Guideline on Organic Agriculture by GOPA AFC

Guideline Yo'riqnoma Organic Farming in Uzbekistan

Fruit and vegetable production

O'zbekistonda organik dehqonchilik meva va sabzavot yetishtirish asoslari

Disclaimer This guideline is developed by AFC experts within the framework of project “Support to economic reforms and sustainable economic development in regions of Uzbekistan” implemented by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH on behalf of Federal Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation (BMZ). The content of this guideline is responsibility of the authors, and do not necessarily represent the viewpoint of GIZ.

AFC Agriculture & Finance Consultants GmbH (AFC) is a private German consulting firm focusing on agricultural, agribusiness and financial development projects in developing and transition countries. AFC's services for public organizations and private companies cover in Agriculture & Agribusiness the whole range from primary production to processing and marketing. Financial Sector Development focuses on developing tailormade credit and saving products and establishing an appropriate regulation and supervision system. Further information here: www.afci.de

Content

Organic farming in the world ....................................................................................................... 5

What is organic farming? Objectives and principles ....................................................................... 5 Organic food production in the world ............................................................................................. 5 Advantages of organic farming for the farmer ................................................................................ 7 II

The certification process ............................................................................................................... 8 2.1

What is an organic product? ................................................................................................. 8

2.2

Farm registration ................................................................................................................... 8

2.2.1

Application of the farm for organic production .............................................................. 8

2.2.2

Farm data ............................................................................................................................ 8

2.3

Conversion to organic agriculture ........................................................................................ 9

2.3.1

Implementation of a documentation system .............................................................. 9

2.3.2

Conversion period ............................................................................................................. 9

2.3.3

Registering new land for conversion .............................................................................. 10

2.4

Control and certification ..................................................................................................... 11

2.4.1

Initial Audit ...................................................................................................................... 11

2.4.2

Maintenance of the certification .................................................................................... 11

2.4.3

Random inspection/unannounced inspections ............................................................ 11

2.5

Control methods ................................................................................................................. 11

2.6

Handling of non-conformities ........................................................................................... 13

2.7

How to start an organic farm .............................................................................................. 13

2.7.1

Separation of conventional farm inputs ........................................................................ 13

2.7.2

Risk analysis against mixing and contamination .......................................................... 13

2.7.3

Documentation system ................................................................................................... 14

2.7.4

Labelling ........................................................................................................................... 14

III

Practice of organic agriculture ................................................................................................ 15

3.1

Requirements to the location of an organic farm ............................................................. 15

3.1.1

Risk of contamination ..................................................................................................... 15

3.1.2

Natural surroundings of the field ................................................................................... 15

3.1.3

Crops in the surrounding ................................................................................................ 16

3.1.4

Frost risks, ventilation, wind and hale ........................................................................... 16

3.2

Soil and substrates ............................................................................................................... 16

3.2.1

Soil-bound cultivation ................................................................................................ 16

3.2.2

Soil fertility ....................................................................................................................... 17

3.3

Plants, seeds and varieties ................................................................................................... 18 3

3.4

Fertilization .......................................................................................................................... 19

3.4.1

Sources of nitrogen .......................................................................................................... 19

3.4.2

Green manure and fresh plant residues ......................................................................... 21

3.4.3

Animal manure and composts ........................................................................................ 22

3.4.4

Organic commercial fertilizers ....................................................................................... 22

3.4.5

Processing residues of plant origin ................................................................................. 24

3.4.6

Nitrogen (N) release of humus ........................................................................................ 24

3.4.7

Nitrogen (N) release of organic fertilizers ...................................................................... 24

3.4.8

Calculation of the N-release for an organic crop........................................................... 25

3.4.9

Mineral phosphorus fertilizers (P) .................................................................................. 26

3.4.10

Mineral potassium (K) and magnesium fertilizers (Mg) ............................................ 26

3.4.11

Mineral sulphur fertilizers (S)...................................................................................... 27

3.4.12

Mineral calcium fertilizers (Ca) ................................................................................... 27

3.4.13

Microelements ............................................................................................................. 28

3.5

Plant protection ................................................................................................................... 29

Fig. 8 Strategies for plant protection .......................................................................................... 29 3.5.1

Preventive methods of plant protection ........................................................................ 29

3.5.2

Methods of monitoring ............................................................................................... 30

3.5.3

Biotechnical methods ...................................................................................................... 33

3.5.4

Biological methods .......................................................................................................... 35

3.5.5

Products for plant protection ......................................................................................... 40

3.6

Weed control ........................................................................................................................ 44

3.6.1

Rotation ............................................................................................................................ 44

3.6.2

Preventive methods ......................................................................................................... 44

3.6.3

Thermic methods ............................................................................................................. 45

3.6.4

Mechanic methods........................................................................................................... 45

3.6.5

Manual work ................................................................................................................ 46

Epilogue to this guideline ............................................................................................................ 46

Annex ............................................................................................................................................ 47 Annex 1: List of tables ..................................................................................................................... 47 Annex 2:

International certification bodies for organic agriculture ........................................ 47

Annex 3: Manufacturer and distributors of biological preparations permitted in organic agriculture 48

Organic farming in the world

What is organic farming? Objectives and principles Organic farming is an environmentally friendly form of agriculture, based on principals of sustainability. The main idea is agriculture in accordance with nature. The objectives and principles of organic agriculture are legally regulated in many countries. Main objectives of organic agriculture have been formulated: - Preservation and promotion of soil life and natural fertility of the soil, soil stability and biodiversity - Animal production is area bound and adapted to the location - Minimization of the use of non-renewable resources - Production of healthy food in good quality without residues of pesticides. Principles to achieve this are described in national laws and private standards. The common understanding of the main principles is: - Preservation of plant health through preventive measures of plant protection - Absence of chemically synthetic plant protection products and easily soluble mineral fertilizers - Renunciation of the use of genetically modifies organisms (GMO).

Organic food production in the world Organic agriculture is regulated in many countries of the world. The main markets with a legal legislation are - The European Union: Regulation (EU) 2018/848 - The United States: National Organic Program NOP), - Japan: JAS - China: China National Organic Standard. Organic production in these countries is controlled by accredited private or governmental control bodies and operators must fulfil the respective requirements of the legislation to label products as organic. . International logos for organic production

European Union

USA

China

Japan

Uzbekistan

A label for organic agriculture in Uzbekistan is not yet in place, however a national regulation is in development. 5

In Uzbekistan, an amendment is being introduced to the national standard Uz DSt 1.19:2022, which sets the requirements for the organic agriculture label. In Uzbekistan, the conformity mark for organic products is given to the grower who produces organic products:

A producer who is in transition to organic products is given the following label:

Export of organic products To export an organic product its production method and final quality must fulfil the requirements of the country of destination. An organic product produced in Uzbekistan for destination European Union must be certified by an EU accredited control body and must fulfil the organic Regulation (EU) 2018/848. Development of organic production (Source: FIBL 2022 Organic-world.net statistics.fibl.org) The market for organic products has been rising steadily worldwide since the 1980s. In 2020 world´s sales of organic food reached € 212 bn. The biggest markets are in the USA (€49.5 bn), EU (€ 44.8 bn) and China (€ 10.2 bn). The biggest market growth from 2019 to 2020 was in Canada (26.1 %), China (23 %) and Germany (22.3 %). In this period the number of organic producers worldwide increased by 7.6 %. The area of organic agriculture increased by 4.1 % to 35.7 M ha. From 2000 to 2020 the world area of organic farming increased to 74.9 Million ha, that means the area is around 5 times as large as in 2000.

Advantages of organic farming for the farmer The organic market is growing. The food retail trade is demanding more and more organic products. Aside to traders for the pure organic markets, many conventional trading companies prefer to deal with producer- organizations that offer organic products as well to serve the demand of the food retail companies. This way to start organic production is an investment in a growing sector that can open new markets. A better price for organic products compensates higher costs of fertilizers and manual work. Another aspect besides the economic ones is the health of the farmer and the employees on the farm. The user of pesticides on a conventional farm is the person with the highest exposure to pesticide residues. Due to the predominantly use of non-toxic ingredients in organic agriculture the danger is far lower for the user.

The certification process

2.1 What is an organic product? Selling fruit, vegetables, other crops, meat or animals as “Organic”, “Ecological” or “Bio” is regulated by law, that means it must be produced in a certified organic farm and under controlled conditions. Only if the product fulfils the national regulations for organic production, it may be declared as “organic” and can be marketed with an organic indication. The way of production is generally regulated by each nation, but for export, e.g., into the EU Countries the farm must produce according to Regulation (EU) 2018/848 and be controlled by To label products as “Organic” an EU accredited control body. “Bio” or “Eco” the production This guideline explains how to reach organic must be controlled by an certification and to produce organic fruit and accredited control body vegetables.

2.2 Farm registration 2.2.1 Application of the farm for organic production After the decision to convert a farm to organic production the first step is to apply for certification at an accredited control body. A list of accreditation bodies for certification is available on the website of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements - IFOAM (https://www.ifoam.bio). Uzbekistan does not yet have a national control body, however several international control bodies are active in your country (see Annex 2). 2.2.2 Farm data The applicant needs to provide the control body with the following farm data: - general data: name, address, contact details and responsible persons - products intended for organic certification - areal data and field maps - drawings of all buildings, stores and places that belong to the farm The next step is to sign a contract with the control body and arrange an audit date. The date for the first audit should fall in a period when the farm is in operation (i.e. not in winter time with bare fields). In principle, the defined cultivated areas of a farm are certified and not individual products. The products harvested on these areas after conversion can be labelled as organic products.

A farm gets organic certification for a field or greenhouse to produce organic crops on it. It is not possible to certify only a crop!

2.3 Conversion to organic agriculture If a farm applies for certification the farmer schedules an appointment with the control body for an initial audit. In general, the day of the first audit is the beginning of the conversion period. During this period products must not yet be labelled as organic (see 1.3.2). Now the farmer must start to document the production to receive and maintain his/her certification. 2.3.1 Implementation of a documentation system For the following points the farm must implement a documentation system. For changes the control body must be informed. Especially new plots must be announced to the control body, because conversion time of new plots starts at the date of announcement. A documentation of the purchase and use is also obligatory. Key points of a documentation system: - Which crops are on which field? - Origin, use and purchase of seeds and plants - Storage and purchase of fertilizers, including farm fertilizers and all kinds of compost - Use of fertilizers (which field, in which crop, amount) - Purchase and storage of pesticides and use of all other substances on the plant - Harvest and sale of every single product (weight or number) - Traceability system of products. 2.3.2 Conversion period Before crop products can be labelled as organic, the farm's cultivated land must undergo a period of conversion, during which the rules of organic farming are already being followed. How long this last depends on the type of crop. Conversion time of annual crops For annual or perennial crops like cereals and vegetables the conversion period is 24 months. Products produced in the first 12 months after the beginning of the conversion period cannot be labelled as organic Annual crops, harvested 12 months after products. Annual crops that are harvested after the date of conversion can be labelled as 12 months can be labelled as “in conversion to organic agriculture”. “product in conversion to organic Products that have been sown or planted agriculture”. 24 months after the beginning of the After 24 months the conversion conversion period can be labelled as an period is over. The yield of an annual “organic product” crop that is seeded or planted after that date can be sold and labelled as an organic product.

Tab. 1 Conversion of annual crops. Beginning of the conversion period: March 2023 J

2023 F M A M J J

A S O N D J

Con v.

2024 F M A M J J

A S O N D J

2025 F M A M J J

Period of conversion Sale as a product “In conversion to organic agriculture”

Sale as a “Conventional product”

A S O N D J

F M A M

Organic farming  Sale as an “Organic product”  (Planting or seed from Mar. 2025)

Conventional Farming

Conversion period of permanent crops The conversion period of permanent crops like fruit trees is 36 months. Products produced in the first 12 months after the beginning of the conversion period cannot be sold as organic products. Permanent crops that are harvested after 12 months can be labelled as “product in conversion to organic agriculture”. The use of the organic label is not permitted. All products harvested after more than 36 months can be labelled as “Organic product”. Tab. 2 Conversion period of permanent crops Beginning of the conversion period: March 2023 2023 J

2024 A

Con v

2025 A

2026 A

Conventional farming

Organic 

Period of conversion Sale as a “Conventional product”

Organic 

Sale as a product “In conversion to organic agriculture”

Sale as an „Organic Product“

2.3.3 Registering new land for conversion New conventional land that will be transfered into an organic farm after buying or leasing must be registered with the control body by the date of buying or leasing. The date of registering is the conversion date of the new fields. During the next audit the auditor visits the new fields and checks any risks. If a new plot has not been registered yet the auditor reports a non-conformity. The farmer should avoid cultivating the same crop on organically certified fields and on conventional fields or fields in conversion. If that is not possible, the traceability of each field must be proved.

2.4 Control and certification 2.4.1 Initial Audit The day of the first audit is the beginning of the conversion period. The first step is to record the farm data: - legal state and responsibilities within the farm management - contact data - drawings of the farm location with all buildings, stores, processing areas - list of data and maps of all fields - list of crops, intended for certification During this audit the auditor visits all the fields applied for conversion and evaluates with the farmer potential risks according to organic requirements. Furthermore, stored products, pesticides, fertilizers and other farm inputs are listed for the traceability in following audits. The farmer explains and discusses with the auditor the way of production and marketing according to regulations for organic agriculture. After the initial audit the farmer begins to monitor all production processes, described in 1.3.1. 2.4.2 Maintenance of the certification Every year the auditor agrees with the farmer on the date of a yearly announced audit. During this audit the auditor checks the monitoring system of purchase and use of farm material and the traceability of at least one product. Another basic point is the control of the fields. New plots must have been registered before cultivating. During a visit of storages, processing areas and fields, risks of contamination, conmingling of organic and conventional products and further potential non-conformities are checked. Corrective actions of non-conformities of the last audit will also be checked. 2.4.3 Random inspection/unannounced inspections A random inspection is completely unannounced. The auditor visits the farm and the farmer has to show each requested production process, crop or processing area. Farms with high-risk crops or substantial production quantities get at least one unannounced inspection each year. Also farms with many nonconformities in the last audits will have unannounced inspections.

2.5 Control methods During an audit the farm management is obliges to show the auditor the whole farm, storing and packing places and all relevant documents. The control includes the following aspects:

1. Field visit The auditor visits the fields according to risks of contamination and non-conformities. During the first audit a visit of all fields will take place, in following audits random visits are possible: - Map and documentation of all fields must be available - Control of the plausibility of the records - Risk of contamination - Potential non-conformities 2. Inputs Figure 1: Farm Inspection A control of bills and delivery receipts of seeds, fertilizers and pesticides allowed in organic production allows correct identification, conformity and labelling of inputs. - Conformity of seed, plants, fertilizers, plant protection products and further farm material 3. Calculation of farm fertilizers and content of nutrients A control of bills and delivery receipts, remaining amounts and documented input must confirm the conformity of amount and quality of seed, propagation material, fertilizers and pesticides - Control of the amount and conformity of input 4. Control of yield - traceability The traceability and the total amount of at least one crop will be checked (mass-balance). - The traceability and production rates of each product must be plausible 5. Analysis of residues of plant protection products The auditor is entitled to take sample for analysis of residues. Samples will be taken in case of risks of contamination, e.g. by drift from neighbouring fields, in case of suspected non conformities and also a certain rate of random samples - Samples in case of risks of contamination - Samples in case of suspected non-conformities - Collection of random samples

Traceability and plausibility of the production of each product must be proven. This is a central topic of the annual control

2.6 Handling of non-conformities Non-conformities which do not affect the quality of the product can be regulated by corrective actions. In this case, an appropriate period of time will be agreed upon with the farmer to implement such actions. Non-conformities, as the use of unallowed propagation material can lead to de-certification. If prohibited pesticides or fertilizers have been applied, those fields will fave to undergo a full new conversion cycle. A new conversion period can also be necessary in case of contamination of parts of the field by drifting of pesticides from neighbouring fields. The decision whether the crop must be sold as conventional or whether a new conversion period is necessary lies with the control body. If non-conform products are labelled as organic on purpose, or the farm repeats nonconformities, the whole status as an organic farm might be lost. According to the local law, fines can be imposed. Additional inspections to check on the implementation of agreed corrective actions, can be conducted at any time.

2.7 How to start an organic farm 2.7.1 Separation of conventional farm inputs If the whole farm is in conversion, no farm inputs, that are not approved for organic agriculture should stay on the farm. In farms that also cultivate conventional crops a separate store of farm material and products is obligatory. Comingling and contamination must be avoided by any means. Conventional and organic products or varieties must be easy to distinguish by the eye, even from non-experts in agriculture. Example: It is not allowed to grow one variety of lettuce in organic and another variety in conventional on the same farm entity. A crop rotation of an organic product and a conventional one on the same field is not possible, because the field is certified as an organic field and not the crop itself. The stores must be labelled as “’Organic” or “Conventional” with signs, so that internal and external stuff cannot change products unintentionally. For all farms a concept to minimize risks of contamination in stores, on fields and of farm inputs must be in place. 2.7.2 Risk analysis against mixing and contamination A written concept to avoid mixing and contamination must be in place. This concept must include: - contamination by drift from neighbour-fields - contamination of the soil by former use, flooding or industry - contamination of stores and equipment by former use - contamination by machines and sorting material - comingling of organic products with conventional ones in any stage of the production process - risk of incorrect labelling of organic and conventional products

2.7.3 Documentation system After the initial audit a documentation system must be in place including: - Seed and propagation material: use and purchase, documentation of certificates of exemption - Use and purchase of all fertilizers: amount and suitability of conventional farm manure - Use and purchase of plant protection material - Documentation of the crops: type and area - Documentation of yields: amount and traceability The documentation system must record all products and material between the yearly audits. The current stock of products must be traceable in every moment, e.g. during an unannounced audit. 2.7.4 Labelling Accompanying documents, bills and labels of organic products and products in conversion must always wear the state of conversion (“organic” or “in conversion to organic agriculture”) and the code number of the certification body. Products to be sold in the European Union must be labelled with the green EU logo, the code of the certification body and an indication, if it is produced in EU countries or not. Products in conversion may not be labelled with the EU label. Figure 2 EU-label for organic agriculture of a non-EU country

III Practice of organic agriculture 3.1 Requirements to the location of an organic farm If an existing farm is supposed to be converted to organic agriculture the cultivation area needs to be clearly determined by maps, official documents and GPS coordinates. To find out if the land is suitable for organic agriculture a risk analysis shall be conducted to avoid problems of contamination, i.e. by pesticide drift from nearby intensive farms or difficulties in controlling pests and diseases. 3.1.1 Risk of contamination Risk of contamination can have different reasons: - Contamination by industry facilities and heavy traffic. - Contamination of the soil by former use, flooding of contaminated rivers or lakes or military use. If there is a possible contamination of these sources, a soil analysis is necessary before converting a plot. High residues of heavy metals or pesticide decomposition products e.g. of DDT will exclude a use for organic production. - Contamination by drift of pesticides from nearby conventional farms by wind. - On slopes, pesticides can be introduced through surface runoff. If conventional fields border to the organic area, it is necessary to inform the conventional farmer and make agreements to avoid contamination. Buffer zones between the fields can avoid wind drifting. Although the type and form of buffer zones are not determined in Regulation (EU) 2018/848 , a method to avoid contamination is obligatory. Buffer zones can be created by greater distance to neighbouring fields or by planting hedges. Especially high crops as orchards need a broad buffer with high and dense hedges. The place in flat zones between annual crops can be used to promote the natural fauna e.g., by seeding flower stripes. If already certified organic land is contaminated, the plots concerned must pass through a new conversion period. 3.1.2 Natural surroundings of the field Plant protection in organic farming is based on a balance with nature. Especially in permanent crops the aim of organic agriculture is to accomplish a balance between pests and predators. To survive, many predators, which regulate the pests in the crops need a refuge. Natural hedges, trees and lower plants around the field or orchard help predators to survive in winter and to multiplicate. If there is no natural refugium around the field or orchard, the farmer should create it: this can be a hedge, preferably with many different plant species to attract different kinds of insects, a flower-stripe beneath annual crops, which attracts many predator insects, spiders and mites by the pollen of the flowers. Straw and plant residues of many plants offer a refuge for many beneficial insects in winter.

3.1.3 Crops in the surrounding In areas with intensive agricultural use, we often do not find places, where insects can survive to get a natural balance of predators and insects. If an organic farm is placed in such an area, in which the same crops will also be cultivated in conventional fields, there is a higher risk of contamination with pests and spores of fungi that fly or are drifted by the wind into the organic crops. Conventional crops can be protected by effective pesticides that are not allowed in organic agriculture. In areas like this, the risk should be considered. For many crops there are tolerant varieties available, effective organic pesticides, but sometimes it may be better to choose a different crop with a lower risk. 3.1.4 Frost risks, ventilation, wind and hale The risk analysis for an organic farm should also consider physical aspects. These aspects are not specific for organic crops, but are important for the choice of crops, varieties, e.g. with early or late time of flowering. Especially on the bottom of Figure 3: Brassica leaf of an organic field in the neighbourhood of conventional rape fields with extremely hills cold air can accumulate in clear high infestation of larvae of white flies (Aleyrodes proletella) nights. Late frosts can destroy the flower of orchards and damage ripe vegetable crops. Another aspect for the choice of the crop is wind. In areas of strong winds, it can damage paring of the fruit. Here the production of fruit for fresh market can be difficult and fruit for processing might be better. Vegetable fruit-flies cannot establish in a windy surrounding. In this case a place in a windy surrounding should be preferred to avoid pest attacks. By force of the climate change, hale events increase in many regions. If the farmer wants to invest in an expensive orchard in a place of frequent hail, he should consider if the construction of hail nets can be an option.

3.2 Soil and substrates 3.2.1 Soil-bound cultivation According to the Regulation (EU) 2018/848 soil plays an important role in the concept of organic farming. This is the reason, why hydroponics – cultivation without soil in liquid solutions or inert materials- is not allowed, not even for greenhouse crops! It is possible to improve soil fertility with organic substances, such as composts but all plants that are harvested to sell as fruit or vegetables must have contact to the natural soil.

There are only the following exceptions from this rule:  Herbs can be cultivated in pots  Sprouts for sale as vegetables  Seedlings of vegetable plants Substrates for these exceptions must be mixed out of mineral or organic components as compost, turf, sand or clay. Only organic nitrogen fertilizers are allowed (see fertilization). 3.2.2 Soil fertility According to Regulation (EU) 2018/848 conservation and improvement of soil fertility is a major principle of organic agriculture. Additionally, erosion must be avoided. Soil improvement must stimulate the biological activity of the soil and enhance the humus content. Soil improvement is based on the following techniques: Cultivation of legumes A percentage of at least 20 % of legumes is obligatory in the rotation of annual crops. To improve the accumulation of nitrogen by the legumes, the seeds of many legume varieties can be treated with Rhizobium bacteria (available as a commercial product). Green manure Fig. 4: Rhizobium nots fix nitrogen of the air Green manure with legumes and intercropping support the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere in the soil and avoid washing out of nutrients in humid periods or during heavy rains. Working with green manure is one of the most Seeds of intercrops and green important techniques of organic farming. An manure must have organic organic field should be covered as permanent as quality or must have an possible with green plants to improve the organic exemption certificate structure and to activate microorganisms in the soil. Green manuring is the basis for nutrition of annual crops and for soil fertility. Composting To raise the biological activity and the humus content and to provide plants with nutrients, composts of manure or plant material are frequently used. Composting leads to stable humus complexes that can increase the humus content and the biological activity for a long time. Biological activity in the soil is essential for organic agriculture to set free nitrogen out of organic fertilizers and humus. Fig. 4: "Ripe" compost

Tab. 3 Method of composting Possible ingredients of compost: Collecting organic material

Fresh plant residues

e.g. leaves of trees, residues of vegetable cleaning, herbaceous plants

Manure, liquid manure

Manure of intensive stockholding is not allowed for organic farming

Straw

Only in combination with fresh material or manure

Hair, wool of animals

High N- level

Residues of plant processing

e.g. juice or wine production

Wood

Not suitable for compost: Big pieces of wood need too much time to decompose

Contaminated material With salt, chemicals, stones or plastic Meat and animal carcass 1st stage: Hot period (1-2 weeks) 2nd stage: Cooling period (1-2 months)

3rd Stage: Maturation period (≥ 2 months)

Attract rats

After mixing and moisten the components the hot period begins. For 1-2 weeks the first stage reaches temperatures between 60 and 70°C. This stage is important to minimize fungi and weed seeds in the raw material of the compost. After at least two weeks the compost must be mixed again to homogenize the ingredients and to activate the bacteria with new oxygen of the air. The temperature will rise again but will not reach the level of stage 1 In the maturation period the compost cools down and the rest of the organic components will be decomposed. After this period the compost is ready. The longer the maturation period is the more stable is the compost in the soil for a longer time, it improves the soil for a longer period. Fresh compost is not as stable but sets free organically fixed nutrients faster.

3.3 Plants, seeds and varieties Seeds and propagation material for organic crops must be produced in organic quality. Seeds of cereals can also be “produced in conversion to organic agriculture”. Genetically modified varieties (GMO) are not allowed in organic agriculture. If varieties of organic seeds or propagation material is not available it is possible to apply for a certificate of exemption of the control body for each seed. The intended weight of seeds and the area under cultivation must be declared.

Especially in vegetable growing or fruit trees exception certificates are frequently asked, because many important varieties are not available in organic quality. -GMO (Genetically Modified Organisms) There are specific regulations in each are not permitted in organic agriculture country that regulate the use of -The use of chemically treated seeds conventional seeds. The use of and propagation material is not allowed chemically treated seeds is not allowed. Requirement to organic propagation material and seeds In organic farming, different aspects may play a role in the selection of propagation material and seed than in conventional farming. Potentially high yield is not always the main objective, as high-yielding varieties are often susceptible to pests and diseases. In organic farming, resistance or tolerance to common pests and diseases must be considered when selecting varieties. Another aspect is the ability of the plant to absorb nitrogen from the soil, because in organic farming the supply of nitrogen is the most important aspect of fertilization. In vegetable production, varieties In organic farming, seed selection should with a high ability to absorb nitrogen should be preferred, especially for focus more on pest and disease crops with high nitrogen resistance and good nutrient uptake than requirements. As a rule, varieties on potentially high yields. with strong root growth meet this requirement better. For greenhouse crops, grafting is a common method to achieve this effect. Grafting tomatoes or eggplants onto roots of wild tomato varieties with strong root growth increases yield by 20 to 100% and improves plant health.

3.4 Fertilization 3.4.1 Sources of nitrogen The fertilization with nitrogen is one of the most ambitious aspects in organic agriculture, especially in annual crops. Only organic nitrogen fertilizers are allowed. In opposite to soluble mineral fertilizers organic fertilizers and humus must be decomposed by microorganisms in the soil Figure 5: Organic and Mineral N-fertilizers to set free available nitrogen for the plant. That means that the biological life in the soil must be activated by green manuring, farm fertilizers, composts and organic matter. In soils with a low biological activity this process is very slow and plants with a high demand of nitrogen will not have high enough yields. 19

The improvement of the soil is a process of several years. The aim of the soil improvement is to increase the humus content of the soil. This way, the fertilization of the crops with nitrogen will be a current process of degradation of humus and organic matter. The total amount of humus in a soil is limited by the composition of the soil and the local climate. To improve the fertility a regular intake of organic matter can help. Organic fertilizers have a low level of free nitrogen that is immediately available for the plant. A biological decomposition is necessary to set the nutrients free. If organic matter and fertilizers are decomposed, only a part of the nitrogen will be set free by decomposition at once. Another part will be fixed into humus. The nitrogen in the humus will be set free in a slow process and will be a slow source of N for the next years. The availability of N of organic fertilizers for the first crop varies according to the following aspects: In a handful of soil a greater number of living beings can live than people live on earth Life, found in 1 g of earth Bacteria 100.000.000 Actinomycetes 10.000 Fungi 100.000 Micro- algae 1.000 Protozoa 1.000 Nematodes 10 Other 1.000 Total

- 1.000.000.000 - 1.000.000 - 1.000.000 - 1.000.000 - 100.000 - 100 - 100.000

>100.000.000 > 1.000.000.000 Dindal (ed.) 1990 John Wiley & Sons and Soil Microbial Ecology, F

Aspects for the availability of N in organic material: 

Biological activity in the soil

 Content of humus, organic matter



Type of soil (sandy, clay…)



Humidity and temperature



Condition of the fertilizer

 Slower release in heavy soils but better accumulation  Higher N- release in light humidity and high temperature  Influence of the volume of grains and freshness of organic material

The nitrogen that is not available for the first crop is initially fixed in humus, providing a long-lasting, slow source of nitrogen for subsequent crops. This must be taken into account accordingly when calculating the nitrogen release of organic fertilizers. In organic farming, fertilization is based on the following practices: - Green manure and fresh plant residues - Animal manure and compost - Approved organic commercial fertilizers - Suitable processing residues of plant origin. 3.4.2 Green manure and fresh plant residues Green manure and fresh plant residues are the most important sources of nitrogen for many organic crops. The most common way is to cut and incorporate green manure plants in the field where they grew as a basic fertilization for the next crop. In the last time more and more farms have begun to cultivate green manure crops as alfalfa or a clover-grass mixture on one place to move the yield to another field as a fertilizing mulch material. This way of fertilization needs an irrigation system to moist the mulch, because in dry conditions it will not mineralize. The availability of nitrogen depends on the state of the plants. In fresh material the availability is high. The more a plant ripens, the lower is the availability.

Figure 6: Green manure with Trifolium incarnatum

Tab. 4:

Availability of N in a green manure for the following crop in fresh matter of legumes and non- legumes

Quality of green matter

Good (green)

Medium (Begin of flowering)

Bad (State of ripening)

Non legumes N- release /kg fresh matter x m²

20 kg/ha (During 8 weeks)

10 kg/ha (During 8 weeks)

0 kg/ha

Legumes N- release / kg fresh matter x m²

30 kg/ha (During 8 weeks)

15 kg/ha (During 8 weeks)

0 kg/ha

70 %

35 %

N- release % N total

(Estimated values according to “Schriftenreihe der Sächsischen Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft, Germany, 2002“)

Green manure crops collect different rates of nitrogen in their cultivation period. The total amount depends on the plant species, the time of cultivation, soil and climate. The following table shows possible rate of nitrogen accumulation in the soil: Tab. 5:

Green manure seeds for N-accumulation

Green manure crops to accumulate N

Possible yield dt/ha of fresh matter

Possible Naccumulation Kg N/ha

Horsebean (Vicia faba)

164

Clover and grass

(50 %: 50 %)

400

108

Clover and grass

(70 % : 30 %)

400

136

Red clover

400

188

Alfalfa

400

228

Legumes as intercrop, early seed

300

3.4.3 Animal manure and composts Animal manure is an efficient source of nitrogen and an effective way to raise the content of humus in the soil, because the nitrogen content in these fertilizers is available in a limited percentage in the following months, the rest increases a stable humus content in the soil. Nitrogen, fixed in the humus will have effects on nutrition in the following years. Additionally, animal manure and composts have a huge content of further elements like phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and microelements, necessary for the plant growth. 3.4.4 Organic commercial fertilizers Organic commercial fertilizers can be stored and applied easily, but often prices are very high.

Tab.6: Examples for organic commercial fertilizers Name of fertilizer

N/P/K ratio

Horn-meal, steamed

14 / 0 / 0

Fast effect

Animal production trading product

Horn-meal crude

14 / 0 / 0

Mineralization according to the grain-volume

Animal production trading product

Fast effect

Animal production trading product

High content of P

Animal production trading product

Meal of hair, or feather, pellets

13,5 / 1,4 / 0,2

Comment

Origin

Meal of bones

7 / 15 / 1

Meal of blood

12 + microelements

Animal production trading product

Field bean (Vicia faba), groats

4.5 / 0.7 / 1.5

Animal feed traders Own production

Pea (Pisum sativum)

4,0 / 0,5 / 1,3

No use before direct seeds or substrates

Animal feed traders Own production

Rhicinus cake (Rhicinus communis)

5/2/1

Plant oil production trading product

Maltaflor

5/1/5

Beer production (Malt)

Beer production trading product

Vinasse

3,5 / 0,5 / 7

Liquid fertilizer Use in greenhouses and open field

Sugar production Sugar producers

The list shows some important organic fertilizers. A complete list of approved fertilizers for organic farming can be found here: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/de/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32021R1165

3.4.5 Processing residues of plant origin Processing residues have different contents of N depending on the typ or processed product and its condition (green or ripe, leaf or husk, …). Such materials always have a high content of organic matter and help to improve the soil. Potential sources of such fertilizers: - Production of juice - Plant-oil production - Wine production - Sugar production - Substrates of mushroom breeding - Substrates of fungi production (e.g., Penicillium) Vinasse, a product of sugar production is a useful liquid fertilizer for organic farming, especially for intensive greenhouse crops, because it is possible to use in fertigation by drip irrigation. 3.4.6 Nitrogen (N) release of humus Another important source of N is the release of humus. The amount of free N of this source depends on many aspects. A high humus content leads to a harmonic nutrition of the plant, because N is set free in a warm and moisty condition. That is the time when many crops have a big demand. The humus amount can be raised by organic fertilization, especially with composts, farm fertilizers and frequent green manure with legumes. But the total amount of humus is limited by the soil. In sandy soils the rate of decomposition is higher than in loamy soils and the total amount is always lower. In warm and moisty conditions and in soils with frequent deep soil treatment the humus content will sink faster than in permanent crops. But in annual crops the release of nitrogen of the humus can be regulated by treatments like putting earth up or grubbing. There are no stable figures to calculate the nitrogen release in soils, because they depend on too many factors like soil structure, fertilization, treatment, moisture and temperature. To be able to calculate the release of nitrogen there are weak estimation rates in a humid soil. Estimated rates for the calculation of N- release of humus/organic matter in the soil Cool soil (spring/autumn) ≤ 2,5 kg N/week Warm soil (summer) ≥ 5 kg N/week Cold soil (winter) 0 kg N/week

3.4.7 Nitrogen (N) release of organic fertilizers Organic fertilizers often have a high content of N, but not all is available for the first crop. A big part will be fixed into humus that improves the soil structure and helps plants to root deeper and pick up better nutrients, improves water capacity, avoids the loss of N during heavy rains and wet periods and helps to get healthier conditions for plant roots. For the current crop, the farmer must try to calculate the amount of N the plant must have. These rates of mineralization depend on many factors, so every organic farmer must estimate and needs experience of his own soils. 24

Tab.7

N release of organic fertilizers and green manure

Type of fertilizers

N (%)

N- release

Note

Green manure with legumes (fresh matter)

+/- 0,3

0-70 % N release In 6 weeks

Animal manure

0,4 - 2,2

30-40 % In 20 weeks

+ P/K/Mg/microelements

Liquid animal manure

1,7 - 2,5

70 % In 10-20 weeks

+ P/K/Mg/microelements

Animal products (horn, hair, bones, blood)

≤ 14

60 % In 6- >12 weeks

high N level, for short and longtime crops

Processing residues of plant origin

4-7

50 – 60 % 6-12 weeks

30-200 kg N per crop x year

nmart effect, also for seeds and substrates

3.4.8 Calculation of the N-release for an organic crop To calculate the necessary amount of nitrogen in fertilizers for a crop the sum of different sources and the N-release must be estimated. Fig. 7: Sources of Nitrogen in organic fertilizers

Tab. 8

Example for a calculation of N-release E.g., need of a kohlrabi crop: 160 kg N/ha

Source N min in the soil N min release of humus (soil with long time organic fertilization) Previous crop: green manure with legumes

Calculation method N-min check 10 weeks x 2,5 kg (estimation)

N release 15 kg/ha 25 kg /ha

2 kg of fresh matter/ha x 30 kg

60 kg

Rest needed: poultry manure

-40 kg 2,5 t/ha 2,2 % N, 70 % available

Estimated amount available

39 kg 159 kg N/ha

3.4.9 Mineral phosphorus fertilizers (P) The fertilization of phosphorus can be made by organic fertilizers like poultry or other farmyard manures, minerals in form of meals of soft ground rock phosphate or aluminium-calcium phosphate or various organic commercial fertilizers. Tab. 9 Frequently used fertilizers with a high P level (Contents can vary according to the manufacturer) Name of fertilizer Manure of poultry (chicken) Manure of poultry (paves) Dry manure of poultry Manure of cows Manure of sheep/goats Soft ground rock phosphate Bone meal

[kg P/t] 6,6 8,7 8,6 1,2 2,2 25

note Not permitted from (industrial) factory farming

availability differs according to the pH of the soil

3.4.10 Mineral potassium (K) and magnesium fertilizers (Mg) Potassium and magnesium are contained in liquid manure and many organic fertilizers. In many cases, additional fertilization is required. In this case, the use of K and Mg fertilizers in sulphate form is a possible alternative.

Tab. 10 Frequently used K and Mg fertilizers (Contents can vary according to the manufacturer) Name of fertilizer Potassium sulphate

%K 48

% Mg 0

Potassium-sulphate containing Mgsulphate Crude potassium salt

Magnesium sulphate

note Additionally, sulphur Additionally, sulphur Additionally, sulphur Additionally, sulphur

3.4.11 Mineral sulphur fertilizers (S) In addition to organic fertilizers, fertilization with sulphur is allowed in mineral form or as sulphate of potassium, magnesium or calcium Tab. 11 Frequently used sulphate fertilizers (Contents can vary according to the manufacturer) Name of fertilizer

S-content [%]

Note

Potassium-sulphate (K2SO4)

+/- 18

Side effect of fertilization with K

Magnesium-sulphate (MgSO4)

13-22

Side effect of fertilization with Mg

Calcium-sulphate (CaSO4)

Neutral effect for pH in the soil

S (mineral)

100

Use in soils with a too high pH

3.4.12 Mineral calcium fertilizers (Ca) For fertilization with calcium the use of carbonate of calcium is approved in organic agriculture. In soils with a high pH level, it is necessary to use a form of calcium that does not increase the pH. In this case it is possible to use sulphate of calcium.

Tab. 12

Frequently used calcium fertilizers

Name of fertilizer Calcium carbonate

Note Only of natural origin

Calcium sulphate (gypsum) Egg shells

Only of natural origin, for soils with a low calcium level or a high pH value Not permitted when originating from factory farming

Calcium chloride solution

only for foliar treatment of apple trees

Calcium chloride is approved exclusively for foliar application in apple trees to increase fruit quality and avoid rot during storage.

3.4.13 Microelements An important source of microelements is the use of farmyard manures. If they are not available or the content of microelements is not high enough, the need of the plant is documented, and mineral fertilizers are allowed to be used in organic agriculture. Exceptions are described in the Regulation (EU) 2018/848.

3.5 Plant protection Plant protection in organic agriculture must be based on preventive, biological and biotechnical practices. Products for plant protection are limited and the use should only support other methods. Concerning pests, especially in permanent crops, the aim is to create a balance between predators and pests to avoid a sudden multiplication of the pests.

Fig. 8 Strategies for plant protection

3.5.1 Preventive methods of plant protection 1. Choice of the location With the choice of a suitable location, preventive plant protection measures in organic farming already begin before cultivation. A risk analysis helps to find out which pests and diseases could attack the planned crop. If similar crops are present in the neighbourhood, it is necessary to determine which pests and diseases may occur, and to determine whether organic cultivation is even possible successfully. In conventional fields, farmers have more options to chemically protect crops, while pests and diseases can find shelter in organic crops. In some cases, if the risk is too great, a different crop should be planned. For example, crops that are susceptible to disease in wet conditions, or if there is a high risk of vegetable flies, should avoid fields in windless areas to prevent heavy infestations by these pests and diseases. Permanent crops in particular should preferably be grown in natural environments to ensure biodiversity and shelter for beneficial insects, even in winter. This can be hedgerows or uncultivated areas.

Aspects for risk analysis for the location:  Surrounding: - Neighbour crops: Are there neighbour crops that cause the risk of migration of pests or diseases? - Are there shelters for beneficial insects in the surrounding? - Are there risks of windless areas, heavy winds or late frost events?  Soil - Is the soil suitable for the crop concerning structure and nutrients? - Is the soil suitable for the farm´s methods of mechanical weed-control? - Is the place suitable concerning irrigation or moisture in humid periods? - Are there risks from the previous crop as larvae of insects in the soil, nematodes or fungi? - Is there any risk of erosion or overflow? - Is there any contamination? 2. Seeds and propagation material The choice of seeds and propagation material must consider plant health. In fruit and vegetable crops there are many varieties that prevent the infection of pests and diseases by resistance and tolerance. The selections of appropriate varieties can prevent many problems with pest and diseases. While chemical treatment of plants and seeds is not allowed, roots of fruit trees and vegetable plants can be enriched with special bacteria to improve the growth of the root and prevent an infection with fungi. In vegetable production, many seed producers offer seeds with effective hot-watertreatments against fungi for use in organic agriculture. 3. Plant nutrition To prevent attacks of pests and diseases a harmonic nutrition of the plant is necessary to strengthen the plant´s own defences. Plants with deficits of nutrition elements are weak and cannot easily resist attacks of pests and diseases. A harmonic nutrient level leads to good growth and makes a plant able to resist pests and diseases for a long time. A soil analysis for P, K, Mg, Ca and S and microelements as boron, manganese, iron and cinq and a concept for the N- fertilization helps to prevent nutrient deficiencies. A harmonious nourished plant can resist better attacks of pests and diseases by activating its self- resistance. 3.5.2 Methods of monitoring Monitoring of pests and diseases is essential for successful organic agriculture. To get a biological balance in crops, a small number of insects or mites that does not cause much damage should be accepted, because insects or other small animals are important for a biological balance and serve as food for predators. Applications of pesticides can cause more costs than damages of a low level of pests. To realize the point, when an application is sensible a monitoring system is necessary. A regular visual control can monitor the development of pest insects, mites and diseases. To improve the visual control, there are various methods of monitoring systems.

Monitoring with glue boards Glue boards attract specific insects by colours and catch them by glue. By frequent controls of the boards, a sudden occurrence of pests can be detected and the farmer can react before the pest endangers the crop. There are also glue-stripes available that can surround a whole greenhouse or the complete ventilation systems to reduce the immigration of pests. Figure 9: Glue-bords for monitoring and reduction of thrips and white flies in a greenhouse-zucchini crop

Tab.13 Method

Glue boards, yellow

Monitoring systems for pests in fruit and vegetable crops Attacted pest

F: Fruit production V: Vegetable production G: Greenhouse crops

White flies In greenhouse crops (Trialeurodes vaporariorum, Bemisia tabaci ) White flies (Aleyrodes proletella, Cabbage, brassica sp., Aleyrodes lonicera ) strawberries Vegetable crops, e.g. Mining flies Solanancea Cherries Cherry fruit fly (Rhagoletis cerasi)

Glue boards, blue

Thrips species (Thrips tabaci)

Glue boards, white

Apple sawfly (Hoplocampa testudinea)

Thrips species (Frankliniella occidentalis)

Plum sawfly (Hoplocampa minuta/flava)

Fruit trees, strawberries, onions, leek, vegetable crops, Vegetable crops in greenhouses Apples

G FV VG F FVG VG F

Plums

Pheromone traps Pheromone traps attract specific harmful insects with sexual hormones. The insects are caught with glue boards. This method helps to react if pests begin to attack the crop. Each insect needs its specific pheromone.

Figure 10: Monitoring of tomato leaf miners by a pheromone trap

Tab. 14 crops

Available pheromone traps for specific insects in fruit and vegetable Insect

Crop

Fruit peel moth (Adoxophyes orana)

Apple, pear

Fruitlet mining tortrix (Pammene rhediella)

Apple

apple brown tortrix (Pandemis heparana)

Apple

Red-belted clearwing (Synanthedon myopaeformis)

Apple

Codling moth (Cydia pomonella)

Apple

Appleseed moth (Grapholitha lobarzewskii)

Apple, pear, plum

Cherry blossom moth Argyresthia pruniella

Cherry

Cherry fruit fly (Rhagoletis cerasi)

Cherry

Cherry vinegar fly (Drosophila suzukii)

Cherry, plum and berries

Plum moth (Grapholitha funebrana)

Plum Apple, pear, plum, cherry, apricot, …

Small winter moth (Operophtehera brumata) Cabbage moth (Mamastra brassicae)

Cabbage

Bright-line Brown-eye (Mamastra oleracaea)

Cabbage, vegetables, strawberry

Diamondback moth (Plitella xylostella)

Cabbage

Leek Moth (Acrolepiopsis assectella)

Leek

Ipsilon dart (Agrotis ipsilon)

Cabbage, vegetable species

Turnip moth (Agrotis segetum)

Vegetables, strawberry

Pea moth (Cydia nigricana)

Peas, clover, vicia

Tomato leaf-miner (Tuta absoluta)

Tomato (Solanacea) 32

3.5.3 Biotechnical methods Biotechnical methods prevent plants technically. There is a large number of methods, developed for organic and integrated fruit and vegetable production.

Fig. 11

Cabbage with bird-net protection

1. Protect plants by keeping away pests Net-cover of fields and ventilation systems of greenhouses Tab. 15

Insect protection by net-cover Mesh size

Protects crops against

Method

> 1,2 mm

E.g., birds, rabbits

Field cover

< 1,2 mm

Vegetable flies (Aphids)

Field cover Colour effect against aphids: Flying aphids do not realize the colour of its host

< 1,2 mm

Bugs, white flies, Cicada

Nets in greenhouse ventilation systems

< 0,8 mm

White flies (Aleyrodes proletella)

Field cover in brassica crops

< 0,8 mm

Cherry vinegar fly (Drosophila suzukii) Cherry fruit fly (Rhagoletis cerasi)

Complete cover In berry and cherry crops, (High technical effort)

Fences and electric wires against bigger animals as rabbits, deer, wild pigs Repellents for birds, rats, pests using physical signals as vibrations and sounds Kites in form of birds of prey, attached to a long rod to scare away birds

Mating disruption through pheromones (sexual confusion method) Dispensers with sexual pheromones, distributed in orchards disrupt the mating of insects. The dispensers set free a female sexual pheromone for a long period. Male species don´t find their sexual partners and pairing cannot take place. For an effective use of this method, the orchard must have a minimum area of 1 ha.

Fig.12 Dispenser for mating disruption

Tab.16

Available pheromones for mating disruption

Red-belted clearwing

Synanthedon myopaeformis

Apple

Apple moth

Cydia pomonella

Apple

Oriental fruit moth

Grapholita molesta/ funebrana

Peach/stone fruit

Grapewine moth

Lobesia botranan

Grapes

European corn borer

Ostrinia nubilalis

Corn

Pink bollworm

Pectinophora gossypiella

Cotton

2. Catch animals and pests - With mechanical traps (e.g., mice, rats) - Traps with sexual pheromones, alcohol, food attractants, plant hosts etc. - Glue- boards against insects

Figure 11: Yellow glue board to reduce sciarids in vegetable nursery

3. Methods to improve the microclimate of a field - Mowing or keeping long grass in orchards to regulate the evaporation and radiation of heat - Planting or shortening hedges around fields to regulate the wind - Moistening the air by dispensers in greenhouses or orchards - Improving ventilation systems in greenhouses - Improvement of air circulation in greenhouses by fans 4. Reduce pests or diseases - E.g., by cutting branches of trees with mildew, Nectria gallingena - E.g., pick fruit or plants with a strong affection of pests and diseases in fruit- or greenhouse crops 5. Grafting fruit trees or vegetables plants on roots resistant against specific diseases In vegetable crops there are resistant roots against nematodes and diseases in the soil for tomatoes, peppers, eggfruit, cucumbers and melons available 3.5.4 Biological methods The aim of biological methods is to create a biological balance between predators and pest. Pests should not be eradicated because this way many predators would starve or emigrate, because they need other insects or mites for food. A very low level of pests in the crop hardly causes damages, but it keeps the natural balance in place. If a pest increases, predators are already there, prevent a spread of the pests and makes possible to react in time with additional methods if necessary. Methods to raise the population of predators: - Establishing shelters for benefit animals by a natural surrounding around the field or orchard by planting permanent flower stripes, trees or hedges - Support multiplication, e.g., by nesting boxes for birds or stone hills for martens - Application of predators directly into greenhouses and orchards 1. Establishing predators into orchards and greenhouse crops To establish predators around the field or orchard natural ground cover is necessary. If there is no natural area around, hedges or flower stripes attract benefit insects. In permanent crops hedges serve as a place for multiplication and to survive the winter. Establishment of predators in orchards and annual corps In orchards the space between the trees is usually sown with grass. A mixture of grass, clover and various flowers can be a refuge for benefit insects and spiders, because many species can feed on pollen as well as on insects and mites. 35

In certain periods there is not enough animal food as insects or mites in the orchard and the predator populations emigrate or starve. If there is sufficient pollen of blooming flowers to feed them, they survive and stay there to control pests that begin to attack the orchard. It is important to have a mixture of different types of flowers with different flowering times in the grass cover to get a permanent offer of pollen. Mowing or cultivating the soil can destroy the population of predators in the soil surface. The following methods can avoid this: - Alternating mowing: Only half the space is mowed at once (every second row). Insects can hide in the area with higher plants that will be mowed some days or weeks later when plants in the first row are high enough again for the demands of the insects. - Mowing instead of mulching Mulching kills many insects and destroys the culms of the plants that serve as a shelter for insects. Mowing does not destroy the plant and protects the hiding places for the insects this way. - Flower stripes around or in the orchard Seed of flower stripes in the ways between the trees or at the front side as a mixture of grass, flowers and clover or a separate stripe of permanent flowers around the field. Establishment of predators in annual crops by flower stripes The short cultivation period of annual crops often prevents to get a balance of pests and predators in annual crops. Only blooming plants can attract many helpful insects, because many feed on pollen. In big fields or areas without natural refuges for wild animals and insects flower stripes can help. To attract predators by flower stripes in annual crops the farmer should consider that flowers should bloom before or during the period when most pests enter the crops. Fig. 14

Larva of Adalia beetle in a flower stripe

1. Annual flower stripes in the field Flower stripes with early blooming flowers should be around the field or in the field with a maximum distance of 40 m. In trials, effects of parasitism were seen until 20 m aside blooming flower stripes. 2. Permanent flower stripes around the field Permanent flower stripes lead to an earlier blooming and help insects to survive winter time. If it is not possible to install permanent flower stripes in a field because mechanical soil treatment is difficult, a stripe can be installed/sown around the field, front sides or in corners that are difficult to access. Attractive flowers to establish beneficial insects Flowers, attractive for predators are flowers with a high production of pollen. Apiaceous, Borago officinalis, Compositae and especially flowers that bloom for a long time should be preferred. Seed dealers offer special flower mixtures for different kinds of soil. 36

Establishment of predators in greenhouse crops A method to establish predators in greenhouse crops is breeding of predators. The aim is to establish them before the first pest insect enters. Open breeding of predators is a method in integrated and organic production for fruit crops as tomatoes, cucumbers, eggfruits and peppers in greenhouses, to establish a population of predators in greenhouse crops before a pest will attack the crops. In open breeding a base of nutrition is given to predators, on which they can build up a population before the first insect attacks the plant.

Example: 1. Open breeding of predatory bugs Macrolophus caliginosus is a predatory bug that attacks many kinds of insects as aphids, white flies and spider mites. If there is no insect or mite available, the bug also takes plant juice of Solanaceae as tomatoes, eggfruit or tobacco. To establish the bug in other crops, tobacco plants in pots will be put into the greenhouse or can be planted directly into the soil of a greenhouse when the crop is planted. The following example describes the way of breeding bugs for an early spring crop of cucumbers: Seed of tobacco plants in pots in January (at least one plant per 500 m²)

In the state of the 5th leaf, setting out of > 100 macrolophus bugs per plant in the greenhouse

Sharing out the tobacco plants in the crop, 1 plant each 500 m²

If there is no insect or mite in the greenhouse, macrolophus bugs can be fed with eggs of sitidroga butterflies. They are available from many breeders of predators. 2. Open breeding of Amblyseius predator mites Amblyseius predator mites can live on pollen or other mites or insects like thrips or larvae of white flies. For the open breeding a blooming plant is necessary. Ricinus communis can be taken, but it is necessary that the plant is blooming to offer pollen to the mites. The following method can be applied to breed Amlyseiolus degenerans mites: -

Seed of Ricinus communis in September to have a blooming plant in spring Planting of Ricinus plants between the greenhouse crops (1 plant each 50 m²) Rhicinus plants must be integrated into the irrigation system of the greenhouse Application of Amblyseius mites as soon as the temperatures reach 20°C for several hours each day (30 % to 50 % of the common dose of mites)

3. Open breeding of predators for aphid regulation Breeding of aphid predators avoids an epidemic multiplication of aphids in springtime. To establish predators in the greenhouse before aphids attack the crops the following method has proved of value in many professional greenhouse farms: Ray, sorghum or other cereals will be seeded in boxes. Before the cereals are 10 cm high cereal aphids (Rhopalisphum pali and Sitobion avenae) are applied on the cereals. These 37

aphids only attack cereals and some monocotyledon plants, but do not attack fruit legumes. The aphids multiply in the boxes. In the moment of planting fruit crops as tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers or eggplants into the greenhouse, some boxes will be put into the greenhouse and predators will be applied into the boxes. This way, the predators are present in the greenhouse before the first aphid attacks the crops. It is also possible to integrate a cereal stripe to breed cereal-aphids into the irrigation system of the greenhouse.

Fig. 15

Tab.17

Breeding cereal-aphids in boxes

Scheme of open breeding of aphid predators in greenhouses (Example for 500 m²greenhouse)

Week -4 -3 -2 bis -1 -1

Seed 1: 1 m² cereal-boxes

Day >14°C, night >12°C

Application of cereal aphids on the seed (Application in groups) Control multiplication of the aphids

, day >16°C, night >10°C

Seed 2: 1 m² cereal-boxes Plantation of the greenhouse crop

>17°C >17°C



0  Planting of the greenhouse  crop 



seed of 10 m² of cereals between the greenhouse crops put some boxes of seed 1 into the greenhouse Application of predators (Aphidius sp. and aphidioletes) on the cereals Cut some cereals with aphids of seed 1 and put them on seed 2 to into a separate greenhouse Cut cereals of seed 2 and apply them on the stripe of cereals in the greenhouse Breed more aphids for other greenhouses 38

2. Direct application of predator insects and mites Another method is the direct application of predator insects and mites into orchards or greenhouse crops. There are various predators available by breeding companies in many countries. The precondition for a successful use of predators is a monitoring system that allows an application of predators in the beginning of the attack of a pest, because predators need some time to establish and multiplicate in the crops. In many intensive greenhouse crops farmers start to apply a small number of predators against the most important pests preventively in the beginning of the crop. They repeat the application weekly to avoid any attack of pests. If a pest still occurs the number of applied predators must increase. In orchards, especially in young trees, application of predators helps to settle a population of predators. To have a success after application there are some important rules to consider:

Rules for the application of predators ->

Control

Monitoring to realise early attack of pests

Early application

Before a mass multiplication of pests begins

Appropriate predators

Many pests need specific kinds of predators

Appropriate climate

By technical methods in greenhouses

Control of the predators

Are the predators alive after delivery?

Monitoring after application

Do predators survive and multiplicate?

Repeat application

If necessary, increase number of predators

Tab. 18

Examples for predators to apply in vegetable crops and fruit trees Use in Fruit (F) Vegetable(V) Greenh.(G)

Predator

Host

Typhlodromus pyri

Spider mites

Grapes, fruit trees in young trees to start a population

F, G

Aphidius colemanii/ervi

Aphids

Aphidioletes aphidimyza

Aphids

Dacnusa sibirica

Leaf miners

Diglyphus isaea

Leaf miners

Application every week 0,5- 2/m², Temp >15°C Every week 0,5- >2/m², Temp > 15°C O,25 – 2/m² Early in spring 0,2-0,5 /m² Attack also in high temperature

Specifical aspects

G G G 39

Predator

Host

Phytoseiolus persimilis

Spider mites

Amblyseius swirskii Amblyseius sp. Encarsia formosa

Thrips/White fly Spider mites White fly

Macrolophus caliginosus

Insects, mites

Use in Fruit (F) Vegetable(V) Greenh.(G)

Specifical aspects 5/m², high air moisture and moderate temperature necessary 20-100/m² Late spring/summer 2-5/m², several applications

0,5-2/m², preventive, suitable for breeding

G G

3.5.5 Products for plant protection To support biological and biotechnical methods, there are plant protection products available in organic agriculture (‘organic pesticides’). Using those products, the farmer should consider the biological state of his field to save predators. Using pesticides permitted in organic agriculture should be only the last step in plant protection methods. Annex III displays a list of manufacturers and distributors of biological products approved for use in organic agriculture in the Republic of Uzbekistan (dated April 2022). The inputs allowed according to Regulation (EU) 2021/1165 can be the accessed with the following link: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/de/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32021R1165 Tab. 19

List of frequently used plant protection products

Active component

Target organisms

Comment

fruit trees (F) vegetables (V) greenhouse (G)

Products of bacteria

Bacillus thuringiensis e.g., ssp. aziawai

Larvae of butterflies, on the surface of leaves in fruit trees, grapes and berries

Efficient insecticide, there are different species of BTconcoction against different insects. Sugar as an additive improves the effect

Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis

Larvae of sciarids Bradysia sp. Lycoriella sp.

Treatment of substrates for propagation material

Bac. thuringinsis ssp. tenebriomis

Larvae of potato-beetles

Use against the first two states of larvae of potato-beetles

FVG

Basic mineral preparations approved for organic agriculture Frequent use, especially in permanent crops, causes accumulation in the soil and damages soil life

Copper hydroxide Copper oxide Copper oxychloride

various fungi e.g. Phytophthora infestans, Peronospora sp. Septoria sp. (apes)

“Bordeaux mixture” Copper sulphate + calcium hydroxide

Control of fire blight (Erwinia amylovora), peach leaf curl (Taphrina deformans), Pseudomonas

Ferric phosphate (iron (III) orthophosphate)

Granulate against slugs

Sulphur

Concoction to spray against mildew and spider mites

In fruit- and vegetable crops

FVG

Potassium soap

Aphids, spider mites, larvae of white flies

use with a lot of water. Plant must be moistened for at least 15 min. Nontoxic. Saves many predators

FVG

Potassium hydrogen carbonate Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Very effective against mildew Further Botrytis, Venturia Active substance is baking powder

Very cheap and effective fungicide. Use with surface wetting agent, not in direct sun to avoid sunburn

FVG

Spraying before leaf out of fruit trees

Fungicide in fruit trees Especially in wet conditions, can be sprayed on the wet leaf

Paraffine oil

Calcium-polysulfide

Coccidae Pseudococcidae

Venturia inaequalis in apples Various fungi

Sprayed without any mix

FVG

Plant based products

Azadirachtrine

Against aphids, white flies, spider mites and more

Concoction of the fruit of neem trees. Doesn´t save predators.

FVG

Pyrethrum

Aphids spider mites white flies

Only natural pyrethrum allowed, Attention: no artificial pyrethroids allowed !!!

FVG

Plant oils

Spider mites, aphids, coccids

Oils of rape, sunflowers and other plants

FVG

Cydia pomonella, Grapholitha molesta, Hyphantria cunea, Heliothis armigera, Mamestra brassicae

Virus concoction to spray, various types available according to resistance of the butterflies in apples

In traps, in organic production it is not allowed to spray with pheromones on plants

Various trading products

Steinernema feltiae

Cydia pomonella

Application after harvest against larvae of Cydia pomonella that hide in the stem during the cold period

Steinernema feltiae Heterorhabditis bacteriophora

Sciards

Treatment of substrates for propagation material or pot-herbs

Products of virus

Granulosis virus

Pheromones Mass trapping using pheromones Products of nematodes

Products of fungi

Aureobasidium pullulans

Erwinia amylovora Botrytis, Gloeosporum, Penicillium, …

Prevention of Erwinia and rot in the fruit store

Trichoderma asperellum

Treatment of seeds and roots of propagation material Minimizes stress by dryness, scarce of nutrients, heat by improvement of the uptake of nutrients

No mixing with other concoction

FVG

Beauvaria bassiana

White flies in vegetables and herbs

Organic Insecticide based on fungi

Metarhizium spp.

Otiorhynchus beetles (wine weevil, strawberry root weevil)

Organic Insecticide based on fungi

Metharhizium bruneum

Wireworm (Larvae of Elateridae)

In concoction to apply into the soil of vegetable- and strawberry crops

3.6 Weed control Weed control in organic farming, especially in vegetable crops needs strategies and a combination of methods. Herbicides are not allowed in organic agriculture. A combination of various techniques reduces manual work: Strategies for weed control in organic agriculture

Manual work

Mechanical / thermic methods

Rotation

Preventive weed control

Technical methods Fig. 17 Strategies of weed control in organic agriculture

3.6.1 Rotation A rotation of vegetable crops with cereals can reduce weed on the field, because below cereal crops many weeds cannot develop. 3.6.2 Preventive methods A preventive weed-control Basic of weed control is to begin early in germinating state of weed before seed showed highest effects up to a reduction of more every day late causes many hours of manual work. than 90 %. After a soil-preparation without seed weed germinates in wet conditions. In warm conditions another flat soil treatment destroys germinating weed after 7 to 14 days in the state of germination. For this treatment combs are a good choice. Weed seeds, deeper than 10 cm in the soil cannot germinate. A flat treatment of less than 7 cm is necessary to destroy the weed sprouts without digging new ones to the surface. According to the planned crop, a second treatment can reduce the weed before the seed. Fig. 18

Comb

3.6.3 Thermic methods Thermic methods heat germinating plants of weed directly before seed or planting of vegetable crops or after the seed of slowly germinating vegetable crops like onions or carrots before the plants reach the surface of the soil. Machines to flame weed with gas are expensive but can save many hours of manual work.

Fig. 19 Carrot plants, 2 days after thermical treatment

3.6.4 Mechanic methods The most frequently practised method of weed control is the mechanical control: In fruit production there are machines to treat the soil between the stems of fruit trees. In vegetable crops there are three main methods of mechanical weed control:

Fig. 20

The comb: Pulls out weed in the germination state - before seed or planting or can be used in young plants, one or two weeks after planting as soon as roots are fixed in the soil

Hoes: Many kinds of cutting hoes that cut weed in the state of 2 until 6 leaves. Moving Hoes as finger hoes (see fig. 20) that pull out or dig weed also in a bigger state

Disk-plough: A disc plough can accumulate and dig small weed plants. The combination of these methods reduces manual work or can even reduce weed it in planted crops

Finger hoe: soil accumulation in beans

Fig. 21 Weed control between the rows of crops

3.6.5 Manual work The last and most expensive method is method is manual work. Besides pulling out weed by hand many methods are developed to make manual work easier and more effective, but it always requires good organisation and working hands. Hand hoes make standing work possible. On fields that don’t contain many stones, many technical devices have been developed. To pull out weed by hand in seed crops as onions or carrots many farmers modified machines, that have been used to pick cucumbers to tear out weed in several rows by hand at the same time. A smaller selfconstruction is shown in picture 21.

Fig. 22

Self- construction for manual weed control

IV Epilogue to this guideline This guideline is a summary of some organic farming practices. Every region of the world has its own demands on agricultural practice like the local climate, soil structure and availability of water or organic fertilizers. The research in organic agriculture has developed strongly in the last 40 years all over the world and has changed also the conventional agriculture in many aspects, because in many parts of the world intensive agriculture of the last decades polluted and damaged strongly soils of agricultural regions and the nature around. This guideline can only give a short overview of some practice of organic plant production. To start organic production a farmer must ask for technical advice of agricultural consultancy to adapt methods to his specific region and crops. In the past farms in many countries of the world converted to organic agriculture from Island to South Arabia. Many small farms grew to large companies with the increasing demand. These organic farmers showed, that organic farming is possible in every climate all over the world. With the help of local research and the knowledge, developed in the last decades organic farming will be a challenge and an opportunity also for many farmers in Uzbekistan.

Annex

Annex 1: List of tables List of Tables Tab.1: Tab.2: Tab 3: Tab.4: Tab.5: Tab.6: Tab.7: Tab.8: Tab.9: Tab.10: Tab.11 Tab.12 Tab.13: Tab.14: Tab.15: Tab.16 Tab.17: Tab.18: Tab.19:

Conversion of annual crops. Conversion period of permanent crops. Methods of composting Availability of N in a green manure Legumes or Non- legumes Green manure seeds for N-accumulation Examples for organic commercial fertilizers N release of organic fertilizers and green manure Example for the calculation of an organic crop Frequently used fertilizers with a high P level Frequently used K and Mg Fertilizers Frequently used sulphate fertilizers Frequently used calcium fertilizers Monitoring systems for pests in fruit and vegetable crops Available pheromone traps in fruit and vegetable crops Insect protection by net-cover Available pheromones for mating disruption Scheme of open breeding of aphid predators in Greenhouses Examples for predators to applicate in vegetable crops and fruit trees List of frequently used plant protection products

Page 8 8 16 20 20 21 23 24 24 25 25 26 29 30 31 32 37 38 39-42

Annex 2: International certification bodies for organic agriculture Control

www.uzcontrolunion.co

Union

Ceres

www.ceres-cert.com

info@ceres-cert.de

Germany

Bioagricert

www.bioagricert.org

info@bioagricert.org

Italy

CCPB

www.ccpb.it

priori@ccpb.it

Italy

STC

www.stc.lv

info@stc.lv

Latvia

aisamukhamedov@controlunion.com

Office in Uzbekistan

Annex 3: Manufacturer and distributors of biological preparations permitted in organic agriculture List of manufacturers and distributors of biological products approved for use in organic agriculture in the Republic of Uzbekistan (dated April 2022)

No.

Organization

“Anguzal Agroservis” LLC

Location

Tashkent region Kibray district

Date of registration of the organization

No.

Name of manufactured biological products

Active substance of the drug

Date of drug registration

SPORAGIN Systemic fungicide and bactericide

Bacillus Subtillis

Registered in 2012

PLANTASTIM Biostimulator of growth with fungicidal properties

B.trichoderma lignorum

Registered in 2011

Prestige The intestinal contact insecticide

Тhuringiensis var. thuringiensis

Registered in 2013

Prestige Plus Intestinal contact insecticide

B. thuringiensis var. thuringiensis

Registered in 2013

Laviron Antiviral drug

Trichoderma lignorum

Registered in 2019

Fungiosporin Intestinal contact insecticide

B.bassiana

Registered in 2010

SaltyPro Growth stimulator

M.mays., S.serevisiae

Registered in 2021

2009

Note

“Asiabioprom” LLC, Representative of “Sibbiofarm”, Berdsk, Russia

Tashkent, Sergeli district

2018

Fosfomax Microbiological fertilizer

B. megaterium var phosphaticum,

Antifreeze Frost protection

B.mucilaginosus.,et.all

Maxiplant Growth stimulator

A.chroococcum., et.all

AnBio Anti-nematode drug

A.oligospora

AmilaPro Probiotic

B.subtilis

Registered in 2021

Bacillus Subtillis

Registered in 2019

It has an organic certificate "Organic standard" of Ukraine No. 19-133401/01

Bitokibacillin Biological insecticide

Bacillus thuringiensis var.

Registered in 2019

Certificate No. 19-133401/03

Lepidocide TM Biological insecticide

Bacillus thuringiensis var.

Registered in 2019

Certificate No. 19-133401/02

Gibbersib Natural Growth Regulator

Fuzarium monilifarme

Registered in 2019

Certificate No. 19-133401/04

Bactofit Biological fungicide and bactericide

“INNOVATION IDEAS” LLC

Tashkent, Yakkasaray district

Azophyte Microbiological fertilizer

Azotobacter vinelandii

Registered in 2019

Fosstim-1 Bacterial fertilizer

B. megaterium ВМ-1, В. polymyxa BP-700, B. subtilis BS-26

Registered in 2019

Fosstim-3 Bacterial fertilizer

Rizokom-1 Biological product of complex action

Bacillus subtilis BS-80 Bacillus licheniformis ВL83 Paenibacillus polymyxa BP-113 Paenibacillus amylolyticus PA-118

Registered in 2019

Rizokom-2 Biological product of complex action

Bacillus subtilis BS-26 Bacillus subtilis BS-56 Bacillus subtilis BS-64

Registered in 2019

Serhosil Biological product

Scenedesmus obliquus (Turp) Kuetz UА-2-7 Scenedesmus acuminatus (Lagerh) Chodet UА-3-1

Registered in 2019

2018

Scenedesmus quadricanda (Turp) UА-4-1

Institute of Microbiology of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan

7B, A. Kadiri Street, Shaykhantakhur

1965 (1978)

B. subtilis BS-26

Registered in 2019

Microzyme-1 Enzymatic organic fertilizer for cereals and legumes

Aspergillus oryzae, Aspergiillus terreus, Pleurotus ostrestus, Streptomyces sp/165

Registered in 2011, 2015, 2021

district, Tashkent, 100128

“BIONOVATIC” RF, "Organic Service" LLC

Russian Federation, Republic of Tatarstan, Kazan Republic of Uzbekistan, Tashkent

2012

Microzyme-2 Enzymatic organic fertilizer for cotton and angiosperms

Registered in 2011, 2015, 2021

BIODUX (Biostimulator) Биодукс

Complex of biologically active polyunsaturated fatty acids of the fungus Mortierella alpina

Registered in 2013

Pseudobacterin – 3 (Biofungicide) Псевдобактерин 3

Living cells of the Pseudomonas aureofaciens strain (titer not less than 2x109 CFU/ml)

Registered in 2018

Orgamica S (Biofungicide) Оргамика С

Spores of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (titer not less than 5x109 CFU/ml)

Registered in 2018

Orgamica F (Biofungicide) Оргамика С

Conidia of the Trichoderma asperellum strain (titer not less than 1x108 CFU/ml)

Registered in 2018

Bio Sleep BT (Bioinsecticide) Биослип БT

Spores and endotoxin crystals of Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. toumanoffi (titer not less than 1x1010 CFU/g)

Registered in 2018

Bio Sleep BW (Bioinsecticide) Биослип БВ

Blastospores of the Beauveria bassiana strain (titer not less than 1x108 CFU/ml)

Registered in 2018

Organit P (Microbiofertilizer) Органит П

Spores of the Bacillus megaterium strain (titer not less than 1x109 CFU/ml

Registered in 2018

2017

National Research Institute of Plant Protection

National Research Institute of Genetics and Experimental Biology

Tashkent region, Kibray district

Tashkent

2011

2018

Tashkent Manufacturer: PLANTIN (France)

Cells of the strain Azospirillum zeae (titer not less than 1x109 CFU/ml)

Registered in 2018

Trichodermaviride d.p.6x109 cl/ml

Registered in 2018

Bio nitrogen - N, biofertilizer

Azotobakter chojcjccum N1

Registered in 2018

AMINOPLANT No. 1 Organic fertilizer of animal origin with a biostimulating effect (obtained as a result of hydrolysis of cattle skins)

Alanine, Arginine, Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid, Glycine, Histidine, Hyroxyproline, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Proline, Serine, Threonine, Tryp tophane, Tyrosine, Valine

Registered in 2021

AMINOPLANT №8 Organic fertilizer of plant origin with a biostimulating effect (obtained as a result of hydrolysis of soybeans)

Alanine, Arginine, Gamma Aminobutiric acid, Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid, Glycine, Histidine, Hyroxyproline, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Proline, Serine, Threonine, Tyrosine, Valine

Registered in 2021

Indico Biological Fertilizer with repellent properties

Margose plant extract 70%; Potassium oxide - 6%

At the testing stage

Seller: NAMUNA DIYOR (Uzbekistan) 8.

Organit N (Microbiofertilizer) Органит Н Trichodermin Biofungicide

1997

It has the European Organic Certificate No. C874846EU01.2021

Certificate SHC 52

Synerol Biological Fertilizer

Emulsified vegetable oleins - 70%; Potassium oxide - 6%

At the SHC testing stage

Certificate OMRI Listed

Frutoil Biological fertilizer with insecticidal properties

A mixture of olive pomace extracts - 70%; Potassium oxide - 6%

At the testing stage

Oleo-soap K Biological fertilizer with cleansing, insecticidal and fungicidal properties

Saponified fatty acids of vegetable origin -65%; Potassium oxide - 6%

At the testing stage

Certificate OMRI Listed, Certificate CAAE

Biocarb Biological fertilizer with fungicidal properties

Biologically active organic acids Potassium bicarbonate 40%; Potassium oxide - 6%

At the testing stage

Certificate SHC

Mafacopper Biological fertilizer with fungicidal properties

Gluconic acid Water soluble copper - 6%; Copper complex - 6%

At the testing stage

Certificate OMRI Listed

Imprint Published by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH Registered offices Bonn and Eschborn, Germany ‘Support for Economic Reforms and Sustainable Economic Development in Regions of Uzbekistan‘ GIZ Tashkent Office 7A, Chimkentskaya str., Mirabad District 100029 Tashkent, Uzbekistan Phone +998 71 280 67 51 giz-usbekistan@giz.de www.giz.de As at April 2023 Design GIZ, AFC (Uwe Hornischer, Elisabeth Rüegg, Aslinur Cavdar, Stefanie Maak) Bonn and Eschborn, Germany Photo credits Uve Xornisher, AFC Text Uve Xornisher, AFC

On behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ)