Abundance and Opportunity

Abundance and Opportunity:

The Role of Architecture in Sustainable Development Through Iceland’s Experience in Harnessing Geothermal Energy Adam Ramsay s1114500 Architecture Dissertation MA (Hons) Architecture Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture 2015

Abundance and Opportunity: The Role of Architecture in Sustainable Development Through Iceland’s Experience in Harnessing Geothermal Energy Adam Ramsay s1114500 Architecture Dissertation MA (Hons) Architecture Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture 2015 Word Count: 9237

1 Reykjavik from Hallgrimskjirka

Abstract.

Iceland is a country with an abundance of natural resources, particularly water, geothermal energy and natural landscape. With abundance comes conflict over land use and questions over how best to utilize these resources in a sustainable way. This means that for sustainable growth to happen Iceland must take full account of its existing resources before considering new development and land exploitation. This dissertation builds on the idea that architecture can contribute to sustainable growth by doing more than increasing energy efficiency. The role of architecture is also to facilitate social, economic and cultural growth by responding to existing natural resources and opportunities presented in the built environment.

The question developed by the literature review is: What are the characteristics of existing architectural interventions associated with Iceland’s geothermal district heating systems and how has architecture engaged with the opportunities provided by it?

By discussion of how the infrastructure enabled these interventions and what their design characteristics are it will underline the theory that architecture can create successful buildings that respond to these existing opportunities and contribute to social, economic and cultural development. Maximising existing resources for sustainable growth is particularly pertinent in Iceland today and recognizing the role of architecture in this scenario is key to enriching the built environment in a sustainable way.

Reykjavik

Hellisheiði Power Station

Preface.

June Trip, 2014 2

The focal point of this dissertation was chosen following a trip I made in June 2014. I was part of a group of mountain bikers on an ‘adventure’ through Reykjavik and the ‘wilderness’ of South Iceland. I took a photograph of the Hellisheiði Power Station, figure 3, as we descended on our bikes into the valley. It was an impressive view at the time but in the months that followed I kept looking back at this photograph and finding a fascination in the impact that geothermal energy has had on the landscape and the country as a whole. As I started reading more about it I became more aware of the influence tourism and power production has on the future of Iceland. Our experience as tourists had been mostly facilitated by the infrastructure related to geothermal power stations – the trails we rode, the roads we travelled to access them and even the photographs that we took, figures 4 and 5. This gave an example of how the physical manifestation of one industry has been made use of for the benefit of another. Through further reading I became interested in how architecture has a role in the sustainable development of Iceland and how it can facilitate growth without losing what it holds closest, its landscape and natural resources.

It is the intention that this dissertation successfully highlights the important ways that architecture contributes to a sustainable future out of what already exists, making the most out of available natural resources and infrastructure in the built environment.

I would like to take this opportunity to thank my tutor Kate Carter for her guidance throughout, Jörn Frenzl and Olga Sigfusdottir of Vatnavinir for helpful advice about their projects, and Pétur Ármansson for information on his contribution to the book ‘Iceland and Architecture?’.

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Reykjavik, Iceland

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Contents.

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Introduction

Literature Review 14 18

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Methodology

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Geothermal Pump Stations, Reykjavik - PK Arkitektar (1991)

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The Perlan, Öskjuhlíð Hill, Reykjavik - Ingimundur Sveinsson (1985-1991)

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Service Building, Nauthólsvík Geothermal Beach, Reykjavik - Arkibullan (2001)

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Blue Lagoon Spa, Svertsengi, Reykjanes Peninsula - BASALT Arkitektar (Phased 1995-2007)

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Conclusion

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List of Figures

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Bibliography

Sustainable Design Sustainable Growth and Architecture in Iceland

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High Temperature Geothermal Fields Boiling Low Temperature Geothermal Fields Low Temperature Geothermal Areas Highlands

Reykjavik

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Svartsengi, Reykjanes Peninsula

Introduction.

Architecture has a well-known and understood role in promoting sustainability in the built environment through reducing carbon emissions and implementing new building technology. Less well understood is that for sustainability, architecture should also have a much wider influence. Architecture can shape the built environment to maximise resources in order to enrich social, economic and cultural aspects that are also important in sustainable development. Architects have the responsibility to identify these aspects and create interventions that respond to existing conditions in a wider sustainable sense.

This dissertation investigates how architecture and design decisions can serve as important tools in facilitating interventions that maximise resources available across multiple industries and contribute to social, economic and cultural development.

In order to achieve this aim the dissertation will position itself in the geographical location of Iceland. For many reasons, Iceland is a focus of the world today. Its abundance of water and geothermal power, along with the small population and infrastructure, creates an ideal platform for testing sustainable solutions and renewable energy initiatives.

The author recently visited Iceland and was struck by the presence of the power production industry in the otherwise seemingly pristine landscape. From this the author drew inspiration for this dissertation to study how architecture can contribute to the sustainable development of this fascinating country. With significant opportunity to develop renewable energy and sustainable solutions, architecture can serve to maximise the potential of abundant natural resources and growing industries.

Its large area of wilderness is highly valued by the population but is also an important asset and resource for the rapidly growing tourism and power production industries. The power production industry is currently utilizing only a small fraction of Iceland’s potential for energy production and sees large opportunities in the development of sites scattered across the country, particularly in the High Temperature Geothermal Fields. The tourism industry is interested in preserving the ‘unspoiled’ natural landscape, which its marketing strategy relies heavily upon, whilst seeking ways to grow its infrastructure to accommodate the increasing number of tourists visiting each year. This type of landscape is mostly situated in Iceland’s Highlands.

This conflict over land use appears to be a problem but architects, amongst others, see the opportunity for architecture to facilitate growth of both industries in a sustainable way. The overlap between The Highlands and High Temperature Geothermal Areas is illustrated in figure 7. This means maximizing the resources that are already existing and creating interventions that get the most out of existing infrastructure in order to nurture growth in other areas and enrich the built environment for the benefit of future generations.

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To understand how architecture can do this in this context, the dissertation will revolve around an existing piece of infrastructure, the geothermal district heating system, and study examples where these opportunities for development have occurred.

Each example is discussed in terms of how the opportunity for development was created and how the architecture has responded to maximise its potential in terms of its contribution to social, economic and cultural development.

This will underline the role of architecture and design decisions in maximizing resources to supplement growth and sustainable development.

The structure of the dissertation begins with a literature review discussing ideas of how architecture can contribute to the sustainable development of the built environment beyond a reduction in carbon footprint followed by a section that discusses aspects of sustainable growth and architecture in Iceland. The ideas taken from these opening sections will be applied in the discussion of each case study.

The relationship of each architectural intervention to the district heating system will be explained in their respective sections. Their characteristics and response to the opportunity presented by the geothermal district heating system will then be discussed and interpreted relative to the ideas taken from the literature review.

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The case studies are as follows: Geothermal Pump Stations by PK Arkitektar (1991) The geothermal pump station housing was designed in a competition set up by the Reykjavik District Heating Authority. The purpose of the housing is to provide protection and maintenance access to the pumping mechanisms required to draw thermally heated water for the heating system from the ground beneath Reykjavik. The intention is that the same housing will be replicated above all of the boreholes in Reykjavik. So far only a few have been implemented but more are intended for commission in the future. Figure 9.

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The Perlan by Ingimundur Sveinsson (1985-1991) The building situated at the highest point in Reykjavik on Öskjuhlíð Hill. The building consists of six aluminium clad storage tanks each holding four million litres of water at a temperature of 85 degrees Celsius to supplement the district heating system and store excess water. Positioned above the tanks is a large glass dome offering panoramic views of the city. It contains a restaurant and various other public facilities. Figure 10.

Service Building at Nauthólsvík Geothermal Beach by Arkibullan (2001) The Service Building at Nauthólsvík geothermal beach provides changing and shower facilities to supplement the bathing opportunity created by the thermally heated seawater in the bay using excess water from the district heating system.

It was important that the design of the facilities allowed for the best support of the bathing culture and use of the reclaimed beach. Figure 11.

Blue Lagoon Spa by BASALT Arkitektar (1995-2007) The Blue Lagoon was created by the Svartsengi power station on the Reykjanes peninsula. The power station provides hot water for the local area’s district heating system and electricity for the national grid. The mineral rich excess water creates a large lagoon that is known for its colour and skin healing properties.

The lagoon provides a unique situation that has been used to create Iceland’s largest tourist attraction. Figure 12.

Although each situation created by the geothermal district heating infrastructure may never occur in the same way again there are lessons that can be learned through the study of design characteristics in these case studies that could be applied or considered for future developments.

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The findings and speculation into their future applications will be discussed in the conclusion.

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Literature Review.

Sustainable Design.

In terms of sustainable development, architecture has a role that extends beyond emission reduction, implementation of building technology and sensitivity to the environment. There is a much broader spectrum of how architecture can contribute to the enrichment of the built environment and the sustainable development of a country, region, city, community or the individual.

The overarching concept of this dissertation is that architecture can contribute to sustainable development by serving as a means to maximise existing resources. The dissertation focuses on the country of Iceland and its geothermal district heating system to explore this theory. Iceland, for many reasons, is a focus of the world today. Its abundance of renewable resources, such as geothermal energy and water, puts the country in a unique situation on the world stage because the country has the capacity and opportunity to test various strategies for utilising renewable energy in a world that is moving away from fossil fuels. In short, growth of the economy in Iceland today revolves around land use and maximization of existing resources in order to help grow industries such as tourism and power production. The way in which these industries can grow in a sustainable way has yet to find a solution but since the economic crisis of 2008 there has been a drive to maximise the potential of the resources that already exist to help grow these industries (Future of Hope, 2010). The components of growth and development in Iceland will be described in more detail later in the literature review.

By means of this literature review, the aim is to establish a perspective of how architecture can contribute to sustainable development and growth in general and in the Icelandic context. This will determine what the role of architecture is in facilitating the maximisation of existing resources.

By developing this perspective it will provide a lens through which each case study will be discussed later in the dissertation.

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‘Sustainable design is a design philosophy that seeks to maximise the quality of the built environment, while minimising or eliminating negative impact to the natural environment’.

(McLennan, 2004, p10) The statement above suggests that for sustainability the role of architecture extends beyond the physical realization of an energy efficient building. It could be interpreted that the role of architecture is to make the most out of existing assets and resources for enrichment of the built environment.

Manmade Environment (Oftedal, 2010) is a publication that is based in the area of landscape architecture but also encompasses ideas and practices relevant to architecture and acknowledges the overlap between the disciplines.

The concept of sustainability that the paper develops is one that also takes the view that architecture can be a tool to enrich the built environment that already exists. It discusses landscape architecture and architecture as being practices concerned with more than the overall form of architecture but as strategies that provide the potential for sustainable solutions and improvements in wellbeing and living conditions in urban and rural areas (Oftedal, 2010).

Relevant to this dissertation, it is important here to acknowledge the overlap between landscape architecture and architecture. It can be understood from the rest of the publication that the two disciplines work together in order to produce sustainable solutions from the development of existing infrastructure. Manmade Environment (Oftedal, 2010), also discusses the importance of improving urban development and planning by ‘[emphasising] the conscious use of natural resources and [combining] new expertise and technology with an awareness of local conditions, culture and identity’.

(Oftedal, 2010, p12)

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Within the publication is an interview with architect and architectural determinist Richard Burdett. Burdett (in Oftedal, 2010, p90) discusses the role of architecture for facilitating sustainable growth and after acknowledging that effects of design decisions on the social, economic and cultural aspects of the built environment are less well understood, he describes the problems with current planning strategies: ‘Planners who determine this critical interface are trained to think quantitatively and in two dimensions. The built environment is reduced to a few measureable criteria – zoning, density standards, capacities and flows. Little effort is put towards understanding the messier dimensions of cities, those very spatial qualities which deal with the urban grain that supports social activity.’ Richard Burdett (in Oftedal, 2010, p90) The point of view described suggests that there is merit in better understanding the effects of design decisions on social, economic and cultural dynamics for sustainable development.

This idea could apply to the role of architecture for sustainable development and maximising existing resources.

This could happen through the utilisation of overlaps and left over space created by existing infrastructure to contribute to the built environment and provide unique and useable spaces that support social, cultural and economic growth.

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‘Ours is not the luxury of being able to express ourselves within one realm of knowledge. On the contrary, we are trained to receive information, put that information into a complex web of context – social, material, economical, aesthetical, ontological and always, by nature, political’ Hildigunnur Sverrisdottir (in Mathiesen et al., 2014, p106) ‘Architects and urbanists are educated to spot opportunities where others see only problems, and they are trained to coordinate multiple disciplines that may mobilise change in the built environment in obvious as well as subtle ways’.

(Mathiesen et al., 2014, p240) The first quote is an interpretation of the sociopolitical role of the architect. Sverrisdottir is discussing the role in the Icelandic context, post-economic crash of 2008. She calls upon the responsibility architects to utilise the design way of thinking that they have been trained in and use it to address issues outside of one area of expertise.

The second quote from the conclusion of Mathiesen et al. (2014, p240) supports the notion from the first.

What this dissertation can extract from these quotes is that in the resource rich nation of Iceland it is important to utilise architecture and design in a way that responds to social, economical and cultural dynamics. This knowledge of design can be used to create simple interventions but with complex and beneficial impacts on the built environment in a sustainable way.

Scarcity in Excess (Mathiesen et al. 2014) is a publication that focuses on the built environment after the economic crisis of 2008. It explores urban changes before the crisis, existing resources and possible future scenarios for urban development. This dissertation will draw on the idea that architecture and design is critical in considering social, economic and cultural aspects in creating design that supplements growth.

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Literature Review.

Sustainable Growth and Architecture in Iceland.

In Iceland today there are several sectors of growth that have been key to the country’s development in recent years and will continue to develop in years to come. These sectors are fishing, power production and tourism: which are part of Iceland’s ‘resource based sector’. (McKinsey Scandinavia, 2012, p10).

The two sectors of growth that this paper will mostly relate to are power production and tourism. These industries are highly influential in Iceland today and will be important aspects of sustainable development in Iceland in the future.

Iceland is currently only utilizing around 20-25% of the estimated potential for geothermal energy production and hydroelectric power (Steingrímsson et al, 2015, p1). With the energy market developing rapidly due to interest from foreign investors, growth in the power intensive metal smelting industry and potential for serving external markets, e.g. selling electricity to mainland Europe, expansion of the power production industry is in the interests of the Icelandic government and power production companies. In order to exploit the remaining potential of Iceland’s geothermal energy and hydroelectric power, new and existing sites are being evaluated around Iceland’s highlands (Steingrímsson et al. 2015). Expansion of the power production system would have a significant effect on Iceland’s highly valuable wilderness and landscape. The master plan (Steingrímsson et al.

2015) was commissioned in 1997 to evaluate existing and potential sites for expansion with particular focus on the associated environmental impact.

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The tourism sector in Iceland has grown substantially in recent years and has become a key component in the country’s economy. As one of the country’s largest exports (McKinsey Scandinavia, 2012, p10), its share of total exports has risen from 11% to 19% between 1990 and 2010 (McKinsey Scandinavia, 2012, p75). It is also predicted that visitor numbers are predicted to rise from nearly 700,000 in 2012 to nearly 1.5 million in 2023 (Boston Consulting Group, 2013, p5). The Northern Sights report (Boston Consulting Group, 2013) suggests that this predicted growth will demand a revolution in the development of infrastructure, environmental conservation initiatives and tourist commodities.

Crucial to the tourism industry is the image of unspoiled natural landscape that it sells to the foreign market (Sæþórsdóttir, 2010; Halfdanardottir and Kempton, 2011). The retention of the landscape and the experience that is sold by the tourism industry is highly important to its development.

As is common around the world there is the importance of environmental conservation and protection of nature. This is also a highly contentious issue in Iceland and is important to consider when discussing the sustainable development of the country.

The common interest that is shared by the tourism industry and the power production industry creates conflict over land use (Sæþórsdóttir, 2010). Whilst each sector will require development in the near future, a cooperation must exist in order to allow each sector to develop together and in harmony.

The report, Charting Growth in Iceland (McKinsey Scandinavia, 2012, p42), suggests that Iceland can improve development across these sectors in a sustainable way by utilizing and maximizing the existing resources of the country.

With these problems and opportunities established alongside a general perspective of what the role of architecture is for sustainable development, what is the role of architecture in facilitating sustainable growth in Iceland specifically?

The next section will discuss strategies and theories that currently exist in the Icelandic context to draw key ideas and principles for application in the study.

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14 Examples of Vatnavinir’s simplistic intervention designs

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The publication, National Purist Routes by Halfdanardottir and Kempton (2011), is a study that recognizes the dichotomy between sectors of growth in Iceland and sees that cooperation between the two can occur in identifying overlaps and potential spin-offs. The paper proposes that there is an opportunity for architecture to facilitate a harmony between these sectors and with the vision of Iceland becoming a fully hydrogen economy in the not too distant future. The proposal for a series of hydrogen fuelling stations for a fleet of hydrogen fuelled rental cars is the main focus of the project. Each fuelling station will incorporate the development of a tourist attraction that is specific to the site where it is located. In some cases the proposals will generate their own power from the nearby resources such as glacier water or thermally heated water and in other cases proposals will make use of derelict farm houses or propose a strategy for conservation of a particular area.

The main message from Halfdanardottir and Kempton (2011) is that architecture can have a role in developing a cooperation between areas of economic, social and cultural development. It acknowledges that there will always be a requirement for development but that architecture can provide a way to best harness the natural resources available and subsequently support sustainable development.

Vatnavinir, or ‘friends of water’ in English, is a very interesting and relevant organisation in this context.

Vatnavinir is made up of architects, engineers and business consultants and believes in creating a network of small sustainable local solutions for the development of the wellbeing of local communities and opportunities for tourism in Iceland. The organization works with the abundance of water and hot springs to create new and develop existing sites for water-based tourism. The aim being to create a nationwide network of small, simple and very site-specific interventions that contribute to the wellbeing of local communities and reinforce the geographical spread of tourism across the country for better economic growth.

‘Within the context of Vatnavinir, the term sustainability debates questions about the quality of life, the necessary scale of projects and socio-economic concepts. Each project will involve the integration of existing businesses, the use of local resources, respect for architectural and natural contexts and an entrepreneurial spirit driven by the idea of cooperation and mutual support’ (Frenzl, 2010, p2) The role of architecture for Vatnavinir that can be taken from their publications is one that promotes projects that are integrated into the ‘economic and social fabric – as well as the physical geography of the site’ (Cité de l’architecture & du patrimoine, 2011, p9). It proposes that in order to develop these areas in a sustainable way the architecture is required to respond very specifically to the site and to interpret the requirements of the community that the project serves. It needs to engage with both the idea of conservation and with the tourism industry.

The main idea from Vatnavinir that relate to this dissertation is that architecture that has a role in nurturing the overlap between areas of development, must be simple, and focus on the problems and opportunities available in order to contribute to the sustainable development of the wider whole. The minimal intervention strategy that is clear from much of their work conveys the idea that architectural form and satisfaction of the end user comes from the careful arrangement of resources found on the site and the complex ways in which it responds to the site.

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Methodology.

Through researching existing published sources the literature review sections of the dissertation examined why architects and architecture have the potential to address the issue of sustainability in more than the sense of reducing overall carbon footprint but also as a means of improving and enriching the built environment through cooperation across areas of social, economic and cultural areas.

This theme will be developed more specifically in the dissertation by posing the following question: What are the characteristics of existing architectural interventions associated with Iceland’s geothermal district heating systems and how has architecture engaged with the opportunities provided by it?

By investigating the existing district heating infrastructure and associated architectural interventions, it will provide an insight into how architecture has already responded to these opportunities and spaces created. The discussion of the design characteristics will show how these design decisions have had an effect on social, economic and cultural aspects. It will also reveal how the architectural design has contributed to the utilization of existing resources that are associated with the geothermal district heating system.

It will underline the theory that architecture and design decisions have a role in maximising these opportunities for the benefit of society, the economy and culture.

As discussed in the previous sections, maximisation of existing resources is important in achieving sustainable growth in Iceland. The case studies in the subsequent sections of the dissertation will exemplify the role that architecture has in doing this.

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Despite the difficulty in measuring the effects of design decisions and their impact on the societal, economic and cultural aspects of sustainable development, there are publications that exist regarding the design of the built environment and the influence it can have on moving towards a broader sustainable future (Jenks et al.

2000; Mathiesen et al. 2014; Hester, 2015). The main concern of this dissertation is to ask how architecture can contribute to sustainable development by best utilizing the opportunities that currently exist in the built environment or infrastructure in order to enable social, economic or cultural growth.

In basing the study in Iceland it provides a specific social, economic and cultural situation. In doing so the study aligns with theories that sustainability is achieved by responding to the specific conditions of its context.

It wouldn’t be consistent to compare the theories of sustainability based in the Icelandic context with the architecture of a region with different sectors of growth or other means of power production. Nonetheless, it is the aspiration of this dissertation that the underlying theory and lessons learned from the case studies could be applied in other parts of the world that face similar circumstances with an abundance of natural resources and a requirement for growth across multiple sectors.

Whilst using Iceland’s geothermal district heating systems as an example it is important to consider that the way in which the system was designed and built may not be replicated in the same way again in the future.

This means that the opportunity for architectural intervention may not occur in the same way again either.

However, this doesn’t detract from the theory that in the future when infrastructure for one industry or another is developed that opportunities will still be present but manifest themselves in different ways specific to the situation. Architecture should understand these opportunities, respond to them and create places and spaces that enrich the built environment in a sustainable way that includes societal, economic and cultural aspects.

Bearing these limitations in mind the study begins in the following section.

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Case Studies.

Reykjavik Geothermal District Heating.

Geothermal Pump Station Covers PK Arkitektar

The Perlan Ingimundur Sveinsson

Service Building Nauth贸lsv铆k Arkibullan

Reykjavik

Reykjavik District Heating Flow Diagram 15a

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Svartsengi Geothermal Power Station .

Blue Lagoon Spa BASALT Arkitektar

Svartsengi, Reykjanes Peninsula

Svartsengi Power Station, Flow Diagram

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Roof Plan

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Floor Plan

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Geothermal Pump Stations, Reykjavik PK Arkitektar 1991.

Iceland is positioned across the Mid-Atlantic ridge. This is where the Eurasion and American tectonic plates meet. The ridge runs diagonally across the whole of Iceland from the South West and running to the North East. Geothermal activity increases the temperature below the surface, and categorized as High Temperature zone greater than 200 degrees Celsius at 1km depth, and surrounding Low Temperature zones less than 200 degrees Celsius. (Gunnlaugsson, 2004) There are three low temperature geothermal areas in Reykjavik that are used for geothermal district heating, Laugarnes, Ellidaar and Mosfellssveit.

Geothermal hot water only appears naturally at the surface in one place in Reykjavik, The Laugardalur Valley.

The pools at this location provided the first hot water for the first phase of Reykjavik’s district heating system in the 1930’s (Valsson, 2000). The heat was produced very cheaply and was used for space heating and the first indoor swimming pools. As expansion and demand increased following the Second World War, the district heating service began to drill for water in the city itself using a large steam drill. The drill moved around the city and provided a spectacle for those who were watching due to the, sometimes, close proximity of drilling to existing buildings. The boreholes themselves now supply a considerable percentage of the city’s hot water requirements for space heating and hot water. This development in rotary drilling is said to be the revolution that allowed Iceland to move away from fossil fuels for space heating (Karlsson, n.d.).

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In the Reykjavik area there are now many boreholes that thermally heated water is drawn from. The map below (figure 19) shows the locations and geographical spread of these boreholes. Some of which reach to a depth of around 2km into the ground and draw up water at a temperature of around 80 degrees Celsius. The map also shows the locations of boreholes that draw up fresh cold water.

The map shows the concentration of boreholes drilled around the Laugarnes, Ellidar and Mosfellssveit areas as well as showing a scattering of other boreholes that reveals the abundance of energy beneath the city.

The conditions of the geothermal reservoirs that each borehole draws water from determines the depth at which the pump for the borehole is set (Karlsson, n.d.). This determines whether the borehole will have a structure visible above ground. Some of these structures cover boreholes but others also serve as pump stations. Some pump stations exist to draw hot water from wells and boost it straight into storage tanks. Others serve as pumps to mix the hot water straight into the distribution system (Karlsson, n.d.). The drawing in figure 15 on page 23 (Methodology) shows the role of the pump stations in the district heating system.

Many of the boreholes themselves aren’t visible above ground due to the depth of the borehole pump but others require alternative pump machinery that require access for maintenance. This is the point at which an opportunity has been created for architecture. Some of the borehole covers have been celebrated with architecturally designed structures to cap them.

Laugarnes Area

Ellidaar Area

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Hot Water Borehole

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Typical Borehole Pump Machinery (left) and Typical Pump Station Layout (right)

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In 1990 the Reykjavik Heating Authority held a competition to design the housing for the pump stations of Reykjavik. With over 80 proposals submitted Reykjavik Heating Authority chose the design by PK Arkitektar, as seen in the images above. Only a few of them have been put into operation, each within a small radius of the other in the Tun, Teigar, Holt and Haaleiti districts of the city (Borgarvefsja.reykjavik.is, n.d.). It is the intention that more of these pump stations will be put into operation gradually across the city (Johannesson, 2000).

These particular pump stations draw water from the well that it covers and pumps the water to a central storage location from which it is distributed to the rest of the city. The drawing in figure 20 shows the type of pump machinery that is likely to be contained in the pump station housing (Karlsson, n.d.).

The purpose of the structures is to create a protective housing for the boreholes and their related mechanisms and to allow for service and maintenance access. The steel structured building has a footprint of 14 square metres and is clad in stainless steel (Johannesson, 2000). Each pump station is prefabricated off site and transported to be located above the borehole and its machinery. (figure 22)

Section

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The central vertical volume, also curved, houses an air conditioning system that regulates the temperature inside the structure and also creates a circulation of air that prevents the settling of dust particles in the pump motor mechanism. (Johannesson, 2000) The pump stations are said to serve as a ‘symbol of the city of Reykjavik’s commitment to the utilization of the natural resources’. (ArchDaily, 2010)

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As described above the opportunity for architecture to create something culturally significant and thought provoking such as these pump stations was recognized and acted on by Reykjavik Heating Authority. It is noted on the website of Vatnavinir (eyland-vatnavinir, n.d.) that even with the revolution that was geothermal district heating in Reykjavik there remains little sign of its history. Laugardalur, one of the nodes of geothermal activity in Reykjavik, was one of the first areas in the city where swimming lessons took place, clothes were washed and hot water was drilled for (eyland-vatnavinir, n.d.). The website (eyland-vatnavinir, n.d.) also points out that there is no longer steam rising from the area as it has all been covered over by public facilities and sports grounds, therefore the association with the areas’ history is disconnected. In this sense the pump stations serve a purpose culturally. They assimilate with the production of geothermal energy and serve as reminders for the citizens and visitors of where the power comes from.

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In the book Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development, Lyle (1994) discusses the duality where products of infrastructure technology can produce either a fascination or a repulsion. Lyle (1994) notes that in hiding away technology of infrastructure is a way of alienating the technology and therefore reinforcing the impression that visible infrastructure is negative. To support the theory that it is important that technology should be visible to increase awareness of how energy is produced the author cites the ‘windmills of Holland’ that have become part of the cultural heritage of the country (Lyle, 1994, p10).

To this end this is what the pump station design is seeking to achieve. The visibly similar aesthetics and material finishes to the geothermal power stations outside of Reykjavik (see figure 23 showing high temperature field borehole covers) create this reference and the nature of the prefabricated and repeating element of the proposals demonstrates the association with the boreholes that scatter the landscape around the power stations outside of Reykjavik.

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It can be interpreted that the design does this well but to what degree has the architecture made use of this opportunity to interact with the infrastructure and provide a contribution to society or the economy?

The paragraphs above suggest that the Geothermal Pump Station Covers by PK Arkitektar do contribute to some extent to the awareness of society to the spatial characteristics, geographical spread and importance of the utilization of geothermal energy.

It could be interpreted that this image has been enhanced by architectural design to bridge the aesthetic gap between a potentially unsightly and repulsive language of industrial infrastructure to create a structure that is informative and demonstrative of the importance of industrial development.

This contribution made by design decisions and characteristics of the architects are parameters that aren’t measurable but they clearly contribute to the generation of interest and the increase of awareness of people to the importance of renewable natural resources in the sustainable development of a future Iceland.

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The Perlan, Oskjuhlíð Hill Reykjavik Ingimundur Sveinsson 1985-1991.

Following on from the pump stations discussed in the previous chapter, the case study in this section is in fact closely related. The geothermal district heating system diagram (figure 15, page 23) from the methodology shows where the next case study is situated in relation to the pump stations and the whole system.

The landmark building constructed between 1985 and 1991, the Perlan by the architect Ingimundur Sveinsson, utilizes Reykjavik’s highest vantage point. The Perlan serves as storage tanks for the Reykjavik geothermal district heating system, a public facility for a range of activities and a tourist attraction.

When the pipeline from the boreholes in Mosfellsbaer was laid in the late 1930s, it was connected to the water storage tanks at the top of Öskjuhlíð Hill. The site was selected because it is the highest point in Reykjavik at 61m above sea level (Valsson, 2000).

During the winter months the district heating system is supplemented by the hot water in the storage tanks on Öskjuhlíð Hill. The storage tanks hold excess water that isn’t required for the system and water that comes directly from the boreholes. Due to the elevation, enough pressure is provided to supplement homes across the city (Perlan.is, n.d.).

In 1938 the idea to create a building that offered a panoramic view on top of the original storage tanks was first discussed and a design competition was won by the architects Sigurdur Gudmundsson and Erikur Einarsson (Johannesson, 2000). The original plan was never implemented but following the expansion of the heating system and the construction of the Nesjavellir Power Station in 1987 more storage capacity was required. This meant that the idea for incorporating a building with the storage tanks was revived. The architect Ingimundur Sveinsson was appointed to design the building.

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The geometric expression of the building is created by six identical, cylindrical storage tanks arranged in a circular plan. The aluminium clad steel tanks hold six million litres of thermally heated water and is maintained at around 85 degrees Celsius. The structure stands at an overall height of 25.7metres with a total floor area of 3,700m2 (Johannesson, 2000).

Within the circular layout of the six storage tanks is another cylindrical volume above which a glazed dome is placed. The dome is made up of 1,176 window panes and provides a climate that allows for palm and fig trees to be kept on the ground floor (Slessor, 1993).

The climate inside the dome is highly regulated. A hollow steel frame creates the structure for the 14m high glazed dome and the walls that enclose the central volume from the storage tanks. By making the steel frame hollow, hot water is pumped through it to provide the space heating during the winter. During the summer, cold water is pumped through it for cooling (Perlan.is, n.d.).

The large scale of the interior space allows more than 600 people to view exhibitions, attend private functions and music performances. The basement houses a smaller conference facility and a lecture theater. The basement space is planned around a central pond that produces a geyser of water which is fired 15m into the atrium at set intervals (Slessor, 1993).

Above the garden space on the ground floor is a cafĂŠ that allows access onto the external observation platform on top of the storage tanks. The views from the platform include the Snaefellsnes mountains and Snaefellsjokull glacier nearly 100km away (Perlan.is, n.d.).

On the fourth floor, inside the glazed dome, is a revolving restaurant that provides a popular tourist attraction with views over the city and surrounding landscape.

The hot water is also utilized to heat the car park at the front of the building in order to melt snow and prevent freezing over (Slessor, 1993).

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The building, although it appears rather simplistic in its manipulation of volumes creates an aesthetic that describes the function of the building. In the same way that the pump stations in the previous section utilize their form to describe their function, the Perlan does this too in that the infrastructure is visible and allowing a fascination of technology to occur. To this end, the design of the building has responded very specifically to the to the opportunity presented by the presence of the storage tanks.

When the original 1940s storage tanks became inadequate it presented the opportunity for the architect to design with the new tanks in order to create something that is specific to the site and articulated in a way that allowed their function to be expressed. It could have been the case that the storage tanks were masked behind some sort of screening device or placed underground but the design decisions made to utilize the form and height provided by the tanks to make the most of these characteristics and enhance the final product to the benefit of the public and the tourist industry.

The role for architecture to contribute to the growth of the tourism industry and for the benefit of the general public though the maximisation of infrastructure is demonstrated well in this case. Without the design decisions for incorporating the storage tanks to create a unique commodity for the tourism industry there would not have been as successful a facility or even a facility at all. This exemplifies the role of architects and designers in creating the most responsive design and structure to the situation presented to them in terms of site and existing resources.

It would be fair to say that there is more potential for architectural design in the scenario presented by the Perlan on Öskjuhlíð Hill in terms of sustainability. Due to a lack of information regarding emissions and embodied energy of the scheme it would be unfair to comment on its ‘green’ characteristics. Despite this, the theory of the dissertation is underlined in this case as the project shows that there is scope for architectural design to create and enhance these facilities and spaces for the benefit of other sectors and the enrichment of the built environment. This particular project does this by taking the form and function of the infrastructure itself to produce something that is overall very unique in the city and a reminder of the significance of the geothermal district heating system.

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Service Building, Nauth贸lsv铆k Geothermal Beach, Reykjavik Arkibullan 2001.

The district heating system in Reykjavik requires that some of the water from its system is drained once it has been used for space heating. A sustainable use for the excess water has been found in the creation of a thermally heated beach at Nauth贸lsv铆k in Reykjavik. The excess water comes from either the storage tanks that make up the Perlan, the previous case study, or directly from dwellings in the city. The concept is to use the runoff water from the geothermal district heating system and heat an area of water in the bay in order to raise the average temperature of the surrounding water. Stone barriers were built in the form of a hot tub in the centre of the bay. When the tide is in the water that fills the hot tub is allowed to flow out and into the surrounding water.

This raises the temperature of the sea water by several degrees to around 18-20 degrees Celsius during the summer months (Haraldsson and Cordero, 2014).

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The beach itself used to be popular in the past, even when the water wasn’t artificially heated, as a place to sunbathe and experience the beach. During the Second World War British soldiers dug out coves in the surrounding land to serve as seaplane harbours. These dug out coves were used after the war as shelter for sunbathers. Due to pollution in the 1970s the beach was closed to bathers but in the late 90s the pollution was cleared and swimming was possible once again (Valsson, 2000).

In 2000 the hot water flow was put into commission and the beach was opened again to the public. The following year the Service Building, designed by architects Arkibullan, was opened to provide the beach with changing rooms, showers, hot tubs, and a shop for refreshments. It is interesting now to discuss the design characteristics of the building and relate them to how the building has contributed to the tourist popularity of the beach and supplementation of the bathing culture in Reykjavik. These design characteristics are important in enhancing the opportunity created by the excess water from the heating system. The role of architecture in this case is to provide an attractive and appropriate facility that provides a commodity out of the opportunity created by the infrastructure.

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The Service Building itself is located on the sloping grass banks of the beachfront with the roof at the level of the higher grass bank to provide access for walkers and a platform for viewing the beach.

The shape of the plan relates to the dug out ‘coves’ that already exist on the site. The change in level that is incorporated into the building emphasizes this idea of creating another ‘cove’. The architects refer to the changing rooms as ‘coves’ (Arkibullan.is, 2015) which hints at the design intent of the overall project and the importance of associating the architecture with the site.

The Service Building has also been designed with adaptability in mind for the change in seasonal use. The architect notes that the materials were chosen in order to hold up to use by potentially thousands of people during the summer and the harsh seafront conditions during the winter (Arkibullan.is, 2015).

The architect also created a façade that could be opened up during the summer to allow a degree of openness to the beach and invite people inside the building (Arkibullan.is, 2015). This aspect of openness creates a better engagement for the service centre with the beach and opens a better connection between facilities and the beach.

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The Perlan

Nautholsvik Geothermal Beach

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What is apparent in the style of this case study is that instead of adopting the aesthetic style of the infrastructure with which it is associated, the architecture tries to associate itself more with the site and the scenario that is afforded by the excess water drain. The architects appeared to see the association with the site as a more important factor to draw upon in this instance than to emulate the form of the infrastructure itself.

In this case a closer assimilation with site seems more important due to the purpose that the building is serving.

The building was placed in order to reopen a disused beach and help nurture the bathing culture in the city. The bathing culture is very strong amongst Icelanders due to the abundance of geothermal hot water and has also become a very important factor for tourists to visit Iceland (Ă“ladĂłttir, 2013). The bathing culture is associated with creating a closer relationship with the natural environment and the surrounding landscape, particularly in outdoor bathing locations.

For a tourist attraction and public commodity the architecture of the Service Building has responded to the connotations and expectations associated with these user groups.

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The Blue Lagoon Spa, Svartsengi, Reykjanes Peninsula BASALT Arkitektar 1995-2007.

The Svartsengi Geothermal Power Station is a combined heat and power station on the Reykjanes Peninsula.

The Reykjanes Peninsula lies on the boundary of the European and American tectonic plates and is situated in a High Temperature Zone. The power station was built on a lava field that dates from an eruption in 1226. The first well was drilled for the power station in 1972. That number has now risen to 20. The power station supplies hot water to supplement the Reykjavik district heating system and generates 46.4MW of electrical power for the national grid (Thorolfsson, 2005). The first phase built at Svartsengi in 1976-1978 was, at the time, the first geothermal power station to use a high temperature geothermal system to produce hot water for space heating and electrical power.

The flow stream (figure 40) of the power station is important in understanding how the Blue Lagoon itself was formed.

The power station draws thermally heated water at around 240 degrees Celsius from the drilled wells. The water is a mixture of freshwater and seawater which comes up from the ground as both steam and liquid due the change in pressure (Olafsson, 1996). Both the steam and liquid enters into a separator mechanism where the steam is directed into turbines for electricity generation and the liquid is used to warm freshwater for the heating system. Once the liquid has been used to heat the freshwater it is discharged from the system as ‘brine’.

The brine is released at a temperature of around 70 degrees Celsius into a nearby depression in the landscape to form a lagoon. As the water cools to a temperature suitable for bathing it also becomes saturated with silica.

This creates the white mud found at the bottom of the lagoon that seals the cracks in the lava and allows the lagoon to expand to its current size. Originally the brine was released into a depression adjacent to the power station with the intention of the water flowing back into the ground but due to the retention properties of the silica mud the water takes a much longer time to make its way back into the ground. The silica particles in the water and the soft white mud scatter light in the water that produces the characteristically blue colour and thus generating the name, The Blue Lagoon (Olafsson, 1996).

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40 Svartsengi Power Station, Flow Diagram

Once a lagoon had formed it became a bathing attraction and the water was soon discovered to contain minerals that were beneficial for skin healing, especially psoriasis. The first public bathing facilities were opened at the lagoon in 1987. The facilities also included a clinic for psoriasis patients and skin care products were launched (Bluelagoon.com, n.d.).

As the popularity of the Blue Lagoon increased amongst Icelanders and tourists, new facilities were designed and built between 1995 and 2007 by BASALT Arkitektar. The visitor numbers to the Blue Lagoon has increased rapidly since this development and in 2014 reached 700,000. This made the Blue Lagoon one of Iceland’s most popular tourist attractions (Ragnarsson, 2015).

The design of the new facilities and the role of architecture in making the most out of this unique situation was very important. The unique situation demanded an architectural approach that best enhances the Blue Lagoon for the tourism industry. The presence of the geothermal power station had created this landscape from waste water and it was the role of architecture to maximise the potential of this resource. In this case it was to create a building that capitalized on this by creating business model that makes the most of the resource.

According to data presented by the Icelandic Tourist Board in 2013 (Óladóttir, 2013), the Blue Lagoon was, on average, was the most memorable aspect of a tourist’s visit to Iceland. It could therefore be interpreted that the facilities area success in terms of creating a highly popular attraction and maximizing a natural resource by creating a commodity for the tourist industry.

In the paragraphs that follow, the facilities designed by BASALT Arkitektar and some design decisions will be discussed in order to evaluate how the architecture has responded to the unique opportunity and the requirements of the end users for the benefit of the tourism sector.

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Previous Site

New Site

41 Svartsengi Power Station sprawl (white)

42 Previous Site

43 New Site

In this case the intention of the project was to attract tourists and provide a high-end spa experience and to emphasize the connection to the surrounding landscape.

To achieve the successful integration of the Blue Lagoon with the tourism industry it was important for the design to respond to the image that is marketed by the tourism industry. Most tourist visits to Iceland is for the enjoyment of the natural landscape (Óladóttir, 2013), so it was important that the design engaged with that.

The architect of the project, Sigridur Sightorsdottir, in an interview in, ‘Iceland and Architecture?’ (Schmal et al.

2011), describes her approach to dealing with the unique condition presented by the lagoon and the power station.

When asked about the relocation of the spa facilities away from power station to the new site, Sightorsdottir described the relationship with the old facilities being ‘romantic in its own way’ (in Schmal et al. 2011, p125).

Despite this the Sightorsdottir says that the relationship with nature is ‘more dramatic, effective an more promising for an experience’ (in Schmal et al. 2011, p125). This suggests that the strategy for moving the facility away from the power station was deliberate in order to maximise the user experience of being connected with the landscape.

The new location of the facilities has reduced the power station to being less obvious for users of the lagoon (Figures 42 & 43).

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46 Blue Lagoon Spa (Phase 1), Ground Floor Plan

To help supplement the effect of being closer to the landscape desired by the architect and the client, the architect describes an emphasis on creating horizontality in the overall form of the building (Schmal et al. 2011).

The Sightorsdottir (in Schmal et al. 2011, p125) describes that the horizontality of the building allows a degree of protection from the high winds on the exposed Reykjanes Peninsula and also helps to improve the building’s association with the landscape. To further convey the association of building with the landscape the building is sunk into the ground to suggest a sense of enclosure and closeness with the landscape (figure 47).

Also important in emphasizing the connection with the landscape is the entrance sequence (figure 44). The entrance is approached by walking for 200m along a lava rift from the car park that is then reconstructed as a man-made lava wall that runs through the foyer and into the outdoor space by the lagoon (Schmal et al. 2011).

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In terms of the architectural design and strategy it could also be interpreted that in moving the facilities away from the power station and emphasizing a connection with nature disconnects and detracts from the real reason that the lagoon is there in the first place, as industrial overspill. Although the health benefits for bathers are evident and the efficiency of the overall scheme is very successful, there still remains an element of illusion in the emphasis placed on the lagoon being ‘natural’. The extent to which architecture has contributed to this effect is debatable but as discussed in the paragraphs above there was clear design intent to convey the characteristics of association with the landscape.

Halfnadottir and Kempton (2011, p58) suggest that there is an acceptance that the Blue Lagoon represents a ‘perfect symbiosis’ between power production and tourism but as they also acknowledge, it is not a replicable model due to the unsustainable characteristics of discharging effluent water on to the surface environment.

Nonetheless, architecture has played an important part in maximizing not only the economic potential from the resource, but also to connect the lagoon with the natural landscape for visitors, thus enhancing the location.

The building itself has enabled the support of the large tourist numbers and provided a significant boost to the tourism sector. By responding to and associating with the landscape, the building aligns itself with the ethos of the client with a successful outcome.

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Conclusion.

The first sections of the dissertation developed an interpretation of the role of architecture in its contribution to sustainable growth. The main ideas were that architecture has role beyond the reduction of carbon footprint and that the design decisions made in relation to its context and resources must also supplement social, economic and cultural dynamics.

By basing the study in Iceland and focusing on the development of the geothermal district heating systems, it sets out a very specific scenario where architecture has played a role in creating interventions that make the most out of opportunities for development generated by the district heating infrastructure.

Through studying the designs of the case studies the importance of design decisions in maximizing these opportunities presented by the infrastructure has been shown. The form and style of each project has been discussed in order to show how design decisions affect its overall function and success.

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In the case of the Geothermal Pump Stations by PK Arkitektar, they show that form and materiality can inform society’s impression and awareness of the heating system, particularly of its spatial characteristics and its material manifestation. The design decisions have an effect on how large numbers of people perceive and interpret the development of the renewable resource.

The Perlan by Ingimundur Sveinsson is an example of how architectural design has used the scale and material language of the storage tanks to create a very unique building. The vantage point gained by the height of the storage tanks was utilized and implemented into the creation of a popular tourist attraction and public facility.

The form and materiality of the building also reflects that of the heating system infrastructure and serves as an influence to people’s perceptions of the significance of geothermal heating. It demonstrates the role of architecture in creating a commodity for the built environment out of an opportunity generated by existing infrastructure.

The Service Building at Nauthólsvík beach by Arkibullan, contributes to the utilization of excess water from the district heating system and heats the seawater in the reclaimed bay. The service building has contributed to the promotion of Reykjavik’s bathing culture as well as supplementing the beach as a popular tourist attraction. The importance of architectural design decisions in this case was to reinforce the connection with the surrounding beach and its landscape. The design does this by responding to the change in topography and creating an active frontage with the opening façade, concrete veranda and small pool.

The Blue Lagoon Spa by BASALT Arkitektar has proven to be a very important design in terms of facilitating a large number of tourists and contributing significantly to Iceland’s tourist industry. The unique scenario posed by the lagoon meant the architecture had to respond in a way that maximised use of the overspill water from the nearby power station for the benefit of the tourism industry. Since Iceland’s tourism relies heavily upon the image of unspoiled landscape and nature, it was important that the architecture reflected and enhanced this.

The design tries to achieve this by moving the away from the power station and creating a sense of enclosure and lowering the building into the landscape. Although pumping excess water from power stations onto the landscape has a negative impact in some ways, the Blue Lagoon Spa facilities have harnessed it and maximised the potential for the benefit of the tourism industry with significant effect. It demonstrates that architecture can serve as an important tool in emphasising the positive aspects of the opportunity presented by existing infrastructure and enhance the growth of another industry.

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Through discussion of these case studies it provides evidence that architecture is a medium by which existing resources can be maximised. It is evident from the above conclusions that architecture and design decisions regarding form, materiality and site specificity can have an impact on the overall success in utilizing existing resources and opportunities created by infrastructure.

By maximizing existing resources, spaces and opportunities, architecture can contribute to social, economic and cultural growth. All are important in creating a sustainable built environment for future generations. Architecture therefore contributes demonstrably more than just the reduction in carbon footprint and improvements in building technology.

As well as searching for ways in which new development can be sustainable, there is an opportunity in existing infrastructure and the built environment that can supplement growth across multiple areas. Architecture can be responsive to the opportunity presented by the combination of infrastructure need, available resources and local context, and lead to a successful intervention and contribute to sustainable growth.

This dissertation also underlines the importance of architect’s awareness of all resources and their potential in the creation of a new building. A better awareness of these resources and processes could contribute massively to the success of the proposal. Application of this awareness at the beginning of a project to develop the best possible design strategy has also been shown in this dissertation that it has a profound effect on the success of a building.

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Iceland will develop its tourism and power industries further in the coming years, requiring new facilities to be constructed in diverse locations. By learning the lessons drawn from the case studies presented here, placing strong importance on social, economic and cultural dimensions in a local context, architecture will contribute significantly to Iceland’s sustainable future.

The perspective developed in this dissertation could also contribute towards sustainable growth in other parts of the world. The ideas of utilizing existing infrastructure and maximisation of resources for benefit across sectors could work for other countries with an abundance of certain natural resources and a requirement for growth of other sectors.

An example might be the development of renewable energy in Scotland. By linking this to the tourism sector, ways may be found to promote both. This could be done by celebrating this industry through architectural intervention with social, economic and cultural dimensions at heart. Imagine a renewable energy facility on Islay that generated the power necessary for all of its 8 distilleries, with a visitor centre telling the interlinked story of whisky, tourism and energy.

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List of Figures.

1 - Reykjavik from Hallgrímskirkja – Adam Ramsay 2 - July Trip 2014 – Adam Ramsay 3 - Hellischeidi Geothermal Power Station, South Iceland – Adam Ramsay 4 - Geothermal Borehole Cover, South Iceland – Adam Ramsay 5 - Pylon, South Iceland – Adam Ramsay 6 - Iceland in Europe – Adam Ramsay 7 - Geothermal Fields, Highlands and Locations – Adam Ramsay. Data of Highlands and Geothermal Areas from (Sæþórsdóttir, Hall and Saarinen, 2011) (Ragnarsson, 2015) 8 - Case Study Locations – Adam Ramsay 9 - Pump Station - http://www.archello.com/sites/default/files/story/media/pump08.jpg 10 - Perlan Aerial Image http://for91days.com/photos/Iceland/Saga%20Museum%20Reykjavik/Saga%20Museum%20Reykjavik%20 02%2020130724%20for91days.com.jpg 11 - Service Building - http://www.arkibullan.is/bindata/pictures/picbig00210.jpg 12 - Blue Lagoon Aerial - http://www.thequirkytraveller.com/wp-content/uploads/Blue-Lagoon-img31.jpg 13 - Vatnavinir Westfjords - http://www.vatnavinir.is/home 14 - Vatnavinir Intervention Proposal - http://www.pixelcreation.fr/fileadmin/img/sas_image/galerie/design/ Global%20Awards%202011/Vatnavinir%20Global%20Awards%202011%2005.jpg 15a - District Heating Flow Diagram – Adam Ramsay. Flow diagram from (Gunnlaugsson, 2004) 15b - Svartsengi Flow Diagram - (Thorolfsson, 2005) 16 - Pump Station - http://www.pk.is/project/30/-1/ 17 - Pump Station Black and White - http://www.pk.is/project/30/-1/ 18 - Pump Station Plan - http://www.pk.is/project/30/-1/ 19 - Borehole Locations, Reykjavik – Adam Ramsay. Data from (Borgarvefsja.reykjavik.is, n.d.)

20 - Borehole Pump Machinery - (Karlsson, n.d.)

21 - Pump Section - http://www.pk.is/project/30/-1/ 22 - Pump Prefabrication - http://www.pk.is/project/30/-1/ 23 - High Temperature Borehole Cover - http://www.mannvit.com/ 24 - Pump Station Night - http://www.pk.is/project/30/-1/ 25 - Perlan Section – Ingimundur Sveinsson.

26 - Perlan Plan – Ingimundur Sveinsson 27 - Perlan Aerial - http://for91days.com/photos/Iceland/Saga%20Museum%20Reykjavik/Saga%20Museum%20Reykjavik%2002%2020130724%20for91days.com.jpg 28 - Perlan Axo – Scan from (Slessor, 1993) 29 - Perlan Dome Interior - http://www.worldalldetails.com/article_image/top_rotating_restaurants_968092.jpg 30 - Nautholsvik Beach Service Building - http://www.reykjavik.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/nauthols v ik++SARA2.jpg 31 - Nautholsvik and Perlan Map – Adam Ramsay 32 - Nautholsvik Roof - http://www.arkibullan.is/user/pictures/7/2/21/24 33 - Nautholsvik Rooflight - http://www.arkibullan.is/user/pictures/7/2/21/24 34 - Nautholsvik Façade - http://www.arkibullan.is/user/pictures/7/2/21/24 35 - Nautholsvik Veranda - http://www.arkibullan.is/user/pictures/7/2/21/24 36 - Nautholsvik Section - http://www.arkibullan.is/user/document/1

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37 - Blue Lagoon Main Block - https://www.flickr.com/photos/darrellg/16985145082/in/photolist-rSViT1ktcTXX-eYRJbB-9BwR6Z-oMyXsK-322nT7-eYRZnK-kzGVhg-pE8uck-7Fj6AL-eYS2Y6-re9sP3-oChjQTbtxPzw-h9eSns-eYRJmZ-eYS59B-eYPZJZ-eZ2n5Y-rwNthE-9BzQMA-eYS6SH-eYFuh8-eYFo5R-3U8UcY-ixJMz4-7rs9gB-ecXWLB-aZVcDc-eYPAiH-eZ1Ebd-eYS7gn-eZ4p8G-rf58VB-hNHs2h-891Zjk-fePkwz-rwvZ6RiyakXJ-5TDXYA-6xKaSd-892cAP-7AfdGt-eayECv-rz5yYK-harrvT-8j4GmZ-e58x2K-4qj6Fx-dsqj9Z/ 38 - Blue Lagoon Landscaping - https://www.flickr.com/photos/darrellg/16985145082/in/photolist-rSViT1ktcTXX-eYRJbB-9BwR6Z-oMyXsK-322nT7-eYRZnK-kzGVhg-pE8uck-7Fj6AL-eYS2Y6-re9sP3-oChjQTbtxPzw-h9eSns-eYRJmZ-eYS59B-eYPZJZ-eZ2n5Y-rwNthE-9BzQMA-eYS6SH-eYFuh8-eYFo5R-3U8UcY-ixJMz4-7rs9gB-ecXWLB-aZVcDc-eYPAiH-eZ1Ebd-eYS7gn-eZ4p8G-rf58VB-hNHs2h-891Zjk-fePkwz-rwvZ6RiyakXJ-5TDXYA-6xKaSd-892cAP-7AfdGt-eayECv-rz5yYK-harrvT-8j4GmZ-e58x2K-4qj6Fx-dsqj9Z/ 39 - Blue Lagoon Panorama - http://cdn.homesthetics.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Iceland-Luxurious-Destination-The-Blue-Lagoon-homesthetic-6.jpg 40 - Svartsengi Flow Diagram – (Thorolfsson, 2005) 41 - Svartsengi Power Station Sprawl – Adam Ramsay 42 - Blue Lagoon Original Site - http://craftflight.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/blue_lagoon.jpg 43 - Blue Lagoon New Site - https://www.flickr.com/photos/bumbyfoto/5904937848/in/photolist-9ZNmif-fKF2Vd-gvKxg3-kmiVfz-dbom2E-dhzpxf-fK5Ud7-hDatNJ-byDAge-mkT7yF-8Txaaz-gfbkV3-gfXUVRqCikND-kp3EQK-jijyhC-aZVckH-pS1fJi-cp8aRY-9ZtGhK-rJdFJk-rhmYur-getDiR-qnKLss-daL3p3-r3chA9ioZues-4iFMZo-qF1Gn4-dnMJH7-ff4Ca7-feP8Dt-ff4uch-dUkNNr-bZn4Mh-cVeaWC-5j9mLb-phoJ3k-6EffbhhxSr4r-hStvwX-4rLG84-eTtRtZ-dBW7aP-o5BWGG-aMzUZP-9xx7xp-hNFQxK-pmgRWM-ryYnjS/ 44 - Blue Lagoon and Lava Rift - http://versatilearchitect.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/IMG_0388.jpg 45 - Blue Lagoon Façade - http://basalt.is/index.php/health/blue-lagoon-health 46 - Blue Lagoon Spa Ground Floor Plan – Scan from (Johannesson, 2000) 47 - Blue Lagoon Horizontality - https://www.flickr.com/photos/hanner11/9345326543/in/photolist-fePeZHowWnhn-hNXk92-hNXKXS-9ZtGhK-rJdFJk-qnKLss-daL3p3-r3chA9-eYPVar-csBA45-qfgzLA-5Dm4Ep6TLLcw-dsbhYS-czTPkm-oHSoyD-pr3Uta-86Mrdb-dFikbr-hCod1Z-eKQjcC-65PXiG-9z54h6-dPZQrZ-hjM9vg-9s9nx4-jbND7A-8aRtPD-dUgua2-jbLvK3-9ZKxh8-aJnAvr-hDALwG-fqj8XZ-cLVdLu-dKhHSF-pgZdyWaftc7X-38nwdx-iy8c1a-q674dJ-r3jmGH-8aWJd5-a9Ax2D-2kxQaj-5YcPNh-6G6Z2i-9XtcRL-cUt64o 48 - Pump Station - http://www.pk.is/project/30/-1/ 49 - Perlan Aerial Image http://for91days.com/photos/Iceland/Saga%20Museum%20Reykjavik/Saga%20Museum%20Reykjavik%20 02%2020130724%20for91days.com.jpg 50 - Nautholsvik Beach Service Building - http://www.reykjavik.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/nautholsvik++SARA2.jpg 51 - Blue Lagoon Main Block - https://www.flickr.com/photos/darrellg/16985145082/in/photolist-rSViT1ktcTXX-eYRJbB-9BwR6Z-oMyXsK-322nT7-eYRZnK-kzGVhg-pE8uck-7Fj6AL-eYS2Y6-re9sP3-oChjQTbtxPzw-h9eSns-eYRJmZ-eYS59B-eYPZJZ-eZ2n5Y-rwNthE-9BzQMA-eYS6SH-eYFuh8-eYFo5R-3U8UcY-ixJMz4-7rs9gB-ecXWLB-aZVcDc-eYPAiH-eZ1Ebd-eYS7gn-eZ4p8G-rf58VB-hNHs2h-891Zjk-fePkwz-rwvZ6RiyakXJ-5TDXYA-6xKaSd-892cAP-7AfdGt-eayECv-rz5yYK-harrvT-8j4GmZ-e58x2K-4qj6Fx-dsqj9Z/ 53

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