BML111: Tourism, Events & Destinations: Impacts & Sustainability
Frameworks for Measuring & Assessing the Socio-Cultural Impacts of Tourism
Aims § To identify the key considerations when attempting to
measure and assess the socio-cultural impacts of tourism
§ To highlight and assess a range of conceptual frameworks
that have been developed to assess the socio-cultural impacts of tourism
§ To consider the ‘Extrinsic’ and ‘Intrinsic’ dimensions
relating to socio-cultural impacts
§ To identify the research tools and methodologies that can
be employed to examine the socio-cultural impacts of tourism
Socio-Cultural Impacts Activity 1: • De-brief – Bognor Regis community videos
Socio-Cultural Impacts Activity 2: • Watch the video ‘Beyond the Brochure’ – what are the key themes identified in this case study of Gambia
Socio-Cultural Impacts Activity 3: • From your background reading, what are the key considerations when attempting to measure and assess the socio-cultural impacts of tourism?
Socio-Cultural Impacts Key variables found in social impacts of tourism research
[Deery et al 2012]
Socio-Cultural Impacts Layer of Perceptions of Social Impacts of Tourism on Communities
[Deery et al, 2012 - adapted from Rousseau (1990: p. 158)
Conceptual Frameworks: Irridex Doxey’s Irridex
EUPHORIA
APATHY
ANNOYANCE
ANTAGONISM
(Source: Williams, 1998, p. 158)
Initial phase of development: visitors and investors welcome, little planning or control mechanism Visitors taken for granted, contracts between residents and outsiders more formal, planning concerned with marketing Saturation point approached, residents have misgivings about the tourist industry, policy-makers attempt solutions via increasing infrastructure rather than controlling growth Irritations openly expressed, visitors seen as the cause of all problems, planning remedial but marketing increased to offset deteriorating image
Application of Irridex Model Case Study: Teo, P. (1994) Assessing socio-cultural impacts: the case of Singapore, Tourism Management, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 126-36. Context: Illustration of the negative effects of the lack of contact
between the tourist and host community
Average length of stay is 3 days - implying minimal contact Tourists tend to remain in ‘enclaves’ or ‘ghettos’
Application of Irridex Model Results: 75% welcomed tourists for economic purposes 75% thought that locals received poorer levels of service
than tourists
99% thought that tourists were overcharged 78% rarely communicated with tourists - often only to give
direction
Appropriate measure on Irridex - Apathy
Limitations Key Considerations: — Model assumes a degree of homogeneity and uni-
directionality in community reactions to tourism
— Communities are heterogeneous and there will be a variety
of responses to tourism
Heterogenous Host Communities Krippendorf (1987): Four categories of local person Those who are in continuous and direct contact with the
tourist
Those who own tourism businesses but have little contact
with tourists
Those who are in direct and frequent contact with tourists
but only gain part of their income from tourism
Those who have little or no contact with tourists Each group will have their own perception of tourism, and
attitudes to tourism impacts
Alternative Approaches #1 Butler (1975): Host Attitudinal and Behavioural Responses to Tourist Activity
[Source: Mathieson and Wall, 1982, pp. 139-140]
Butler (1975)
Key areas of consideration: All four forms of reaction may exist at one time, but the
number of people in any one category need not remain constant
The framework includes a dynamic element, assuming that
social impacts will change over time
Compared to Doxey’s framework Butler’s framework allows
attitudes and behaviour to change in different directions
Doxey’s framework is based around the entirety of the
destination environment, whereas Butler’s framework places greater emphasis on different groups and individuals and the resultant tensions that may emerge
Alternative Approaches #2 Dogan (1989): The socio-cultural impact of international tourism, and the coping strategies developed by the host community RESISTANCE
RETREATISM BOUNDARY MAINTENANCE REVITALISATION
ADOPTION
Community displays feeling of resentment and aggression against tourists and tourist facilities The host community retreats into local cultures and traditions, as a buffer against the foreign intrusion of tourism Establishing a well defined boundary between foreign and local cultures to ensure impacts are minimised Tourism provides a catalyst for the preservation and revival of traditional customs, thereby helping to protect the identify and integrity of the host community The host community displays an active effort for the demolishment of the traditional social structure, in favour of the adoption of Western culture symbolised by tourism
Dogan (1989)
Key areas of consideration: The variable homogeneity of the host population implies that
various combinations of strategies may exist simultaneously within the region
Key variables: heterogeneity of the local population, local
power structures, the role of the government
Revitalisation may not exist as a distinct strategy by itself, and
could co-exist with either boundary maintenance or adoption
Dogan (1989)
Key areas of consideration: — Boundary maintenance: revitalisation may involve the
restoration of traditional customs/materials for touristic purposes - emphasis on the authenticity of local traditions
— Adoption: revitalisation refers to the commodification of local
customs/traditions for mass tourism
Alternative Approaches #3 Ap and Crompton (1993): Development Stages EMBRACEMENT
Residents openly accept tourists into their community
TOLERANCE
Collective indecisiveness towards tourists and tourist development
ADJUSTMENT
The resident stays in the community but deliberately avoids the destinations frequented by tourists
WITHDRAWAL
Local residents engage in a flight versus fight reaction; tourists leave the community during times of massive tourism influx
[Faulkner, B. and Tideswell, C. 1997]
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Dimensions
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Dimensions
Extrinsic Dimension: Definition: the characteristics of the location with respect to its
role as a tourist destination
Key variables: the nature and stage of tourism development,
the level of tourist activity and the type of tourists
Related frameworks/approaches: Butler’s tourist area life cycle Doxey’s (1975) Irridex Tourist ratio - number of tourists to the number of
residents, providing an indication as to the intensity of the tourist influx
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Dimensions
Intrinsic Dimension: Definition: the characteristics of the members of the host
community that affect variations in the impacts of tourism in the community
Key variables: involvement, socio-economic characteristics,
residential proximity, length of residence
Related frameworks/approaches: Butler (1975) Dogan (1989) Ap and Crompton (1993)
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Dimensions
[Faulkner, B. and Tideswell, C. 1997]
Establishing Research Methodologies Activity 3: • The frameworks outlined in this session are theoretical/hypothetical. What methodologies could you use to measure the socio-cultural impact of tourism, and host attitudes to tourism?
Establishing Research Methodologies
Questionnaires: Gaining a representative sample Distribution mechanisms Quantitative v qualitative perspectives Structure and nature of the questions - pre- determining
responses
Variables: length of residence, place of residence, occupation, socio-economic group Cost and timings
Establishing Research Methodologies
Focus Groups: — Focus group discussions with representatives of each group can
be more cost-effective than an extensive interview survey
Interviews: — Nature of the interview process [simple & unstructured to
structured]
Establishing Research Methodologies
Stakeholder Analysis: — Ascertaining views of the key stakeholders in the host
community (through questionnaires/interviews etc), and the assessment of significant impacts upon them
Participant / Non-Participant Observation: — Form of research in which the researchers take part in the
experience being studied, as if they were partially (nonparticipant) or completely involved
— Useful for recording reactions to a particular experience/event
Establishing Research Methodologies
Attending Public Meetings: — Representation/ under representation of key stakeholders
SWOT Analysis: — Identifying strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in
relation to tourism development and its impact on the host community
Establishing Research Methodologies
Observational Fieldwork/Secondary Data: — Observations (primary and secondary) within the destination
environment, can highlight key areas of impact, particularly in relation to visual or aesthetic changes, property prices, congestion etc
Establishing Research Methodologies Areas for Social Impact Research
[Deery et al, 2012]
Summary By the end of this session you should be able to: § Identify the key considerations when attempting to
measure and assess the socio-cultural impacts of tourism
§ Highlight and assess a range of conceptual frameworks
that have been developed to assess the socio-cultural impacts of tourism
§ Consider the ‘Extrinsic’ and ‘Intrinsic’ dimensions relating
to socio-cultural impacts
§ Identify the research tools and methodologies that can be
employed to examine the socio-cultural impacts of tourism