Fertilizer industry in the Arab region is distinguished, since more than 20 years, by its continuous development, representing a great percentage of the world fertilizer production. The development is still ongo-
ing, depending on the available rich raw materials, the used modern production methods and the proximity to developing markets.
With reference to potash industry in the Arab region, Jordan is the sole
country producing potash via the Arab Potash Company, established in 1950s, and considered a successful common Arab project and a core for the Arab industrial economic work.
Such a Company remains a model that develop in line with the inter-
national changes, as the Company ownership is by all means diversified, encompassing Arab countries represented in the Company>s
Board together with a strategic partner. All the parties are working in a coordinating pattern. Besides the Company is about to open the third potash refinery factory, by the end of the current year. Thus, the
productivity of Jordan will reach 2.5 million tons or about 5% of the world production.
This production provides a sound foundation for fertilizer industries in the Arab region, so as to lean on the available nitrogenous and
phosphate inputs assisted by the third component required for NPK industry.
We look forward to the development of NPK industry in our region,
in order to become the main world fertilizer supplier, encourage the establishment of any kind of common projects, provide the traditional
customers in Asia, India and China with the best options and also to promote growth and development in the world as a whole.
Dr. Nabih Salama
Board Chairman Arab Potash Company
Arab Fertilizers Issue Number (57) May- August 2010
Contents
”Arab Fertilizers” Journal is published by the General Secretariate of Arab Fertilizers Association (AFA). AFA is a non-profit, non-gov. Arab Int’l. Organization established on 1975. AFA is operating under the umbrella of Council of Arab Economic Unity/ Arab League. AFA comprises all companies are producing fertilizer in Arab world in 14 Arab countries. All rights reserved. Single and multiple photocopies of extracts may be made or republished provided that a full acknowledgment is made of the source. The Journal is providing the chance for publishing adverts for the companies involved in manufacturing and trade of fertilizer and other agricultural inputs. The arrangements for that should be discussed with the journal’s management. The articles and all material contained herein do not necessarily represent the view of AFA unless the opposite clearly mentioned. The contributions of researchers, students, and experts in the field of fertilizer industry and trade are highly welcomed for free publication provided that they have not been published before. The General Secretariat is not obliged to return the articles which are not published. All correspondences to be addressed to: Arab Fertilizers Association P.O. Box 8109 Nasr City 11371 9 Ramo bdg. Omar ben Khattab St. Nasr Road - Nasr City Cairo, Egypt Tel: +20 2 24172347 Fax:+20 2 24173721 +20 2 24172350 E-mail: info@afa.com.eg www.afa.com.eg Colour separation & printed by Tel : 37617863
Issue Report 23rd AFA Int’l. Technical Conference & Exhibition HSE Summit ...................................................................... 4
Press Release Jawahery Elected as Deputy Chairman of the International Fertilizer Association and IFA Executive Board Member ............................ 22 Dr. Henrik Topsøe receives award ............................ 23 Fertil Wins the Royal Society For Prevention Of Accidents (RoSPA) Sector Award. .......................... 24
New IPI Coordinator for sub-Saharan Africa: Mr. Olivier Goujard ................................................ 24 New IPI Coordinator for China and India: Mr. Eldad Sokolowski ............................................. 25
Mr. Mohamed Abdallah Mohamed Board Members
Mr. Hedhili Kefi Tunisia
Mr. Khalifa Al-Sowaidi
Studies & Researches TECHNICAL AND PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF FERTIGATION .................................................................... 26 THE ROLE OF FERTILIZERS IN AGRICULTURAL MITIGATION STRATEGIES .................................................................... 36
Qatar Mr. Mohamed Benchekroun Morocco Mr. Mohamed El-Mouzi Egypt Mr. Mohammed S. Badrkhan Jordan Mr. Abdel Rahman Jawahery Bahrain Mr. Mohamed R. Al-Rashid UAE Mr. Fahad Saad Al-Sheaibi Saudi Arabia Mr. Jihad N. Hajji Kuwait Mr. Adel Balushi Oman Mr. Khalifa Yahmood Libya
AFA Board of Directors
Chairman
Mr. Saleh Yunis
ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CO2 EMISSIONS IN AMMONIA PRODUCTION .................................................................... 39 Phosphogypsum Management and Utilization A Review of Research and Industry Practice .................................................................... 42 Urea Dust & Ammonia Emission Control from Prilling Tower .................................................................... 54 Farming has to come first to achieve the MDGs .................................................................... 60
Syria
Mr. Mazouz Bendjeddou Algeria Editor-in- Chief
Dr. Shafik Ashkar
Secretary General Deputy Editor-in- Chief Mrs. Mushira Moharam Members of Editorial Board (General Secretariat) Eng. Mohamed M.Ali Mr.Yasser Khairy Member of Editorial Board (Chairmen of AFA Committees) Eng. Saed Bokisha AFA Technical Committee Chairman Eng. AbdulRahman Zuraig AFA HSE Committee Chairman
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From left to right: Mr. Zerelli, Dr. Ashkar, Mr. Abdallah, Mr. Kefi and Mr. Morris
23rd AFA International Technical Conference
Arab fertilizers
& Exhibition
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HSE Summit 29/6 – 1/7/2010 Tunisia – Ramada Plaza
Under the auspices of the Tunisian Minister of Industry and Technology His Excellency Mr. Afif Chelbi, AFA organized the 23rd AFA International Technical ConferenceHSE Summit in Tunis during the period from 29/6 to 1/7/2010, in cooperation with AFA Tunisian company members, namely, Compagnie des Phosphates de Gafsa, Groupe Chimique Tunisien, GRANUPHOS and TIFERT. Believing in the importance of Health, Safety and Environment (HSE), AFA Board decided to hold, for the first time, such a Conference under the said slogan, i.e. HSE, to encourage all member companies to pay due concern to the fields of Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) together with the operational and productivity efficiency.
His Excellency Afif Chelbi:
Tunisia occupied the fifth place internationally with reference to phosphate production and its derivatives
Honored by the attendance of His Excellency the Tunisian Minister of Industry and Technology, H.Ů?E. inaugurated the Conference, in which more than 400 attendees participated from different countries, representing Arab and international organizations working in the field of fertilizers and its derivatives. Furthermore, the opening ceremony was attended by AFA Board Chairman Mr. Mohammad Abdallah Mohammad, Mr. Fadhel Zerelli, President General Manager of CPG – GCT, Mr. Hedhlili Kefi, President of GRANUPHOS, Dr. Shafik Ashkar AFA Secretary General, AFA Board members, Mr. David Morris Chairman of NEBOSH Company, Chairmen of Arab and international fertilizer companies in addition to a number of Chairmen of fertilizer industry organizations.
His Excellency Minister of Industry and Technology Afif Chelbi started his speech, in the Conference opening ceremony, by welcoming the attendees in the cherished land of Tunisia. Minister Afif Chelbi underscored the important contribution of Tunisia phosphate sector in the country total exports estimated by 7% and about 10% of fertilizer international trade, ranking Tunisia in the fifth place internationally with reference to phosphate production and its derivatives of phosphoric acid and phosphatic fertilizers. His Excellency mentioned that the liberalization of commercial exchanges led to the emergence of international institutions and companies among the great producers and consumers. Thus, the companies of the Tunisian phosphate sector had to join such an international direction and to establish partnerships similar to the Chinese Arab Company for
Fertilizers in China and the Indian Tunisian Company for phosphoric acid manufacturing in Al Skhira. Tunisia further is looking forward to raise the capacity of extracting phosphate raw material from 8 to 10 million tons annually by 2015 and that parallel to developing the production methods, improving quality level and maintaining the environment. It is worth mentioning that there are ambitious programs being accomplished to make the gaseous emissions and the liquid and solid discharges in line with the international standards. Great amount of funds were allocated for the treatment of the pollution phenomenon resulting in positive impacts in the fields of vocational health, safety and the environment (HSE), citing in this concern the closure of NPK laboratory in Sfax and rehabilitating its location to become an ideal touristic site.
An attentive audience at the conference
Issue Report Mr. Abdallah:
such companies’ performance level is up to the international companies’ one.
Arab fertilizers
AFA Chairman Mr. Mohammad Abdallah Mohammad delivered a speech in the opening ceremony, in which he welcomed His Excellency the Tunisian Minister of Industry and Technology, Mr. Fadhel Zerelli, President General Manager of CPG – GCT, Mr. Hedhlili Kefi, President of GRANUPHOS, Dr. Shafik Ashkar AFA Secretary General, AFA Board members, Mr. David Morris Chairman of NEBOSH Company and AFA Board members. In his speech, he expressed his delight for being present on the cherished land of Tunisia - a place of civilizations - which constantly support the common Arab work,
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especially the fertilizer industry one. This kind of support is manifested in Tunisia’s repeated hosting of such an AFA International Technical Conference. Mr. Mohammad Abdullah added saying that such a Conference focuses on an important issue, that is to say Health, Safety and Environment (HSE). He elaborated saying that AFA is considering the human being its core objective and his happiness and welfare its main goal. This is of special importance to AFA efforts exerted in facing hunger, taking place via the development of fertilizer industry, the support granted for
agricultural sector and the promotion provided for world food basket. In doing so AFA was keen upon harming not human being’s health, safety or environment. AFA Chairman also pointed out in his speech to the fact that 22 different working papers will be presented during the Conference, all of which are concerned with disseminating the culture of environment, developing the methods protecting people and society from fertilizer industry harms to health, enhancing knowledge with reference to redesigning fertilizer factories and laboratories in line with international industrial safety standards in addition to reviewing the technological directions followed to create an environment free of pollution. AFA Chairman further mentioned that in an attempt to emphasize AFA execution of the previously stated issues and the encouragement of such an industry to the concerned parties, it decided to announce an award for the best Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) standards abiding company. It is noteworthy that the PIC Company in Kuwait won the said award this year. In his speech, AFA Chairman referred to the great efforts exerted by AFA to conduct a benchmarking study, comprising of a number of fertilizer manufacturing companies. The study presented a comparison between such companies’ performance efficiency highlighting the fact that such companies’ performance level is up to the international companies’ one. At the end of his speech, AFA Chairman extended his thanks to the Tunisian companies for their support to and contribution in the convening of such a Conference. He also expressed all appreciation to AFA Board members, specialized committees, General Secretariat and the distinguished attendants.
Mr. Zerelli:
Tunisia’s focus on human resources, for being the pillar stone of sustainable development process The President General Manager of CPG – GCT Mr. Fadhel Zerelli delivered a welcome speech in the Conference’s opening ceremony, in which he stated Tunisia’s focus on human resources, for being the pillar stone of sustainable development process. In this context, the Tunisian phosphate sector companies works on executing an ambitious program aiming at more improvement of work circumstances, promoting vocational health and safety and preserving the environment. This program allocated huge funds to be invested in the referred to fields. He further added that such a Conference is considered an opportunity that should be seized to entrench and promote an integrated culture, putting vocational health and safety together with environmental preservation in a special status among issues of concern to the related organizations. Mr. Zerelli said that the environmental challenges are among the industry main concerns, thus, efforts should be concerted among the specialized people in the international and regional organizations, the producers of fertilizers and the technological internation-
al companies heading to reach the best means so as to face the said challenges. The President General Manager of CPG – GCT underscored his confidence that such an important event will come out with ideas, suggestions and recommendations that will represent a strong foundation for a clean environmental friendly and a people safety guaranteeing industry. Moreover, Mr. Zerelli said that they are looking forward to reach the information required from such a Conference; as they may assist all participants in setting sound basis for successful future work. In relation to the Tunisian phosphate sector, working since 110 years, it is worth mentioning that the previous sector has passed by four phases: • Phase one extending from 1897 to 1952, during which the Tunisian phosphate sector controlled the mine utilization field and the Tunisian raw material occupied a distinguished status on the international market level. • Phase two extending from 1952 to 1972, during which the Tunisian Chemical Compound laid the foundation of phosphate manufacturing process. • Phase three extending from 1972
to the late 1990s, during which the sector controlled the manufacturing field as the amount of phosphate local transfer reached 85%. • Regarding the fourth and current phase, it targets controlling the fields of development and vocational health and safety together with the technical field and promoting the sector status in the international market. The objective of all of the aforementioned is to ensure the continuity of the phosphate activity on the long run, amidst circumstances where environmental and social laws became of stricter nature. In this framework, Compagnie des Phosphates de Gafsa, Groupe Chimique Tunisien prepared a development program aiming at the environmental habilitation of all production centers in order to run parallel with the latest environmental standards. In relation to the environmental aspect and in addition to the already applied- from several years- and the under process significant environmental projects, Compagnie des Phosphates de Gafsa, Groupe Chimique Tunisien are currently working on setting an integrated plan to make their factories compatible with the environmental rules, including but not restricted to generalizing the double absorption method, storing phosphogypsum, treating fluorine wastes, improving methods of storing mine wastes …..etc. It is worth stating that huge investments will be allocated for the former issues, the main goal of which is to make such an industry environmental friendly in order to ensure its continuity on the long run. Furthermore, the laboratory of the Tunisian Indian Company (TIFERT), which is in an advanced phase of execution, is designed in consistency with the international environmental standards. Also, TSP laboratory project, in Mezaliah, which will
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soon be executed, was designed according to the international environmental standards. The latter project is in the financial offer selection phase, the cost of which is estimated by 450 million dinars. It is clear that the above project will compensate for the current TSP production laboratory, located in Sfax, which was closed for environmental reasons. In addition, the Tunisian Chemical Compound is about to accomplish investments for the environmental habilitation of Sekhira and Mazalliah plants, especially in relation to the double absorption and HRS issue in the sulphuric acid units. Such environmental habilitation cost is estimated by 276 million dinars. This program will further enable the operation of factories, in Sekhira and Mezalliah, to be in agreement with the new environmental international standards in addition to eliminating the pollution phenomenon occurred in Sfax after the closure of TSP factory. From another side, a project is currently being prepared to halt the pouring of phosphogypsum in the sea, in Gabes, by transferring it through channels and stacking it up in a drain located in a 23 km far away area from plants. The international standards are taken in consideration in the establishment of such a project, the cost of which is estimated by 350 million dinars. Tunisian phosphate sector is paying great attention to the environmental aspect, as the allocated environmental investments for the coming 20 years represent more than 50% of the total investments. All efforts head to the complete conciliation with the environment, the enhancement of the sector social and economic role and the preservation of Tunisia status in the international market.
Mr. Kefi:
The worker is considered the foundation of the economic and social development In this occasion, the representative of industry in AFA Board Mr. Hedhili Kefi delivered a welcome speech stating the following:»It is my pleasure to warmly welcome all of you, colleagues and friends. I start by referring to the fact that sustainable development has become the core interest of all countries, which strived through number of taken procedures and followed policies to achieve such kind of development. In this framework, the comprehensive quality system in different sectors, including the industrial one, was sought. The former system included preparation programs concentrating on the human factor with reference to improving the circumstances of work and paying attention to health, safety and environment. Therefore, today’s 23rd International Technical Conference is convened under the title of Health, Safety and Environment. HSE issues are still occupying a high level of concern when planning and executing our tasks. These issues target to maintain the highest degree of physical, psychological and social welfare of people’s health. They further aim at harmonizing between the worker’s physiological and psychological
potentials, type of work made by worker and the provision of accident and vocational disease free work place. The worker is considered the foundation of the economic and social development and one of the three main elements of production, that is to say, the worker, work and equipment together with the work environment. We also noticed today that the latest developments witnessed by the fertilizer industry have greatly increased the level of general safety, workers’ safety and vocational health. However, the environment remains to be an issue we tackle in detail, as the sound environment is the positive reflection of such an industry, which provide for the livelihood of the world population. The great potentials and expertise provided by the Conference, via the participation in working papers by fertilizer industry specialized international companies, and the meetings between the representatives of the said companies are considered an important opportunity for the success and the development of these kinds of gatherings. At the end of my speech, I would like to express my happiness for
the great attendance of such distinguished Arab and foreign expertise, from different countries. I also extend my appreciation to the Tunisian companies organizing this great event, namely: Compagnie des Phosphates de Gafsa, Groupe Chimique Tunisien, Indian Tunisian Company for Fertilizers and GRANUPHOS. Moreover, I would like to thank AFA for the great efforts exerted for the success of such a Conference. I further re-welcome all of you in the great land of Tunisia, wishing you a comfortable stay and the Conference all success and progress.»
Dr. Shafik
AFA establishment of HSE concept as a culture, method and practiceAFA establishment of HSE concept as a culture, method and practice AFA Secretary General Dr. Shafik Ashkar stated that the convening of this technological international conference for the fifth time in Tunisia, since the establishment of AFA in 1975, and in cooperation with and support of mines and fertilizer sector companies, of a pioneering role in such an industry since the outset of phosphate mining in Tunisia in 1835, re-emphasize Tunisia’s keenness upon strengthening such a sector status and development, exchanging expertise regionally
and internationally, maximizing the benefit from phosphate rocks returns and added value together with employing the revenues of such an industry to promote economic and social development. Therefore, Dr. Ashkar extended all appreciation to Tunisia’s leadership, government and people for believing in the importance of common Arab work and working on its advancement and success. Dr. Ashkar outlined in his speech the fact that: today’s Conference
is held at a time where we still suffer from the outcomes of the financial and economic crisis that afflicted the world, since the last quarter of 2008, and its impact on the food system, leading to unprecedented increase in poverty and hunger rates, imposing many challenges on the fertilizer industry, resulting in serious rise in industrial inputs cost and causing the adoption of more governing environmental legislations and procedures. He added saying that: the convening of our Conference takes place in the shed of the former circumstances and developments and in harmony with AFA goals, which strenuously seek the development and enhancement of the status and competitiveness of Arab fertilizer industry and deepening the coordination and cooperation between related Arab and international companies in order to achieve a number of objectives: • Continuing the flow of different fertilizers to the international markets without delay or interruption and including diversity of fertilizers, in accordance with the regional and international demand requirements. • Following up the new developments in the fields of fertilizer industry engineering and tech-
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nology so as to update, develop and use the best available technology. • Encouraging and promoting the scientific research targeting fertilizer industry service. • Supporting and building the specialized administrative and technical capacities of such an industry. • Studying the rapid changes in the world climate and the global warming phenomenon and their impact on the human being and environment. • Urging member companies to use the renewable energy- the necessity of using the available types of such energy- besides minimizing the usage of fossil fuel. • Encouraging the rationalization of water usage, boosting the related researches, searching for the best methods to rationalize water used in industry – as water is considered the backbone of economic and social development- and identifying the existing and the expected to increase competition between using water for drinking, agricultural and industrial purposes, in an Arab region representing
one of the driest, most short in rainfall rates and water reserve region. • Promoting and applying the best methods related to health and safety, protection of the human being and environment and increasing the investments in such a field to protect the society as a whole. Dr. Ashkar further added saying that: I would like to highlight the efforts made by AFA members, including AFA complying with the local and international legislations and standards so as to enhance production units’ efficiency and rationalize the usage of energy in all production phases, aiming at the promotion of Arab companies’ competitiveness together with the preservation of environment. These efforts yielded well, as reflected recently in the benchmarking study, conducted last May by an independent international organization including more than 37 production units in Arab fertilizer industry, highlighting a significant harmonization of such units’ best practices that were applied regionally and internationally together with their
implementation of the determined best standards. Thus, confirming AFA establishment of HSE concept as a culture, method and practice to preserve the human being, equipment and the surroundings being an integrated unit. So, the previously mentioned goals and directions were taken in consideration when selecting the topics of our Conference, choosing papers running in line with these goals. In other words, international speakers and experts together with the applied cases and successful industrial treatments accomplished by the Arab companies in the production, environment and vocational health and safety were selected. Such emphasize the decision-makers and concerned parties awareness of Arab fertilizer industry ability and readiness to go ahead in its leading role as a developmental and social momentum on the Arab regions level, together with its capability to develop its role and status as a main international supplier of fertilizers with the highest levels of quality and commitment.
From l. to R: Mr. M. Benchekroun (OCP_Morocco), Mr. A. Balushi (OMIFCO - Oman), Mr. N. Hajji (PIC - Kuwait)
Conference Program
The programme during the three days of the conference involved a total of 22 papers covered a wide range of issues relating to Health, Safety & Environment. The presentations generated lively and fruitful discussions.
David Morris
Greg Anderson
Ahmed Al Menhali
Mejbel Alshammeri
P. Talarico
John Brightling
Patrick Zhang
Creating a culture of Safety Greg Anderson President MOODY International Consulting and Training - USA Executives: Who kills employees ? Ahmed Al Menhali Chairman - ERM –UAE PIC’s Story of HSE Success Mejbel Alshammeri. HSE Manager - PIC – Kuwait Process Safety and Reliability in Designing Grassroots Casale Ammonia and Urea Plants P. Talarico CASALE GROUP - Switzerland Focus on Technical Process Safety John Brightling Ammonia Global Manager – Johnson Matthey – UK
Phosphogypsum Management and Utilization: A Review of Research and Industry Practices Patrick Zhang Research Director - Florida Institute of Phosphate Research – USA Remediation of a Phosphogypsum Disposal Area in SFAX Riadh Hentati GCT, Tunis
Arab fertilizers
Hyper duplex stainless steel for metallic heat exchangers in phosphoric acid plan Knut Tersmeden & Jonas Höwing Sandvik Materials Technology - Sweden
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Enhanced heat recovery in sulphuric acid plants Michael Kemmerich Product Manager / Sulphur Technologies Outotec GmbH - Germany HSE Challenges in Turnarounds
Salim Ahmed Al Naqbi Health, Safety and Environment Engineer FERTIL – UAE SAFCO Safety Health and Environment Key Performance Indicators (SHE KPI) Implementation Abdulrahman Ali Al-Zuraig Safety Engineer ,SAFCO , S. Arabia SIL classification in Urea Plants Luc Dieltjens Senior Process Engineer, Stamicarbon - Netherland Start-up experience of the MOPCO urea granulation plant Harald Franzrahe Process Manager Uhde Fertilizer Technology - Netherland Ammonia and Urea processing: AdBlue and other environmental care related applications Maria Skorupka
Riadh Hentati
Knut Tersmeden
Michael Kemmerich
Salim Ahmed
Abdulrahman Ali
Luc Dieltjens
Harald Franzrahe
Maria Skorupka
Medhat Zaghloul
Basheer Al-Awami
Rafea Al-Mohaws
Noureddine Trablsi
Jose R. Ferrer
Amneh Bayaydah
President & CEO - PROZAP Engineering Ltd - Poland
Senior equipment engineer – R&D Institute of Urea (JSC NIIK) – RUSSIA
Mitigating Turbomachinery Piping Mistakes with High Performance Control Medhat Zaghloul Engineering Manager -CCC Middle East - UAE
GCT ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY Noureddine Trablsi Environment Dept Manager - GCT – Tunis
Urea Dust & Ammonia Emission Control from Prilling Tower Basheer Al-Awami Manager Technical Operation (Urea)
ESPINDESA Pipe Reactors, 30 Years Experience in Operation Jose R. Ferrer General Manager - ESPINDESA – Spain
Rafea Al-Mohaws Urea Plant Senior ProductionEngineer Hasan Al Khulaif SABIC – S. Arabia
GAFSA Phosphate Company UP Grade Environment Salah Geridi CPG – Tunis
Inspections of HP vessels in urea plants, experience of R&D Institute of Urea Alexey Tuzov
Planning and Implementing EMS at APC Amneh Bayaydah Environment Superintendent Arab Potash Company – Jordan
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Exhibition
Exhibitor Profile
Arab fertilizers
Compagnie des Phosphates de Gafsa
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• Compagnie des Phosphates de Gafsa was established in 1896. • The company is operating 9 open cast mines which produce one of the world major merchant grade phosphate rock (65/68) BPL. • Total production capacity is 8 million tons of phosphate rock.
Groupe Chimique Tunisien (GCT)
• Produce MG Phosphoric Acid, DAP, TSP, DCP, AN, Porous AN. • More than 6.5 million tons of phosphate rock is pro-
cessed yearly in GCT different plants to produce: - 1.250 million Tons P2O5 MG Phosphoric Acid. - 1.350 million Tons Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP). - 0.900 million Tons Triples Super Phosphate (TSP). - 120 000 Tons Di-Calcium Phosphate (DCP). - 160 000 Tons Ammonium Nitrate 33,5% (AN). - 20 000 Tons Porous Ammonium Nitrate. More than 90% of the production is exported giving GCT the Status of one of the world major supplier of MG phosphoric acid and phosphate fertilizer.
AQUA TRUST for Water Treatment Co.
• Solutions of all the problems related to the water industries. • Design and tailor - made water treatment programs with unlimited possibilities by using a completely new reliable types of chemicals to prevent corrosion/ scaling/ fouling. • Aqua Trust applies a uniquely adaptable on stream cooling water systems cleaning to remove deposit and scales within 48 hours, from the entire systems without the need of shut-down and off-stream boiler cleaning. • Follow-up of the treatment program at the customer - site. • Advanced analysis and measurements carried out in Aqua Trust R and D labs and Science Center for Detection & Remediation of Environmental Hazards (SCDREH) AZHAR University, through the mutual protocol of cooperation between SCDREH and Aqua Trust. Fax: +20-2 4184910Email: aqua@aquatrust.net www.aquatrust.netfirms.com
Rotex Europe
Rotex is the leading manufacturer and supplier of screening, feeding and conveying equipment to the bulk industries (both machines and spare parts).Rotex machines have the capability for extensive modification and customization to meet customer requirements. Our innovative line of separation equipment includes :Gyratory and Vibratory Screeners and Sifters, Liquid-Solid Separators for Wet Applications, Automated Particle, Size Analyzers, Vibratory Feeders and Conveyors, Aftermarket Parts and Service. UK Managing Director: Graeme Hill Tel: +44 (0)870 752 9900 Fax: +44 (0)870 752 9920 Aston Lane North, Whitehouse Vale, Runcorn, Cheshire, WA7 3FA, UK Email: gjhill@rotex.com Sales and Marketing Director: Olivier Thouvard Tel: +32 (0) 10 41 61 71 Fax: +32 (0) 10 41 41 28 Avenue Lavoisier 29, 1300, Wavre, Belgium Email: othouvard@rotex.com UK Sales Manager: Allan Thompson Senior Application Engineer: Mike Birt Sales Engineer Egypt and Middle East: Neil Smith
Solex Thermal Science
Solex Thermal Science specializes in the science of heating, cooling and drying bulk solids. Solex holds the patents to its ultra efficient heat exchanger technology designed specifically for use with bulk solids such as sugar, fertilizer,
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chemicals, plastics, biosolids, minerals, and many other types of granular, crystals and powders. Go to www.discoversolex.com to learn more.
Wieland Lufttechnik (Germany)
Since 1959 Wieland Lufttechnik is known as one of the leading manufacturers of industrial vacuum cleaning systems and material handling solutions for fertilizer plants and all kind of other industries. Wieland vacuum systems are used to increase the productivity of your manufacturing process and to improve the working conditions of manufacturing areas. Regular and thorough cleaning protects the employees against harmful dust and liquids - valuable material can be returned to the process. Wieland Lufttechnik GmbH & Co. KG PO Box 3669 D-91024 Erlangen / Germany Phone +49 9131 60 67-0 Fax +49 9131 60 44 01 e-mail: info@wieland-luft.de Homepage: www. wieland-luft.de MECS Europe/Africa BVBA MECS Europe/Africa BVBA is a leader in the design and construction of sulfuric acid plants, revamps of sulfuric acid plants and replacement equipment with dedicated products: catalysts, acid coolers, acid piping systems, tanks and towers, ZeCor® corrosion resistant alloys. MECS Europe/Africa BVBA is also a well-known supplier of OCAP™ and MonPlex™ gas-to-gas heat exchangers, Brink® mist eliminators and DynaWave® scrubbers for many other industries. MECS Europe/Africa bvba Rozendal B, Terhulpsesteenweg, 6 B - 1560 Hoeilaart - Belgium Phone: +32 (0)2 658.26.55 www.mescglobal.com
Arab fertilizers
Stamicarbon
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Stamicarbon, the licensing and IP Center of Maire Tecnimont, is the global market leader in licensing of urea technology and services with more than 50% market share in synthesis and 40% market share in urea granulation technology. Since 1947, Stamicarbon has been the world’s leading authority and innovator in the field of urea in close cooperation with research institutes, suppliers and customers. The latest innovative achievements are the AVANCORE® urea process, Safurex® stainless-steel material, Urea Granulation Technology, The Mega Plant Technology and Urea 2000plus™ Technology. Mercator 2, 6135 KW Sittard: P.O. Box 53, 6160 AB Geleen - The Netherlands T. +31 46 4237000 F +31 46 4237001 info@stamicarbon.com www.stamicarbon.com
PROZAP Engineering Ltd
PROZAP Engineering Ltd has 40 years of experience in design and engineering for nitrogen fertilizer and syngas based plants: ammonia, methanol, sulphuric and nitric acids, ammonium nitrate, urea, AdBlue and others. PROZAP specializes also in environment protection units, systems removing product dust and ammonia from prilling tower/granulator exit air, NOx removal from offgases and power plant flue gas desulphurisation. PROZAP’s services encompass the complete project life cycle – from an idea to the plant start-up. www.prozap.com.pl
Christy Catalytics, LLC
Christy Catalytics, LLC is a globally active full service supplier of catalyst bed supports [Inert alumina and ceramic balls], catalyst bed topping materials, support domes, refractory materials and tower packing [ex. Ceramic Saddles, Metal Pall Rings, etc.] and internals [ceramic/metal/thermoplastic].
Our fertilizer clients are found worldwide. Some of the Arab producers that we have supplied to include QAFCO, SAFCO and EBIC. Christy Catalytics, LLC 4641 McRee Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA Phone: 314-773-7500 Ext. 112 Cell: 314-6108681 Fax: 314-773-8371 vjchristensen@christyco.com
COMSPAIN XXI, S.A
COMSPAIN is a Spanish engineering company manufacturing of industrial machinery for transformation of solid products. We are a 30 year old business with several hundreds of partial equipments and turnkey systems worldwide, in the chemical, mining, quarries, composting plants, petrochemical, fertilizers, etc, industrial fields, having specialized ourselves specially in the fertilizer market, as you can see in our website page www.comspain.com. We are associated with the Stated Owned EPC Indonesian Company, PT REKAYASA INDUSTRI with more than 1.200 employees. We are also able to do local manufacturing with our owned control and warranties. Bravo Murillo, 23 - 28015, Madrid- Spain Phone: +34 914 489 955 Fax: +34 914 475 477
Nickelhutte Aue GmbH (Germany)
Nickelhütte Aue GmbH, established in 1635, is the most modern and environmentally-friendly processor of spent nickel, cobalt and copper catalysts and wastes today. Nickelhütte Aue GmbH is a world leading recycler of spent catalysts with an annual capacity of 60,000 MT producing concentrates, salts, solutions and raw materials out of these wastes for the chemical industry and catalyst manufacturers. An investment of over 100 million EUR in state-of-the-art plant coupled with the complete organisation of the transport, logistics and audit-trail service, discharges spent catalyst generators from their Duty of Care responsibilities when the recycling processes are completed. We are committed to recycle to the safest and highest environmental standards, ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and OHSAS 18001 certified, and have been awarded in Germany the highly accredited «Entsorgungsfachbetrieb» to deal with hazardous waste. Nickelhütte Aue GmbH Rudolf-Breitscheid-Strasse D-08280 Aue; Germany Phone: +49 3771 505 386 Fax: +49 3771 505 209 Cell: +49 173 3589 851 Email: kuhnert@nickelhuette-aue.de Web: www.nickelhuette-aue.de
ESPINDESA
Española de Investigacion y Desarrollo, S. A. (ESPINDESA) is a subsidiary of Tecnicas Reunidas, S. A. (TR), the leading Engineering and Construction Group in Spain, world wide known as main contractor for process plants. Espindesa has more than forty years is devoted to the development and transfer of technologies and licenses for production of Nitric Acid (weak, azeotropic and concentrated), Ammonium Nitrate (prill and porous) and Granular Fertilizers as MAP, DAP or NPK. Espindesa is able to provide a wide range of services, from feasibility and conceptual studies and licensing and process package development, up to the turn key projects. Espindesa competitive edge is the experience and expertness of its technical personnel; also, the experience and flexibility to work with different contractors and adapting its technologies to the requirements of the customers. Contact: ENRIQUE MADRIGAL. Commercial
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Director Address: ARAPILES nº13 - City/State/Country: 28015-MADRID (SPAIN) Phone: +34 -91- 592 48 84 Cell phone: +34 – 690 615 178 Email address: madrigal@trsa.es Website: www.espindesa.es
Sandvik Materials Technology
• Sandvik Materials Technology is a world leading producer of high technology stainless steels, special alloy materials and advanced valueadded products, developed in close cooperation with customers. • Sandvik Materials Technology consists of five product areas: Tube, Strip, Kanthal, Process Systems and MedTech. • Global presence, with focus on product niches and customers with high demands on productivity, reliability, performance and cost efficiency. • Integrated production - from steel melt to finished products. • About 9 100 employees. • Extensive investments in R&D • «The reliable partner for competitive solutions. • President: Peter Gossas • Sandvik Materials Technology is a business area within the Sandvik Group. www.smt.sandvik.com
CFIh (CFI holding Pte. Ltd.)
Arab fertilizers
Processes / Technologies / Engineering CFIh is an independent company specializing in the fields of fertilizers, explosives, chemicals and crystallization/evaporation processes. Fields of activity: fertilizers (all types of nitrates; straight fertilizers, NP/NK/PK/NPK fertilizers, SSP, TSP, MAP/DAP, MCP/DCP, nitrophosphates), liquid fertilizers, sulphuric/phosphoric acid and derivatives. Services: full engineering package (integrated basic and detailed engineering), feasibility and technical studies, industrial audits, design of new plants, plant revamping, technical procurement, process modification, engineering project management and all on-site activities. Contact: Kristell LE LOUARN, Marketing & Business Development Manager - klelouarn@cfiholding.com - Tel/Fax: +(33) 299 540 773
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East China Engineering Science & Technology Co. ECEC.
East China Engineering Science and Technology Co., Ltd. (ECEC) is a public listed and an EPC type engineering company, and also one of the leading engineering companies in China. In the
past 40 years, ECEC has successfully completed more than 2000 projects across China and in other countries. The main expertise of ECEC is as follows: - Phosphate compound fertilizers (MAP, DAP, NPK, SSP, etc.), Nitrogenous fertilizers (ammonia, urea) & Potassium fertilizers - Basic chemical raw materials (phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, caustic soda, air separation, hydrogen generation) - TiO2 pigment & Coating (latex paint, road sign paint, etc.) - Organic chemicals (MTBE, MEK, melamine, PP, methanol, LDPE, etc.) - Thermal Power Plant, Municipal works, Environmental protection & Tank Farm Tel:0086-551-3626512 Fax: 0086-551-3641192 Mobile: 0086-13865800937 E-mail: xialungang@chinaecec.com lungangx@yahoo.com.cn
Research and Design Institute of Urea and Organic Synthesis Products
JSC NIIK is an engineering company in Russia. Nowadays JSC “NIIK� provides complete range of engineering services mostly for urea and melamine production: - process monitoring and equipment conditions assessment, - development and realization of revamping concepts for urea production facilities with capacity increase and reduction of energy consumption, - inspection of process piping and vessels, - development and delivery of equipment, - business planning, feasibility studies, investment estimation, - comprehensive engineering for grass-root construction of commercial plants, - facilitating of environmental protection issues when implementing developed projects, - development of process simulators - production of urea-based compound fertilizers in high-speed drum granulator by JSC NIIK design etc.
Middle East Star
Middle East Star MES was established in 1981 as privately owned commercial agents and technical consultants company. Over the past period we managed to realize specific growth targets, thereby offering our well established customers’ base an integrated service. Middle East Star MES comprises two main lines of activities serving the process sector as well as special projects for the industrial sector in Egypt. Due to consistent expansions since 1981, MES manages to contribute the spinoff of number of representations, projects & organizations. Our policy is built on maintain maximum control over our operation through the efficient utilization of our resources and effective contribution of more spin off(s) whenever feasible. Middle East Star MES integrated delivery program for water & waste water treatment comprises a wide range of products, services & packages. This ranges from complete utilities water treatment plant to dosing pumps & valves: in addition to complete water filtration & separation systems. Tel: +20 2 262 33 110 Fax: +20 2 262 33 272 E-mail: mes support@mideastar.com.eg
Scantech International Pty
Scantech International is the world leader in real time ash, moisture and elemental measurement technologies for bulk conveyed materials. Over
850 units have been installed in 51 countries. Established in 1981, Scantech is an Australian ASX-listed ISO9001 certified company. The COALSCAN analyser range is well known in the coal / power industry and has become the industry standard. The GEOSCAN elemental analyser is used for cement and minerals applications. The minerals industry (iron ore, base metals, precious metals, bauxite, phosphate, manganese, etc) is yet to fully recognize the potential benefits of the technologies that other industries now take for granted. Visit us at www.scantech.com.au or e-mail sales @scantech.com.au
ALCAN International Network
ALCAN International Network is a worldwide organization of 27 offices, specialized in the sourcing, marketing and custom manufacturing of Specialty Chemicals, Minerals and raw materials for a wide range of end markets and industries.
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AIN offer a specialised range of standard and customised products for the Fertilizer industry. We are one of the major suppliers of Vanadium corrosion inhibitors for hot Potassium Carbonate CO2 removal systems providing high quality Vanadium Pentoxide, Potassium Metavanadate and a range of Potassium Vanadate Solutions. AIN also offers LRS10 an improved Amine based activator system to increase the effectiveness of Hot Potassium Carbonate removal systems as well as the supply of Potassium Carbonate. In partnership with Millenis France we offer a whole range of magnesium product (oxide, sulphate); talc and trace elements (copper, zinc, iron and manganese). And with Lansdowne Chemicals UK we offer Hydrazine for water treatment. www.alcan-network.com
NAQ GLOBAL COMPANIES
Arab fertilizers
NAQ Global Companies is a multinational organization providing products and services for FERTILIZER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT. Company is led by a technocrat with more than 20 years of rich experience in understanding and solving quality issues related to fertilizer industries across the world. We are manufacturing various products such as Anti caking agents, Crushing Strength Improvers for prilled & granular fertilizers, Defoamers for Phosphatic Fertilizers & Phosphoric Acid manufacturing plants, colouring agents for uniform colouring of fertilizers and filtration aid for phosphoric acid manufacturing. To provide timely products and services to our customers across the world, we have our manufacturing facilities in South America, Middle East & India and Marketing & Technical support offices in various countries. These new generation products are environment friendly & non hazardous in nature.” Fax: +91 141 401 5450 (India)/ +971 7 2660309 (UAE) Cell: +91 99 8304 0008 (India)/ +971 50 203 4676 (UAE) Website: www.naqglobal.com
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Schoeller-Bleckmann Nitec GmbH
Schoeller-Bleckmann Nitec (SBN) is one of the world-wide leading manufacturers of high-pressure equipment for the chemical and petrochemical industries, and especially for the fertilizer in-
dustry, such as high-pressure heat-exchangers and reactors for urea and ammonia synthesis plants. SBN’s core competencies are engineering, stateof-the-art welding and manufacturing technologies, installation of equipment and in-situ repairs as well as organization of transports for extra heavy and large equipments. Tel: +43 2630 / 319 - 11 Fax: +43 2630 / 319 – 19 www.christof-group.com
Arab Fertilizers Association will organize in Beirut a workshop on Talent & Human Resources Management during the period from October 29 to 31, 2010. The program outline will discuss the following items: - Talent Management - Human Resources Management - Recruitment & Selection - Training and Development - Performance Management
The workshop program is designed for Human Resources, Administration and Public Relations professionals or those who or about to start a career in Human Resources. The program is also beneficial for experienced officers and Managers in Human Resources who wish to update their knowledge and skills about the latest techniques in the various Human Resources functions. For more details, please visit AFA website: www.afa.com.eg
Press Release
Mr. Abdul Rahman Jawahery, GPIC General Manager has been elected as Deputy Chairman of the International Fertilizer Association and IFA Executive Board Member. This election took place during the 78th annual Meeting of the International Fertilizer Association held in Paris, France from 31st May to 2nd June 2010. It should be noted that IFA holds its meetings on an annual basis with the participation of leading petrochemical companies and organizations involved in the manufacture of fertilizers. This year’s event has attracted more than 1600 delegates from all over the world. During the conference, several valuable technical papers were submitted reflecting the progress achieved by this industry. In addition, the papers reviewed a number of future projects and the state of supply and demand forecast in the next few years. Mr. Jawahery attended university bin the United Kingdom where he obtained a B.Sc. degree and then an M.A. in chemical engineering. This was followed by qualification enabling him to become an engineer and practicing environmental researcher. He started his career in the UK where he worked in BP Research Centre for two years before moving to work in GPIC in Bahrain in 1983. During his career in GPIC, he occupied a number of senor positions including the Operations Manager, Urea Plant Project Manager and Plant Operations Department Manager. He attended a number of intensive training courses inside Bahrain and overseas before becoming the Company’s General Manager. Mr. Jawahery has been elected as a Shura Council member for two successive terms of office. He is also a Board member of the National Oil and Gas Authority and a Director on the Board of the Oil and Gas Holding Company. He holds a membership on the Board of Bahrain Petroleum Company and on the Board of Trustees of Bahrain Polytechnic. The GPIC General Manager chairs the Board of Injaz Bahrain in addition to being a founder member of the Bahrain Technology Transfer Society.
Arab fertilizers
Jawahery Elected as Deputy Chairman of the International Fertilizer Association and IFA Executive Board Member
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On the regional level, he currently holds the position of Board member of the Gulf Fertilizer Association and Chairman of the GFA Care Committee. He is a Board member of the Arab Fertilizer Association while he used to be Chairman of the Techni-
cal Committee of the International Fertilizer Association before his selection to the new position. Moreover, Mr. Jawahery has numerous contributions in the field of safety, health and the environment which qualified him to become an ambassador of the UK Commission for Occupational Health and Safety for the Middle East. He also obtained the fellowship from the British Institute of Chemical Engineers. He also has the membership of many technical associations and organizations in Bahrain and abroad such as the Bahrain Society of Engineers and the US Association of Chemical Engineers. GPIC enjoys a high international reputation in the petrochemical industry making it win many local and international awards and praise so that one of its leaders has deservedly become a Middle East representative and Deputy Chairman of IFA. In March 2009 GPIC organized the Global Safety Conference of the International Fertilizer Association which was held in the Kingdom of Bahrain. It focused on fertilizers as being one of the most vital industries in the world that is directly linked to human food. IFA has in its membership more than 525 fertilizer producers from 85 countries. The Paris based IF aims at providing a joint platform for manufacturers to further enhance co-operation among them, to facilitate the exchange of information and expertise and to overcome the obstacles faced by fertilizer manufacturers.
Dr. Henrik Topsøe receives award Dr. Henrik Topsøe has been selected as the winner of the 2010 Distinguished Researcher Award from The Petroleum Chemistry Division of American Chemical Society. The award motivation recognises Dr. Henrik Topsøe for his outstanding research contributions to the understanding of hydrotreating catalysts. These catalysts are essential for the production of ultra clean transportation fuels. Researching catalysis The announcement from American Chemical Society emphasizes that the quest for a molecular and atomic scale understanding of catalytic reactions has been a continuous theme through Dr. Henrik Topsøe’s research. To achieve this understanding,
Dr. Henrik Topsøe and his colleagues and collaborators have developed several novel multidisciplinary techniques and approaches based on fundamental science. Special efforts have been devoted to the development of new tools and in situ approaches which provide the necessary atomic and molecular insight under relevant conditions. Particular emphasis has been placed on developing improved hydrotreating catalysts as well as catalysts for ammonia synthesis, methanol synthesis and NOx removal. New catalyst generations These atomic scale in situ studies were the first to reveal the nature of the active catalytic structures – the so-called Co-Mo-S family of promoted structures.
Later studies have provided additional atomic insight into these structures, which been used by the refining industry worldwide for many improved generations of catalysts – the latest being Topsøe’s BRIMTM catalysts, used for the production of ultra low sulphur diesel (ULSD). Dr. Henrik Topsøe has co-authored 180 publications, 3 books and has given more than 140 invited lectures and is CEO of Haldor Topsøe Holding A/S and Executive Vice President at Haldor Topsøe A/S in Lyngby, Denmark. Contact Communication Manager Christina Odgaard, Corporate PR tel. +45 4527 2043, e-mail: chod@topsoe.dk
Press Release
New IPI Coordinator for sub-Saharan Africa:
Mr. Olivier Goujard
FERTIL
Wins the Royal Society For Prevention Of Accidents (RoSPA) Sector Award.
FERTIL continues to win Prestigious HSE Awards year after year. In 2010 FERTIL is happy to celebrate winning of one of the prestigious RoSPA Occupational Health and Safety Awards in the Chemical Industry Sector category. The rigorous selection criteria heavily based on proactive key performance indicators in HSE is what makes winning RoSPA Award a fulfilling experience. This award recognizes the hard work, dedication and commitment shown by the entire staff in implementing the company health and safety objectives.
Arab fertilizers
Winning the award in sector level which involves comparison of best in class is not only rewarding but also beneficial for us as a company to demonstrate our commitment to Health and Safety towards all stakeholders.
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As a company we strive for continuous improvement in health and safety management and we are delighted that our efforts have been recognized.
We are pleased to announce that Mr. Olivier Goujard has been appointed as the new IPI Coordinator for sub-Saharan Africa as of May 2010. With his rich experience in the field, including expertise in two different input markets, Mr. Goujard brings an excellent mix of capacities to IPI, which will enable him to coordinate the newly established IPI activities in the region. Mr. Goujard’s predecessor, Dr. Georg Ebert, is now the Head of Research & Development at COMPO Germany, a subsidiary of K+S Group. Mr. Goujard, was raised on a family farm located in the field crop growing areas of the Champagne region. After completing his Baccalaureate degree in maths, physics, chemistry and biology, he studied agriculture for five years, achieving the diploma of “Ingénieur en Agriculture” from Ecole Supérieure d’Ingénieurs et de Techniciens pour l’Agriculture in 1995. Mr. Goujard’s professional career started in the crop protection sector. He worked first for Rhône-Poulenc Agro France, where he was responsible, as a field development technician, for setting up and conducting field trials, preparing reports and organising trial visits. In 2000, he joined Aventis CropScience (then Bayer CropScience) where, as a product development manager and then global product manager, he developed worldwide expertise in insect pests and crop protection insecticides in order to build up technical profiles for the development of new products. Mr. Goujard joined K+S KALI in 2005, where he is the technical manager for all the company’s agronomical activities in France. As part of the international team of agronomists, he also has responsibility for African markets. In addition, Mr. Goujard represents the company in key professional organizations, including as the coordinator of the sulphur working group of COMIFER (French committee for integrated fertilization) which is the official organization responsible for fertilizer recommendations in France. We warmly welcome Mr. Goujard to IPI and look forward to him developing his role as our activities expand in sub-Saharan Africa. Mr. Olivier Goujard can be reached by email at: olivier.goujard@ipipotash.org or olivier.goujard@kalifrance.com c/o K+S KALI France 5, rue Gaston Boyer, F-51100 Reims France Fax: +33 3 26 84 22 01
New IPI Coordinator for China and India:
Mr. Eldad Sokolowski We are pleased to announce that Mr. Eldad Sokolowski is the new IPI Coordinator for China and India, effective 1 June 2010. With his rich experience in agronomy, we look forward to his contributions to IPI activities in the region. Mr. Sokolowski has taken over the responsibilities of Dr. Menachem Assaraf, who has taken up further commitments in R&D projects for the Dead Sea Bromine Group (DSBG). Mr. Sokolowski has an MSc in Plant Science and a BSc in Soil and Water Sciences from the Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel. After his studies, Mr. Sokolowski worked for a few years as an extension officer at the Agricultural Extension Service of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Israel, where he was involved in projects related to treated waste-water and providing advice to farmers. Since this time, he has worked for more than 15 years in R&D and transfer of practical solutions in the field of irrigation and plant nutrition of different crops. Now an agronomist at ICL Fertil-
zers, Mr. Sokolowski previously worked as manager of the agronomic department of “Netafim Peru”, and then as chief agronomist for Southeast Asia activities of “Netafim”. He has also worked as an agronomist in Del Monte in their banana-growing activities in Brazil. IPI’s widespread activities in China and India cover a number of key issues. For example, the acute water shortage in many agricultural systems gives rise to the urgent need for improved efficiency of both water and nutrients. Moreover, widespread knowledge dissemination is required. With his rich experience in these fields, Mr. Sokolowski will lead IPI activities to support and provide innovation, advice and support to many farmers and those who assist them in the areas where IPI is active. IPI is grateful to Dr. Menachem Assaraf for his dedication as IPI Coordinator during the last two years and for successfully leading IPI activities in these regions.
About IPI: IPI is a non-governmental and non-profit organisation with its headquarters in Horgen, Switzerland. Founded in 1952 by German and French potash producers, it is now supported by producers in Europe and the Near East. IPI carries out the major part of its work through a network of coordinators that work closely with researchers, government offices, extension and agribusiness. Baumgärtlistrasse 17 • P.O. Box 569 • CH-8810 Horgen • Switzerland Tel. +41 43 810 49 22 • Fax +41 43 810 49 25 E-mail: ipi@ipipotash.org • www.ipipotash.org
Ardaman & Associates, Inc. Sadly we regret to inform you that Dr. Anwar Wissa passed away on June 24, 2010 from complications following heart surgery. As you are aware, Dr. Wissa was an exceptional engineer with worldwide reputation, and had a passion for Ardaman’s commitment to client service, technical excellence, and problem solving. His pursuit of excellence has now become his legacy, so please be assured that we at Ardaman & Associates are committed to continuing this legacy. Dr. Nadim F. Fuleihan who worked very closely with Dr. Wissa for over 35 years will continue to provide specialized expertise as Principal and Senior Consultant. We will all miss Dr. Wissa, and will honor his memory through our work and continued commitment to technical excellence.
Studies & Researches
TECHNICAL AND PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF FERTIGATION Prof. Munir J. Mohammad Rusan Dean, Faculty of Agriculture; Jordan University of Science and Technology Consulting Director, International Plant Nutrition Institute.
Introduction
Water and nutrient supply are the main factors controlling productivity of irrigated soils and are major inputs contributing to crop production. In modern agriculture, both fertilization and irrigation are important management factors for controlling yield quantity and quality (Starck et al, 1993). The method of application of fertilizer and irrigation water affects water and fertilizer use efficiency under arid and semiarid conditions (Sharmasarkar et al., 2001). Improving the use efficiency of these factors is the target of a good management and becomes crucial in arid and semiarid regions where water resources are limited. In addition, in dryland irrigated agriculture, soil fertility becomes the most limiting factor for crop productivity. Under these conditions, the use efficiency of both irrigation water (IW) and fertilizers is often low and depends largely on the method of application (Qawasmi et al., 1999) (Bar-Yosef, 1999).
Arab fertilizers
Modern irrigation systems, such as drip irrigation, are widely used in arid and semi arid region and is considered the most efficient irrigation method (Hagin et al., 2002) and is highly recommended in these regions. With this pressurized irrigation method, conventional fertilization, which is still commonly practiced by farmers (Bar-Yosef, 1999), is not convenient nor efficient (Papadopoulos, 2000). Therefore, fertigation is the appropriate method of fertilizers application under these conditions (Mohammad et al., 1999; Mohammad et al., 2003).
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Fertigation is the application of fertilizers through irrigation water. Its applicability depends on external conditions such as type of soil & crop, method of irrigation used, water quality, types of fertilizers available, economical feasibility compared to other ways of fertilizer application. Fertigation became an attractive method of fertilization for the farmers in the today’s modern irrigated agriculture and a keyfactor in today’s intensive irrigated agriculture. This
Prof. Munir J. M. Rusan PO Box 3030; Irbid-Jordan Email: mrusan@just.edu.jo Fax: 962 2 7201078 Tel: 962 2 7201000 ext. 22200.
becomes extremely important to plant nutrition in particular after the introduction of drip irrigation as a new and most efficient method of irrigation.
With drip irrigation, the wetted soil volume and thus the active root zone is reduced under drippers and this small volume will not tolerate the addition of all fertilizers required by the crop. Instead, fertilizers requirement should be applied frequently and periodically in small amount with each irrigation to ensure adequate supply of water and fertilizers in the root zone. Therefore, following the shift from surface irrigation to drip irrigation, fertigation became the most common fertilization practice in irrigated agriculture. Good quality irrigation water, the use of soluble and compatible fertilizers and application of the actual crop water requirement are the main prerequisites for successful fertigation, Research findings indicated that with fertigation, higher yield, higher fertilizer and water efficiency is obtained.
Advantages of Fertigation
By fertigation, fertilizers are added in synchronization with plant needs which are different for different periods of growth. That is by fertigation the amount and form of nutrient supply is controlled according to the changing demand for physiological stages during the growing season (Mohammad et al., 2003).
With fertigation, less nitrate leaching is observed than with broadcast fertilization. In general, heavy doses of fertilizers are applied with broadcast applications to cover the crop nutrient requirement through the growing season. Thus, higher doses application keep the nutrient at higher concentration than needed by the crops and remain subject to leaching with heavy rainfall and excessive irrigation (Mohammad, 2004a). Since with fertigation, fertilizer application can be controlled better, overfertilization and overirrigation at any growth period can be avoided. Thus, by synchronization of water and nutrient supply with the crop demands, both water and fertilizer use efficiencies are improved and the adverse impact of overfertilization on the environment is minimized Mohammad, 2004b). Conventional fertilization techniques are not suitable under drip irrigation farming system while the fertigation is considered the only appropriate techniques for fertilizer application. In fact, fertigation in many countries has gained momentum since adoption of drip irrigation systems. This is also of extreme important in countries where water resources quantitatively and qualitatively are limited. In addition, by fertigation, one can avoid application of large amount of solid fertilizers by conventional methods thus avoiding salt damages of plant roots.
Fertigation can save time, energy, labor and overall application cost. In addition, fertigation give us the possibility of incorporating fertilizers with pesticides and other chemicals, given they are chemically compatible. Frequent application of small doses of fertilizers with fertigation keeps the amount of fertilizers in the soil at any time low enough to minimize losses by volatilization, leaching and runoff. This regulates nutrient uptake, minimize losses and increase fertilizer use efficiency. With fertigation it is more convenient to apply small doses of micronutrient fertilizers especially for basic and calcareous soils where most micronutrient fertilizers have low solubility. This will ensure uniform distribution of the small amount of added fertilizers and minimize their quick precipitation in the soil. With fertigation, marginal lands, like sandy soils, rocky soils, shallow soils and salt affected soils can be cultivated and crops can grow successfully. Under these conditions, control of irrigation water and fertilizers in the root zone is critical and can be achieved successfully with fertigation. In addition, with fertigation and drip irrigation, marginal water can be successfully used for irrigation by keeping
root zone wet all times, thus keeping salts away from the roots. With surface irrigation, soil vary from saturation to wilting point between irrigation, thus exposing the crop to periodic water and salt stresses. Benefits of fertigation include reduction in soil compaction and mechanical damages to the crops due to reduced use of tractors and other heavy machines in the fields. By fertigation, immobile nutrients such as phosphorus and micronutrients will be supplied right into the root zone and the nutrients therefore are not widely mixed with the soil (Sanchez et al., 1999; Mohammad, 2000; Mohammad et al., 2004). Thus less soil volume is fertilized and less fixation, sorption or precipitation are taking place and fertilizer use efficiency is improved. This is especially important for P during the very first stages where P is badly needed for developing a good root system.
Disadvantages of Fertigation
Fertigation is not without disadvantages. The following are the most commonly encountered disadvantages (Papadopoulos, 2000): 1. Precipitation of chemical compounds in the irrigation system can cause clogging of irrigation system
2. Root growth is restricted under drip irrigation where fertilizers and water are actually applied to this small root zone. This make crops more sensitive to drought and other environmental stress conditions 3. Overirrigation leads to overfertilizetion. Therefore, irrigation scheduling must be well known and fertigation must be practiced accordingly
4. Choice of fertilizers is limited to water soluble and compatible with the irrigation water and with each others to obtain maximum solubility and avoid pre3cipitation.
5. Salts from fertilizers applied tend to accumulate at the wetting front which after the rains migrate in large quantities to the roots causing salt injuries to them.
PREREQUISITES FOR SUCCESSFUL FERTIGATION
Given the fact that there are advantages and disadvantages for fertigation, an appropriate management is essential for successful fertigation. To ensure successful fertigation the following should be considered:
Studies & Researches
1. Water and nutrient requirements must be known.
Amount of fertilizer applied depends on the amount of irrigation water. Application rates should be estimated for each crop according to their water and nutrient requirements. All factors affecting the recovery of applied fertilizers should be considered in estimating the application rates. These factors include mobility of the nutrients in the soil, soil moisture and other physical characteristics, chemical characteristics, crop species and genotypes and other factors.
2. Fertigation scheduling
Irrigation scheduling should be well understood to ensure successful fertigation program because irregular irrigation leads to poor fertigation. By fertigation, fertilizers can be supplied to the crops in amount, forms and at a times when they are mostly needed. So one can schedule nutrient application to a crop by following the crop demand during the growing season. This can generally means, an application of low rates during the early growth periods, and then increasing the application rates during the vigorous growth rate periods; and finally decreasing again the rate toward the end of the growing season. This means that fertigation scheduling should follow and reflect the growth rate of the crops.
3. Frequency of application. Should the fertigation be continuous?
Fertilizers can be applied into irrigation water in various frequencies. The frequency of application depends mainly on crop type, system design constraints, soil type and on grower preference. The frequency of application through irrigation water can be every day or once every several days or once every week and so on. This should be determined for each crop and for each cropping system in a sitespecific basis (Neumann, P.M. and Snir, N. 1995). The following consideration should be taken into account while deciding on frequency of injection of fertilizers:
Arab fertilizers
a. Continuous injection of fertilizers would reduce the chance of leaching below root zone during heavy rains and excessive irrigation compared to injecting larger amount on a less frequent basis.
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b. To ensure uniform application to the soil, the drip irrigation systems should always be brought up to operating pressure prior to start injecting any fertilizers. Injection of fertilizers should start only after the system has been fully pressurized. Besides, after finishing fertilizer injection, the
drip system should be operated for a period of time to flush out any remaining fertilizers from the irrigation system.
c. It is also not uncommon that fertilizers are sometimes added preplanting as a starter. This is important especially during rainy seasons where fertigation can not be operated due to continuous rainfall for a long period of time and for nutrients which are required relatively at higher rates to early growth stages (Ristimaki, L., and Papadopoulos, P. 2000).
d. The constant and continuous rate of fertigation may result in underfertilization during the stages of higher growth rate or overfertilization during the early and preharvest periods of growth which are characterized by lower growth rates. Therefore, fertigation should be scheduled efficiently according to the variable growth rates of the various growth stages.
4. Discharge and distribution uniformities.
To ensure the discharge and distribution uniformity, the irrigation system should be designed properly and maintained to operate efficiently through out the growing season. Watch for any defect in the system, precipitation problem and water quality. Precipitation can clog the emitters and irrigation lines and change their discharge rate.
5. Solubility and compatibility of fertilizers
Fertilizers must be water soluble and compatible with each others and with irrigation water. Fertilizer solution are rather concentrated salt solution therefore, they may become supersaturated causing the salts to form crystals and precipitate out of solution. This salting out changes the composition, creates precipitates in containers, and clogs screens and nozzles. This will also lead to change the nutrient concentration in the irrigation water and to uniform discharge and distribution of irrigation water and nutrients in the filed. To ensure successful fertigation, fertilizers should be selected carefully. Solubility and compatibility of fertilizers are the most important factors to consider for selection of fertilizers for fertigation.
Solubility:
Various fertilizer materials have different degrees of solubility in water. The solubility of most commonly used fertilizers is shown in Table 1a and 1b. It should be noted that the table indicate the amount of fertilizers that can be dissolved in water when the given fertilizer is dissolved alone. Certainly, these solubility values will be less in the case of
dissolving more than one fertilizers given that they are interactive among each others. Dissolving more than one fertilizer may significantly increase the ionic strength of the fertilizer solution that consequently reduce the solubility values. In addition, it should be noted that decreasing the temperature of the fertilizer solution below the temperature of the solution at the
Fertilizers
time of its preparation, will lead to precipitate some of the materials in the solution.
Table 1a. Solubility of various fertilizer compounds commonly used for preparation of fertilizer solutions and for application through irrigation water (California Fertilizer Association, 1980)
Form
Grade
Solubility Kg/L
Nitrogen Fertilizers:
Ammonium Nitrate
NH4NO3
34-0-0
0.183
Amm0nium Polysulfide
NH4Sx
20-0-0
high
Amm0nium Sulfate
(NH4)2SO4
21-0-0
0.706
Amm0nium Thiosulfate
(NH4)2S2O3
12-0-0
v.high
Anhydrous Ammonia
NH3
82-0-0
0.380
Aqua Ammonia
NH4OH
20-0-0
high
Calcium Nitrate
Ca(NO3)2
15.5-0-0
1.212
Urea
CO(NH2)2
46-0-0
1.000
Urea Sulfuric Acid
CO(NH2)2 * H2SO4
28-0-0
high
Urea Ammonium Nitrate
CO(NH2)2 * NH4NO3
32-0-0
high
Phosphate Fertilizers:
CSP
Ca(H2PO4)2
0-45-0
0.018
MAP
NH4H2PO4
11-48-0
0.227
DAP
(NH4)2HPO4
18-46-0
0.575
Amm. Polyphosphate
(NH4)3P2O7
9-30-0
high
Amm. Polyphosphate
(NH4)5P3O10
10-34-0
high
Amm. Polyphosphate
(NH4)7P5O16
11-37-0
high
Phosphoric Acid
H3PO4
0-54-0
high
Potash Fertilizers:
Potassium Chloride
KCL
0-0-60
0.347
Potassium Nitrate
KNO3
13-0-44
0.133
Potassium Sulfate
K2SO4
0-0-50
0.120
Potassium Thio-sulfate
K2S2O3
0-0-25-17s
1.500
Monobasic K-Phosphate
KH2PO4
0-52-34
0.33
CSP, MAP and DAP = Concentrated superphosphate, Monoammonium phosphate and Diammonium phosphate.
Studies & Researches
Table 1b. Solubility of various fertilizer compounds commonly used for preparation of fertilizer solutions and for application through irrigation water (California Fertilizer Association, 1980)
Fertilizers Micronutrients/ Secondary Nutrients: Borax Boric Acid Solubor Copper Sulfate Gypsum Iron Sulfate Magnesium Sulfate Manganese Sulfate Ammonium Molybdate Sodium Molybdate Zinc Sulfate Zinc Chelate Manganese Chelate Iron Chelate Copper Chelate Sulfuric Acid
Na2B4O7*10H2O H3BO4 Na2B8O13*4H2O CuSO4*5H2O CaSO4*2H2O FeSO4*7H2O MgSO4*7H2O MnSO4*4H2O (NH4) 6Mo7O24*4H2O
Compatibility
As was mentioned above, complete dissolution or high solubility of fertilizers is a perquisite for successful fertigation. When combining fertilizers and preparing fertilizer solutions, one should also assure that these fertilizers are compatible with each other, with the irrigation water and with the type of irrigation system used. The following factors should be taken into consideration when preparing fertilizers solutions: safety during mixing fertilizer materials especially when acids are used; reactions that could occur upon mixing various fertilizers with each others and with the irrigation water; and finally reactions of the chemicals with the irrigation system itself especially those systems that are susceptible to clogging and corrosion. The following are the basic mixing rules of compatibility : Arab fertilizers
11%B 17.5%B 20%B 25%Cu 23%Ca 20%Fe 9.7%Mg 27%Mn 54%Mo 39%Mo 36%Zn 5%-14%Zn 5%12%Mn 4%-14%Fe 5%-14%Cu
Na2MoO4 ZnSO4*7H2O DTPA & EDTA DTPA & EDTA DTPA & EDDHA DTPA & EDTA H2SO4
VS = very soluble
30 31
Grade %
Form
It is always recommended to first test the safety and compatibility of the materials in small container (Jar test). This is important mainly in the case where the compatibility of the fertilizer materials is questionable.
Solubility Kg/L - 0.021 0.063 0.220 0.316 0.0024 0.157 0.710 1.053 0.430 ----0.965 VS VS VS VS VS
1. Add acids into water but never the reverse. Adding chemicals in the wrong order can be extremely dangerous.
2. Never mix anhydrous ammonia or aqua ammonia directly with acids, otherwise an immediate violent reaction will occur.
3. Do not mix sulfate containing fertilizers with calcium containing fertilizers to avoid formation of insoluble calcium sulfate. For example, mixing the water soluble calcium nitrate with ammonium sulfate fertilizers in the same fertilizer solution will precipitate insoluble calcium sulfate that may clog the drippers and filters.
4.
Do not mix phosphorus containing fertilizers with calcium containing materials or at least check the degree of the problem by testing the mixing in small container
5. Calcium and magnesium rich irrigation water tens to form insoluble compounds when mixing and dissolving phosphate and sulfate containing fertilizers and/or ammonia. The later (ammonia), when dissolved in water, the pH of the solution will be significantly increased. This stimulates ammonia volatilization and promote formation of insoluble calcium and magnesium hydroxides and/or carbonates.
6.
Phosphorus and micronutrients are not recommended for application simultaneously in drip irrigation system due to possibility of precipitation of micronutrient with the phosphates in the fertilizer solution. Therefore, when micronutrients should be added, the soluble forms, less subject to precipitation such as chelates should be used and if possible micronutrient could be injected alone in separate application events..
solutions directly with other concentrated fertilizer solutions.
15. DO NOT mix a compound containing sulfate with another compound containing calcium. The result will be a mixture of insoluble gypsum. For example, injecting both calcium nitrate and ammonium sulfate fertilizers into the same irrigation water will cause the formation of calcium sulfate (gypsum). Calcium sulfate has a very low solubility. Although the calcium nitrate is very soluble and the ammonium sulfate has good solubility, they create problems when mixed together in the same container or when poured together form separate mixing tank. Gypsum crystal will form and can clog drip emitters or filters.
7 Always fill the mixing container with 50-75% of the required water to be used in the mix.
8. Always add the liquid fertilizer materials to the water in the mixing container before adding dry, soluble fertilizers. The additional fluid will provide some heat in case the dry fertilizers have the characteristic of making solutions cold.
16. Always check with the chemical supplier for information about insolubility and incompatibility 17. Be extremely cautious about mixing urea sulfuric fertilizers(e.g.,N-Phuric )with most other compound. Urea sulfuric is incompatible with many compounds.
9. Always add the dry ingredients slowly with circulation or agitation to prevent the formation of large, insoluble or slowly soluble lumps. 10. Always put acid into water, not water into acid.
18. Since fertilizer solutions are applied in very small dosage, and if injected at separate locations in the irrigation line, many incompatible problems tend to disappear. The jar test is essential when it comes to deciding if solutions can be simultaneously injected into the irrigation system.
11. When chlorinating water with chlorine gas, always add chlorine to water, and not vice versa.
12. Never mix an acid or acidified fertilizer with chlorine, whether the chlorine is in the gas form or liquid form such as sodium hypochlorite. A toxic chlorine gas will form. Never store acids and chlorine together in the same room.
19. DO NOT mix phosphorus containing fertilizers with another fertilizer containing calcium without first performing the test.
13. DO NOT attempt to mix either anhydrous ammonia directly with any kind of acid. The reaction is violent and immediate.
20. Extremely hard water (containing relatively large amounts of calcium and magnesium) will combine with phosphate, neutral polyphosphate or sulfate compounds to form insoluble substances.
14. DO NOT attempt to mix concentrated fertilizer
Fertilizers Mixing Table _ NH4 NO3
NH4 NO3 _
UREA _
(NH4)2 SO4 _
(NH4)2 HPO4 _
KCl
K2SO4
KNO3
_
_
_
UREA
OK
_
_
_
_
_
_
(NH4)2 SO4
OK
OK
_
_
_
_
_
(NH4)2 HPO4
OK
OK
OK
_
_
_
_
KCl
OK
OK
X
OK
_
_
_
K2SO4
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
_
_
KNO3
OK
OK
X
OK
OK
OK
_
Ca (NO3)2
OK
OK
X
X
OK
X
OK
OK = no problem; X = can precipitate
Ca (NO3)2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Studies & Researches Arab fertilizers
32 33
FERTILIZERS USED OR FERTIGATION Nitrogen fertilizers:
The following N fertilizers are highly soluble in water and can be used to prepare a single nutrient or multi-nutrient fertilizer solutions
The main problems associated with application of P in irrigation water are the potential precipitation as Ca and/or Mg phosphates salts. In addition, P applied in water tends to remain near the soil surface as being immobile nutrient.
Phosphate fertilizers such as superphosphate can not be used in fertigation due to their low solubility. Soluble phosphate compounds may produce precipitates and clogging, so careful choice Nitrogen Fertilizers Chemical Formula of compounds and concentrations in irrigation water is necessary to avoid clogging problems. Anhydrous ammonia NH3 Orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) solutions can be Aqua ammonia solution NH4OH induced into irrigation water to supply P and Urea CO(NH2)2 lower pH and prevent clogging. Salts of H3PO4 Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 such as MAP and DAP can be used but with Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 precaution, where concentration used depends Potassium nitrate KNO3 on concentration of Mg and Ca in the water. Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 Concentration of ammonium orthophosphate Mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP)* NH4H2PO4 (8-24-0) fertilizer above 7 % in H2O will Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP)* (NH4)2HPO4 produce precipitate in water containing approximately 200 ppm Ca + Mg. * The last two should be used with precaution and only the supernatant of their solution shall be used Ammonium polyphosphate has been found to be in fertigation suitable for fertigation. Reaction of polyphosphate It should be mentioned that injection of anhydrous with Ca & Mg in irrigation water shows an ammonia (NH3aq) in irrigation water can cause interesting phenomenon. Injection of small precipitation with Ca and Mg in case the irrigation quantities of ammonium polyphosphate into water water contains large amount of Ca, Mg. (NH3aq + high in Ca & Mg would produce calcium ammonium H2O = NH4+ + OH- ). The OH- increases the pH of pyrophosphate. On the other hand injection of large the water and causes the solubility of salts to decline quantities of polyphosphate caused the precipitate (esp. Ca & Mg salts) and causes NH3 volatilization to disappear due to its ability to sequestering and polyphosphate ties up Ca in water -soluble form and Phosphorus fertilizers thus prevent formation of precipitates. The following phosphate containing fertilizers For fertigation, it is highly recommended to use the are water soluble and can be used for fertigation. acidic forms of phosphate fertilizers to minimize However, some of these fertilizers should be used the chances of having precipitation problems. The with precaution as they have the tendency of forming use of phosphoric acid for example will not only precipitates with other materials when hard water is used for preparing the fertilizer solution : provides phosphorus for the crop but also lower the pH of the fertilizer solution and prevent clogging drippers and clean the irrigation Phosphorus Fertilizers Chemical Formula system. It should be kept in mind that the pH Mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP)* NH4H2PO4 of the solution should remain low because (NH4)2HPO4 Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP)* possible dilution of the acid with the irrigation water to the point where the pH rise again may KH2PO4 Monobasic potassium phosphate lead to precipitation of phosphate with calcium (UP) Urea-phosphate and magnesium. When irrigation water rich in H3PO4 Orthophosphoric acid Ca, Mg or Fe is used to prepare the fertilizer (AP) Ammonium polyphosphate (Good solution, phosphate tend to form insoluble di sequester for Ca, Mg & micronutrient) and tri-calcium phosphate and iron phosphate which have the potential of causing clogging * They should be used with precaution and only emitters of the irrigation system. Therefore, it is the supernatant of their solution shall be used in important to evaluate the water quality and measure fertigation the levels of these elements especially when MAP and DAP phosphate fertilizers are used.
Potassium Fertilizers :
Most potassium fertilizers are highly soluble in water. Therefore, Potassium application in irrigation water is almost relatively problem free due to the high solubility of most K salts. The following potassium fertilizers are highly soluble in water and can be used for preparation of fertilizers solution: KCl can give a 34 % solution at 20 deg. C KNO3 can give a 31 % KSO4 can give a 11 %
Although all are soluble in water at different degrees, the selection of one over another is usually based on other characteristics. Potassium sulfate is the least expensive, the least soluble in water and may precipitate the Ca from the hard irrigation water as calcium sulfate. Potassium nitrate on the other hand, is the most expensive, higher in solubility than potassium sulfate and a good source for the two essential nutrient nitrogen and potassium. Finally, potassium chloride is the most soluble in water but should be used with precaution when salinity is of concern. Chloride ions in the potassium chloride tend to increase the salinity and may cause a chloride toxicity to some sensitive crops.
Micrnutrients:
All carbonates, oxides and hydroxides of Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu are relatively insoluble in water and therefore are not used in fertigation. The sulfate forms of these micronutrients although are water soluble and can be injected into irrigation water, they tend to be quickly adsorbed onto exchange sites of soil clay colloids or precipitate as insoluble salts. Thus the effectiveness of their use is questionable. The chloride or nitrate forms of micronutrients are highly soluble and expensive. Although they can be used in fertigation, the dissolved micronutrients will be quickly oxidized, adsorbed or precipitated becoming insoluble and unavailable to plants. The chelated forms of micronutrients are highly soluble and can be successfully and efficiently used in fertigation. Research has shown that application of 10 kg/ha of iron chelate (sequestrene 138) with the irrigation water was as efficient as application of 50 kg/ha of iron chelate in conventional methods for correcting iron chlorosis in apple orchards. The choice of the type of the chelate is important as they differ in their stability constants under various soil pH values. The chelates are organic compounds that can complex (wrap around) the metal ions and electrically neutralize them and the complex become neutral in charge. Therefore, they can move freely in the soil water without being attracted and adsorbed onto exchange sites of soil colloids. The plant roots can absorb the chelated micronutrient
either intact as a whole complex or some plant roots will first detach the micronutrient from its chelating agent and then absorb the metal directly. The most common micronutrient chelates are: DTPA; EDTA; EDDHA
The later, as a carrier for Fe has the higher stability constant over a wide range of soil pH and therefore, is considered the most effective one to be used in basic and calcareous soils. Having higher stability constant under wide range of soil pH means that the micronutrient metal will remain attached with the chelate as a mobile complex which can freely move in the soil system to the plant roots.
PREPARATION OF FERTILIZER SOLUTIONS
Fertilizer solution should be prepared carefully to get a stock solution that contain nutrients at the specific desirable concentration without any precipitation problems. This is necessary to keep in mind since in fertigation we are dealing some time with concentrated solution which have higher potential for precipitation problems. The followings should be identified for preparing any fertilizer solution for a given fertigation system: 1. The volume of the reservoir of the stock solution (n, M3); 2. The type of fertilizers to be used, their grades or molecular weight to calculate the percentages of pure nutrients in the fertilizers, (a, %);
3. The required concentration of a nutrient in the irrigation water, (F, mg/l); 4. The flow rate of both the main irrigation line where the injector in connected and the flow rate of the injector. These flow rates should be determined in the field to consider all uncontrolled factors affecting the flow rate in each segment of the irrigation system. Then the dilution factor (DF) is calculated by dividing the flow rate (liter/hour) of the irrigation system by that of the injectors. Note that the higher the dilution factor the lower the accuracy and the higher the potential for precipitation problems in the fertilizer solutions.
Having all these parameters determined, the following equation can be used to calculate the amount of the fertilizer in grams that should be dissolved in the reservoir of the given system, (c, g): C = (F * DF * n * 100) / a
where the DF = Flow rate of the irrigation line / Flow rate of the injector
Studies & Researches
avoid precipitation of CaSO4 in the fertilizer solution.
Reducing pH of the fertilizer solution
It should be mentioned however, that phosphoric acid is the most popular and mostly used by the farmers as a phosphate fertilizer and as an agent to reduce the pH of the solution. It was found practically that serious problems will occur if irrigation water contained more than 100 ppm Ca.
When pH of the fertilizer solution need to be reduced to avoid undesirable precipitations, or to dissolve and flush out the precipitated compound from the irrigation system, the followings should be considered:
Precipitation can cause clogging of drippers, nozzles or irrigation pipelines. Such clogging can be caused generally by physical chemical and biological agents:
1.Reducing the pH value below 4 may cause direct damage and reduction in crop growth and yield of the sensitive crops. 2.Lowering pH value using concentrated acids may cause corrosion of metal fittings in the irrigation system.
1.Physical causes. This could be suspended clay and calcium carbonate particles or other substances such as organic compounds
2.Chemical causes. This include precipitates such as Fe, Ca, Mg carbonate and phosphate. This problem will be worse if incompatible fertilizers with the irrigation water were used
3.In case where toxic metals are of concern, it should be remembered the low pH value enhances solubility, availability and uptake of these metals by the plants.
3.Biological causes. This include algae, bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms. These microorganisms may physically clog the system or through their activities on organic matter, Fe and H2S. Byproducts of bacterial activities are gelatinous compound that could clog the system.
The following acids can be used to lower the pH of the fertilizer solutions: HNO3; H2SO4; HCl; H3PO4
The first three are hazardous to users and may cause serious damages during handling and uses. The use of HCl provides a chloride ions which may have toxicity effect for various crops and have the potential of increasing soil salinity. While H2SO4 is not recommended when Ca rich irrigation water is used to
To overcome these problems use the acids for chemical causes and chlorine for biological causes.
Corrosivity Table Kind of Metal
NH4NO3
Urea
Phosphoric Acid
DAP
2
4
4
1
4
1
Sheet Aluminum
No
1
1
No
2
2
Stainless Steel
No
No
No
No
1
No
1
3
3
No
2
4
1
2
3
No
2
4
Brass Arab fertilizers
(NH4)2SO4
Galvanized Iron
Bronze
34 35
Ca(NO3)2
No, none ; 1, slight ; 2, moderate ; 3, considerable ; 4, severe
FERTIGATION TECHNOLOGY A complete fertigation system would include the following components: water source; pump; water meter; fertilizer tank; injector; filter; non-return valve; and the irrigation lines.
Fertilizer injection systems: 1. By-pass flow tank By-pass flow tank is a simple fertilizer tank is connected to the main irrigation line so that the irrigation water partially or totally flow through the tank. (the most simple is that which has an inlet on top of the tank for water from the irrigation system and an outlet in the bottom for returning the irrigation water back to the irrigation system). The by-pass fertilizer tank can be separated from the main irrigation line and the the injection will be driven by the pressure difference as controlled by valves. A regulating valve installed between the two connections, on the irrigation head, to divert a fraction of the irrigation water through the fertilizer tank by partial closure of the valve. Going through the tank, the irrigation water will dissolve the fertilizers placed in the tank. However, the main disadvantage of the fertilizer tank is the uneven distribution of fertilizers in the root zone due to the continuous dilution of the fertilizer concentration by the irrigation water according to the following equation: where;
Ct = Co (Q2/Q1) exp [- (Q2/V)t]
Ct = concentration of nutrient remaining in the stock solution at time t(h), ppm;
Co = concentration before starting the irrigation at time t=0;
Q1 and Q2 = discharge rates at the inlet and outlet of the stock solution reservoir, respectively, , m3/h; and V = the volume of the reservoir, m3
Thus, the concentration of fertilizers in the irrigation water will be highest at the beginning of application, then will be gradually decreased with time during the application.
2. Venturi system
Venturi system is another technique for injection fertilizer solution is based on venturi principle. The Venturi injection system is based on the pressure drop which change the velocity of water as it passes through a constriction made in the system (a part narrower than the main water line is inserted into the flow pass which will change the velocity and pressure of the flow water). Thus a vacuum is created and a fertilizer solution is sucked from an open tank into the irrigation line. The pressure at the outlet should be at least 20% less than at the inlet to start suction of the fertilizer solution by the system. Like with other injection devices, and to ensure uniform distribution of fertilizers, start injection the solution after all the lines in the system filled and emitters are discharging. This usually take about 30 minutes. Also, stop injection 30 minutes before the end of the irrigation cycle to ensure flushing the solution from the system.
3. Hydraulic Pumping/injection System
Fertilizer solution may be injected into the main irrigation line from an open tank through a water pump. The pump may be derived by electric power or by flowing water itself, thus no need for external source for energy. The fertilizer solution flow can be controlled and by changing the dilution factor (flow of the main irrigation line / flow of the fertilizer solution injected by the injector), the concentration required can be achieved. This water pressure driven fertilizer injectors has the following main advantages of this type of injectors are; i) fertilization process is continuous at a desired concentration during the irrigation; ii) the distribution of the fertilizer solution is more uniform in the root zone; and iii) no energy is needed to operate the injectors. The most popular type of water-driven pumps is the “Dosatron� pump which is considered an accurate and relatively not expensive investment.
4. Sprayer pumps
Another fertigation device which was initially adopted is the sprayer pumps. These pumps were used to spray pesticides or fertilizers solution into the crops or sometimes directly to inject the fertilizer solution into the irrigation water during a short period of time. Because of the short period of injection, usually concentrated fertilizer solution will actually be injected. Therefore, part of the fertilizers will be leached out by the irrigation water following the injection. This is mainly of big concern in coarse textured soils and under shallowrooted crops system.
Studies & Researches
FEEDING THE EARTH
THE ROLE OF FERTILIZERS IN AGRICULTURAL MITIGATION STRATEGIES
H
ow to Improve Greenhouse Gas Budgets Through Good Agricultural Practices
Contrary to other sectors, agriculture is not only an emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG) but also a carbon sink. To grow more food with less impact on the climate, it is necessary to increase productivity while reducing agricultural GHG emissions. Managing plant nutrients more effectively is one of the solutions to manage such trade-offs. The ferti lizer industry has an important role to play, in particular in the promotion of Ferti lizer Best Management Practices and Integrated Soil Fertility Management. These best practices result in increased nutrient use effciency while reducing emissions and maintaining soil fertility and yield increases, as demonstrated in a number of countries. Further research is, however, needed to address research gaps in GHG agricultural budgets, document comparisons between different cropping systems and across regions and devise new adaptation and mitigation strategies for climatefriendly agricultural producti on systems worldwide.
Converting natural habitats to cultivated land is the main source of GHG from agriculture
Arab fertilizers
Agriculture contributes around 10-12 % of total global GHG emissions but is the main source of non-carbon dioxide (CO2) GHGs, emitti ng nearly 60 % of nitrous oxide (N2O) and nearly 50 % of methane (CH4). N2O is produced by microbial transformations of nitrogen (N) in soils and animal waste and therefore often associated with nitrogen (N) fertilizer inputs in agricultural systems. CH4 is generated when organic matter decomposes under anaerobic conditions and is mainly associated with ruminant livestock, manure storage and rice producti on under fl ooded conditions.
36 37
These emissions are currently estimated as 3.3 Pg CO2-eq yr-1 from CH4 and 2.8 Pg CO2-eq yr-1 from N2O emissions. Large exchanges of CO2 occur between the atmosphere and agricultural ecosystems but emissions are thought to be roughly balanced by uptake, giving a net flux of only around 0.04 Pg CO2 yr-1, less than 1 % of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. However, land use change towards more
cultivated land may contribute a further 5.9 ± 2.9 Pg CO2 -eq yr-1, representi ng 6-17 % of total global GHG emissions, and if indirect emissions from agrochemical and fuel usage are also included, an extra 0.4-1.6 Pg CO2 -eq yr-1 (0.8-3.2 %) can be attributed to agriculture. In total, direct and indirect emissions from agricultural activity and land use change to agricultural use could contribute around a third of all GHG emissions. Globally, agricultural land use has increased by 0.8 % between 1991 and 2002, and these changes are split with an increase of 2.1 % in developing countries parti ally mitigated by a 1.5 % drop in the developed world. This trend is likely to continue with projected increases in world populati on, and shifts in diet requiring more resources per unit of food produced, being concentrated in areas such as South and East Asia.
Research gaps in measuring the contribution of agriculture in total global GHG emissions need to be addressed
If agricultural production is going to significantly increase while also minimizing its impact on future climate change, it is important to understand both its current contribution to GHG budgets and how agricultural management practices can influence them. Key gaps in our knowledge and problems which are setting back our understanding have to be identified. These include the lack of work addressing GHG emissions on the basis of agricultural productivity rather than culti vated area, and inconsistent methodologies for measuring things like soil carbon under diff erent ti llage regimes and for calculating N2O emissions, which make comparisons between systems difficult. There is also a distinct lack of research covering tropical regions, a gap which needs to be urgently addressed given the likely increases in production in these regions. This is especially important because the current trend, for example in Latin America, is towards increasing areas of cultivation rather than intensifying producti on on existing agricultural land. This will have a disproporti onately large impact on GHG budgets due to the loss of stored soil organic carbon (SOC) which occurs when forests and grasslands are converted to cropland.
Fertilizer Best Management Practices and Integrated Soil Fertility Management increase yields and reduce N2O emissions
If agriculture continues to develop according to existing trends and no action is taken to miti gate GHG emissions from the sector, they are expected to reach around 8.2 Pg CO2 -eq yr-1 by 2030. However, there is signifi cant potential to mitigate these emissions using existi ng agricultural technology. Estimates of this potential vary, especially when economic considerations are included in the calculations, but around 1.5-4.3 Pg CO2 -eq yr-1 seems reasonable, with the greatest potential laying in cropland management practices. Of these practices, improving nutrient management is particularly crucial, especially given the need to increase agricultural productivity while cultivating as little new land as possible. Key to this is improving crop N use efficiency (NUE) through the use of fertilizer best management practices, using the right source, at the right rate, at the right time, and at the right place (see www.fb mp.info). Implementation of fertilizer best management practices (BMPs) has been shown to both reduce N applications and associated N2 O emissions and increase yields. For
example, in China, the world’s largest consumer of mineral N fertilizers, BMPs have been shown to reduce N inputs by 20-40 %, increase yields by 2-12 %, increase N recovery rates by 1015 % and reduce N losses by 10-50 %, in comparison with traditional farming practices. Even in developed countries with existing trends of improving NUE, there is still the potential for further mitigation.
Currently, nitrogen use efficiency is falling in many countries, such as China, where some cropping systems are over-fertilized, while soils in other regions, such as parts of Africa and India, sti ll suffer from chronic nutrient defi ciency. Bett er integration of organic resources such as animal waste and crop residues into crop nutrition programs can assist in improving soil fertility while also helping to mitigate indirect emissions from ferti lizer production. These indirect emissions currently contribute around 420 Tg CO2 -eq yr-1 and there is considerable scope to mitigate these, and any future increases, using existing methods such as carbon capture and N2 O abatement technologies. This could save around 200 Tg CO2 -eq yr-1. Other GHG mitigati on strategies include the use of no-till or reduced ti llage regimes. There is debate regarding the mitigati on potenti al of ti llage measures. This is because assessing the net impact on GHG emissions requires comparing the impacts on both SOC, which is often biased by field measurements taken only in the top 30 cm of the soil profile, and N2O emissions, which are highly variable over time. The balance of evidence does, however, point to a net benefit for suitable soil types, although more research may still aid our understanding in this area. Reducing ti llage also gives indirect savings in terms of reducing on-farm fuel use and associated emissions. Agronomy measures are perhaps the most difficult mitigati on practices to assess at present. Using catch crops, legumes and particular types of crops rotations could potentially reduce GHG emissions per hectare of cropland but can also impact on yields, potentially requiring additional land to be cultivated at great cost in terms of SOC losses. For example, the global warming potenti al (GWP) of an intensive continuous maize crop may be 2-3 times higher, on a per hectare basis, than that of a conventi onally-tilled maize-wheat-soybean rotation, but produce only 63 % of the net GHG emissions when compared on the basis of CO2 -eq per Gcal of food yield. Therefore, more work is needed to compare
Studies & Researches
net GHG emissions from different cropping systems over the long term and on a per unit of producti on basis.
Improving the productivity of existing agricultural land is the best way to feed 9 billion people while preserving the climate and biodiversity With predictions that 9 billion people will need to be fed by the middle of this century, agricultural production will need to increase, but the additional pressure on land availability means that improving the productivity of existing agricultural land is the best way to achieve this. Using the existing cropland most efficiently may also contribute to preserving areas with valuable biodiversity and high carbon sequestrati on potential against land use changes. There is much scope for more efficient use of resources, particularly nitrogen, within the current level of understanding. The wider implementation of BMP strategies can play a significant role in limiting the impact of agricultural production on the future climate. Overall, cropland management mitigation strategies, such as further implementation of ferti lizer BMPs, offer the highest potenti al for mitigating future agricultural GHG emissions. Ferti lizer production also has a significant role to play, as the most advanced technology available today can significantly reduce the GHG emissions associated with the older, less efficient plants still used in many parts of the world.
Arab fertilizers
Many uncertainti es remain regarding the exact potenti al of various mitigati on practi ces, not least because carbon and nitrogen dynamics in agricultural systems can be very variable, both between different sites and cropping systems and also within the same area, over time or with depth in the soil profile. This makes generalisati ons difficult. The paucity of data relating to tropical agricultural systems in Latin America, Southeast Asia and parts of Africa requires parti cular attenti on. However, there is more than sufficient understanding of general
38 39
impacts to support strong action on the part of the internati onal community. The technology already exists to ensure croplands can play a significant role in mitigating climate change while sti ll meeting the demand of feeding an increasing global population.
Current agronomic strategies advocated by the fertilizer industry include: • Improving nitrogen use efficiency; • Increasing soil organic matter by integrating organic nutrient sources jointly with mineral fertilizers in plant nutrition programmes and • Promoting the adoption of fertilizer BMPs.
This brief is based on the executive summary of the report “Greenhouse Gas Budgets of Crop Production, Current and Likely Future Trends”, commissioned by IFA, by Helen C. Flynn and Pete Smith from the Insti tute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, UK. The full report will be available as of January 2010 at www.ferti lizer.org Dr Helen Flynn has been working as a Post Doctoral Fellow in the Soils & Environmental Modelling group at the University of Aberdeen since 2003. Professor Pete Smith is the Royal Society-Wolfson Professor of Soils & Global Change, and is an internationally recognised expert in the area of agriculture and climate change. He has been a Convening Lead Author, Lead Author and Author for various Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Reports, for which IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (jointly with Al Gore) in 2007.
Feeding the Earth represents a series of issue briefs produced by the Internati onal Ferti lizer Industry Association to provide current informati on on the role of ferti lizers in sustainable agriculture and food producti on. International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA) - 28 rue Marbeuf, 75008 Paris, France For further information contact: Morgane Danielou, Head Information and Communications Service Tel: +33 1 53 93 05 00 - Fax: +33 1 53 93 05 45/47 - mdanielou@fertilizer.org - www.fertilizer.org
FEEDING THE EARTH
ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CO2 EMISSIONS IN AMMONIA PRODUCTION Farmers use nitrogen fertilizers to manage the fertility of their soils and provide nutrients for their crops to grow. Nitrogen fertilizers contribute to producing close to 50% of the food grown worldwide. However, their production is energy-intensive due to the ammonia synthesis from which 99 per cent of all nitrogen fertilizers are derived. Some 94% of the energy consumed by the fertilizer industry is used for ammonia synthesis and ferti lizer production consumes 1.2% of the world’s total energy on an annual basis. It is also one of the industry’s main sources of GHG emissions. Fertilizer manufacturers are, therefore, encouraged to adopt Best Practice Technologies (BPTs), which can allow gains of up to 30% in energy efficiency. IFA conducts energy efficiency surveys and benchmarkings to monitor such progress and promote best practices.
Improved energy performance 70
Plant design efficiency 60
GJ /Mt of ammonia (NH3)
The fertilizer industry can achieve continuous improvement in the efficient use of global energy resources
50
Fertilizer production 40 consumes approximately 1.2% of the world’s total energy on an annual basis. 30 Since ammonia production accounts for some 87% of 20 the industry’s total energy consumption, the fuel and 10 feedstock used to produce ammonia are by far the 0 1955 1965 main energy consumption per unit of product is 30% less than it was four decades ago, and the best performers are approaching the thermodynamic limit of minimum energy use. Nevertheless, a number of plants are not yet equipped with the most advanced technologies, suggesting that global energy consumption in the industry could be significantly reduced through the adoption of new technology in the coming decades.
Average of 93 plants in 2008 IFA benchmarking 10 best-in-class plants in 2008 IFA benchmarking Thermodynamic limit 36.6 28.33 20
1975
1985
1995
IFA conducts energy benchmarking surveys
2005 2010
To assess this potential, the Internati onal Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA) periodically conducts an industry-wide benchmarking survey which is used to estimate energy efficiency in the ammonia sector. This survey is designed to improve IFA producers’ knowledge of plant performance; to assist operators in assessing plant efficiency relative to industry averages; and to help identify opportunities for
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continual improvement. The results are also valuable to policy makers, as they can serve as a basis for well-adapted policy analysis and implementation.
The survey gathers information on participating plants’ average net energy efficiency during the year, based on the following calculation: Net Energy Efficiency = Feed + Fuel + Other Energy / NH3 Production
Energy includes that required to produce ammonia, as well as that used in operations, e.g. startups, shutdowns and catalyst reducti ons. Offsite emissions related to energy imports were also calculated in order to refl ect operations’ overall energy and environmental footprint more accurately.
On an annual basis, plants generally do not operate at their design energy efficiencies, which are based on conti nuous operation with equipment and catalysts in good condition. During certain years, they may operate at energy efficiencies approaching this level. However, energy use in plants with frequent outages, inefficient equipment or poor catalyst activity is much higher. Along with inherent diffierences in plant design energy efficiencies, this accounts for the wide variations in the efficiency of energy use in diffierent plants. Due to the variety of manufacturing methods and raw materials, no single process can be identified as a Best Practi ce Technology (BPT) for ammonia producti on. Except in China (which uses coal for almost all ammonia production), natural gas is a raw material for the vast majority of the ammonia produced worldwide.
Summary of the findings of the 2008 benchmarking survey
The 2008 IFA benchmarking survey included participation by 93 plants located in 33 countries, representing approximately one quarter (40 million tonnes) of total world ammonia production.
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Average net energy efficiency in the 93 ammonia plants surveyed in 2008 was 36.6 GJ/mt NH3 (ranging from 27.0 to 58.2 GJ/mt NH3). The top quartile performed in the range of 28 to 33 GJ/ mt NH3. These figures are comparable to theoretical design efficiencies and are near the optimum efficiency level, for a new plant, of approximately 28-29 GJ/mt.
40 41
Overall, a plant built today uses some 30% less energy per tonne of ammonia produced than one constructed 40 years ago. Technological advances have accompanied economic changes, and restructuring has rewarded more efficient producers. In Europe and North America, where energy costs are high, average energy consumption has been drastically reduced through the revamping or closing of inefficient plants. Energy costs have
also led to the construction of new state-of-theart units in regions including North Africa and the Middle East, where there are abundant supplies of affiordable natural gas.
The move towards higher capacity plants has helped to implement more efficient technologies. Capacity upgrades offier a cost-effiective opportunity to install better performing technology. Comparisons of current performance against Best Practice Technologies (BPTs) indicate that there is still room for improvement. The BPT energy requirement for the top ten percentile natural gas-based ammonia production facilities operating today is 32 GJ per tonne of ammonia (net energy consumption). This suggests that revamping less efficient existing plants would increase energy efficiency and decrease CO2 emissions by some 10%. The cost would be signifi cant, sometimes exceeding USD 20 million per site. Shifting production from poorly performing plants to new production sites with Best Available Technologies (BATs) would improve overall energy efficiency by up to 25%, with a corresponding decrease in GHG emissions of about 30%. But this is a long-term scenario, stretching over decades. Finally, per tonne of ammonia the energy requirement for coal-based plants is significantly higher than that for natural gas-fi red facilities. A coal-based unit also produces roughly 2.4 ti mes more CO2 per tonne of ammonia than a natural gas-based unit.
In view of the availability and relative costs of energy sources in diffierent regions, and the policy imperative in China to achieve food security through ensuring domestic fertilizer supply, coal-based ammonia synthesis is expected to increase in coming years. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) could be an important means of minimizing emissions from coal-based production. A historical perspective on ammonia synthesis
Unlike other nutrients, mineral sources of nitrogen for ferti lizati on have been rare and largely unavailable on a global scale.
For this reason, nitrogen remained the single most important limiti ng factor for crop producti on and stable food supplies unti l well into the 20th century. In Germany, Fritz Haber began investi gati ng how to combine nitrogen from the atmosphere with hydrogen to form ammonia. In 1909, he discovered how to synthesize ammonia from air under high pressure and temperatures, which led him to receive the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Carl Bosch subsequently made the breakthroughs necessary to bring the process to an industrial scale, thus ushering in the modern nitrogen ferti lizer industry. In 1931, Bosch was the Nobel Chemistry Laureate for this accomplishment. Industrial nitrogen fi xati on is the only achievement to date to be recognized by two separate Nobel Prizes.
Responsibility of the fertilizer industry • Enable and promote further technological advancements that will reduce energy consumption. • Disseminate these technologies worldwide.
Recommendations to governments and multi-lateral organizations: • Foster an enabling environment for investment in cleaner, more effi cient production technologies through fi nancial incentives and stable, long-term environmental policy. • Facilitate the adoption of BATs through such initiatives as the creation of parallel funding for technology transfer to the developing world, capacity building, and the use of new market mechanisms such as carbon fi nancing (i.e. Clean Development Mechanism, Joint Implementation).
What are Best Available Technologies or Techniques (BATs)? The term “Best Available Techniques” is defined in the European Directi ve on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) as “the most eff ecti ve and advanced stage in the development of acti viti es and their methods of operati on which indicate the practi cal suitability of parti cular techniques for providing in principle the basis for emission limit values designed to prevent and, where that is not practi cable, generally to reduce emissions and the impact on the environment as a whole.” (96/61/ EC). The overall aim of such an integrated approach is to improve the management and control of industrial processes so as to ensure a high level of protecti on for the environment. Central to this approach is the general principle that operators should take all appropriate preventative measures against polluti on,
specifi cally through the applicati on of best available techniques (BAT) enabling them to improve their environmental performance. “Best” means most eff ecti ve in achieving a high general level of protecti on of the environment as a whole. “Techniques” includes both the technology used and the way in which the installati on is designed, built, maintained, operated and decommissioned;
“Available” techniques are those developed on a scale which allows implementati on in the relevant industrial sector, under economically and technically viable conditi ons, taking into considerati on the costs and advantages as long as they are reasonably accessible to the operator.
Table. Comparison of Best Available Technology processes for ammonia production Energy source Process Natural gas Naphtha Heavy fuel oil Coal
Steam reforming Steam reforming Parti al oxidation Parti al oxidation
Energy GJ/t ammoni
CO2 emissions t/t ammonia
GHG index*
28 35 38 42
1.6 2.5 3.0 3.8
100 153 188 238
* Using natural gas as the reference, this index shows the relati ve carbon intensity of diff erent energy sources. Source: Prince, A. (2007) “Initi ati ng New Projects in the Ammonia Sector.” Presented at the IFA Technical Committ ee Meeti ng, Workshop on Energy Effi ciency and CO2 Reducti on Prospects in Ammonia Producti on, 12-14 March 2007, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Published online at www.ferti lizer.org.
Feeding the Earth represents a series of issue briefs produced by the Internati onal Ferti lizer Industry Association to provide current informati on on the role of ferti lizers in sustainable agriculture and food producti on.
Tel: +33 1 53 93 05 00 - Fax: +33 1 53 93 05 45 - mdanielou@fertilizer.org - www.fertilizer.org International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA) - 28 rue Marbeuf, 75008 Paris, France For further information contact: Morgane Danielou, Director Information and Communications Service
Studies & Researches
Phosphogypsum Management and Utilization A Review of Research and Industry Practice Patrick Zhang Florida Institute of Phosphate Research
Abstract
With a short chronological account of phosphate fertilizer development and a brief introduction to current industrial practices for phosphogypsum (PG) management, this paper focuses on a worldwide review of PG utilization, both on commercial scale and at the R&D stage. The practice of dumping in the ocean or pumping in the valley without lining is no longer an option, leaving stacking with a polyethylene liner as the global standard method for PG management. Stacking is expensive, wastes a resource, and still poses various environmental problems. The ultimate and sustainable PG management practice is to put it into commercial uses. While Brazil consumes nearly fifty percent of its PG production with agricultural use accounting for 90%, China is making a big dent on its PG accumulation through construction materials. There are many promising opportunities for PG use, including as a chemical raw material, as a nutrient source or conditioner for soil, as a raw material for construction materials, as a road base material, and as a nutrient source for bio-decomposition of wastes.
INTRODUCTION
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EVOLUTION OF PHOSPHATE FERTILIZERS
42 43
The discovery of phosphorus (P), its role in agriculture, and the early development of phosphate fertilizers are well documented by Vincent Sauchelli (1942, 1951, 1965). P was first discovered and made by a German metallurgist by heating urine into solid state. Although as early as 2000 years ago, Chinese farmers applied calcined or lime-treated bones to their fields to improve crop growth, and ancient farmers from many parts of the world utilized human wastes and animal manure as the primary source of phosphorus for crops, the essential role
of phosphorus in plants growth was first explained in a scientific manner by Erasmus Darwin in 1799 (Beaton 2010).
The first true phosphate fertilizers were made by acidulating bones with sulfuric acid, which began in Europe during the early 1800s to 1842. In 1842, John Bennet Lawes of Rothamsted fame was granted a patent for the production of superphosphate using bones and he began manufacturing and selling this fertilizer the same year. This patent was amended in 1848 to include sulfuric acid treatment of phosphate ore. The number of superphosphate plants in England reached 14 by 1853.
Large scale phosphate fertilizer production was made possible by replacing bones with mined phosphate rock as the P source. Small amounts of phosphate ores were mined in the mid-1840s in England, France and Spain and in the 1860s in Norway and Germany. Early phosphate rock mined in Ontario and Quebec, Canada was shipped to England for processing between 1863 and 1895. In the United States, phosphate mining began in 1867 in South Carolina, followed by Florida in 1889, Idaho in 1906, Wyoming in 1907, and Montana in 1921.
To date, about 120 phosphate minerals have been identified, with apatite accounting for approximately 95%. Some other commercial phosphate minerals include kribergite, guano and vivianite. There are two primary routes for recovering the phosphate values from phosphate rock. In the thermal process, phosphate is reduced by carbon to elemental phosphorus gas, and condensed in water. Today’s predominant process is the “wet acid” process in which phosphate rock is acidulated with sulfuric acid.
Superphosphate
A simplified reaction for producing superphosphate is shown in equation (1)
2Ca5(PO4)3F + 7H2SO4 = 3Ca(H2PO4)2 + 7CaSO4 + 2HF
(1)
As is discussed above, the first patent for this fertilizer was granted in 1842 with production started the same year in England. This process took off in the early 1850s in the U.S. and a number of other countries, initially using bones and later switching to mineral phosphate rock. This fertilizer dominated the world’s phosphate fertilizer market for more than 100 years.
Another variation of superphosphate fertilizer is the so called Single Superphosphate (SSP), which is still popular in some countries. The Molecular formula of SSP is Ca(H2PO4)2. H2O. SSP is one of the most important fertilizers in Brazil. This P source is also produced in other countries in the world, especially in Australia, China, India and New Zealand. It accounts for 15% of the phosphate fertilizer use in India.
Triple Superphosphate
Triple Superphosphate is made based on the following equation: 2Ca5(PO4)3F+ 12H3PO4 + 9H2O = 9Ca(H2PO4)2·H2O + CaF2 (2) This high analysis phosphate fertilizer was first manufactured in Germany in 1872. Limited triple production began in the U.S. 1890, with large scale production initiated in 1907. Currently triple superphosphate accounts for a few percent of US phosphate fertilizer production, though it is still substantial worldwide representing over 10% of the total phosphate fertilizer market.
Ammonium Phosphates
Ammonium phosphates are now the most popular phosphate fertilizers. Diammonium phosphate (DAP), (NH4)2HPO4, is manufactured by reacting ammonia with phosphoric acid. The nitrogen to phosphate ratio in DAP makes it an excellent product for direct application or one that blends well with other fertilizer materials to produce a variety of NPK fertilizers. Monoammonium phosphate (MAP), NH4H2PO4, is also a fertilizer manufactured from phosphoric acid and ammonia. “It is an ideal product for dry bulk blending with other fertilizer materials. MAP is a product-of-choice for manufacturing fluid blends or suspension fertilizers” (Griffith, 2010).
Ammonium phosphates were first produced commercially in the U.S. in 1916. With introduction of the very popular and dependable TVA process for granular diammonium phosphate (DAP), DAP became the principal phosphate fertilizer in the U.S.
by late 1960s. Today, DAP represents approximately 40% of the phosphate usage in USA. On worldwide scale, ammonium phosphates accounted for less than 5% of the world’s production of phosphate in the early 1960s, and have reached roughly 60% today.
“WET ACID” PROCESSES AND PHOSPHOGYPSUM PRODUCTION
The “wet acid” process is usually referring to the manufacturing of phosphoric acid by reacting phosphate rock with sulfuric acid. The first phosphoric acid plant was built in Germany in about 1870 and in the U.S. in 1890 (Beaton, 2010). The past decade has seen many new phosphoric acid plants constructed in major phosphate producing countries such as Morocco, China and the Middle East. The primary chemical reaction in the “wet acid” process may be expressed in the following equation using fluorapatite to represent phosphate rock and sulfuric acid as the reactant (UNIDO and IFDC, 1998): Ca10F2(PO4)6 + 10H2SO4 + 10nH2O 4 10CaSO4•nH2O + 6H3PO4 + 2HF
(3)
Depending on the value of n, the process is defined as Di-hydrate (n=2) process, Hemi-hydrate (n=1/2) process, and Anhydrate process. The term CaSO4•nH2O in equation has become the resounding word Phosphogypsum (PG).
PG from Di-hydrate (DH) Process
This process is most widely used in the world, and it is nearly the sole wet acid process used in the United States. It was reported that the DH process required a low capital cost, with a very low production cost and great flexibility in using various qualities of phosphate rock. One distinguishable advantage of the process is its capability of producing an acid from which uranium can be extracted easily. This process is generally designed for a 28-30% P2O5 acid (Kouloheris, 1987). Despite its popularity, the DH process does have the following disadvantages: 1) requiring high free sulfuric acid, 2) producing a dirty PG, 3) causing high P2O5 content in the filter cake. Approximately 4.9 tons of PG is generated per ton of P2O5 produced using the DH process. Table 1 shows chemical analysis of a typical PG. Table 1. Typical Di-hydrate Phosphogypsum Analysis
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Item
CaO
SO3
P2O5
F
SiO2
Wt.%
32.50
44.00
0.65
1.20
0.50
Item
Fe2O3
Al2O3
MgO
Crystal H2O
Wt.%
0.10
0.10
0.10
19.00
It should be pointed out that the actual chemical compositions of PG in stacks are somewhat different from those listed in Table 1, as is shown in Table 2. Radionuclide in these samples averages 4.2 Picocuries/g uranium and 20.7 Picocuries/g radium. Minor elements concentration in stacked PG is shown in Table 3. Table 2. Analyses of PG from Florida Stacks. Item
CaO
SO3
P2O5
F
SiO2
Wt.%
21.14
33.21
1.03
0.71
9.60
Item
Fe2O3 +Al2O3
Free H2O
Crystal H 2O
pH
Wt.%
4.41
16.8
19.00
2.72
*Average results on 13 samples from depth ranging from 30-100 feet Table 3. Analyses of PG from Florida Stacks. Item Antimony Arsenic Barium Cadmium Magnesium Manganese Molybdenum Potassium
ppm 111 42 7 7 1220 15 16 11
Item Rhenium Sodium Strontium Titanium Tungsten Van adium Zinc Zirconium
ppm 11 252 10 4020 29 19 9 10
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PG from Hemi-hydrate (HH) Process
44 45
This process produces a PG in the form of CaSO4•1/2H2O. The HH process is relatively widely used in Europe, Japan and Africa. Because of its energy savings in producing 40-52% P2O5 acid, this technology has recently gained renewed endorsement by engineers and managers worldwide. Energy saving using this process can amount to $20 per ton of P2O5 production. The advantages and disadvantages of the HH process may be summarized as follows: Advantages: 1) saving energy, 2) being able to process coarser phosphate rock, 3) producing high P2O5 concentration;
disadvantages: 1) high capital cost, 2) low filtration rate, 3) difficulty with extracting uranium due to higher P2O5 and viscosity. Approximately 4.3 tons of PG is generated per ton of P2O5 produced using the HH process. Table 4 shows chemical analysis of a typical HH PG, in comparison with those from other processes. Table 4. Analyses of PG from Different Processes. Item (wt.%)
Dihydrate
HemiHydrate
HemiDi-Hydrate
CaO SO3 P2O5
32.50
36.90
32.20
44.00
50.30
46.50
0.65
1.50
0.25
F SiO2 Fe2O3
1.20
0.80
0.50
0.50
0.70
0.40
0.10
0.10
0.50
Al2O3
0.10
0.30
0.30
MgO Crystal H 2O
0.10
---
---
19.00
9.0
20.00
PG from Hemi-Dihydrate (HDH) Process
To draw advantages from both the DH and HH processes, engineers have developed the HemiDihydrate (HDH) Process, which has limited installations in Europe and Japan. The advantages of this process therefore include a clean PG, an energy saving, and a higher P2O5 acid. However, higher capital and maintenance costs compromise those advantages quite significantly. Approximately 4.9 tons of PG is generated per ton of P2O5 produced using the DH process. Table 4 shows chemical analysis of a typical PG, in comparison with those from other processes
WORLD PG STATISTICS
World’s PG production statistics have not been well documented. However, relatively accurate estimates may be derived from phosphoric acid production, which is collected by International Fertilization Association (IFA). According to one study (Hilton, et al, 2010), by 1980, the phosphate industry was producing about 120-150 million metric tons of PG annually among which 14% was reused, 58% stored, and
28 dumped. It must be pointed out that the amount of PG dumped is declining with Morocco and others doing away with ocean dumping, and China enforcing stacking.
Figure 1. shows worldwide phosphate rock production and various uses in 2005. Assuming that 0.3 ton of P2O5 is extracted from each ton of phosphate rock and that on average 4.5 tons of PG is generated per ton of P2O5 produced, the total PG production would be about 160 million tons.
PHOSPHOGYPSUM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Stacking is the most widely used disposal method for unused PG worldwide, and more and more government regulators are coming up with PG stacking rulings similar to that by the Florida Department of Environment Protection (FDEP).
STACKING IN FLORIDA, USA The Core of the FDEP PG Rule 62-673
The current PG stacking and management practices in Florida follow Florida Department of Environment Protection’s regulation (DEP) 62-673.220, which applies to new phosphogypsum stack systems or lateral expansions of existing phosphogypsum stack systems for which a complete permit application or request for modification of an existing permit is submitted after March 25, 1993.
Figure 1. World Phosphate Rock Production and Use Distribution in 2005(IFA Statistics). Major phosphoric acid producers, hence PG producers, are listed in Table 5 (IFA statistics).
Table 5. Major Phosphoric Acid Producers of the World (1000 tons P2O5). Country
2008
2007
2006
China
9530.0
9700.0
8100.0
USA
7877.0
9567.7
9351.2
Morocco
2769.6
3458.2
3410.4
Russia
2322.0
3202.4
2200.0
Tunisia
1430.0
1500.0
1520.0
India
1120.0
1207.0
1370.0
Brazil
1063.9
1273.5
1228.8
South Africa
871.6
846.1
784.5
West Europe
817.8
954.6
948.1
Israel
549.6
610.0
566.8
Central Europe
503.2
572.5
547.8
Jordan
460.2
480.5
576.1
Australia
433.1
428.9
420.0
Phosphogypsum Stack System Construction Requirements. Under this ruling, all PG stacks must be constructed with composite liners and leachate control systems. The composite liner is composed of a geomembrane (Polyethylene) liner, 60-mil or thicker, with a vapor transmission rate≤ of 0.24 grams per square meter per day; a layer of compacted soil, ≥18 inches, placed below the geomembrane, with a hydraulic conductivity ≤ 1 × 10-7 cm/second; a layer of mechanically compacted PG, ≥ 24 inches, placed above the geomembrane, with a hydraulic conductivity ≤ of 1 × 10-4 cm/s. A perimeter underdrain system designed to stabilize the side slopes of the PG is installed above the geomembrane liner. PG Stack Closure Standards. All PG stacks have a final cover, consisting of a barrier soil layer at least 18 inches thick, a final, 18-inch thick layer of soil or amended phosphogypsum placed on top of the barrier layer to sustain vegetation. A geomembrane may be used as an alternative to the low-permeability soil barrier for a final cover. The owner or operator of PG stacks is required to provide proof of financial assurance for the cost of closure.
Example of a Florida Stack Design
Figure 2 shows a stack under construction in Florida (Morris, 2004). This stack was successfully constructed and ready for operation in January of 1990. It was designed with a 1.32 million sq m base and for an ultimate operation height of approximately of 61 m. “The stack base has a clay confining layer with a minimum thickness of 4.6 m. Inside this area, a 46 cm compacted clay liner formed with a
Studies & Researches
vertical coefficient of permeability equal to or less than 1 x 10-8 cm/s. The clay liner is provided with a 31-cm. protective soil cover and an overlying underdrain system. The under-drain system is comprised of lateral drains placed approximately on 30-m. centers. The lateral drains consist of 15-cm. diameter, perforated, corrugated HDPE pipe set in a bed of nonreactive silica fine gravel, which, in turn is surrounded by an envelope of clean silica sand that acts as a filter for the gypsum. A 61-cm thick blanket of sand is also provided beneath the perimeter piping system and directed to a sump and pump station, from where it is returned to the process plant for re-use. A network of groundwater monitoring wells surrounds the new stack measuring the performance of the liner. Grass is grown on the sides of the stack as the height increases” (Morris, 2004).
3. Covering the above plastic cover with a layer of soil and establishing a vegetative cover.
Many factors need to be considered in decommissioning and closing a phosphogypsum stack, including, groundwater impact, leachate control, infiltration control, storm water management, and appearance. In general, a PG closure plan is composed of the following five major tasks: • Filling top cavity and initial dewatering. • Controlling leachate. • Restoring shoreline grades and vegetation. • Decreasing infiltration. • Managing storm water.
PG STACKING IN CHINA
In the past, a majority of PG produced in China is “dumped” in dammed valleys or ponds with dikes, without lining. This practice is now outlawed by the Chinese government. The new PG stacks are constructed and managed in the similar manner to Florida practice. Figure 3 shows a new PG stack on high elevation. This stack takes advantage of the area topography. Since it is situated in a mountainous valley, no dams are needed. The stack, however, is lined with a thick polyethylene liner.
Figure 2. A Florida Stack under Construction
“The composite liner system consisted of a 60mil thick HDPE geo-membrane and a 31-cm. thick re-compacted gypsum layer with a hydraulic conductivity of 1 x 10-4 cm/sec. A passive gas venting system consisting of interconnected gravelfilled trenches lined with non-woven geo-textile was also constructed within the sub-grade directly below liner”.
Gypsum Stack Operation in Florida
Phosphogypsum slurry coming out from the acid plant contains about 30% solids and 70% acidic process water. This slurry is pumped to the top of the stack and discharged into perimeter deposition ponds. The process water is then decanted into a center storage pond and removed from the stack for recycle via a siphon.
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Phosphogypsum Stack Closure Plan in Florida
46 47
Stack closure in Florida typically includes the following steps:
1. Grading the top of the stack to provide positive drainage 2. Installing a thick high-density polyethylene (HDPE) top cover
Figure 3. A PG Stack in Hubei, China
STACKING IN BRAZIL
As is shown in Figure 4, the Brazilian PG stacking practice is also similar to Florida practice.
GYPSUM STACKING WITHOUT LINING AND CAPPING Prayon pioneered a PG stacking method without lining (Theys, 2004). The Prayon PG is stacked in a dedicated landfill close to its plant in Engis, Belgium. The phosphoric acid plant uses the central-Prayon process (CPP). This is a double crystallization process capable of producing hemihydrate with a very low P2O5 content. The neutralization of this hemihydrate makes it possible to obtain, after natural rehydration, a gypsum that releases a very limited amount of impurities leached into the water. The concentrations of impurities all meet Belgian surface water standards. This type of stack, therefore, does not need underlining and or capping.
In the CPP process, the calcium sulphate is crystallized in two stages. In the first stage the calcium sulphate is crystallized as dehydrate, which is converted into hemihydrate in the second stage of crystallization. Hemihydrates transform free water into crystal water during a curing period when it reverts to dehydrate, creating essentially a dry PG with characteristics similar to natural gypsum. Much as we like the Prayon process, it is unlikely that this technology will be adopted broadly for two main reasons, high capital cost for the acid plant and limited supply of high grade, “a specific blend of phosphates” (Theys, 2004). Figure 5 shows hemihydrate discharge point and its subsequent curing area, and Figure 6 shows a stack for unused PG.
Earth cover
Replanted stack
New PG
Natural hill
Figure 6. View of the Prayon PG Stack Showing Reclaimed, Covered and Active Areas (Theys, 2004).
PROBLEMS WITH STACKING
Although the Florida style stacking with lining is the state-of- art PG disposal practice and may stay dominant in the phosphate industry for years to come, this practice is neither cost effective nor environmentally sound. As a matter of fact, it has the following major problems: • Spills of process water on top of PG stacks • Possible groundwater contamination • Occupy a significant amount of land
• Can be located in highly sensitive, increasingly populated areas • Costs of constructing, operating and closing
stacks
PHOSPHOGYPSUM USE IN AGRICULTURE
To understand why PG is beneficial to agriculture, let us take a look at Table 6 (David Kost). Among the essential elements for plants, PG possesses three major ones, calcium, sulfur and phosphorus. Table 6. Relative Numbers of Atoms Required by Plants
Element
Figure 5. Discharge point of the hemihydrate (belt conveyor above the bridge) and rehydration area (white stack) (Theys, 2004).
Mo Cu Zn Mn B Fe Cl S
Relative number 1 100 300 1000 2000 2000 3000 30000
Element P Mg Ca K N O C H
Relative number 60000 80000 125000 250000 1000000 30000000 35000000 60000000
Studies & Researches
Accord to Professor Sumner (1995), calcium plays the following vital roles in plant growth: • • • •
Playing functions in cells development Essential for membrane integrity Essential for functioning of hormones Aiding in the signaling of environmental changes • Offsetting the toxic effects of Al
Sulfur plays three important roles in crops: 1) it is an essential element for plant growth, 2) it is a constituent of a number of amino acids, and 3) it is needed for protein synthesis. The obvious benefits of phosphogypsum in agriculture is providing plant nutrients including sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), and to a lesser degree phosphorus (P). Numerous studies have demonstrated that use of PG enhances root growth thus helping plants absorb other nutrients, especially N (Vanusa, 2010). Dissolution of PG in soil provides essential electrolytes to maintain hydraulic conductivities and increase infiltration rates thus preventing crusting and reducing erosion. The exchangeable Ca in PG can ameliorate subsoil acidity and Al3+ toxicity and reclaim sodic soils. PG is also known for its capability of improving soil structure by flocculating clays in soil.
Since PG has so many benefits to crops and soil, the potential for PG use in agriculture cannot be under estimated. The world’s crop area is more than 4.5 billion hectares. Assuming a PG application rate of 0.1 ton per hectare per year, 450 million tons could be consumed each year, far exceeding the current production rate of 160 million tons.
CASE STUDY I: PG AS CA SOURCE
Peanuts growth has a high demand for calcium, which is usually provided by either natural gypsum or PG. The following table shows the results of PG use for peanuts growth. Table 7: Effect of PG Use on Peanuts Yields Georgia, USA, 1951.
Arab fertilizers
Peanuts Type
48 49
Small Spanish NC Runner Virginia Bunch NCS31
Average yield of pods, lbs/ac No PG
PG at 500lbs/ac
1193
1339
1156
1602
980
1914
741
2034
Many fruits and vegetables also need extra calcium for both high quality and high yield. Table 8 shows that PG use not only doubled apple yield but also increased calcium content in the fruit. Table 8. Effect of PG Use on Apple Yield and Quality, Brazil Apple yield, kg/tree
Treatment
Leaf Ca, wt.%
Fruit Ca, wt.%
Control
1.04
0.029
4.4
Lime
1.42
0.029
6.6
PG
1.58
0.035
9.1
CASE STUDY II. PG AS S SOURCE
Many lab studies, field demonstration projects as well as farming and ranching practices have demonstrated the beneficial effects of PG as a sulfur source on numerous species of grass and crop. The improved quality of forage has also resulted in better quality beef and lamb. Table 9 shows effect of PG on crimson clover yield at different application rate. Table 9. Effect of PG on Forage Yield-Florida, USA
Gypsum rate lbs/ac 0 22 44 88 176
Crimson Clover yield, lbs/ac 1954 1871 2192 2244 2272 2331
1955 1533 1774 1788 1997 2011
1956 2567 3113 3130 3461 3647
CASE STUDY III: PG AS SOIL CONDITIONER
As was pointed out earlier, PG dissolution in soil provides electrolytes and exchangeable Ca, which are beneficial to both acidic and sodic soils. Table 10 demonstrates PG use in acidic soil. Table 10. Conditioning of Acid Soil with PG – Georgia, USA
Gypsum rate lbs/ac 0 22 44 88 176
Crimson Clover yield, lbs/ac 1954 1871 2192 2244 2272 2331
1955 1533 1774 1788 1997 2011
1956 2567 3113 3130 3461 3647
Conditioning of sodic soil with PG is better understood than that of acidic soil. China is currently consuming 1.5 million tons of PG a majority of which is for sodic soil conditioning. Figure 7 shows the dramatic effect of PG on cotton yield from a sodic soil in Kazakhstan.
CEMENT There are three major approaches for utilizing PG to make cement. The first approach is direct use as PG based cement mortars. Hemihydrate PG was found to be more suitable than dehydrate PG for this purpose (Chang and Lin, 1986). The second approach is high temperature treatment to convert dehydrate PG into hemihydrate, the treated PG is then used as cement retarder. Due to its energy consumption, this method has an economic disadvantage against natural gypsum. High phosphate content in PG, whether as undissolved phosphate rock or in acid form, has detrimental effects on this application by retarding the settling time and concrete strength (Howell-Potgieter and Potgieter, 2001).
Figure 1. Cotton yield as affected by different rates of phosphogypsum application (4.5 and 8.0 t /ha).
Conditioning of lightly weathered soil with PG in southeastern US has achieved extremely encouraging results, as is shown in Table 11. Table 11. Conditioning of Lightly Weathered Soil with PG–Southeastern US. Crop
PG, ton/ha
Cumulative yield increase, t/ha
Appling (7)
Alfalfa
10
2.5
Dyke (4)
Alfalfa
5
5.5
Dyke (4)
Alfalfa
10
5.8
Cecil (3)
Alfalfa
10
5.0
Celil (4)
Cotton
10
0.9
Appling
Peaches
10
7.5
Appling (5)
Soybeans
1.7
3461
Place (years)
PHOSPHOGYPSUM USE IN CONSTRUCTION Many uses have been found for phosphogypsum as construction materials, such as cement retarder, wallboard, plasterboard, building blocks, stucco, plaster, road base materials, and building structure. With exception as road base materials, most of the uses require high temperature treatment, usually by calcination, to convert dehydrate PG into at least hemihydrates.
Another approach involves recovering sulfur from PG and using the clinker as the major component for making cement.
WALL BOARD OR PLASTER In this application, the CdF Chemie process has played an important role. This process is accomplished in five steps: 1) PG is slurried, agitated and screened to remove coarse phosphate and quartz, and then deslimed using hydrocyclone to remove fine impurities; 2) Deslimed PG is filtered in a flash dryer; 3) Dry PG is heated in flash dryer #2 to produce hemihydrate (CaSO4∙1/2 H2O) & some anhydrate; and 4) Product from dryer #2 is treated in dryer #3 to produce pure hemihydrate for wall board or plaster. This approach, with some modifications, is now widely used in China. Rotary kiln is now the choice calcination equipment for PG pre-treatment.
PG BUILDING BLOCKS Raw Materials In this application, dehydrate PG is first calcined and converted into hemihydrate as the major raw materials. Other materials include admixture such as retarder and WRA (Water Reducing Admixture); additive, such as fly ash and cement; light weight aggregates; and water. This type of blocks is usually used for non-load-bearing partition walls.
Process The flowsheet for making PG blocks may be simplified as the block diagram shown in Figure 8.
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Slurry Preparation Slurry Casting Figure 8. PG Block Manufacturing Process Flowchart.
Setting De-molding Drying Packing
Types of PG Blocks
Based on structure, PG blocks may be classified as solid block and hollow block. Figure 9 shows some typical shapes. According to their function, PG blocks can be divided into common block for nonmoisture environments and water resistant block for kitchen and bath room.
Figure 9. Different Shapes of PG Blocks.
Advantages of PG Blocks
PG block can unarguably be classified as a green building material, not only because it is made of a waste material, but also because it has many environmental benefits. Production of PG block emits 0.50 kg of CO2 per square meter, versus 6.26 for clay bricks and 10.8 for concrete blocks (Shen, 2010). PG block also has a thermal conductivity of 0.20 w/mK, versus 0.79 for clay bricks and 1.25 for concrete blocks, and can therefore reduce energy use for houses or office buildings. Other advantages of PG block include light weight, higher earthquake resistance and better fire proof quality.
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Measures for Improving Water Resistance Property of PG Blocks
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One major challenge to PG block is its low water resistance property. This has been overcome by three measures, adding pozzuolanic activity material such as fly ash and cement, adding wateraverse materials such as certain silicone powder, and surface treatment with a water proof agent.
DEVELOPMENTS IN CHINA
This section focuses on China for two main reasons. First, China is now the world’s leading PG producer, reaching 50 million tons annually. Another important reason is that China is now most active in PG utilization, both in terms of research and commercialization.
The booming housing and commercial construction coupled with environmental pressure have prompted China to pursue the use of PG aggressively in recent years, driving its PG consumption from 10% in 2005 to the current level of 20% (Wu, 2010).
The status and the near future PG use in China may be summarized by the following bullets: • Current PG use is 20% of production, targeting for 30% in 5 years • Ministry of Industry and Information is drafting new policy with incentives for PG use • Modified PG as cement retarder, over 10 plants in operation, consuming 2.5 million tons PG/ year • Calcined PG for wall board and binding materials • High strength, water proof PG bricks, a plant is expanding to make 0.4 billion pieces • PG for mine reclamation, 1.5 million tons/year • Plants in operation producing H SO & cement 2 4 • Plant under construction for producing ammonium sulfate using PG • Research on low-temperature PG decomposition achieving encouraging development • Agriculture use consuming 1.5 million tons of PG per year
Wengfu Group’s Major Projects - #1
Wengfu Group is currently China’s largest conglomerate with phosphate as its core business, and is play a leading role in finding various uses for PG. Its current PG use plant produces 500,000 square meters of PG blocks, 10,000 tons of PG painting material, and 10,000 tons of binding agent (He, 2010). It has also complete a major demonstration project using wall structure made of PG. More importantly, Wengfu Group has recently launched three ambitious projects by establishing three subsidiaries specializing in PG utilization. One such subsidiary is Guizhou Lishen New Materials Ltd, which has invested in two production lines for producing cement retarder using PG, each line with a capacity of 400,000 tons/year. The first line is scheduled for production by the end of 2011. When two lines are in operation, this plant will consume 700,000 tons of PG per year.
Wengfu Group’s Major Projects - #2
Collaborating with China Construction Materials Group, Wengfu also formed a new company called Tai Fu Gypsum Ltd. This company is investing $70 million to build a production plant for manufacturing
PG board with paper cover, with a capacity of 30 million square meters. The plant is scheduled for production by December 2011, and will use 300,000 tons of PG annually.
Wengfu Group’s Major Projects - #3
Yet another new Wengfu subsidiary is the Guizhou Wenfu Tianhe New Materials Technology, which has invested in one production plant for manufacturing water resistant PG blocks with a plant capacity of 100 million pieces. The plant is designed to consume 165,000 tons of PG a year.
Wengfu Group’s Demonstration Project
The two buildings shown in Picture 10 are part of Wengfu’s demonstration project using innovative wall structure made of PG.
Figure 11. Three Views of the One-step PG Block Plant.
PG USE AS A ROAD BASE MATERIAL
The Florida Institute of Phosphate Research (FIPR) pioneered the research and demonstration on PG use as a road base material. The FIPR studies spanned nearly 30 years, covering testing of various mixtures of PG with cement, leaching studies, risk assessments, and environmental monitoring studies. Conclusions from those studies may be summarized in three sentences:
One Step (Kailin) Process for Producing Water Resistant Blocks with Dihydrate PG
Kailin, a phosphate company in China, challenges the conventional wisdom of converting dihydrate PG into hemihydrates for making PG blocks, and has developed and commercialized a process for direct use of PG. This process is unique in that all wastes generated from the company’s operations are used for making the PG blocks, including untreated PG and slag from “yellow” phosphorus furnace as the main raw materials, and flue gas CO from the “yellow” phosphorus furnace as heat source for drying. The following pictures show the plant in operation.
1. PG use as a road base material poses no environmental and human health problems. 2. PG is a superior road base materials 3. Using PG saves lots of money.
Figure 12 shows the test road with PG after 21 years, getting better as it ages.
Figure 12. Condition of Test PG Road After 21 Years. Table 12 shows dramatic cost saving using PG as a road base material
Item
Tanner Road
Materials Labor Equipment Total
35,009 28,912 34,418 98,339
Cost, $/mile Windy Hill Road Parrish with PG Road 47,719 0 38,408 9,511 43,193 13,974 129,320 23,485
Table 12. Cost Comparison of Road with PG to Roads with Traditional Materials.
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Potential for PG Use as Road Base
The US adds about 34,000 lane miles of new roads every year, while Florida adds 2,300 lane miles per year. Road base can consume over 4,000 tons of PG per lane mile, which translates to 140 million tons per year for US and 10 million tons for Florida alone.
HOGYPSUM USE AS A CHEMICAL RAW MATERIAL
Although various chemicals can be extracted from PG, only sulfur recovery and ammonium sulfate manufacturing have been seriously pursued and commercialized.
SULFUR RECOVERY PROCESS 1
In terms of chemistry, sulfur recovery from PG can be classified as two basic processes. The following reactions take place in the so called Process 1: CaSO4 + 2C 4 CaS + 2CO2 CaS + H2O + CO2 4 CaCO3 + H2S 2H2S + 3O2 4 2SO2 + 2H2O 2H2S + SO2 4 3S + H2O
It can be seen that Process 1 generates calcium carbonate as the major by-product.
SULFUR RECOVERY PROCESS 2
Process 2 generates lime (CaO) as the major byproduct, with the following major reaction 2CaSO4 + C 4 CaO + 2CO2 + SO2
SULFUR RECOVERY FROM PG: IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY PROCESS
Under FIPR funding, the Iowa State University developed a process to decompose PG using fluidized bed. In this process, PG is treated in a two-zone fluidized bed reactor with natural gas or high-sulfur coal as fuel. In the reducing zone CaSO4 is decomposed into CaO, SO2 and CaS at relatively lower temperature, while in the oxidizing zone, CaS is converted to CaO and SO2. The reactor off-gas is converted into sulfuric acid.
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SULFUR RECOVERY FROM PG: OSW-KRUPP PROCESS
52 53
The OSW-Krupp process involves decomposing PG in rotary kiln to produce about equal amount of concentrated sulfuric acid and Portland cement. This process was practiced in both Austria and South Africa (Wheelock, 1987). In this process, dried PG, coke, sand and clay are mixed, ground and pelletized; the pellets are fed into a Krubb rotary kiln; the SO2 from the kiln is treated and converted into sulfuric acid; and the clinker from the kiln is mixed with gypsum to make cement.
AMMONIUM SULFATE PRODUCTION FROM PG (MERSEBURG PROCESS)
This process for ammonium sulfate production can be expressed by the following two chemical reactions: 2NH3 + CO2 + H2O 4 (NH4)2CO3
CaSO4 + (NH4)2CO3 4 (NH4)2SO4 + CaCO3
WENGFU GROUP’S MAJOR PROJECTS - #4
A plant is under construction by the Wengfu Group for production of ammonium sulfate and light CaO. The plant is designed with two production lines each with a capacity of 250,000 tons of ammonium sulfate per year. It is scheduled for production by December 2010, and will consume 171,000 tons of PG.
WENGFU GROUP’S MAJOR PROJECTS - #5
Wengfu, in collaboration with a University, is conducting pilot testing on decomposition of PG in fluidization bed for production of sulfuric acid and light lime (CaO). The company is planning to build a plant based on this technology with a capacity of 1 million tons of sulfuric acid, capable of consuming 2 million tons of PG per year.
PG USE FOR MINE RECLAMATION
In North Carolina, one company has been practicing mine reclamation using PG. Approximately 3 parts of PG is mixed with one part of waste clay and pumped to the disposal site. The mixture can be dewatered and become consolidated in about a year. The surface can then be revegetated.
The Kailin Company in China developed a selfconsolidation process for reclaiming underground mine cuts using PG and other wastes from their operation. About 1.5 to 2 million tons of PG is consumed in this manner.
CONCLUSIONS
Stacking of PG is neither environmentally safe nor economically viable. PG use in construction has taken off on large scale in China.
PG use in agriculture has been proven and will play a major role in reducing PG accumulation.
PG use as chemical raw materials is highly sensitive to price fluctuation, but may grow significantly where sulfur resource is limited.
Studies & Researches
Urea Dust & Ammonia Emission Control from Prilling Tower 1.0 Abstract
SABIC has committed itself to adopt the state of the art technology to be a pioneer in environmental sustainability. AlBayroni, one of SABIC Affiliates, owns Urea Plant which was commissioned in 1983. The plant is having a natural draught Prilling Tower with continuous emission of Urea Dust Particles and Ammonia to the atmosphere which was the latest technology at that time.
As a strategic proactive approach AlBayroni has reduced the urea dust, ammonia emission and waste water discharge from Urea plant by implementing a prill tower dust recovery systems. The paper shares the experience of AlBayroni in achieving reduction in Urea dust and Ammonia emission exceeding international requirements/standards. The best available technology was adopted. The system mainly consists of acid wash scrubbers, and a crystallization unit to recover the absorbed materials. PROZAP Co. from Poland did the engineering work and supplied the proprietary equipment while GEA Messo Co. from Germany supplied the crystallization unit.
In addition, this paper addresses the lessons learned during the execution of the project and judged to be of great value to plants who want to implement similar environmental projects.
2.0 Introduction
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Al-Jubail Fertilizer Co (Al-Bayroni) is a 50/ 50 joint venture between Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC) and the Taiwan Fertilizer Company (T.F.C). Al Bayroni was established on December 4th, 1979 to manufacture fertilizers. Commercial production of ammonia and urea fertilizer began in early 1983.
54 55
The process licenser of Ammonia plant is KBR and it has a capacity of 1270 MTPD. In addition, the process licenser of urea plant is Stamicarbon with 1950 MTPD capacity. In 1995 Al-Bayroni diversified into the manufacture of petrochemicals and started manufacturing of
Mr. Rafea Al-Mohaws - Albayroni Mr. Hassan Al-Khulaif - Albayroni Mr. Basheer Al-Awami - SABIC
2EH (2-ethyl hexanol) in 1995 with a capacity of 470 MTPD and DOP (Di-Octyl Phthalate) in 1997 having 150 MTPD.
3.0 Sustainability, the SABIC way... DUST CONTROL - AN EXAMPLE OF SUSTAINABILITY :
SABIC, always looking at ways of saving the environment, by optimizing their basic processes, raw material utilization, saving water etc. One such illustrative example is the dust control project taken up by its affiliates Al BAYRONI, IBN AL BAYTAR and SAFCO.
This project was started in 2007 whereby Urea (In Dust Form) and Ammonia emissions released from Urea Plants will be controlled and reduced. The developed technology involved designing of an effective scrubber, using acid and water to scrub off the urea dust and escaping ammonia. The collected solution was further crystallized to make useful saleable product like ammonium sulphate. The implementation was successfully completed at AlBayroni and in 2 out of 4 plants in SAFCO. As a socially responsible company, SABIC always looks at the growth, with sustainability. SABIC takes utmost care in all its processes, to safe guard the environment. With focus on continuous improvement through research, the processes are often revisited and improved to cater to the changing needs and stringent global requirements.
4.0 Urea Plant Process Description
Urea is produced in Albayroni site according to Stamicarbon CO2 stripping process with design capacity of 1600 MTPD.
CO2 enters the bottom of the stripper and heated
in counter current with urea solution coming from reactor. Ammonia reacts with stripped gas CO2 from H.P. stripper in the HP carbamate condenser.
Carbamate is formed with large amount of heat generation. This is cooled by generating steam in the shell side of the carbamate condenser.
In Urea reactor, the slow endothermic reaction involving carbamate conversion to urea product is taking place. (1) 2NH3 + CO2
4 NH2COONH4 (Ammonium carbamate)
(2) NH2COONH4 4 NH2CONH2+H2O Ammonium Carbamate 4 Urea + water. The reaction mixture, leaving the reactor via an overflow line, is discharged to the stripper, where the mixture is distributed over a large quantity of tubes, by means of liquid dividers between the gas tubes and the tubes sheet. CO2 gas introduced in counter current flow through the tubes, causes the partial NH3 pressure to decrease, as a result of
which carbamate starts to decompose. HP steam is admitted around the tubes to provide the required heat.
The liquid from the stripper is discharged to the recirculation section. Reactor off-gas is entering the bottom of the HP scrubber to be condensed. The urea carbamate solution leaving the bottom part of the stripper is sent to the low pressure section for further carbamate decomposition and urea concentration of about 72 %. The urea solution is concentrated to about 99.7% wt by evaporating the water in two stages evaporators under vacuum. The concentrated urea melt is pumped to the prilling bucket, on the top of the prilling tower.
The solidified prills are transferred to the Bulk storage or loading station via Fluid bed Cooler. By original design, the prilling tower was a natural draft prilling tower and the plant did not have a dust recovery system.See the Block body diagram, Figure 1 below:
NH3
Co2 Figure 1
Later it was decided to bring down the urea dust and ammonia gas emission from prilling tower to international standards, so urea dust and ammonia gas recovery project was commissioned and put on service since June 2009. Please see below illustration of the project, Figure 3.
Figure 2
The height of the Prilling tower is about 80 meters and the exhaust was let to the atmosphere without any dust-recovery system. See below Figure 2
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5.1.1 Process Description
Figure 3 After establishment of this project, prilling tower emissions are safer than the local environmental requirements and the company was given an environmental award.
5.0 Prill Tower Emission Control Project
This paper mainly deals with the urea dust & ammonia gas recovery project which consists of air cleaning unit and Crystallization unit
5.1 Air Cleaning unit:
Flow diagram, Figure 4: as illustrated below
The UNIT’s service includes cleaning of dust-laden exit air stream leaving Prill Tower of Urea Plant. Capacity of the UNIT is variable and corresponds to the flow-rate of the air stream ascending the prilling tower to cool urea prills. The scrubbers i.e. the major items of equipment of the air cleaning unit have been arranged on the steel construction fixed on the ground. Exit air stream leaving the existing prilling tower is transferred through 3 m dia. gas ducts down to the scrubbers. The other equipment such as filters, tanks, pumps have been arranged on the ground level also or on the steel construction. Neither liquid nor solid waste material is discharged from the Exit Air of Cleaning Unit. Some liquid and solid wastes may be formed occasionally during cleaning of filters and other equipment during maintenance work or in emergency conditions. The air cleaning process involves 2 stages or unit operations, namely:
A. Humidification of the urea dust-laden air stream with water mist up to full saturation with extremely fine water droplets or mist, whereby even extremely fine dust particles, sized 0.3 to 2.0 microns dissolve, thus to form urea solution mist; B. Neutralization of ammonia carried by the exit air stream, with sulphuric acid added to the humidifying liquid, whereby ammonia sulphate solution is formed; The above exit air treatment process involves the use of special spraying nozzles capable of producing mist of finely atomized water droplets and demisting pads of high specific surface. The scrubbers are designed not only to remove urea dust from the exit air stream but also to remove gaseous ammonia carried with the air stream, by reacting it with sulphuric acid, to form ammonia sulphate.
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2NH3 + H2SO4 4 (NH4)2SO4
56 57
Sulphuric acid demand corresponds to stoichiometric usage of the acid reacted with the gaseous ammonia. The injected acid becomes well mixed with the circulating solution in the Mixer. Through passing the system of pumps and filters it becomes thoroughly mixed with the recycle stream. A product (Urea Ammonium Sulphate solution) from Cleaning Unit is tapped off the loop and passed on to the Crystallization Unit. Figure 4
In acid-free operating mode (i.e. without sulphuric acid injection) product stream tapped from the UNIT is an aqueous urea solution up to 20+25% wt; it shall be sent directly to Urea Plant.
5.2 Crystallization Unit: 5.2.1 Flow diagram
Figure 5
5.2.2 Process Description
To obtain a pure product the feed solution from cleaning unit is firstly treated and filtered. The feed solution containing undissolved particles is fed flow controlled into a reaction vessel, where ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) is added by means of an additional dosing station to adjust the pH-value to around 5. The mixed solution is then guided into a filter where all solids are separated from the solution.
The solution pump delivers the feed solution into the crystallizer system. The evaporator / crystallizer is constructed as forced recirculation crystallizer. The recirculation pump ensures directed recirculation in this crystallizer, whereby the recirculation rate is matched to the operating conditions of the heat exchange process. The suspension flows through the heat exchanger whereby re-circulating suspension takes up heat, which is put in by condensation of heating steam. After leaving the heat exchanger, the heated solution is taken to the evaporator. The heat of evaporation required for the boiling process is withdrawn from the solution, which cools down until the equilibrium is reached again. The cooling of the solution as well as the withdrawal
of the solvent water produces a controlled supersaturation of the solution, which is the driving force for the crystallization process. This is immediately started and the de-supersaturation takes place by crystal growth on the suspended crystals.
The crystal slurry is pumped to a centrifuge where the mother liquor is separated from the crystals. From the centrifuge the crystals are fed via a screw conveyor into a dryer cooler unit, where the product is dried up to a final product. UAS product, commercially known as super ammonium sulphate (SAS) specification is as below:
Parameter
Unit Specification
Total Nitrogen as N Wt % 21.00 (Minimum) Sulfur as S
Wt % 16.70 (Minimum)
Moisture
Wt % 0.5 (Maximum)
Color
-
Yellowish
pH
-
4.5 – 5.5
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6.0 Challenges Faced. 6.1 Huge duct and scaffolding erection.
part was connected when the plant was running. The entire erection, usage and removal were done without a single Loss Time due to Injury.
6.2 Abnormal Sand problems.
Severe sand storms forced some sand dust into the prilling tower and they were caught by the filters in air cleaning unit. We had to clean often and the problem is severe only during dusty wind time. The area around the air intake is also maintained free from dust to avoid this filter choking problem.
6.3 44 side doors to facilitate natural draft operation
It was a tough challenge to modify the top of Prill Tower to make a platform around the Prill Tower to facilitate operators for opening 44 side-doors to revert back to Natural Draft Prilling in case of any technical problem in the system. This is a unique design in the world.
6.4 Modification of the roof plate at Prill Tower top
The top of the Prilling Tower is at 80 m height and to cut away the 2 mm thick SS plate to make six openings and then weld the 2.2 m diameter ducts was challenging in the extreme windy and dusty conditions during June 2008. Also, modifications were done to accommodate the 3 m diameter ducts on two sides of the tower to bring the dust to the scrub
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Figure 6
58 59
The prilling tower height is about 80 meters and huge SS ducts are to be brought down to reach the scrubber at the ground. Extra care was taken to identify the competent scaffolding contractor and the scaffolding was inspected by a third party at every 10 meters. High wind speed was a real obstacle and the job had to be stopped often for safety. To save down time of urea plant only the top portion was erected during the turnaround and the major
Figure 7
6.5 Successfully commissioned cleaning and crystallization without any lost day injury. 7.0 Achievement Results 7.1 Emission Control The performance test results (PTR) conducted after the commission of the project showed tremendous change in the dust and Ammonia emissions. PTR dates are tabulated below. All the guaranteed figures have been met.
7.2 Performance Data: Item
Unit
Before After Guarantee
Urea Dust
mg/Nm3
206
30
50
NH3 Emission mg/Nm3
210
36
45
7.5 SABIC Sustainability By completing this project in Albayroni, no more environmental issues are pending in this affiliate. This project has helped Albayroni to score the 3rd position in Royal Commission Environmental award in year 2009. Also, this project gave SABIC the opportunity to participate in the IFA Green Leaf Award 2010.
7.6 Water Conservation In the project design, DM water or potable water was planned to be used as makeup water for the cleaning unit scrubbers. However, Albayroni is producing waste water from urea plant which is discharged to Royal commission for further treatment. Now, this waste water has been utilized as the makeup water for the scrubbers. 20 M3/H of potable water has been saved.
7.3 New Product Urea – Ammonium sulphate solution has been crystallized and introduced as a new fertilizer product to the market under commercial name of super ammonium sulfate (SAS).
7.4 Quality Improvement The new forced draft prilling has helped in removing most of urea dust and reduce the final product temperature. This has helped in reducing the caking tendency of urea prills.
8.0 Conclusion SABIC is on constant search to adopt state of the art technology to be the pioneer to protect Safety, Health and Environment .Urea and Ammonia emissions from the Prill tower or urea granulators can be brought down below international limits by acid-water scrubbing system effectively. Al-Bayroni and Safco plants experience in this project can be of high value lesson learned to plants who want to implement similar environmental projects.
Figure 8
Studies & Researches
Farming has to come first to achieve the MDGs Ajay S. Shriram President, International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA) and Chairman and Senior Managing Director, DCM Shriram Consolidated Ltd., India
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“What nations with small farms and resource poor farmers need is the enhancement of productivity in perpetuity, without associated ecological or social harm. The green revolution should become an ever-green revolution rooted in the principles of ecology, economics and social and gender equity.” Professor M.S. Swaminathan, the “Father of Economic Ecology”
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Returning crops and the farmer to the centre of policy decisions is fundamental to achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and to sustainable development. As the food crisis of 2008 showed, governments, businesses, scientists and civil society groups need to focus on the sources of our food and nutrition security. To avoid such events, all these groups must work together to enable the millions of farm families, especially smallholders and women farmers, to increase crop production sustainably through the maintenance of effective markets, more collaborative research, and committed knowledge sharing. The fertilizer industry is committed to building alliances and partnerships that will enable farmers worldwide access to knowledge, technologies and capacities. Our experience as a private partner is that in most countries the main constraint is not the availability of technology or knowledge, but how to deliver the same to the farmer’s gate. We call this “last-mile delivery” – of knowledge, services, tools, innovation and markets. A necessary component of meeting the MDGs by 2015 in many parts of the world is a more productive, profitable and sustainable agricultural sector. For most of the rural poor, who constitute
a large proportion of the developing world’s population, agriculture is critical to attaining the MDGs. Improving the productivity and profitability of farming makes a direct contribution to achieving MDG 1: halving the proportion of those suffering from extreme poverty and hunger. Better farming systems lead to higher incomes, more food and better diets. Agriculture also directly contributes to achieving MDG 7: ensuring environmental sustainability. Farmers are the stewards of our soils, water and plants. In addition, by providing the rural poor with increased revenues, agriculture indirectly contributes to improved livelihoods and thus to all the MDGs. When farming families manage to increase production, they can sell their surplus and raise extra income to pay for school fees, hospital visits, medicines and more nutritious food (MDGs 2,4 and 5). In low-income countries, agriculture-led economic growth is the only means by which the poor can satisfy their needs sustainably. I would like to share with you the fertilizer industry’s experience in finding innovative and easily replicable ways to increase agricultural productivity sustainably, reach this last mile, and improve conditions for farmers through new business models and public-private partnerships.
First,
to bridge the gap in last-mile delivery of services, we need to work with farmers throughout the crop lifecycle, with regard to all agricultural inputs, and concentrate on crop needs. This approach has been embraced by an initiative of which my Association is one of the founding members. Called Farming First1, it proposes a six-point action plan focusing on farmers for promoting sustainable agricultural practices. Farming First aims at unifying the agricultural sector by bringing together representatives of farmers’ groups, scientists, input suppliers, agribusinesses, NGOs and think tanks.
Second, the manpower currently deployed by the
public and private sectors is inadequate to reach the millions of farmers worldwide. Farmers’ main point of contact for inputs and advice remains agri-input dealers. Including dealers in the extension system and equipping them with sufficient knowledge would go a long way towards improving knowledge transfer. In Ghana, the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) has developed a Dealer Training and Certification Program to this end that benefits some 2000 agro-dealers and 150 seed producers2.
Third, cellular phone penetration has reached unprecedented levels, even in rural areas. ICT provides a robust platform for providing numerous services that can supplement other efforts to deliver knowledge and information to farmers. The Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) has undertaken a joint venture with Bharti Airtel, India’s largest integrated telecom services provider, to design new ICT services for farmers. When farmers sign up for the IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL) service3, they obtain access to five daily messages in their local language with crop- and area-specific information, a help line and interactive information services, all free of charge. Messages include information on agricultural market prices and arrivals, availability of fertilizers, electricity timings, early disaster warning systems, best farming practices, prevention of plant and veterinary diseases, and financing and insurance services. 1 2 3
Fourth, any effective delivery system must take
into account the need to “get local” and engage on an ongoing basis. This is particularly important in countries where regional differences are acute and there are different languages, diets and agronomic practices. In 2002, my company, DCM Shriram Consolidated Ltd., established the Hariyali Kisaan Bazaar (HKB)4, an innovative chain of rural agricultural supermarkets, in India. This chain offers quality inputs, agronomic services, financial products, commodity trading and agricultural information. One element in the success of such a business model is that it is tailored to local needs and customs. Hariyali provides not only agricultural inputs, but also the knowledge that goes with them. Agronomists, who speak local languages, are available in stores to answer farmers’ questions.
Fifth, innovative partnerships can lead to tremendous strides being taken in relation to food and nutrition security and public health. The fertilizer and zinc industries are working jointly on last-mile delivery of innovation to alleviate zinc deficiency in soils, crops and humans. Zinc deficiency is one of the leading risk factors for disease in the developing world. The Zinc Nutrient Initiative is aimed at increasing the productivity and nutritional content of crops by promoting the use of zinc-enhanced fertilizers, including as a long-term solution to human malnutrition. This is complementary to a new partnership between the industry and UNICEF, the “Zinc Saves Kids” initiative5. Sixth,
most of the world’s farmers cultivate plots of less than two hectares and live below the poverty level. These farmers need to be organized into groups and partnerships established with the corporate sector in order to achieve economies of scale, improve income levels and respond better to market needs. A successful partnership should focus on educating farmers about the latest agricultural practices, ensuring quality production, and consequently helping to provide farmers with assured markets and better incomes. In Kenya and ten other countries, the International Federation of Agricultural Producers (IFAP) works with farmers’ organizations to help them articulate their research requirements more effectively and collect,
http://www.farmingfirst.org http://www.ifdc.org http://www.farmingfirst.org/2009/04/using-mobile-telephony-to-provide agricultural-services-and-advice-to-smallholders-in-rural-india/ 4 http://www.dscl.com/Business_Agree_HarKisBzr.aspx?PID=27 5 http://www.zincsaveskids.org/
Studies & Researches
extension services to farmers in a much more focused manner, starting with the selection of the right seed varieties and continuing through nutrition, pest and post-harvest management.
organize and exchange experiences, knowledge and information within an international network of researchers6. Most of the examples I have cited showcase partnerships involving a variety of agricultural actors, but also actors from other sectors such as education, research, health and telecommunications. Some projects can be carried out by the private sector alone, but we need to work hand-in-hand with governments if we want to make a dramatic difference in the lives of millions of people.
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Our coalition – Farming First – calls on you to avoid another food crisis and to achieve the MDGs. To do so, we believe governments need to: • raise productivity levels exponentially; • devise long-term agricultural development strategies that support the development of local agricultural markets and focus on farmers’ needs; • target women farmers, in view of their vital roles in the agricultural workforce, household food procurement and preparation, and family unit support; • support policies that encourage investment in the agriculture sector in developing countries. I would also like to bring two specific recommendations to your attention:
Arab fertilizers
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Governments need to invest in agricultural education programs to train agronomists, extension workers and agro-input dealers. Voluntary certification programs should be developed on a large scale, as is being done in the United States by the Certified Crop Adviser Program (CCA) of the American Society of Agronomy7. This is the single largest certification program in agriculture, with over 13,000 certified advisers throughout the US and Canada. The program has been extended to India and Argentina. To ensure the last-mile delivery of knowledge, similar certified schemes are needed in most developing countries in order to train and certify crop specialists who can provide
Governments need to invest in the development of input-output infrastructure. One of IFA’s member companies, Yara International, recently launched the Beira Agricultural Growth Corridor Project together with the Government of Mozambique and other stakeholders. Through a cluster approach, the project aims to provide easy access to electricity, irrigation and a transport network for market access in order to develop the potential of 10 million hectares of arable land. Massive investment in irrigation, port facilities, railroads and feeder roads needs to be made in a concerted manner to serve agricultural and food markets not just on a national level but also a regional one.
I believe the examples I have cited can be scaled up in many countries facing similar constraints. Even though structural transformations are important in the longer term, more immediate improvements in the welfare of poor households can be realized through agriculture, thus directly contributing to the achievement of MDG 1 by 2015. In a world where population and consumption are growing, working towards food security for all, including the availability, accessibility and affordability of sufficient food with the required nutrient value, is a responsibility shared by farmers, businesses, governments and other representatives of society. Central to the solution are the millions of farmers around the world who produce the food we all eat. Many of these farmers are trapped in a cycle of poverty. By improving their incomes through last-mile delivery of better tools, knowledge, partnerships and market access, we can not only create a sustainable solution to poverty, but also help address the key challenges of food and nutrition security.
6 http://www.farmingfirst.org/2010/05/supporting-farmers%E2%80%99organisations-to-empower-smallholder-farmers/ 7 https://www.certifiedcropadviser.org/about/
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