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Book 1: Geoengineering Introduction Abstract Geoengineering Introduction Guides & Definitions Major Historic event of Geoengineering
Book 2: Carbon Sequencing Introduction to Carbon Sequencing The Contemporary The Forthcoming
Book 3: Solar Intervention Introduction to Cloud Seeding The Elapsed The Contemporary The Forthcoming
Book 4: Ethical & Effectiveness Summary Carbon Sequencing Solar Intervention Final Judgment
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CONTENTS 6
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Abstract
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Geoengineering: Introduction
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Guide
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Definitions
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Major Historic event of Geoengineering
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Bibliography
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“What we do over the next 10 years will determine the future of humanity for the next 10,000” Former British government chief scientist David King
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Abstract Scientists have declared the current geological era the Anthropocene which is symptomatic of humans’ excessive use of fossil fuels, leading to the warming of the climate and destruction of many ecosystems. The risk presented by Anthropogenic climate change is immense, putting both human and non human life at danger, making it extremely crucial for an immediate change. One potential intervention is called geoengineering, which is an international scale process regarding deliberate intervention and manipulation of the Earth’s climate which intends to counteract greenhouse warming. Geoengineering strategies; Carbon Dioxide removal (CDR) and Solar Radiation Management (SRM), undeniably have immense potential in reducing the curve of increasing climates (IPPC), however, the merits of their effectiveness and ethical grounds are being questioned. This volume aims to unpack and critically assess the ethical and effectiveness of Geoengineering strategies and discuss whether it is necessary for humans to trespasses global thresholds and manipulate Earth’s natural systems in order to prevent climate change. The first book will provide an overall introduction of what geoengineering is and the role it may play in current anthropogenic warming mitigation. The second book. CDR, and the third book, Solar Intervention, will discuss the ethical and effectiveness of both strategies more closely. Finally, the Fourth book, Ethical and Effectiveness will provide a summary and discuss whether or not Geoneginnering is the way of the future.
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INTRODUCTION
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Geoengineering: Introduction Geoengineering is an international scale process regarding deliberate intervention and manipulation of the Earth’s climate which intends to counteract greenhouse warming. This practice is split into two sections; Solar Radiation Management (SRM) which aims to reflect solar radiation from the sun and Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) which aims to sequence Carbon Dioxide from the atmosphere. Ideas of engineering climate date back to the mid 19th century, whereby man idealised creating large fires in order to influence precipitation in drought-stricken areas. However, climate engineering for the purpose of reversing increasing climate didn’t emerge until 1965, through U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson’s Science Advisory Committee’s report called “Restoring the Quality of Our Environment” which introduces the possible damaging effects of greenhouses emissions from the heavy use of fossil fuels on the environment and climate. The report considers the ideas of counteracting climate change by “raising the albedo, or reflectivity, of the Earth”, a form of Solar Geoengineering. Throughout the 19-21st centuries, investigating climate has determined that the international reliance and burning of fossil fuels is having extremely negative effects on the Earth hence the current accelerated trend of global climate. Global warming is causing the intensification of the water cycle, affecting rainfall patterns, melting glacial ice and permafrost, coastal flooding caused by sea-level rise, ocean acidification, higher wildlife extinction rates, increase in average temperatures and temperature extremes, damaging the ozone layer and heavily polluting of the atmosphere. Geoengineering is undeniably becoming and continuing to be one of, if not, the key method to reduce emissions before the deadline. Climate engineering seems like an extremely plausible solution as it works on an international scale,
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rather than just regional or national. Scientists have been developing technologies for decades to establish Geoengineering mitigation strategies like SRM and CDR. Through Carbon capture, millions of tonnes of CO2 can be captured from the atmosphere and stored underground in natural reservoirs. Through Solar intervention, by heightening the albedo of clouds or ocean water, reflect enormous amounts of sunlight and prevent the greenhouse effect or enhanced greenhouse effect from warming the earth further. With both of these strategies in place working in unison, less GHG and less sunlight interacting with these GHG, would certainly reduce the rapidly climbing climate. However, the question is whether or not it will reduce the emissions in time for the deadline. Aforementioned, emissions must fall by 45% from 2010 levels by 2030. Figure 1 highlights that this is certainly attainable through the line called “Very Low Emissions” as it reaches -43% by 2030, -94% by 2050 and within approximately another 5 years from 2050, it will hit -100% emissions. The reason why the blue line reaches this marker in comparison to the other four lines is because it includes CO2 extraction from geoengineering. Now with this in mind, it seems certain that through climate engineering, the IPPC deadline can be met and the 1.5°C thresholds can be maintained. Unfortunately, reality isn’t always perfect, and this is definitely the case with Geoengineering. Although on the surface level it may seem like a great method for mitigating climate change, there are actually many things to consider. Throughout the next three volumes, The topic covered includes both types of geoengineering, and discussion of the discourse around geoengineering on the ethical and effectiveness of these strategies. The volume will discuss how despite these strategies having positive benefits on
Figure 1: Graph from the IPPC depicting different emission levels in relation to climate levels
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Figure 2: Render map of Australia depicting the 2019-2020 brushfires, illustrating the message of potential devastating events that can be caused by climate change or Geoengineering failure
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Geoengineering: Introduction Within “The Last Chance to Save the Planet?”, An Analysis of the Geoengineering Advocacy Discourse in the Public Debate. Environmental Humanities (Anshelm, J., & Hansson, A. 2014) states “geoengineering evokes both hopes and fears as for example a technological fix that saves humanity from climate catastrophe or an overly complex technology that interferes with sensitive and unpredictable Nature”. This quote is extremely crucial as it highlights that through Geoengineering, humanity is trespassing the natural threshold of Earth and is certainly a trigger response to the Anthropocene. Robert Jackson, the director of Duke University’s Center on Global Change stated “Playing with the Earth’s climate is a dangerous game with unclear rules”, also highlighting the uncertainties that come with geoengineering. ‘Nature Ecology & Evolution’ (Trisos, C et al. 2018) discussed that sudden cessation of solar geoengineering would most likely result
in rapid global warming which would happen ten times faster than if climate engineering technologies had never been used. The sudden termination of Geoengineering would undeniably result in enormous extinctions rates and extremely devastating climate events, destroying many ecosystems (Figure 2). This then brings up the discussion of whether or not Geoengineering should be implemented, as introducing international scale geoengineering could certainly reduce emissions, although would inevitably lead to changing systems and causing the earth to be reliant on these geoengineering strategies, thus changing the Earth’s natural systems, to under the control of humankind. Through this volume, it will unpack and critically assess the ethical and effectiveness of Geoengineering strategies and discuss whether it is necessary for humans to trespasses global thresholds and manipulate Earth’s natural systems in order to prevent climate change.
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Definitions Ethics: Ethics is the domain which governs a person/s moral principles on whether an action is right or wrong and obligatory or non-obligatory. In regards to Geoengineering, ethics within this volume will be decided on whether or not an action is morally forthright with good intention, and whether or not the practice of one of the Geoengineering strategies doesn’t have the potential of serious repercussions on both human and non human. Effectiveness: Effectiveness is the extent of how successful a certain action or procedure is in providing a desired result. In regards to Geoengineerg, effectiveness within this volume will be decided how well a Geoengineering strategy may be in mitigation climate, the successful extent of a project using one of the Geoengineering strategies.
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The Guide Within this Volume, a plethora of different sources will be critically analysed in relation to the discourse. The examination of these sources will allow us to determine: How effective is this strategy? Is this process ethical? (WHY?) Why is this strategy required? How does the interception of Technology affect the balance of systems? To what extent does this strategy interact with the anthropocene? These inquiries will be referred to in all source analyses to create consistent responses and to create an overall conclusion of the ethical and effectiveness of the targeted geoengineering strategies.
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Major Historic events of Geoengineering - 1900s
1965 U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson’s Science Advisory Committee’s report called “Restoring the Quality of Our Environment” which introduces the possible damaging effects of greenhouse emissions, considering the ideas of counteracting climate change by “raising the albedo, or reflectivity, of the Earth”, a form of Solar Geoengineering. Operation Popeye - Vietnam War: US cloud seeding intervention on the Ho Chi Minh 1967 trail, using cloud seeding practices as a militarised weapon to expand the timespan of monsoon weather.
1976 U.N declares ban of weaponized weather, conclusive due to the results of Operation Popeye.
The idea of capturing carbon and storing it underground for the purpose of mitigating 1977 climate changed was first introduced in 1977 which would be achievable by using existing technology in enhanced oil recovery
1990 The Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC), assessing the risk of climate change posed by human activity, declares increased carbon emissions are substantially augmenting the greenhouse effect.
193 countries signed the world’s first agreement to cut emissions; ‘Kyoto protocol’, 1997 where they also introduced geoengineering strategies as a way to cut emissions
1999 Cloud Seeding: Circus of the Performative Object - Tour of the performative object, revealing the contemporary issues of society and governing bodies as a “circus act”
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Major Historic event of Geoengineering - 2000s
(1) Beijing Summer Olympics cloud seeding intervention event - Fastforwarding the 2009 events of rainfall to ensure a dry opening ceremony at the Beijing Olympics (2) Chevron’s Gorgon Gas Plant in Western Australia opened later 2009 and was planned to be the most significant attempt at a CCS project globally, planning to capture and store 4 million tonnes of CO2 underground.
2013
New South Wales Snowy Hydro Project - Development of snow in New South Wales ‘snowy mountains region’ through cloud seeding, enhancing the creation of renewable energy as part of Snowy Hydro’s long term project
(1) MODU + Geotectura Studio Cloud Seeding Project - The National Museum of Israel, 2015 representing cloud seeding in a physical frame using 30,000 recycled balls to create a ‘dynamic’ environment and emphasise the impacts on humanity. 2016 197 countries signed the Paris Agreement, an international treaty on climate change, adopted in 2015. The protocol aims to increase the ability of countries to respond and adapt to climate change impacts, creating and managing sufficient finances, establishing plans, and regularly reporting on their contributions in their fights against climate change. Launched in early September, Orca is the name of Climeworks new direct air capture and storage plant in iceland. Recently launched on the 8th of September 2021, it is set to be the newest revolutionary Direct-Air-Capture (DAC) for CO2 removal.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 20
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Chevron Policy, Government and Public Affairs. (2009). Gorgon Project. Chevron.Com. https:// australia.chevron.com/our-businesses/gorgon-project Climeworks. (n.d.). Orca - the world’s first large-scale direct air capture and storage plant. https:// climeworks.com/orca Gasparini, B. G., McGraw, Z. M., Storelvmo, T. S., & Lohmann, U. L. (2020). Environmental Research Letters. To What Extent Can Cirrus Cloud Seeding Counteract Global Warming? Published. Gast, C. G. (2016). Cloud Seeding: Circus of the Performative Object. Christy Gast. Published. House, C. P. A. (2013, February 18). Terms and Impacts of the Kyoto Protocol. Commonwealth Canberra Government. https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/ Parliamentary_Library/Publications_Archive/CIB/CIB9798/98CIB10 IPCC, 2021: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. Koretsky, Z. K., & van Lente, H. V. L. (2020). Technology phase-out as unravelling of socio-technical configurations: Cloud Seeding Case. Environment Innovation and Societal Transitions, 302– 317. Li, H. L., Dai, Y. D., Wang, H. W., & Cui, J. C. (2017). Artificial Seeding Effects of Convective CLouds on the Opening Day of Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection. Published. MODU + Geotectura Studio: Cloud Seeding. (2015). MODU + Geotectura Studio: Cloud Seeding. Published. Snowy Hydro Limited. (2017, August). Cloud Seeding Program - 2016 Operations Report.
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