In Their Voice: Hopes and Aspirations of Young People in India A study of young people’s perceptions of training and employment opportunities in India June 2013 America India Foundation Office of the Advisor to the Prime Minster for Skills Development Report Authors and Researchers: Gayatri Eassey, AIF Fellow Andrew Fertig, AIF Fellow Shilpa Vimalananda, AIF Fellow Jillian Gross, Research Intern APM Office
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Acknowledgement of Research Partners: American India Foundation’s Market Aligned Skills Program (MAST) Aide-‐et-‐Action (Maharashtra, Karnataka and Magic Bus (Maharashtra) Tamil Nadu) Nav Bharat Jaruti Kendra (Jharkhand) Anudip (West Bengal) Nidan (Bihar) Child Survival India (Delhi) Saath (Gujarat) Vatsalya (Rajasthan) DBC Trust (Punjab) A special thank you to the staff and volunteers in all these NGOs who made possible the interviews of over 350 individuals. Special thanks to: Humant Rawat, Prabhakar from the AIF MAST Program. The 2012-‐2013 American Indian Foundation Fellows who conducted interviews and provided critical support for completion of this research study: Asif Ali Ryan Ballard Sabina Dewan Gayatri Eassey Andrew Fertig Allison Horton Ragini Kathail Prerna Khanna
Hallie Noble Blessing Okorougo Aditya Pasumarty Elizabeth Peyton Gregory Randolph Ashutosh Ranjan Pranav Reddy Sam Ribnick
A. Ted Samuel Nimish Shukla Sriya Srikrishnan Katherine Stricker Sanjana Tandon Brian Tronic Shilpa Vimalananda
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Executive Summary “In Our Voice” was completed through the partnership between the Office of the Advisor to the Prime Minister for Skills Development (APM-‐SD) and the American India Foundation (AIF). 351 surveys were administered through 9 NGOs in 10 regions across India focusing on young people ages 16 to 26 with education levels below 12th pass. While there are multiple policy studies and recommendations on skills development in India, few have focused on the perceptions of young people as they pertain to individual aspirations and employment opportunities or have utilized both qualitative and quantitative methods. We investigated how the aspirations, hopes, and dreams of young people relate to education and career goals. The results indicate that young people are eager and motivated but lack the information and the counseling necessary to understand the requisite subsequent steps that would facilitate employment, career advancement, and achievement of their goals in general. Although 91% of respondents indicated they do not want to follow in the professional footsteps of their parents, 69% indicated that their family is their primary source of help about career options. This highlights that there is a fundamental disconnect between young people’s expectations and the reality of their access to relevant guidance. The most significant perceived barrier conveyed by respondents regarding access to education or training was financial constraints. Essentially, either respondents could not afford the training they desired because of elevated training fees or a lack of awareness in government subsidy schemes, or they could not afford the opportunity costs embedded in stopping work to pursue training or education. These results encouragingly show that if young people have gone for training they are almost twice as likely to have a job. However, employment after completing training is not associated with a salary higher than those who did not attend training. This brings into question the potential plateau of these skilling programs and their inability to provide significant upward mobility as well as tangible financial added value in young people’s lives. The survey also revealed an association between education levels and salary, meaning that the longer young people stay in school, the more likely they are to have the capacity to earn a higher salary. This effect is most significant for young people staying in school past 7th standard. Given the current climate of education and training, those who drop out of school earlier, most likely for a job with lower pay, are generally unable to return for future up-‐skilling. Like any large-‐scale survey endeavor utilizing multiple implementation sources in a diverse geographic, cultural, and linguistic setting, various limitations must be acknowledged. Firstly, the data collected is subject to self-‐reporting and self-‐selection bias, meaning that our survey sample was over representative of various demographics. Additionally, the survey sample is not random or nationally representative. However, the information gathered from this survey still provides a direct outlet for the voices of young people relating to their needs in the skilling space as well as provides a focused direction for future research.
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The result of this report is five major policy recommendations based on the analysis of and the observations from the data collected: 1. “Earn and Learn” Programs should be expanded so that skilling activities and further education are not mutually exclusive. 2. Career pathways need to be emphasized in both education and training. 3. There is a need to expand opportunities and facilitate access to career-‐counseling resources as well as integrate existing services into physical offices that are centralized at the state or local level.
4. Awareness and marketing of training programs must be tailored to entire communities and families, not just individuals. 5. Diversify how training fees are paid. Create buy-‐in and mutual benefit training programs to establish more sustainable and accessible skilling institutions.
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Table of Contents: Introduction and Background on Skills Development Movement in India......................................... -‐ 4 -‐ Section 1: Survey Methodology and Limitations................................................................................ -‐ 5 -‐ Section 2: Profile of Respondents....................................................................................................... -‐ 5 -‐ Section 3: The Role of Education in Aspirations……………………………………………………………………………... -‐ 9 -‐ Section 4: The Role of Training and Employment in Aspirations……………………………………………….….... -‐10-‐ Section 5: Concluding Remarks and Policy Recommendations........................................................... -‐ 11 -‐ References .......................................................................................................................................... -‐ 12 -‐
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Introduction and Background on Skills Development Movement in India In March 2013, Business Today featured a cover story on the skills development movement in India that concludes with the statement, “If the government does not address the situation soon, the window of opportunity afforded by the demographic dividend just might slam shut.”i The Government of India (GOI) authorized the National Policy on Skill Development (NPSD) in February 2009 and set a target of skilling 500 million Indians by 2022. “These initiatives [Skills Development programs] rest on two fundamental assumptions which form the basis for “the build and they will come” philosophy, i.e. there is sufficient demand for these programs both from the burgeoning young population and potential employers once they are trained.”ii This study explores the aspirations of Indian youth as they relate to their career and educational goals, as well as their perceptions of the programs and resources in place to support them in achieving their dreams. Skills development is a major priority for the Government of India; leveraging the demographic dividend brought on by the growth of India’s working age population is critical to India’s continued development. “There is perhaps nowhere in the world where youth matters more than in India. The country itself is young– the median age of an Indian citizen is just 26.5 years, compared to 35.9 in China and 40.2 in the UK – and it represents over a third of the world’s population aged between 15 and 34.”iii In 2012, the role of the learner in the skills development movement began to gain increased relevance in policy circles. At the FICII Global Skills Summit in September 2012, Ernst & Young released a knowledge paper on skills development in India entitled, “Learner First.” In a profile of learners, the report highlighted that, “More than 50% of the total population in the age group of 15–59 years are potential learners and require some type of skill training.”iv Philip Kotler, a Professor of International Marketing at the Kellogg School of Management, recently reflected, “India has a huge developmental advantage and can take over its competitors with the human resource strength it boasts.”v The economics of the skills development challenge are clear, but the socio-‐cultural impacts have yet to be fully explored. The social pressures, cultural expectations and lack of knowledge about economic opportunities are the daily realities faced by young Indians. These factors significantly influence the career choices they make in addition to the education and training opportunities they pursue. In the fall of 2012, the Office of the Advisor to the Prime Minister for Skills Development (APM-‐ SD) partnered with the American India Foundation (AIF) to engage in a pan-‐India study examining the aspirations, hopes, and dreams of young people as they relate to their educational and career goals. The purpose of this study is to explore the perceptions young people have about skills development. The APM Office, in partnership with AIF’s Market Aligned Skills Program and with the assistance of participants in the William J. Clinton Fellowship for Service in India, conducted over 350 interviews with young people, spanning 10 states and in association with 9 NGOs throughout India. While the economy demands more skilled labor, this study seeks to explore how young people perceive the opportunities before them in the current job market environment. A study completed in December 2012, entitled “The Skills They Want,“ articulated the challenge that “While a lot of work has been done by NSDC as well as other ministries and industry bodies to identify employer requirements, there is little empirical understanding of the aspirations and Page 6 of 27
influences that shape student choices for skill training.”vi This report seeks to build on that study. The aim is not to present a market analysis that helps skills providers better cater to the demands of their young Indian clientele. Rather, it is to present an objective analysis of the perceptions of young Indians regarding their future career aspirations and the potential pathways to achieve their goals and dreams. Section 1: Survey Methods and Limitations Survey Design: The survey was designed to give a voice to the 80% of Indian young people who are not traditional college-‐ goers.vii The young people surveyed were identified through a network of NGOs that provide short-‐term vocational training through the American India Foundation’s Market Aligned Skills Program (MAST). viii The survey was conducted in partnership with nine NGOs at ten sites in India – The total number of interviews completed was 351.ix Target Population: The target population for the survey was young people ages 16 to 26 at any level of education up to 12th pass. We sought to have an equal representation of male and female respondents and a balance of young people who had participated in training and those who had not. We also attempted to collect a representative sample of urban and rural respondents. Limitations: Training NGOs recruited participants, of which approximately 50.5% had previously received training services. Thus, data collected are subject to self-‐reporting and self-‐selection bias. While this study represents a unique look into the individual perspectives of India’s young people, cultural differences between researchers and participants, along with the process of translation may have resulted in increased rates of non-‐responsiveness and subjectivity in the observations. Furthermore, it is important to acknowledge that the sample is not random or nationally representative. For example, urban youth are overrepresented at 85% of the total sample. Also, we were unable to distinguish between rural, urban, and semi-‐urban locales and did not account for differences between current residences and where respondents were raised. Finally, although evenly balanced between genders, urban educated women with access to training resources are overrepresented in our sample. Therefore, self-‐selection and sampling bias may have led to distorted conclusions which are not necessarily accurate reflections of general social trends among men and women. Section 2: Profile of Respondents Demographics of Respondents: 87% of respondents had achieved education of 12th pass or below, while 10% were in college. Respondents were evenly split by gender. Page 7 of 27
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Respondents: Respondents were asked their hopes and dreams for the future and their responses were categorized as career oriented or education oriented. For example, “wants to learn computers and get a good job” would be a career goal, whereas “wants to complete 12th and get high marks” would be an education goal. Responses were overwhelmingly oriented towards career goals, with 73% of respondents stating a career goal, 18% an educational goal, and 9% that they did not know. Next Steps to Achieve Aspiration: When asked what steps they plan to take to achieve this goal, 24% endorsed a plan for education (for example, further education or exam prep), while 21% stated that they wanted work experience (for example, to work for another year and get promoted to manager, or to secure an entry level job upon completion of their 12th). Twenty-‐two percent planned to seek training (for example to attend automotive training and become a mechanic, or to go for electrician training and become a repair man)x. Page 9 of 27
Ideal Job: When asked to describe their ideal job, the majority of respondents expressed a desire to work in Government (24%), followed by the private sector (17%). IT, teaching, health care, and banking were the only industries mentioned by name. When asked if they would prefer a private job or a government job, 71% of respondents claimed a preference for a government job.
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Current Jobs: Sixty-‐two percent of respondents currently hold a job. Of all employed respondents, 66% have held their jobs for a year or less. Fifty-‐eight percent of employed respondents were previously employed in a different job from their current one. Seventy percent of them work in salaried jobs, 10% in daily wage jobs, 6% own their own business, and 1% of our employed respondents farmed for a living. The respondents work in diverse positions in both the organized and unorganized sector. A random sampling of the jobs they hold includes beautician, computer operator, cook, McDonalds, food seller, office assistants, helping parents with their business, personal trainer, operator of a printing machine, receptionist, data entry specialist, hospital receptionist, and telemarketer. Job Satisfaction and Income: From those respondents that are working, 84% are satisfied in their current work, but only 53% are satisfied by their current salary. The table below indicates that the average workday for respondents is 7.9 hours, the average week is 5.7 days, and average salary is Rs. 5200 per month. Hours per Day 7.9 hours/Day
Days per Week 5.7 Days/week
Salary Per Month Rs. 5200
Chief Wage Earner and Family Occupation: For the majority of respondents (68%), fathers are the chief wage-‐earner in the family. Only 7% Page 11 of 27
of respondents expressed a desire to be employed in the same occupation as their parents. Sixty-‐ nine percent said they would not like the same occupation, and 24% were unsure. When asked why they wanted to pursue a different profession, the top 4 responses were that they had another goal (39%), income potential was too low or too unstable (21%), they found their parents occupation uninteresting (19%), or that the job was too physically demanding and social status too low (13%).
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Source of Information for Job Opportunities: The majority of respondents identified friends as their preferred source for information about job opportunities (27%). This was followed by newspapers (23%) and NGOs (20%). The least common sources were TV (11%) and Government (8%). Willingness to Travel: Almost half of the respondents would prefer to be working within one hour of their home (46.5%), but 25% are willing to relocate to another state to find work. Awareness of Opportunities: The survey results reveal a disconnect between the jobs that respondents want and their awareness of such jobs. As stated previously, 71% of respondents have a preference for a government job over a private job, but only 6% of respondents were aware of government jobs in their community, while 35% were aware of only private jobs.
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Job Search Challenges: When asked, “What are the problems you face when looking for a suitable job?” the majority response indicated low qualifications (34%), followed by the travel distance to jobs (25%), and that the wages of the job were too low (24%). Training Awareness and Participation Levels: The majority of respondents (62%) were aware of training opportunities. Thirty-‐three percent stated that they were unaware of opportunities, and 5% did not answer the question. Of those respondents who were aware of training programs, 74% had attended training. Of these, 88% found the training to be useful but only 18% actually found employment following participation in a training program. From the perspective of gender, male respondents registered a slightly higher rate of training attendance and a similar result with respect to awareness of training.
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Willingness to Pay: 86% of respondents are willing to pay for training, 75% of respondents said they would pay up to Rs. 1000 per month for training. Broken down by gender, 91% of female respondents agreed that they would be willing to pay for training while only 84% of male respondents articulated a willingness to pay. Benefits Expected from Training: The number one benefit respondents are seeking from training is job placement, followed by hard skill development, soft skill development, and finally better salary. As indicated in the graph below, there is a strong preference shown by respondents for training through government programs or NGOs.
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Barriers to Aspirations and Perceived Solutions: We asked our respondents to identify the difficulties they face in pursuit of their goals as well as the possible solutions the government could provide to overcome these barriers. The perception is overwhelmingly that financial concerns are the primary barrier to the achievement of youth aspirations (48%). This was followed by Inadequate Qualifications (18%) and then Family Responsibilities (14%). When asked if a dedicated career counselor would be of benefit, an overwhelming 88% said that they thought it would. This follows a general trend of responses from young people indicating a willingness to make the needed investments of time and money to gain the needed qualifications for potential employment. However, these responses suggest that the systems enabling young people living in poverty to access training and employment that would help them progress to a higher income bracket either do not exist or students remain unaware of such opportunities. Respondents indicated that they were not asking the government for financial packages, but rather to invest in them and in the necessary social systems that enable them to become successful through hard work. There was also an expressed desire for the government to play a more active role in job creation, as well as the need for financial assistance and training.
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Section 2: How does Education Attainment Influence Youth Aspirations: A basic level of education including rudimentary literacy and mathematics tend to be compulsory to achieving gainful employment. While public policy has tackled the challenge of school enrollment retention, keeping students beyond primary education still presents a significant challenge. There is only a 58% retention rate for students after class 5, meaning that by class 5, 42% of students have dropped out.xi This study focuses on the 58% who persisit past this point. Only 20 respondents reached only a class 7 level education, with the majoriy reaching levels of achievement between class 10 and class 12. 36 respondents have persisited pased 12th and are currently in college. We gave particular attention to the role of education in influencing respondents’ awareness levels of and participation in skills training, as well as well as in overall career and educational aspirations. Our findings suggest that educational achievement positively relates to awareness of training, attendance of training, career plans, and salary. We found that education is also inversly related to employment. As Educational Achievement Rises Awanress and Enrolment in Training Increases: Comparing education level and awareness of training yielded statistically significant results, demonstrating a positive association between the two variables. 1 This means that as education levels rise, so does a respondents awareness of training. We also found a statistically significant 1
Results: Chi-‐square=26.36 and P<0.001
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and positive relationshipation between education and enrollment of training programs.2 This means that as education levels rise, there is a higher probability that the respondent has attended training. The challenge is in reaching those subjects that tend to exit the educational system earliest and could subsequently benefit most from training. Unfortunately, our findings indicate that those not enrolled in school or with a low level of educational acheivement are less likley to be aware of or to attend a training program. As Educational Achievement Rises Career Goals Increase: The results of the survey data analysis yielded statistically significant associations between education levels and respondents long-‐term planning to achieve their goals. 3 As educational attainment increased, respondents reported the desire to achieve career goals in lieu of educational goals. Although there is the possibility of conflating the two, i.e. seeing education as a means to meet their desired professional end, the relationship suggests that with higher levels of education more emphasis is given to career planning. As Educational Achievement Rises Employment Declines: Education level appears to be negatively associated to the possibility of a respondent being employed. In those with less than a 12th standard education, the ratio of never employed to previously employed approached 2:1. After 12th standard the ratio fell to 1:1. As education level increases, the probability of a respondent being employed decreased as well.4 This is an imporant observation because the trend for Indian youth is that education and work are mutually exclusive. This means that those employed are often forced to drop out of school, while those that stick to academics are for the most part not working. There was no statistically significant association between respondents holding prior jobs and their aspirations being educational or professional in nature. As Educational Achievement Rises Salary Increases: While education and prior employment were negatively related, there was a positive relationship between education and monthly salary. Although not statistically significant, there is a trend in salary growth based on education level. This means that as education increases, salary also tends to increase. Salary between those with college experience reported income levels 250% higher than those who had only passed 7th standard. Even between those who had passed 7th and those who had yet to pass 10th, there was a 1.8 fold income disparity reported favoring those with higher education.
2
Results: Chi-‐square=48.03, P<0.001 Results: Chi-‐squared=24.6, P<0.01 4 Results: Chi-‐square= 11.53, P<0.05 3
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Section 3: How Training and Employment Influence Youth Aspirations: Training and Current Employment There was a statistically significant association between whether a respondent had completed training and if they were currently employed.5 From our response pool, those who had completed training were 1.7 times as likely to be currently working then those who had not. This might suggest that skilling centers are providing assistance to trainees in job placement and that candidates who have completed training are more appealing for employment than those who have not. Training and Job Outlook There was no significant relationship between attendance in training and awareness of employment opportunities. This means that those associated with training centers were no more likely to report job opportunities than those who were not associated with training centers. We therefore cannot logically assume that these facilities are adequately informing students of a multitude of potential employment opportunities or we must assume that employment opportunities in some areas do not exist. In addition, there was no significant association between training and whether a respondent had reported an educational or professional future goal. This means that those aspiring to higher academic or professional achievement are just as likely to attend, or not attend, a training or skilling session. Employment and Salary Although those who had completed training were 1.7 times as likely to be employed then those who had not, there was no statistically significant difference in salary. This means that amongst 5
Results: Chi-‐squared=4.42, P<.05
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respondents who reported being employed, there was no significant difference in the salary of those that had completed training and those who had not completed training. Self-‐reported length of employment and salary showed no significant association or trend. This means that more time spent working in the same field does not necessarily relate to a higher salary, which suggests a potential reason for low retention rates amongst trainees in entry-‐level positions. Type of job and length of employment yielded no significant association either, meaning that no specific vocation relates to higher retention and longer periods of employment than any other. Employment and Perception Those who were willing to travel for work were no more likely to be employed than those who were not. The common perception that many people leave their homes for extended periods to work was not reflected in the results of this survey. There was also not a significant association between willingness to travel for work and employment. This means that those willing to move or commute to work were no more likely to be employed then those who were unwilling. There was no association between current employment and how respondents approached future planning. This means that those currently employed were no more likely to report a hope to achieve an educational goal than a professional goal. There was also no reported trend amongst those employed about how they planned to achieve these goals. Finally, there was no significant relationship between job satisfaction and type of employment. Although five different types of work were recorded, no single one proved any more satisfying to respondents than any other. The type of job reported by employed respondents also had no effect on the length of employment.
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The Role of Gender: There are many gender-‐based factors that influence the career choices of women in India. 41% of female respondents said there are certain jobs their parents would not allow them to do because of their gender. Female respondents said they perceived 25% of jobs to be unavailable to them due to their gender. 77% of female respondents have a desire to work after marriage, but 74% say they will require the permission of their husband or in-‐laws to do so.
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Section 4: Policy Recommendations: 1. “Earn and Learn” Programs should be expanded so that skilling activities and further education are not mutually exclusive from being able to work. • By allowing young people the option to work while in school or training, and creating programs which up-‐skill on the job, young people will not have to choose between training and education or work. • In this sample education and employment have an inverse relationship. This may indicate that students who extend their education are not able to work simultaneously and vice versa. Therefore, training programs that exclusively target educational institutions to recruit participants often overlook students who have already left to work. And, it is these students who are, in many ways, the most in need of skilling programs. “Earn and Learn” programs provide a promising solution. 2. Career pathways need to be emphasized in both education and training. • 71% of young people stated a preference for government jobs over private sector jobs. The career pathway in a government position is clear well understood and the job is both secure and accompanied by a pension. • While the private sector may not ever been seen as positively as the security of government job increasing the clarity of the pathways and options available to young people within the private sector will help. • The attrition rates in entry level jobs are high; 66% of all those holding jobs have held it for a year or less. Young people tend to bounce around and identify their jobs as a dead-‐end. This high attrition takes a toll on both the companies and the employees. Creating more clearly defined career pathways and providing for ongoing up-‐skilling and promotion once employed would provide tremendous benefit to young workers. 3. Expand opportunities to obtain career-‐counseling resources and integrate existing services into physical offices that are centralized at the state or local level. • 88% of respondents indicated they would benefit from access to career counseling. Of note, 65% of young people said they would prefer to receive counseling in a physical office as opposed to through mobile, internet or television.
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• There is a growing trend in India and around the world to provide online resources to help young people navigate their careers and educational decisions. While internet based resources can be helpful, they should be used as a complimentary tool in the advising process because electronic devices cannot replace the value of in-‐person career counseling. • Currently, career counseling exists almost exclusively in elite institutions of higher education. However, that is often too late for many students, especially those on the margins. Therefore career counseling should be integrated into secondary school based skills development programs. This would help students, teachers, and families ensure that young people achieve all of the early milestones in order to continue moving forward on their desired career pathway. • Career counseling resources should also be available to parents because they play such a significant role in a young person’s decision-‐making process regarding their career.
4. Awareness and marketing of training programs must be tailored to entire communities and families and not just individuals. • Results of this survey indicate that the influence of family and friends is a key source for information and support in a young person’s job search process. However, the majority of communication about training and education opportunities directly targets the student with no consideration of those who influence youth’s decision making. Therefore, to increase efficacy, mobilization efforts must target the family and community not just the potential learner. • This point is further validated by another recent study on youth aspirations entitled, “The Skills they Want,” which states: “Survey results show that parents and guardians are the most important source of information for students. It is important for policy makers as well as skill development providers to create targeted awareness and mobilization campaigns keeping parents in mind. Our survey focused on students – clearly there needs to be a better understanding of what factors are shaping parents choices for their children.” And, perhaps more importantly, how parents and children are interpreting that information and using it to make decisions •
Additionally more transparency is needed around what government schemes are available to young people to help them pay for training. Financial concerns are sighted as the number one Page 25 of 27
barrier to achieving aspirations. The schemes available to young people for training and up-‐skilling should be more transparent.
5. Diversify how training fees are paid. Create buy-‐in and mutual benefit between training program and trainee to establish more sustainable training programs. • There is a common perception that young people will not pay for training. In this study, 86% of respondents indicate a willingness to pay for training if the cost is kept quite low (i.e., amounts Rs. 1000 or less). Many training programs today are either fully subsidized (free) or priced at market rate (high fees). • Given this finding, training schemes should explore ways to create more diverse payment plans which allow young people to contribute affordable amounts to their training. • The future sustainability of programs requires adequate buy-‐in from both the learner and the future employer. Some schemes (especially those targeting BOP learners) will continue to require substantial subsidies from government. Such initiatives cannot be made wholly sustainable by charging high student fees as this creates insurmountable barriers for young people. However, to minimize government spending, private companies should consider using CSR money to fund training programs. Increased productivity and in-‐house leadership development leading to a long-‐term return on investment are among the benefits that could be used to incentivize the private sector to subsidize such efforts.
References:
Aggarwal, Megha. Devesh Kapur, Namrata Tognatta, and CASI. “The Skills They Want, Aspirations of Students in Emerging India.” Center for the Advanced Study of India (CASI), University of Pennsylvania (December, 2012) Pande, Shamni "A cut below," Business Today, March 31, 2013Mukul, Akshaya. "Survey shows SCs, STs lagging behind in higher education." The Times of India Sep 1, 2012 Vasudevan, Shilpa “Leadership lessons from Kotler.” The New India Express. March 18, 2013. Indian Youth: Time to listen. City & Guilds Centre for Skills Development. Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry. (September, 2012). Learner First. Delhi i
Pande, Shamni "A cut below," Business Today, March 31, 2013
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ii
Aggarwal, Megha. Devesh Kapur, Namrata Tognatta, and CASI. “The Skills They Want, Aspirations of Students in Emerging India.” Center for the Advanced Study of India (CASI), University of Pennsylvania (December, 2012) iii Indian Youth: Time to listen. City & Guilds Centre for Skills Development. iv Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry. (September, 2012). Learner First. Delhi v Vasudevan, Shilpa “Leadership lessons from Kotler.” The New India Express. March 18, 2013. vi Aggarwal, Megha. Devesh Kapur, Namrata Tognatta, and CASI. “The Skills They Want, Aspirations of Students in Emerging India.” Center for the Advanced Study of India (CASI), University of Pennsylvania (December, 2012) vii Mukul, Akshaya. "Survey shows SCs, STs lagging behind in higher education." The Times of India Sep 1, 2012 viii As a result of working through a network of NGOs to administer our survey the sample in this survey has a disproportionate number of people receiving services and supports from NGOs. Additionally, our sample size is overly urban, overly well-‐educated as compared to the overall Indian population.
xi
Mehta, Arun C. “Drop-‐Out Rate at Primary Level: A Note Based On Dise 2003-‐04 & 2004-‐05 Data.” National Institute Of Educational Planning And Administration.
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