march, for the entire line to proceed together and not be divided into many parts, and if this is done, they should punish it with severe corporal penalties. Moreover they ought to select those composing the rear and the advance guard; the latter should be stronger, however, for the reason that when the enemy attacks, it will be more difficult for men to turn and face him, than it will be for the advance guard, which it opposes on the way in which it is going. They should be careful, if the line is lengthened, to provide for its protection everywhere they think this is necessary, in order that the troops may not be detained, or fatigued, or the animals perish. Moreover, when they are obliged to pass places capable of strong defence, as, for instance, deep ravines, or marshes which they cannot avoid, they should send forward soldiers enough to prepare them so that they can proceed without hindrance, and leave others to guard them that they may not suffer damage. But where the pass is very strong, as, for instance, situated under a rock, or so narrow that a few men can hold it against a large number, they should dispatch a sufficient force to take possession of it before the enemy seizes it, in order that the army may traverse it in safety. When they approach a place where enemies are, they should cause the advance guard to halt there, until a sufficient number of knights or foot soldiers arrive to be able to protect the line until the real guard comes up, and the entire army has passed in safety. Commanders should be familiar with all these matters and be well prepared for them, in order to protect themselves from the injury which may be inflicted upon them by the enemy. Law XVIII – How Commanders Should Act, When the Enemy Suddenly Attacks the Army When the enemy suddenly attacks any part of the army, the commander should be very careful not to permit so many troops to go to that point as will cause a great diminution in other quarters, because it may happen that this is done through stratagem, in order to strike a blow where it is thought that the greatest damage will result. And in order to be prepared always to protect themselves under all the circumstances we have mentioned, they ought to do two things; first, they should send forward knights on the right and left flanks, who are called scouts, so that when the enemy approaches they may give notice to the army and it may not suffer any injury; second, while the army is on the march the knights should be constantly armed and ready, so that if the 113

enemy attacks them suddenly they may not be long delayed through arming themselves and preparing to assume command. For every prudent man should be aware that as the object of the enemy is to do him harm, he must not give him time to arm himself, or for long reflection as to how he shall issue his orders; and, it also seems to be folly for knights and other men to be ashamed to bear the arms, which were made to protect them, in places of danger. Where an army marches in the manner we have mentioned, vigilant and under command, it cannot be injured by the enemy, unless his force is great and excessive, in which case those composing it will not be to blame. Wherefore, soldiers who disobey the orders of their commanders so that through their fault the army is injured, or officers who fail to perform their duty, should each be punished as we have stated in the third law preceding this one. Law XIX – In What Places Commanders Should Find Quarters for the Army To find quarters for an army requires much skill, and the general who does this must be possessed of great wisdom. In order to accomplish it he should always take with him a number of men who are well acquainted with the country, who are now called adalides, and were formerly called guardadores. These always accompany the advance ward with those who bore the ensign or pennon of the king, or that of the commander-in-chief, in whose rear the others marched. When they arrive at the place where the army is to halt, he whose duty it is to find quarters for the troops should be careful that, if they are many in number, he does not cause them to be crowded, and if they are few, that they may not be separated from one another, for this is something by means of which they might easily receive great injury from the enemy; but he should cause them to be quartered together, and strengthen the position of the army as much as he can. For this reason the camp of an army was formerly called, in Latin, castra, which means a position which is strong and contrived so as to be protected from the enemy. For this reason the ancients, when they took many carts with them, were in the habit of placing them around the camp, and made, as it were, a wall of them; and when they did not have them they used sharp stakes covered with plates of iron to which iron rings were attached, which they set in the ground and connected with ropes, and by this means encircled the entire army, and these made them so strong, and arranged the tents in such good order, that the enemy could not easily break through them. They did still another thing, for, when they did not have the stakes to plant around the camp, they placed the tents near one another, and connected them in such a way that no mounted or foot soldier could break through them. The generals effected this through their great skill, with the intention that the troops who endured severe fatigue during the day, might rest securely at night. Those who selected the camp of the army were careful not to choose for it a place under a hill or a lofty mountain, so that the enemy might not gain possession of high ground for the purpose of inflicting injury upon them, and that they might repose in safety. They also took care not to locate it in a marsh, or where a watercourse could cause their inconvenience. Camps should always be situated near water, grass, and wood, which are things very necessary for an army and cannot be dispensed with; for just as care should be taken to have the location 114

where it is healthy, strong, and abounding in water and other things that are essential where a good town is built, so this rule should also be followed in selecting the camp of an army, by finding a suitable place for it, and if this is not possible, the best that can be obtained should be chosen, according to the situation of the ground. Law XX – How the Camp of an Army Should Be Formed An army should encamp according to the conformation of the ground, being governed by its shape, whether long, square, or round. The tent of the lord should be placed in the center and those of the officers in his service around it, in the manner of a fortress. All the doors of these tents should be opposite those belonging to the lord, and in their rear an open space should be left where those who come to visit he king may dismount, and the officers may assemble in case of surprise; and in the rear of these tents all the others of the army should be placed like the houses of a town, and around them the tents of the commanders and other men of rank should stand, and surround the camp like a wall with towers. When the camp is circular, a wide space should be left within, around the tents of the men of rank and those of the soldiers; and when it is oblong, this should be left in the middle, that it may be perfectly straight; and where it is square in form, two, or four streets should be laid out some lengthwise, and the others transversely. The commanders should mark all these streets by their banners, so that the troops may know how they ought to be quartered and commanded, according to the banner which is raised; and neither the king nor his knights should dismount until the arrival of the rear guard, but he should rather allow them to remain around the camp to protect it by placing sentinels everywhere, as well as by dispatching scouts to examine the surrounding country, so that while they are in camp they will not sustain injury from the enemy. If other sentinels are stationed along the line on the flanks of the army, they should wait until the baggage train arrives, for the reason that it happens very frequently that the enemy, when they learn that an army is encamped, attack the guard conducting the baggage train, thinking that those who are in camp will not go to its assistance. Law XXI – How the camp should be Protected The commander-in-chief should surround the camp with a ditch, when it is known that the army will be compelled to make a protracted stay in any locality; first, that it may not suffer damage from the enemy; second, that its animals may not be lost, or its property stolen. He should, moreover, appoint a certain number of knights and foot soldiers to guard it by night, dependent upon what he understands the force of the enemy to be, and which is adapted to the position they occupy. These sentinels, like those stationed by day, should be relieved so that they can endure the hardship. Commanders-in-chief should do all these things which we have mentioned and order others to do them as well, and he who is unwilling to perform these duties, if he is a man of superior rank, should be punished by the king in proportion to what he refused to do; and if he is of inferior rank, the general should not be blamed for any penalty which he may impose, as will be shown hereafter; where, however, the fault was due to the general, the king should punish him as he deserves, in proportion to the injury which resulted.

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Law XXII – How Pack Trains Should Be Guarded and Conducted When They Bring Provisions to the Army, as Well as Those Who Go for the Purpose of Collecting Grass, Straw, or Wood. Wood, grass, water, and straw, are things which troops cannot dispense with, nor can they avoid sending out pack trains to bring them whatever they require. For which reason the commanders, whose duty it is to protect and lead those who go for the purpose of collecting these supplies, should be men of intelligence, in order to conduct the soldiers of their command in a body, and not straggling or scattered among the rear or advance guard, according to the nature of the ground through which they are compelled to pass. And they should always be alert in order to obtain information of the enemy for when they possess this, while the enemy are expecting to inflict the injury upon them, they, on the other hand, will receive it at their hands. They should always march under arms, in order that if the enemy should suddenly appear they may the better be able to defend themselves. Nevertheless, they should not fail to employ scouts to examine the country who are able to guide them by the straightest and best roads, avoiding dangerous points and places where they know they may receive injury. When they discover the enemy, the general should encourage and animate them in two ways; first, by speech, stating that the foes are not so numerous as they seem to be, nor as good as they, and by other words of this kind which may give them comfort and hope; second, by deed, exhorting them, and placing each one and giving him his orders to be prepared, and explaining what should be done, if they are attacked. Where the troops are few in number and have many unloaded animals, he should cause the soldiers to mount them, in order to magnify their numbers, and he should also command them to do everything else which he thinks will give them self-reliance and resolution to conquer. And, although commanders should do this in every instance, it is much more important for them to do so for the protection of those who go in search of the above mentioned supplies, where the latter are inefficient and have but little courage, because commanders should encourage such as these more than other men; for the ancient sages, who were skilled in deeds of, arms, declared that the inspiriting words and encouragement which a commander gives his followers when they are timorous, are like those which a physician gives a sick man when he thinks he is about to die. They should treat those in a similar manner who go on search of wood, grass and straw. And while they are collecting them they should cause armed knights to guard them and place sentinels to watch the country so as to discover the enemy before he comes suddenly upon them. In addition to all this, the commander should order his men to bring all their loads together and then place them on their beasts of burden, in order that they may not straggle, and the baggage train be difficult to protect, and no loss be sustained while on the way to camp; which would be a greater disgrace than at any other time, because it would be apparent that it was caused by their not exercising proper care through the desire of returning to camp. For this reason the commander should be more watchful in returning than in going, because when starting the soldiers are more apprehensive and on the return they feel more secure; and, therefore those who are unwilling to obey orders should be punished, as we have stated in another law. Where commanders err in the performance of their duties they should undergo the penalty prescribed by this same law.

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