HISTORY OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE by ajit kumbhar

HISTORY OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE -1

CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

ISLAM GARDEN

WESTERN EXPANSION OF ISLAM

EASTERN EXPANSION OF ISLAM (MUGHAL INDIA)

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

CHINESE GARDEN

JAPANESE GARDEN

PRE COLUMBIAN ERA GARDEN

105

EGYPTIAN GARDEN

116

GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

124

ROMAN EMPIRE GARDEN

139

MIDDLE AGES IN EUROPE

153

RENAISSANCE GARDEN

161

MANNERISM AND BOROAQUE GARDEN IN ITALY

180

FRENCH GARDEN

197

ENGLAND AND DUTCH GARDEN

211

INTRODUCTION The constructed landscape embodies, a vision of creative power. The gardens and landscapes of the past serve as an endless source of possibility and inspiration. Discovering how the elements of nature have been recombined in different times and places intrigues us. Our purpose in assembling a visual reference of historic landscapes is to understand and capture exuberance for landscape design. Our approach to the material outlined in this report, is unique in its design focus, chronological organization and visual orientation. Representative examples of gardens and designed landscapes are grouped according to geographic region. Spaces are portrayed through the use of storyboards, case studies and visual narratives. Built landscapes tell stories, a picture is worth a thousand words. Our goal is to understand a visual romp through the great garden spaces of the past. We hope our work inspires to further explore the landscape and discover our own storey.

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

SNEHAL RAMTEKE 2019MLA001

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

“Bread feeds the body, indeed, but flowers feed also the soul.” Prophet Muhammad, (peace be upon him)

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

Figure 1 Shows the Mausoleum of Prophet Mohammud(PBUH) in Medina. The Green dome in the painting symbolises the love of the Prophet for the nature. In the end of the 6th century C.E., there was a patch of greenery on the barren desert lands, which happened to be Medina. (Source: art.state.gov/artistdetail.aspx?id=100648) 03

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

ISLAM: GARDENS AND ITS INTERPRETATIONS

INTRODUCTION Since the arrival of Islam as a religion in the 7th century C.E, Gardens have been described as a metaphor of Paradise or al-janna (the garden). Every time heaven is mentioned in the holy book Of Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an, there is a description of flowing water and fruit bearing trees, signifying their importance to man. The reward for good deeds according to the Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an is a place of shaded trees, flowing water, gardens with sweet fruits(bostan) and fragrant flowers(gulistan). As the religion evolved in desert climate, Water became the main resource to conserve and utilise in the most optimum way possible.

AIM To understand Islamic Garden design principles. To study the methods of irrigation used within an Islamic garden.

SCOPE The gardens will be studied as of case studies from worldwide basis. Limited examples which have been considered as a good by historians and landscape designers will be studied to arrive at a result of the study.

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

QUOTES FROM THE QUR’AN ON GARDENS QUR’ANIC VERSES Some quotes from Qur’an, indicating water and plants as the main source of our well-being: And he is the one who sends down water from the sky. Then by means of this (rain) we bring forth vegetation of every kind out of which we produce green (foliage) from which we bring forth clustered grain packed one over the other, clusters of date- palm hanging low from its spathe and gardens of grapes, olives and also Pomegranates (which from many aspects looks alike but ) in products, tastes and effects) are unlike. Look at the fruit of the tree when it bears fruit, and (also observe) when it ripens. Verily in these signs for those who believe) Some of the features of this promised paradise as seen in the Koran and its commentaries, which have a bearing on our discussion and influence gardens, should now be mentioned briefly: 1. In paradise there flow streams and canals with golden banks and beds of pearls and rubies, toiled soil of which has a smell sweeter than musk.

Figure 2 shows the plan of the lands of 2 people as described in the Holy Qur’an

2. There is perpetual shade which is tamed to move according to the will of man. 3. There is no extreme heat from the sun or bitter cold. 4. There are trees which are so green that they appear to be black. 5. Trees such as the thorn less lotus, tangled myrtle, palm and pomegranate have been mentioned. 6. There are high buildings unique in the world.

Figure 3 the perception of heaven with its various elements 05

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

SPREAD OF ISLAM The first Muslims came from the inland desert of Arabian Peninsula. They were the followers of the charismatic leader from Mecca, Muhammad (PBUH), 570-632, who in about the year 61 experienced a revelation in which God conveyed to him a new vision of the world. This and subsequent revelations, communicated orally to him over the course of next 20 years comprise the Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an. Many ideas and methods in Islamic gardens seem to originate from the Persians. By the middle of 7th century C.E., the Muslim Arabs had conquered Persia, converted the population into Islam and started using the crafts and skills developed by the Persians. Muslim Arabs also conquered North Africa and during the 8th Century CE they conquered Spain and set up an Arab state there.

Figure 4 the map shows expansion of Islamic empire from its beginning in the 7th century till 16th century (Source: Author) Mughal expansion.

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

RISE OF AGRICULTURE AND ITS GOLDEN ERA UNDER THE ISLAMIC EMPIRE The first Muslims came from the inland desert of Arabian Peninsula. They were the followers of the charismatic leader from Mecca, Muhammad (PBUH), 570-632, who in about the year 61 experienced a revelation in which God conveyed to him a new vision of the world. This and subsequent revelations, communicated orally to him over the course of next 20 years comprise the Qur’an.

Figure 5 shows the conception of the city of Baghdad at the time of the Abbasids around the 8th century CE. (Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki) In Qur’an, there are many descriptions of “Paradise”, which literally means a “wall around”, based on ancient Persian gardens which became the symbol pf Paradise and spiritual inspiration.

An Islamic aesthetic rooted in the descriptions of the gardens of Paradise in the Qur’an, spawned an agricultural revolution in the Mediterranean. The enchantment of greenery and description of gardens of Paradise led to purchase and exchange of plants among Arab rulers, for their kitchen gardens. The kitchen garden was not only a garden supplying food, but natural beauty as well.

Figure 6 painting of an Islamic garden, showing the Mughal king Babur with his gardeners exploring new ways of gardening. 07

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

Figure 7 The gardeners brought a float, which consisted of a small rectangular garden on a wheeled cart. The "garden" is interesting because it is a good model of an idealized Ottoman garden at the time. On each corner there is a single cypress tree rising proudly, its top slightly bent. The ground was planted with grass and laid out with paths. In the very center was a pool with spouts. (Source: www.turkishculture.org)

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

WATER CARRYING SYSTEM Irrigation was essential for gardening in the dry climate of North Africa and Middle east. Except during Rainy season, water was drawn from catchment basins, rivers, canals, rainwater cistern and even from water table itself. Ideally, the source of water was above the destination point, a surface canal led to a basin on high round near the palace, where it could be released as needed, flowing by gravity into the palace and the gardens. When the source of water was lower than the field, a garden or a residence where it was to be used, either a Noria (water wheel) or Shaduf (pole and lever) was used to lift the water in the buckets. Alternatively, in some landscapes, a qanat (subterranean canal) could tap the elevated water at the base of the mountain and carry it underground for many miles to a human made oasis of farms and gardens. The mutual reliance on irrigation is but one indication of close connection between garden and farming.

due to the ephemeral nature of plant life, no gardens survive from the medieval era, but historical descriptions, botanical treatise, agricultural manuals and even poetry reflects the importance of gardening.

Figure 9 Noria, water wheel of Cordoba

Figure 8 Evidence for the continuation of a tradition of mechanical engineering is provided by a book on machines written by Taqi al-Din about the year 1552. (Source:http://www.history-sciencetechnology.com/Articles/articles%2071. htm)

Figure 10 shows Top water wheel with chain of buckets; middle: a series of two shaduf; bottom: siphon (source: Ruggles and Variva, after Thorkild Schioler)

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

EXAMPLES OF QANAT

Figure 11 showing working of a qanat (source: www.semp.us/publications/)

Figure 13 the outlet of a qanat Figure 12 shows the underground water channel, qanat (source: www.sikanart.it/en/altri_itinerari.htm)

Figure 14 plan shows the remnants of a qanat network (Source: www.semp.us/publications)

Figure 15 shows further distribution of water into the main settlement (Source: andscapeof aztlan.word press.com/) 10

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE “after such fruit trees as Lemons, Oranges and Palm trees, comes the legumes and cotton and finally, the aromatic herbs, with coriander, Sesame, Cumin and Saffron being mentioned, as well as some ornamental plants.” Experiments involving horticultural techniques were specially developed in the area of Seville in the socalled Al-sharaf. This was an elevated table land with surface of approximately 1650 km2 which was bordered with water. Its soil was made with sand mixed with lime and local layers of clay and it was highly fertile. The area which was occupied by about 800-2000 villages was cultivated by a dense population working for wealthy families, who hired agronomists and agriculturalists to improve cultivation techniques and production. A complete encyclopedia has been written in those times about agricultural and horticultural practices to be adopted for better crops and yields called, ‘The book of Nabatean Agriculture.’ Quality of earth, manures, vegetable production, and growth of flowers, improving the production of olive tree, grapevine, pruning and viniculture were practiced and improved upon by further research anddevelopments.

Figure 16 Names and diagrams of various plants and herbs with medicinal properties in the books written by scholars from 12th to 15th century. (Source: http://www.algeria.com/forums/health - science/17728.htm)

Figure 17 shows the method to extract tree sap for medicinal purposes. (source: www.islamic-study.org/politics.htm)

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

EVOLUTION OF CHAHAR-BAGH A Paradise Garden was based on the classic Char-bagh design, in which the garden was divided into 4 parts by water channels; the 4 water channels being the 4 rivers of paradise, as described in Islam. Plantation of fruit trees and roses and other flowers lay in geometrically arranged beds below the level of flanking pathways, making irrigation simple and also giving a sensation of walking on a carpet offlowers. “Before the birth of Islam, gardens, besides being affected by geographical conditions, were influenced by tradition, ritual, and the cultural background of the people. For example, before Islam there wasa representative of the four sacred elements, water, fire, wind and soil; from the days of the Sassanids (224-641 A.D;) onwards it was common to divide hunting grounds into four sections, in the middle of which a kind of mansion was constructed. As a result, when we observe ancient gardens in Iran, or in the territories which were under Iranian influence, we notice this quadruple division.” “climatic conditions were same almost throughout the Islamic empire, and Persia had already developed a model for garden responding to the climatic conditions.”

Figure18 showing the layout of a Chahr- bagh, considered to be a prototype of Islamic gardens all over the world. (source: www.rozanehmagazine.com)

“Chahar bagh: concept of the Mandala with four corners... A mandala represents ‘wholeness’, an organic entity, a harmonic balance. At the center of the Mandala is the source of energy.....It is from this energy that the thought is nourished. The analogue of this energy source in a garden if the fountain, as water is the central source of the life of the garden, the energy source of the mind is central to the life and renewal of human soul........For the garden to flourish, this “water of life” must be channeled and distributed to all parts of the garden in a balanced and harmonious way. “A feature of the Paradise which is promised to the Godfearing is that there are in it streams of (such) water as will never putrefy ( in smell or color), and (in it) will be streams of milk whose taste and flavor will never change and streams of (such a pure) wine that is an absolute delight for all who drink it and streams of purified honey; and (in it) will be fruits of every kind (for them) and forgiveness (of every sort) from their lord.”

Figure 19 The Bagh-e Vafa (Garden of Fidelity) was Babur's first garden. It was a charhar-bagh. He wrote in his memoirs that “In 1508-09, I had constructed a Charbagh garden called Bagh-i-Wafa on a rise to the south of the Adianapur fortress. It overlooks the river, which flows between the fortress and the garden. It yields many oranges, Citroens and pomegranates.” (source: www.gardenvisit.com)

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

Mandala

Mandala, symbol of circle later developed to the highest degree in mandala by combining the other three most significant symbols circle, square, cross and centre.

The irshad al-zira It was composed in 1515 in Heart in eastern Khorasan (present day north-western Afghanistan, Eastern Iran and Southern Turkmenistan) by Qasim B Yusuf Abu Nasri. Although much information has not been disclosed yet, there are descriptions as to what were the areas of interest up to which the study expanded. One such description says that â&#x20AC;&#x153;the contents of Irshad al- Zira relate specifically to the nine districts of heart region and reflect agricultural practices in Khorasan during the late Timurid period, more precisely the reign of SultanHusain-i- Bayqara Mirza (1469-1506), the Timurid ruler of Heart. The main body of work is divided into eight chapters called rauza (literally gardens), which cover the following range of topics:

2. The best times for planting according to astrological and meteorological considerations; prayers recited at times of planting; the methods of storing cereal grain; the means of warding off insects; 3. The cultivation of different types of cereals (wheat, barley, millet, rice, etc.) and pulse (beans, lentils, chickpeas, etc.), including the types of fertilizer best suited to each; 4. The cultivation of grapevines and the varieties of grapes;

EVOLUTION

1.The different types of soils;

5. The cultivation of market vegetables, including melons, cucumber, lettuce and spinach, radishes, onions and garlic, beets, eggplant, various kinds of herbs and aromatic plants, hemp, trefoil, and plants used for dyes such as madder, indigo, henna, etc.; 6. The methods of planting trees, flowers, and aromatic flowers, and aromatic plants from seeds, cuttings, bulbs, and saplings; the cultivation of olive trees and other fruit trees, such as pomegranate, quince, pear, apple, cherry, fig, mulberry, pistachio, etc.; ornamental trees and bushes such as Plane, Poplar, Jasmine; ornamental flowers, such as many varieties of rose, violet, saffron, iris, tulip, narcissus, etc.

Figure 20 Evolution 13

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

7. The grafting of trees (both fruit bearing and non-fruit bearing) and vines; the methods of picking fruit and their storage; estimating the yields of field crops; the preparation of condiments; beekeeping and 8. The layout and planting of chahar-bagh.

Figure 21 Cross-sectional representation of a perimeter water channel and walkway with mounded rows of Apricot trees. Drawing by Wiktor Moskaliuk.

Figure 22 shows the reconstruction of the Timurid Chahar-bagh based on Irshad-al-zira; drawn by Wiktor Moskaliuk, plan extracted from the document â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Agriculture and Timurid Chahar-baghâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Drawing by Wiktor Moskaliuk. 14

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

Figure 23 Cross-sectional representation of raised terraces on one side of the main water channel. Drawing by Wiktor Moskaliuk.

Figure 24 Cross-sectional representation of main water channel flanked by walkways and lawns of trefoil. Drawing by Wiktor Moskaliuk. 15

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

BAGH-E-BABUR, KABUL The 11-hectare terraced garden on the western slopes of the Sher-e-Darwaza Mountain south of Kabul was laid out by the founder of the Mughal dynasty, Muhammad Zahir al-Din Babur (c.a.1526-1530). It was his favourite among the ten gardens that he built in and around Kabul, and he decreed that it be his final resting place. Babur was buried in Agra upon his death and was reburied in the Kabul garden by 1544 C.E.

Figure 26, shows the extension of garden from the foothills towards plain land. (Source: www.darulaman.de)

Figure 25, shows the flower of garden or the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;gulistanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, in the garden (Source: www.darulaman.de)

Figure 27, shows various terraces that line the garden. (Source: www.darulaman.de) 16

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

Figure 28, shows the planting plan of Bagh-e-Babur in Kabul. (Source: http://archnet.org/library/files) 17

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

Figure 29, shows the conceptual view of the planting along the central water channel along the Bagh-e-Baur in Kabul (Source: Work from Mohammad Shaheerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s regeneration of bagh-e-baur) 19

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

EVOLUTION OF GARDEN IN ISLAMIC EMPIRE There are some key points which led to the evolution of gardens in the Islamic reign of the then Islamic cities: The climate and need of food

Development of agriculture as a means of occupation of people Development of new methods andtechnology for the propagation of agriculture Development of the water system for better irrigation needs. After the cities became self-sufficient the Kings began to construct huge gardens as a symbol of prosperity and health of their kingdoms. (bringing up of Bostan and Gulistan.) Later on gardens began coming up in private areas, like the courtyard gardens. Later on, cities were looked up as a landscape design element fused with the urban development of the later cities. The spread of agricultural knowledge was seen on the periphery of entire Gulf region, as there came to being a green revolution in the ancient Islamic era.

ENDING NOTE The garden design of Islamic culture was an output of the way of life as guided by the Prophet, in a way which was directed by the existing conditions of those times. Taking into consideration the factors like climate, topography, geography, geology and the social ones, like public and private lives, the design of the gardens and architecture was molded. remained same. Here, it is to say that, the design of spaces evolved out of certain matrix of Islamic laws which set the boundaries of garden design. Even though the technology and typology of gardens remained the same which were practiced by the earlier people of Persia and Arabia, but, the essence was directed towards the principals as guided in holy Qurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an. He said that, the evolution of Chahar-bagh is not in itself a purely Islamic design concept because concept of the precious water irrigating the barren lands was not unknown to the previous settlements in that area. The Paradise gardens could have been an entirely different design rather than the Chahar-bagh, but it was the guiding religion which changed the ideology, but the palette of design elements remained same.

THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

BIBLIOGRAPHY art.state.gov/artistdetail.aspx?id=100648 www.turkishculture.org http://www.history-sciencetechnology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm) http://www.history-sciencetechnology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm) www.semp.us/publications/) www.sikanart.it/en/altri_itinerari.htm www.semp.us/publications

andscapeofaztlan.wordpress.com/ www.islamic-study.org/politics.htm http://www.algeria.com/forums/health- science/17728.htm) http://archnet.org/library/files) www.darulaman.de)

WESTERN EXPANSION OF ISLAM

MOORISH GARDENS

ISHA JAIN 2019MLA002

THE MOORISH GARDEN

SPREAD OF ISLAM

•During the 8th–10th centuries Islamic culture spread across the Mediterranean, from North Africa to Sicily and Spain.

•‘The Moors’- The Arabs crossed the seas & controlled large parts of southern Europe for many centuries.

• While there are no examples of medieval gardens in most of western Europe, gardens from the Islamic era, do remain in the Spanish cities of:

CORDOBA GRANADA SEVILLE

THE MOORISH GARDEN

MOORISH (HISPANO-ARABIC) CHARACTERISTICS DESIGNS OF HISTORIC SPAIN + ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN GARDENS + ROMAN GARDENS + ISLAMIC GARDENS The configuration of enclosed patios & courtyards and the presence of water provide cool, shady environments- compatible with Spain’s hot & dry climate.

ATTRIBUTES OF TRADITIONAL MOORISH GARDENS INCLUDE

•Long ponds, water channels - Rills •Axial geometries, elements

symmetrical

•Reliance on decorative pavings •Geometric tile patterns- mosaic tiles in place of human or animal forms forbidden by the Quran MOORISH DECORATION:

Elaborate floral patterns & intricate geometric arabesques common decorative motifs executed in carved stone, plaster,& glazed tile mosaics.

•Shade elements- arcades, pavillions, etc.

THE MOORISH GARDEN

A TYPICAL MOORISH COURTYARD • Water in straight runnels, and simple pools with single jets, structure the geometry. Raised walkways help sunken planting areas retain moisture. • Architectural features include a pavilion, arcaded gallery, and mirador, or elevated porch. • Often a glorieta or pavilion was placed at the intersection of pathways. • A glorieta formed of clipped cypress trees.

THE MOORISH GARDEN

WATER MANAGEMENT, CORDOBA

• The conquest of the Visigoths, who succeeded the Romans in control of the Iberian Peninsula, began in the 8th century when Abd-al-Rahman I established an independent emirate at Cordoba, in 756.

• One of his first tasks was to develop an irrigation system that would allow the building of palaces and gardens similar to those at his ancestral home in Damascus.

• Cordoba became an important center of trade & culture. Abd al-Rahman III was a great patron of the arts and sciences and fostered the study of botany & medicine at Cordoba.

• The Arabs introduced citrus varieties, date palms, pomegranates, and almond trees to Europe. Sophisticated techniques to impound and channel water promoted the growth of orchards, vineyards, and gardens across the arid landscape.

CLEVER IRRIGATION: In the Court of the Oranges at Cordoba, water released from a central source was directed into stone-lined channels for irrigation. Each tree well was flooded in sequence by repositioning wood blocks.

THE MOORISH GARDEN

THE ALCAZAR GARDEN, SEVILLE The palace gardens maintain their Moorish character through the geometric division of space into small-scale garden rooms defined by raised walkways.

PLAN THE ALCAZAR GARDEN, SEVILLE 27

THE MOORISH GARDEN

MUDEJAR STYLE

•Seville was conquered by the Arabs in 712, and re-conquered by the Christians in 1248. • The application of Islamic design elements & principles to structures and gardens by Moorish craftsmen under Christian authority is referred to as being in the Mudejar Style. • The Alcazar (the royal palace & garden complex) at Seville exemplifies the Mudejar Style. •The walled gardens are divided into three sections, bordered on the north side by the elevated walkway of Don Pedro.

THE THREE TERRACES

• The first terrace consists of small enclosed courtyards, with central fountains & glazed tile work. • The second terrace is subdivided into eight rectangular planting areas defined by clipped hedges & raised walkways. • The third terrace is designed as a large patio with orange trees and glazed tile benches surrounding the 16th-century pavilion of Charles V.

THE ALCAZAR GARDEN, SEVILLE : SALIENT

THE MOORISH GARDEN

A diagrammatic reconstruction of the gardens showing the relationship between the interior spaces, early courtyards, and openness of the later parterres. Elevated walkways connect the garden to the architecture.

THE MOORISH GARDEN

MODERN DAY MOORISH GARDENS

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

TRISHLA GUPTA 2019MLA003

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA Islamic gardens are greatly inspired by the concept of paradise in Islam as described in Holy Quran. With the spread of Islam and conquest of new territories, Muslims adopted the native technology and combined them with their knowledge in the new buildings. This amalgamation proliferated different styles of Islamic architecture in different regions. There are three precedents for the Islamic gardens, Arab, Turkish and Persian. The Persian style gardens were having aesthetic value and were design to be seen by visitors whereas Turkish gardens were used as resting places. Scholars have identified Persian gardens as ‘park gardens’ and Turkish gardens as ‘courtyard gardens’. In India, however, the concept of Mughal gardens had an influence of Persian and Turkish style. The Mughal’s invasion remarkably influenced the style of Gardens in India. The idea of Mughal Gardens is not limited to the Chahar Bagh only but it includes its symbolic nature as paradise and its pro environment character for a comfortable living in and Mughal Emperor Babur supervising the creation of a garden

outside the buildings.

Creation of Charbagh garden with canals

Mughal gardens are a type of gardens built by the Mughals in the Persian style of architecture. This style was heavily influenced by the Persian gardens particularly the Charbagh structure, which is

intended to create a representation of an earthly utopia in which humans co-exist in perfect harmony with all elements of nature. Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures.

Some

the

typical

features

An example of Persian garden

Aram Bagh, Agra

include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens. 32

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

HISTORY The founder of the Mughal empire, Babur, described his favourite type of

garden

charbagh.

They

use

the

term bāgh, baug, bageecha or bagicha for garden. The Aram Bagh of Agra is thought to have been the first charbagh in South Asia. From the beginnings of the Mughal Empire, the construction of gardens was a beloved imperial pastime. Babur,

the

first

Mughal

conqueror-king,

had

gardens

built

in Lahore and Dholpur. Humayun, his son, does not seem to have had much time for building—he was busy reclaiming and increasing the realm—but he is known to have spent a great deal of time at his father’s gardens.

Map showing the expansion of Mughal Empire

Akbar built several gardens first in Delhi, then in Agra, Akbar’s new

Jahangir's son, Shah Jahan, marks the apex of Mughal garden

capital. These tended to be riverfront gardens rather than the fortress

architecture and floral design. He is famous for the construction of the Taj

gardens that his predecessors built. Building riverfront rather than

Mahal, a sprawling funeral paradise in memory of his favorite

fortress

wife, Mumtaz Mahal. He is also responsible for the Red Fort at Delhi which

gardens

influenced

later

Mughal

garden

architecture

considerably.

contains the Mahtab Bagh, a night garden that was filled with nightblooming jasmine and other pale flowers. The pavilions within are faced

Akbar’s son, Jahangir, did not build as much, but he helped to lay out

with white marble to glow in the moonlight. This and the marble of the Taj

the famous Shalimar garden and was known for his great love for

Mahal are inlaid with semiprecious stone depicting scrolling naturalistic

flowers. Indeed, his trips to Kashmir are believed to have begun a

floral motifs, the most important being the tulip, which Shah Jahan

fashion for naturalistic and abundant floral design.

adopted as a personal symbol. 33

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

SYMBOLISM AND GEOMETRY

Grass Lawn

The Mughals were obsessed with symbols and incorporated it into their gardens in many ways. The standard Quranic references to paradise

Path

were in the architecture, layout, and in the choice of plant life; but more secular references, including numerological and zodiacal

Water Pool

significances connected to family history or other cultural significance,

Fountain

were often juxtaposed. The numbers eight and nine were considered auspicious by the Mughals and can be found in the number of

Tree/Shrub

terraces or in garden architecture such as octagonal pools. .

Flower bed

In Quran, Paradise is described as a garden of eternity with four rivers

Bridge

of water, milk, wine and honey. Charbagh garden is an earthly presentation of garden of paradise.

Typical Layout of Charbagh

Chahar Bagh means four gardens, originally a Persian concept, became the basis of geometry of Mughal gardens. Babur introduced Chahar Bagh layout for the gardens in Indian subcontinent and later his descendants refined it. It is composed of two intersecting lines (water bodies or pathways) which divide the whole garden into four equal quadrants, sometimes a monument or a platform is provided at the centre. Each quarter is further divided into four quadrants. Sometimes these pathways are raised and the garden is at lower level e.g. Aram Bagh at Agra and Akbarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Tomb at Sikandra (Fig.3 and 4), it gives a feeling of walking on carpet for the viewer. The geometry of Mughal gardens are based on divisions and subdivisions with symmetry. It made the gardens beautiful and also made the irrigation convenient.

Layout of various Mughal gardens 34

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

TYPES OF MUGHAL GARDENS Gardens, an integral part of Mughal life and culture. They preferred to

The fountain of life is in the centre of the park from which the four holy

stay in gardens amidst pleasing surroundings when they reached

rivers gush. If a tomb is placed in this position, the deceased would be

towns. Jahangir was a naturalist and he immensely loved the beautiful

placed in the lap of eternity. The conception of the pairi

things in nature. He repaired, renovated and sometimes renamed the

daeza explains the fundamental importance underlying gardens and

old gardens. He also founded new ones and built garden pavilions in

the play of water in Indo-Islamic architecture.’

them. Gardens of reign of Jahangir can be studied in four different classes: 1. T O M B G A R D E N S Mughal gardens were almost universally planned in the amidst of a Charbagh which was an integral part of its design and layout. There were beautiful gardens with such architectural elements such as stone, pathways, canals, lily ponds, lotus tanks, stairs, cascades and waterfalls. It has been remarked that the association of the garden and the tomb

Safdarjung Tomb Garden

in Mughal South Asia, where the garden was such an integral part of the funerary complex, was not found in any other part of the Islamic world. The tomb garden came into its own in Mughal al-Hind as a variation on the classic charbagh pattern; in the center of the garden was placed the mausoleum instead of a pleasure pavilion. One reason

for this central placement has been summed up in the following manner: the tomb is ‘in the middle of a charbagh at the crossing of four raised avenues which have waterways coursing along them. This layout evoked the pairi daeza [walled palace], from which the Persian

Humayun’s Tomb Garden

term ‘paradise’ [comes from]. 35

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

2. P A L A C E G A R D E N S Garden, along with such water devices as tanks, canals, cascades and fountains, formed an integral part of the Mughal Palace

Complex. This is illustrated by a large number of paintings of this period. Pelsaert noted that the Mughal mahal or harem establishment had tanks and gardens inside. His general comment on the houses is extremely interesting and enlightening : â&#x20AC;&#x153; They are noble and pleasant with many apartments, but there is not much in a way of an upper storey except a flat roof on which to enjoy the evening air. There are usually gardens and tanks inside the house;

Images of Rashtrapati Bhawan, New Delhi showing Mughal Gardens

and in the hot weather the tanks are filled daily with fresh water, drawn by oxen from wells. The wate is drawn or sometimes raised by a wheel, in such quantity that it flows through a leaden pipe and rises like a fountain; in this climate water and plants are a refreshment and recreation unknown in our cold countryâ&#x20AC;?. Palaces and gardens, being most susceptible to renovation and conversion in subsequent ages owing to the changed times, tastes and needs, very few of the palace gardens of the Mughals of this period have survived.

Ram Bagh Palace, jaipur

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

3. P L A I N G A R D E N S These gardens were laid out independently on a plain surface on charbagh plan, enclosed on all the sides by a parkota, with the main

gateway provided in the middle of the south side, and sometimes ornamental gateways or pavilions also on other sides. The plan was thus divided into four quarters by four canals running from the central chabutarah to the middle of the four sides, with stone or brick-paved causeways on both sides, having tanks, and sometimes, cascades on both sides. Flower parterres were provided in the four quarters, irrigated by the overflowing canals through slits and tree avenues on the sides along the parkota (enclosing wall). It was thus a perfectly unified and homogeneous composition. A pleasure pavilion, i.e. Barahdari or

Garden of Asaf Khan at Lahore

Chaukhandi was originally built on the central chabutarah, this could be later replaced by a full fledged tomb of the owner of the garden.

Garden of Asaf Khan at Lahore 37

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

4. T E R R A C E G A R D E N S A terraced garden was laid out with all the basic elements of the plain garden in several terraces. It had a central canal, in the middle,

descending from one terrace to the other, through broad, fish scaled cascades (chadars) and relay tanks, each terrace generally having its own independent charbagh plan. Shah Jahan is often associated with the terraced garden, the most famous of which are the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir and Lahore. He constructed the first Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir while still a prince at the command of Jahangir, but once Emperor he commissioned two further Shalimar Gardens in Lahore and Delhi, the latter of which no

Typical View showing garden palnned at terraces

trace remains. All three were constructed as terraced gardens, the concept of which was also imported from Central Asia. When completed, the Shalimar gardens in Lahore were where Shah Jahan would stay on his visits to the city instead of within the Shahi Qila, the city’s fort. It was constructed on three terraces, the top terrace, called the Fara Baksh Bagh (‘joy-imparting garden’), which was reserved for the Emperor and the royal family, while the bottom terrace, the Fayz Baksh Bagh (‘bounty-bestowing garden’), was where the court retinue would stay. The middle terrace was composed of a large pool with fountains, pavilions and multiple flower beds. An intricate waterengineering and hydraulic system was needed for the garden to have running water and spurting fountains, and the water necessary for this was transported to the site from the river Ravi by a canal system designed by one of Shah Jahan’s courtiers.

Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

SITE AND DESIGN STYLE

WALLS AND GATEWAYS

Mughals were very choosy about the selection of sites. They always

The Mughals created the gardens not only for pleasure but also as

preferred a site on a hilly slope or along a bank of river to catch the

forts and residences surrounded by high walls. The purpose of high

water flow and the fountain can be maintain by gravity of water. Hilly

walls was security from the enemies and shelter against hot winds . The

site is also used to create terraces easily in different levels. Mughal

garden wall also protected the inmate from the hot winds of summer ,

garden are generally rectangular or square in shape and different

& the plants from the desiccating effect of burning sand in the hot air.

architectural features are the main stay of design.

The wooden gate at the entrance was studded with bold iron nails

The Sense of Unity, touches on the great significance attached to

and pointed iron spikes. While passing the gate, it appears as a

choosing sites which had a “regional sense of place”. Sites possessing

picture frame of the monument inside. Beautiful calligraphy was done

a defined identity, for example, “at the foot of the hill”, or

on gate or entrance.

“overlooking the valley”, or again “between the land and the water” can be readily recognized as types of places where Mughal gardens are found. Typically, in the pleasure gardens of Kashmir, the garden site is at the lower elevation of a hill, between the hill and the lake.

Mughal Garden in Srinagar

West Gate at Humayun’s Tomb

Boundary Wall of Humayun’s Tomb 39

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

WATER At the heart of the design is the idea that the bagh should be alive

In India, the early gardens were irrigated from the wells or tanks, but

with the continuous flow of water, whose primary purpose is to irrigate

under the Mughals, the construction of canals or the use of existing

the garden and maintain its health. The garden contains a wide array

canals for the gardens provided more adequate and dependable

of water-related elements and structures to provide a considerable

water supply. Thus, the most important aspect of the waterworks of

ordinary task, by enhancing and modulating in many subtle ways the

gardens was the permanent source of water supply. The principal

movement, appearance and sound of water.

source of water to the Mughal gardens were: (i) lakes or tanks (ii) wells

Its essential features included running water (perhaps the most important element) and a pool to reflect the beauties of sky and garden. Fountainry and running water was a key feature of Mughal garden design. Like Persian and Central Asian gardens, water became the central and connecting theme of the Mughal gardens.

or step-wells (iii) canals, harnessed from the rivers, and (iv) natural springs. Water-lifting devices like geared Persian wheels (saqiya) were used for irrigation and to feed the water-courses at Humanyun’s Tomb in Delhi, Akbar’s Garden in Sikandra and Fatehpur Sikhri, the Lotus Garden of Babur at Dholpur and the Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar.

Water played an effective role in the Mughal gardens right from the time of Babur. He was more interested in ‘beauty’ than ‘ecclesiastical prescription’. However, in India, the Mughals also assimilated certain typical Indian features in their water works of the gardens on the line of the Hindu romantic tradition of enjoying varsha ritu. The two pavilions of Hayat Bakhsh garden in Red Fort, Delhi and Shalamar garden in Lahore are named after the monsoon months, sawan and bhadon with the characteristic to create the rain scene. The beauty of Babur’s classic chaharbagh was the central watercourse and its flowing water. Most of these gardens were divided into four quadrants by two axis comprised with water channels and pathways to carry the

water under gravitational. At every intersecting point, there used to be a tank.

The Persian Wheel 40

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

TREES AND FLOWERS The gardens in Mughal India created a natural environment and provided exotic fruits, flowers, herbs, trees and vegetables. The system and arrangement of plantation in the gardens can only be better gauged by the surviving paintings and literary sources •

The traditional planting of alternate cypress and flowering trees along the waterways represented immortality and the renewal of life, respectively.

•

White kachnar (Bauhinia alba) represented the youth of life.

•

Plant materials were selected carefully for formal effect in the garden. Selection of plants was dependent upon the local climatic

Trees and flower beds in Rashtrapati Bhawan

conditions. •

Fruit trees, flowering plants, shrubs and colourful annulas were planted in the garden to give a new life to it.

•

Fragrant flowers were the main attraction of the garden.

•

In Kashmir, the Mughals planted chenar, white poplar, cypress, apple, peach, plum, sour or sweet cherries, quince, pomegranate and fig. in the plains.

•

The gardens were planted with fruit trees like mango, garpe, fig,

orange, citron, peach and plum. •

Fragarant flowering shrubs like harsinghar, queen of the night, jasmine, rose and screwpine were commonly planted.

•

Herbaceous plants like narcissus, daffodils, iris, carnation, hollyhock, larkspur,

stock,

dominant.

sunflower,

amaranthus

and

coxcomb

were Tulips in Rashtrapati Bhawan

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

Table I showing sweet fruit trees grown in Mughal gardens and groves

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

Table II showing sour fruit trees grown in Mughal gardens and groves

Table III showing dry fruit trees grown in Mughal gardens and groves

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

Table IV showing shady and decorative trees in the Mughal gardens

Table V showing herbs and vegetables grown in the Mughal gardens

Table VI showing variety of flowers that bloomed in the Mughal gardens

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

CLIMATE RESPONSIVENESS These gardens were improviser of microclimate and having symbolic meanings in the past. The immediate surroundings of the buildings were necessary to control to provide a comfortable space inside the building to cope with the harshness of climate. There was a strong relationship between built environment and

nature in the past because the building was supposed to remain close to nature to provide a comfortable life. One of the major functions of Mughal gardens was to improve the microclimate and all the elements like water, fountains, trees etc. had their functional values too besides their symbolic value. An integrated outdoor and indoor living and make shift arrangement of activities as per seasonal changes made these buildings more eco friendly. Sometimes the buildings were inside a garden and sometimes a garden was inside the building. Courtyard, a traditional element in almost all tropical regions on one hand served as a gathering space for family and provided a comfortable space for sitting in the summer evening. The courtyard was sometimes added with water bodies and plants and trees which further improved the humidity level and consequently lowered the temperature of the spaces around it. The sequential arrangement of rooms, verandah and courtyard with water bodies and trees was the best example of comfortable spaces in various season. 46

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

THE GARDENS OF TAJ MAHAL Taj Mahal is regarded by many as the finest example of Mughal architecture and is widely recognized as "the jewel of Muslim art in India". It is one of the world's most famous symbol and rich history in India. As a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. Taj Mahal was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (1628- 1658) in memory of his beloved queen. The tomb is located on the right bank of the river Yamuna at the point where it takes a sharp turn and flows eastward. Masons,

stonecutters, inlayers, sculptors, painters, calligraphers, dome- builders and other artisans were requested from all over the empire and also from Central Asia and Iran. Taj Mahal is surrounded by lush Persian Gardens. Mughal structures usually contains gardens. The style of garden found inside Taj Mahal complex is Persian Timurid. Babur brought the concept of paradise garden. According to Islamic belief, a paradise will have four rivers and a lush garden. The complex is located in the vicinity of the 300meter (980 feet) square Charbagh or Mughal garden. Taman use raised lines that divide each of the four quarters of the garden into 16

sunken parterres or flower bed. Halfway between the tomb and gateway in the middle of the garden is a raised marble water tank with a reflecting pool on a north-south axis to reflect the image of the tomb. Raised marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar reference to "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.

The Taj Mahal

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

PLAN OF TAJ MAHAL COMPLEX

N 48

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

The Taj Mahal garden is a green carpet to the mausoleum as it begins at the main gateway and ends at the base of the monument. It is a

The east-west walkways terminate in two-story pavilions (naubat

four by four garden and is popularly known as Charbagh. The lush

khanas) that merge into the outer garden walls. These outer

green garden of Taj Mahal is a nest to hundreds of birds, while the

garden walls are further articulated by a blind arcade that runs

blossoms are bright and colourful, spreading a sweet fragrance in the

along their entire lengths. Aqueducts supplied water to the

air; a true painting of paradise.

garden from the Yamuna river just north of the mausoleum. The

Taj Mahal is 580 metres by 380 metres and the garden covers 300

central fountains operated with an underground system of

metres by 300 metres of the same, hence showcasing the importance

copper

of the garden that it has in the complete landscape of Taj Mahal. The

photographs from the 1860s confirm an abundance of plant

Taj Mahal garden gets ample supply of water from the River Yamuna,

varieties in the garden; however, at present the garden contains

on the banks of which Taj Mahal is located. There are couple of major

relatively few trees, consisting mainly of fairly maintained grass

marble canals located at the garden along with fountains which flow

lawns.

vessels

connected

copper

pipes.

Travelers'

constantly with joy. In each quarter of the four by four, there are 16 flower beds. These flower beds are built over a raised platform and are believed to have been planted with 400 plants. Every aspect of the garden is a multiple of four. It is believed in Islam that four is a lucky number and hence Shah Jahan has kept the complete garden in sync with the number.

The trees of Taj Mahal garden are also symbolic. While the lines of Cyprus trees resemble death, the fruit bearing trees depict life and joy. All the trees are planted in symmetrical format, to enhance the harmony of the entire monument. The waterway lays just in between the garden multiples the beauty of Taj Mahal, besides acting as an instrument of water supply. There are four walkways in the four parts of the garden; every walkway can be distinguished with the special features that these have. Another amazing fact of these walkways is

Aerial View of The Taj Mahal Complex

that the Taj can be clearly viewed from all parts of the garden. 49

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

THE BASIN OF ABUNDANCE The central part of the Taj Mahal Gardens is named "Al Hawd alKawthar", which literally means "Cistern of Abundance", or the beautiful "Basin of Abundance". This basin is made of marble, it is supposed to soothe the thirst of those who arrive in paradise. There are 5 fountains in this pool, one at each corner and a fifth in the center. The corner decorations are floral, like everywhere on the Taj Mahal. Remember that Islam does not offer human representation, the representation of plants and flowers is a paradise, or it is in the gardens that we find. The fountain is also

equipped with 4 marble benches placed face to face on each side of the fountain. They were added by Lord Curzon in 19071908, during the English rule over India. Water body in front of the Taj Mahal

Water canal in front of the Taj Mahal

Flowers in complex of Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal and water canal 50

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

THE GARDENS OF TAJ MAHAL – DIFFERENT

FROM

TRADITIONAL

THE GARDENS OF TAJ MAHAL – NOWADAYS MUGHAL

GARDENS

The gardens of the Taj Mahal are four in number because, as indicated above, they form a perfect square divided into four by

For the grave of the late wife of Shah Jahan however, where the

channels representing the four rivers of Paradise, channels oriented

mausoleum is located at the edge of the garden, there is a debate

towards the four cardinal points.

among researchers as to why the shape of the traditional garden was

The square is 300m wide. The central part is highly symbolic, here it is

not used. Ebba Koch suggests that a variant of charbagh has been

composed of a terrace and a large marble fountain. Each sector is

used; that of the seaside garden, more secular. It is suitable for

divided into 4 by perfectly straight secondary roads, delineating 16

religious ceremonies. These gardens were developed by the Mughals

lawns

to meet the specific conditions of the Indian plains where slow-flowing

controlled. In this they resemble French gardens, far from what the

rivers provide the source of water, the water being raised from the

future English invader can offer. But the story will make a link between

river by mechanical devices with animal traction. The water thus

different eras since the Mogul garden model was imported at the

entrained and stored in basins. A linear terrace is located near the

beginning of the 16th century by Bâbur, it was an Islamic model with a

riverbank with low level rooms set below the main building opening on

Persian tendency. This model consisted of making the gardens more

the river. Both ends of the terrace have been underlined with towers.

rectilinear, orderly, to bring nature to life.

This form was brought to Agra by Babur and later by Shah Jahan.

But at the end of the nineteenth century, the British took control of the

Other models of charbagh are more traditional, they line both sides of

Indies, effectively overthrowing the Mughal dynasty created by Babur

the Yamuna River. The River Terrace has been designed to enhance

four centuries earlier. They who had gardens reproducing the nature,

the views of Agra for the Imperial Elite who travels in and around the

it would have been normal that they transform that of the Taj Mahal

city by the river.

but it was not the case. On the one hand because by doing this, they

Other researchers suggest another explanation for the original layout

would most likely have had the local population back, and then

of the mausoleum. If the midnight garden, located north of the

because the English gardens reproduce a nature but doptée, whose

Yamuna River, is considered an integral part of the complex, the

forms are controlled, which ultimately was not not so far from that of

mausoleum can be interpreted as being at the center of a garden

the spirit of the Taj Mahal. The English influence was felt, but weakly.

divided by a real river and can therefore be considered more in the

They pulled out a good part of the trees to enlarge these impeccable

tradition of a charbagh said "normal". It is conceivable too.

lawns. They have remained.

sometimes

dotted

with

flowers,

trees,

groves

perfectly

MUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

REFERENCES: • • • • • • • • • • •

Book : History of Mughal Architecture by R Nath Book : Gardens of the Great Mughals by C.M. VILLIERS STUART Research Paper: Mughal Gardens in India: Symbolic or Climate Responsive by ASIF ALI Research Paper: Analyzing the features of mughal garden design: Case of Taj Mahal, Agra, India by Nurshamiela Azmee http://www.landscapefoundation.in/ms/MS%20LA-17%20Mughal-Gardens.pdf https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/117570/10/14_chapter5.pdf https://www.wonders-of-the-world.net/Taj-Mahal/Gardens-of-the-Taj-Mahal.php http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=121797 https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/117570/6/10_chapter1.pdf https://www.gounesco.com/the-mughal-gardens-history-and-architecture/ http://www.cpreecenvis.nic.in/Database/TajMahal_2094.aspx

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

ANCIENT INDIA RAMAYANA, MAHABHARATA AND BUDDHISM GUNANANTHINI.E

2019MLA004

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

RAMAYANA The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit, probably not before 300 BCE, by the poet Valmiki and in its present form consists of some 24,000 couplets divided into seven books.

RAMAYANA ON GARDENS There Champac and As'oka flowers Hung glorious o'er the summer bowers, And mid the waving verdure rose Gold, silver, ivory porticoes. Through all the months in ceaseless store The trees both fruit and blossom bore. With many a lake the grounds were graced; Seats gold and silver, here were placed; Here every viand wooed the taste, It was a garden meet to vie E'en with the home of Gods on high.

AYODHYA • • • • • • • • •

Captial of Kosala kingdom Birthplace of Rama Ramayana describes it as a fortified city Situated on the banks of the river Saryu 12 yojanas (42 km) in length by 3 yojanas (10 km) in breadth It had 7 courtyards for the royal family Wide streets for chariots Parks & Gardens According to Kalika Purana, it was laid out in the auspicious shape of a bow along Saryu.

Specific landscape locales mentioned in the Ramayana legend: • Dantadhavan Kunda – where Rama brush his teeth • Maniparvata – Rama created pleasure grove for Sita • Yajnavedi- he performed sacrifices • Kanakamandapa – site of Rama & Sita’s palace • Ashokavatika with • Sita kunda on the northern bank of river Tilodaki near its confluence with Saryu • Bharata Kunda – where Bharata stayed in Nandigrama during Rama’s exile.

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

CHITRAKUTA • • •

KISKINDA

First sojourn in Rama, Sita and Lakshmana’s wanderings in the wilderness during the fourteen year exile The two landscape elements considered most sacred in Hindu tradition – confluence of hills and river CHITRAKUTA HILL – MANDAKINI RIVER – PAYASVINI RIVER

• •

SPECIFIC LANDSCAPE LOCALES

• •

•

• • • • • • • • • • •

•

Ramghat – place of rama’s bathing Raghava prayaga – confluence of rivers Mandakini & Payasvini (where Rama performed the rites of his father’s death) Sphatikashila – stone platform on the river bank where Rama and Sita sat, admiring the landscape. Ramashaiyya – where Rama and Sita stayed Sita Kunda – where Rama and sita sported Sita-rasoi – Sita’s kitchen Other significant places Kotitirtha – hallowed by penance of sages Siddhashram – a natural cave with a stream Gupta Godavari – a number of limestone caves with a stream Hanumandhara – a hill with a shrine and a stream The sacred sites of Chitrakuta isosceles triangles. The alignments mark the sunrise and sunset on solstice – Cosmic geometries The largest triangle is formed ashram and Bharatkupta.

•

Ruins of Vijayanagara in central Karnataka are spread over landscape of the famed monkey-kingdom, Kiskindha of Ramayana legend. Like Chitrakuta, this is also a hilly area with the river Thungabhadra on north. Rama worshipped ‘Shiva’ at Kiskindha. Later, Vijayanagara kings built Virupaksha temple complex, Manmatha tank down the hill, making it sacred centre of the city Ramayana themes began to be depicted in sculpture & Ramachandra temple was built. It was visually aligned with Rishyamukha hill on the north & Malyaventa hill on the northeast, points of Rama’s arrival into Kishkindha and departure to Lanka.

falls into pattern of interlocking

by Valmiki ashram, Atri-Anasya

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

MAHABHARATA •

Mahabharata, (Sanskrit: “Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty”) one of the two Sanskrit epic poems of ancient India. The Mahabharata is an important source of information on the development of Hinduism between 400 BCE and 200 CE and is regarded by Hindus as both a text about dharma. The poem is made up of almost 100,000 couplets

•

The main story revolves around two branches of a family - the Pandavas and Kauravas - who, in the Kurukshetra War, battle for the throne of Hastinapura. Interwoven into this narrative are several smaller stories about people dead or living, and philosophical discourses.

MAHABHARATA ON GARDENS Within that palace Maya placed a peerless tank, and in that tank were lotuses with leaves of dark-coloured gems and stalks of bright jewels, and other flowers also of golden leaves. And aquatic fowls of various species sported on its bosom. Itself variegated with full-blown lotuses and stocked with fishes and tortoises of golden hue, its bottom was without mud and its water transparent. There was a flight of crystal stairs leading from the banks to the edge of the water. The gentle breezes that swept along its bosom softly shook the flowers that studded it. The banks of that tank were overlaid with slabs of costly marble set with pearls. And beholding that tank thus adorned all around with jewels and precious stones, many kings that came there mistook it for land and fell into it with eyes open. Many tall trees of various kinds were planted all around the palace. Of green foliage and cool shade, and ever blossoming, they were all very charming to behold. Artificial woods were laid around, always emitting a delicious fragrance. And there were many tanks also that were adorned with swans and Karandavasand Chakravakas (Brahminy ducks) in the grounds lying about the mansion. And the breeze bearing the fragrance of lotuses growing in water and (of those growing on land) ministered unto the pleasure and happiness of the Pandavas. And Maya having constructed such a palatial hall within fourteen months, reported its completion unto Yudhishthira.

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

GARDENS IN MAHABHARATA A description in the Mahabharata describes the pleasure-grounds surrounding Kandavaprastha, the capital of the Pandavas as following,

•

• • • • •

The gardens were 'ornamented in all seasons with flowers and fruits.' Among the various trees and plants mentioned are the mango, asoka, champaka, nag-champa, sal tree, palmyra tree, skrew pine, bignonia, coral tree, and oleander. All kinds of birds frequented the gardens, which 're-echoed to the cry of the peacock and the song of the kokila'-Indian cuckoo. 'The walls of the pavilions shone like mirrors. There were numerous arbours covered by creepers Charming artificial hillocks Lakes filled to the brim with clear water, fish ponds carpeted with lotus and water lilies and ponds covered by delicate aquatic plants in which swam red geese, ducks, and swans.

TREES DURING RAMAYANA & MAHABHARATA •

In the Ramayana, mention is made of Ashokavana or Panchavati, in which Sita was held captive. Ashoka trees (Saraca asoca) were predominant in this garden.

•

In the Panchavati, five trees were planted, asvattha (Ficus religiosa) on the,east side, bilva (Aegle marmelos) on the north, the banyan (Ficus benghalensis) on the west, amla (Emblica officinalis) on the south and the ashoka (Saraca asoca) on the southeast.

•

A description of the layout of gardens and parks and artificial lakes in the city of Indraprastha is given in the Sabha-Parva of the Mahabharata. Several trees, such as Saraca asoca, Terminalia arjuna, Mesua ferrea, Ficus benghalensis, F. religosa, Michelia champaka, Butea monosperma and Cassia fistula, have been mentioned in the Ramayana. Almost all of them also have been described in the Mahabharata.

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE DURING BUDDHISM •

Buddhism is the world religion with the strongest connection to gardens.

•

Siddhartha Gautama – Hindu prince - got enlightenment under a tree in Bodh Gaya.

•

Buddha spoke to his followers in the Deer Park of Isipatana (Sarnath) and groves of trees became an important aspect of Buddhist sacred space.

•

In the millennium, Buddha became god-like-figure and Buddhism resembled devotional religion. But the association with the trees, parks and gardens continued, that led to buddhist garden designs.

•

A Buddhist garden display Buddhist images and art, but more importantly, it is simple, uncluttered garden that reflects Buddhist principles of peace, serenity, goodness and respect for all living things.

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

S A N C T U A R I E S (sacred groves, monastic gardens, temple gardens, temple-palace gardens) A type of enclosed space that can be associated with each type of main groups of buddhist schools. •

THERAVADA sanctuaries – former princely gardens and parks, which were lent to monks for the monsoon season and became permanent monasteries – Example – Jetavana and Anuradhapura

•

MAHAYANA sanctuaries – scenic areas and had stupas, monasteries and temple to inspire and inform pilgrims – Example – Sanchi and Sigiriya

•

VAJRAYANA sanctuaries – symbolic mountains, often on real and built to commemorate the lives of Bodhisattavas, who could be holy men or kings – Example – Borobudur and Angkor Wat

•

SUKHAVATI sanctuaries – Pure land gardens, made under the influence of the three pure land sutras – Example – Motsu-ji and Joruri-ji

•

ZEN sanctuaries – An austere and contemplative form of Buddhism, often using gravel and rocks to make symbolic landscapes – Example – Ryoan-ji and Saiho-ji

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

PURE LAND BUDDHISM AND GARDEN DESIGN The Pure Land sect teaches that repeating the Buddha's name, and worshiping him, will make entry to paradise more likely. The making of Buddhist gardens in Japan was inspired by Pure Land Buddhism, imported from China. The Mandala, showing Buddha with a temple and a garden inspired the making of gardens with equivalent symbolism. Mandala is a sanskrit word meaning circle, polygon and community. It is used by Buddhists as a symbol of a person in the world, and the universe, as an aid to meditation. The mandala shows a palace with four gates facing the four corners of the earth. A lotus blossom is at the center. It has four petals and rests on a bed of jewels.

HAN AND ZEN BUDDHISM AND GARDEN DESIGN 'Zen' is a Japanese version of the Chinese word 'Ch'an', meaning meditation, and describes the Meditation School of Buddhism which reached China, from India, c 520 CE and was then introduced to Japan, from China, in 1191 CE. It was carried by a monk (Esai) who had been sent on a mission to China and returned to found monasteries in Japan (the Renzai sect). Esai also introduced the tea ceremony to Japan, because tea was regarded as an aid to meditation. In the sixteenth century, the tea ceremony led to the development of stroll gardens in Japan. Zen Buddhism was also taught through archery, so that the bowman could hit a target 'without aiming'. Satori ('enlightenment') should come suddenly and spontaneously, without conscious striving. Likewise with happiness: it comes from the pursuit of another goal, not from its own pursuit. Making a fine garden can contribute to enlightenment and contentment. It requires skill, artistic judgement, understanding of nature - and constant practice. Thus gardening can be a religious activity.

TREES DURING BUDDHIST PERIOD â&#x20AC;˘

The bodhi tree, under which the Buddha attained nirvana, is sacred to Buddhists. The trees and plants mentioned in Buddhist texts include asvattha (Ficus religiosa), banyan (Ficus benghalensis), udumbara (Ficus glomerata), patali (Bignonia suaveolens), sala (Shorea robusta) and sirisa (Acacia sarisa). The planting of roadside avenue trees (margeshuvriksha) was an important contribution of the king Ashoka (233 BC).

MAHAYANA SANCTUARY

-SIGIRIYA, SRI LANKA

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

Sigiriya is a UNESCO World Heritage site located in the central portion of the island. Dating from the fifth century A.C.E., the site has two main sections: â&#x20AC;˘ the palace/fortress built on a solitary rocky hill that rises up prominently in the landscape, and â&#x20AC;˘ the symmetrical gardens that lead up to it. S I G I R I Y A is centered on a monumental rock, a residual of denudation, which rises abruptly to a height of about 180 meters above the surrounding plain or 360 meters above the mean sea level (MSL), with sheer cliffs on all sides. Like a giant pebble, the rock sits on a natural hill.

Greater Sigiriya showing Mapagala, Pidurangala, Ramakele and Mahavava 60

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

•

The garden leading up to the fortress is one of the oldest landscaped gardens in the world, and is comprised of three main elements: water features, rock features, and terraces. The garden stretches out nearly 100 yards from the hill on an east-west axis. The central zone of this precinct is dominated by water associated structures, such as reflecting pools and ponds, fountains and serpentine streams, bathing pools and changing rooms, moated island structures and summer palaces, arranged in a symmetrical order along its east-west axis

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k.

Outer Rampart Outer Moat Middle Rampart Inner Moat Inner Rampart ‘Four-quartered’ Feature Miniature Water Garden Summer Palace Western Approach Northern Gate Southern Gate

a. Four-quartered feature b. ‘Summer Palace’ c. Boulder-associated Structures d. Main Palace

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

Plan, central zone of the western precincts

Pleasure garden showing the areas for water sports and garden sports

The water gardens are also divided into three main areas. • •

•

Central zone of the inner western precinct from the rock summit

The first garden consists of a section of land surrounded by water. The second is the largest and features a long path flanked on either side by two long pools, both of which connect to serpentine streams. The third is smaller and consists of a large octagonal pool.

a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

Palace on Rock Summit Walled-in Hilly Terrain Inner Western Precinct Outer Western Precinct Inner Eastern Precinct Outer Eastern Precinct Sigiri Mahavava 62

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

Plan, Miniature water garden

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Moated Central Pavilion L-shaped Pond Northern Outer Compartment Southern Outer Compartment Pavilion

1.Western Entrance to Hilly Terrain 2. Western Route 3. Southwestern Route 4. Pathway associated with Mirror Wall 5. Lion Plateau 6. Main Rock 63

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

Boulder showing the cut-marks on the top to receive the brick masonry of a structure

A rock-shelter at the base of a boulder The Mirror Wall and the pathway Mirror Wall, due to its highly polished plaster on the internal surface, this parapet wall contains poems and other graffiti inscribed by ancient visitors to the site from the 6th to the 13th or 14th centuries AC, who recorded their emotional expressions of the site Boulder arches

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

1. Lion-Staircase-House 2.Pathway/Stairway associated with Mirror Wall 3. Main Rock 4. U-shaped Structure Plan, Lion Plateau

1. Main Palace 2. Other Palace Structures 3. Upper Palace Garden 4. Lower Palace Garden 5. Pool 6. Rock-cut Seat 7.Limestone-paved Central Pathway

• • • • •

Aerial view of the Lion Plateau which protrudes from the northern rock face

The rock gardens are at the foot of the rock hill atop which sits the main fortress. They consist of several large boulders linked by winding pathways. The large boulders once had buildings on top of them, the footings of which can still be seen. The terrace gardens are built out of the natural hills at the foot of the rock. They feature terraces rising from the boulder garden to the staircases that lead up to the main palace 65

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

The large rock-cut pool at the rock summit

The rock-cut seat at the rock summit

Rock summit showing the cut-marks

The structures on the rock summit

Limestone-paved central pathway at the rock summit

Ritual center of the post-Kasyapan monastic phase 66

ANCIENT INDIA_ RAMAYANA TO BUDDHIST ERA

At the time it was built, it was used not just as a place to experience but as a defensive structure. It features moats that served to defend against potential attackers.

Rock-cut vertical drains on the rock boulders of the hilly terrain

Its layout, its functioning water systems, and the ancient irrigation systems still used to this day are remarkable, considering that they are for the most part more than 1500 years old.

CHINESE GARDENS

ATREYEE GHOSH CHOWDHURY 2 0 1 9 M L A 0 0 5

CHINESE GARDENS

INTRODUCTION • The Chinese consider their gardens a serious art form. Balance, harmony, proportion and variety in their design are considered essential. • China provided an affirmation of nature’s largesse. The landscape of China is characterized by steep mountains, bountiful plains and dramatic waterfalls. Chinese gardens reference all of the country’s natural treasures. • At present China has about 1,000 classical gardens. The most important examples of Chinese landscape gardens are located in Beijing, Chengde and cities south of the Yangtze river such as Suzhou and Wuxi.

BACKGROUND The history of gardening in China extends back to the ancient dynastic emperors who built hunting parks and pleasure gardens as expressions of royal power. Governments were often weakened by excessive spending on lavish imperial gardens. When Yangdi, heir to the Sui dynasty (589-618), ascended the throne in the late 6th century, he undertook several largescale public works projects, including the construction of an extravagant palace garden at Loyang. A fantasyland over 75 miles in circumference, the garden reportedly contained mechanical figures, mature trees that were artificially enhanced for seasonal effect, and 16 pavilions surrounding a man-made lake 6 miles long.

CHINESE GARDENS

TIMELINE OF CLASSICAL CHINESE GARDEN

• The art of Chinese garden has a history of more than 3,000 years. • The Shang (1600-1046 BC) and Zhou (1045-256 BC) dynasties were the beginning, of gardening as functional and visually appealing additions to the emperor’s abode. • Gardens were designated as homes for animals used for hunting and for enclosing an outside plot of ground for the emperor. • In the Qin (221-206 BC) dynasty, buildings started getting added to gardens and became a villa like escape for the emperor. • After the Han dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) gardens were places for the emperor to rest and renew energy. A garden was then called ‘Yuan’. • During the Ming dynasty (1386-1644) and the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) focus was again brought on building structures, but specifically to enhance appearance. Buildings were added solely to create pleasant or striking scenery. • The royal garden evolved with time and changing tastes over the centuries and inspired gardens in other areas of China.

CHINESE GARDENS

CHINESE GARDENS IN TERMS OF COSMOLOGY Chinese gardens expressed a cosmology based on a fusion of Confucian, Daoist and Buddhist tenets. While each religion advocated different strategies for achieving spiritual freedom, all shared a common respect for nature. Historic Chinese gardens imitated the balance of opposites found in nature, referred to by Daoist's as the forces of yin and yang. Rock and water structured the garden: rocks symbolized mountains, a male force (yin), and water symbolized yang, a female force. The principle of yin and yang can also be seen in the contrast of the rectilinear geometry of cities, structures, and decorative elements (representing human artifice) with the free-flowing irregular forms of gardens (representing nature). Daoism advocated the idea of eternal life through contact with mystical Immortals who inhabited mountainous islands in an eastern sea. Thus, gardens contained lakes and rockery that imitated the mountain dwellings of the Immortals. These lake-and-island estates set a precedent for garden form and had particular influence on later Japanese gardens. Rocks themselves had powerful associative meanings in Chinese gardens. Rock formations, flowers, paving patterns, and architectural features all communicated the theme of a garden. Confucian society was ordered by a moral imperative for civil service and a pursuit of the cultural arts. As a traditional art form, garden making in China was studied along with painting, poetry, and calligraphy by scholar-officials seeking status. Confucian order can be read in the urban form of imperial cities, such as Chang-an (Xian, today). During the Tang dynasty, Chang-an was home to more than 1 million people and created a metropolitan aesthetic that was later adopted by the Japanese.

CHINESE GARDENS

ELEMENTS OF A CLASSICAL CHINESE GARDEN 1.

ROCKS-

PLANTS AND TREES-

• During the Song dynasty, they were the most expensive objects in the empire. • Decorative rocks often termed as Chinese scholar’s rocks, are used both for structural and sculptural purposes. • In smaller classical gardens, a single scholar rock represents a mountain, or a row of rocks represents a mountain range.

• Trees and flowers, especially in private gardens, are carefully selected for the overall layout of the gardens, because of the limited space. • Plants and flowers reflecting the beauty of the four seasons are planted. They represent nature in it’s most vivid form.

WATER-

• Water is the blood of a traditional Chinese garden. • The most important element of a garden is water, in any form: ponds, lakes, streams, rivers and waterfalls. • Gardens will have a single lake with one or more streams coming into the lake, with bridges crossing the streams.

STRUCTURES-

• The most important structures of garden ground are walkways, pavilions and bridges. Timber frame construction plays a decisive role here. • Chinese gardens are filled with architecture; halls, pavilions, temples, galleries, bridges, kiosks and towers occupy a large part of the space. • Gardens also often include small, austere houses for solitude and meditation, sometimes in the form of rustic fishing huts.

CHINESE GARDENS

TYPES OF CHINESE GARDENS

CHINESE GARDENS

PRIVATE

IMPERIAL

Private gardens were designed and created as a place of retreat for the ancient scholars to escape the chaos of the city and have private relaxation. They are mostly found in the cities of south China.

Imperial gardens are mostly found in north China with those in Beijing as representatives, featuring grandness and magnificence.

SCHOLAR GARDENS OF SUZHOU Economically prosperous and rich in scenery, Suzhou was known as the “Venice of the East”. Here, scholar-officials retired from government service and built rustic country estates, embracing an aesthetic of solitude, learning and poverty. “Scholar gardens” were private retreats, places for self development and communion with intimate friends, distinct from elaborate imperial gardens. Suzhou itself remained a haven for artists, particularly during the Ming dynasty. An example of a typical scholar’s garden from the Tang era is the riverside villa of Wang Wei, a painter, poet, musician and Buddhist scholar.

POETIC GARDENS Like a hand scroll unrolls from right to left, revealing a succession of individual scenes, a Chinese garden is experienced as a series of visual events. These two scenes represent Wang Wei’s villa and are combined with lines of his poetry.

CHINESE GARDENS

PAINTING AND GARDENING The height of landscape painting and gardening occurred during the cultural and economic prosperity of the Song dynasty (960–1279). The Northern Song emperor Zhao Ji (Song Huizong, ruled 1100–1125) was a painter, patron of the arts, and avid collector of rocks and trees. Built in accordance with the geomantic principles of feng shui, his palace garden, Gen Yue, included an artificial mountain over 200 feet high to block the evil forces that he believed kept him from producing a male heir. Daoism and Buddhism were stronger influences in the south. The Daoist belief in a universal flow of energy can be seen in the mania for placing rocks in the garden. Rocks formed the skeleton of the garden like mountains formed the skeleton of the earth. Individual rocks were appreciated and collected during the Tang dynasty, but rock adulation reached its ultimate expression in the Song dynasty. To the Buddhist, rocks represented the creative forces of nature—the more weathered, the more magical.

ROCK ROOM: The most valued rocks came from Lake Tai, where unique forces of erosion created the characteristic apertures and shapes prized by Song collectors.

Garden design and landscape painting shared a language of visual conventions that was established during the Song dynasty. Garden layouts were inspired by compositional techniques used by landscape painters. Land- scape paintings of the Northern and Southern Song dynasties expressed different attitudes toward nature.15 Northern Song paintings were intended to be realistic portrayals of nature’s awesomeness. Southern Song paintings were more personal expressions of nature, evoking mood. Artists brought the subject matter closer to the viewer. Unessential elements were reduced; space was implied by large voids in the composition. Song paintings are referenced in medieval Japanese literature and had a profound influence on Japanese garden design.

CHINESE GARDENS

SOUTHERN SONG: Detailed portraits of birds and flowers were common themes in Southern Song paintings. The imperial painting academy founded at Hangzhou focused on the intimate observation of nature. NORTHERN SONG: The “mountain scrolls” of Northern Song paintings often show a diminutive human figure within a vast landscape dominated by natural features. Atmospheric effects created a layering of vertical space—trees were outlined against misty voids. Distance and spatial depth were captured through the manipulation of foreground, mid-ground, and background elements.

CHINESE GARDENS

SYMBOLISM

THE SYMBOLISM OF PLANTS: To communicate the theme of a Chinese garden, gardeners chose plants more for their physical and symbolic attributes than for their sensual qualities. For example, the lotus, whose roots thrive in the muddy bottoms of ponds and whose blossoms reach up to float on the surface of the water, represented spiritual freedom. The “three friends of winter”— the pine, plum, and bamboo—signified longevity, endurance, and resilience. Plants representative of the four seasons—the orchid, bamboo, chrysanthemum, and flowering plum—also represented the traits of an ideal gentleman: grace, resiliency, nobility, and endurance.

THE SYMBOLISM OF POETRY: Poets, painters, and philosophers found inspiration in nature and symbolized the emotional relationship between art, nature, and humans in their work. The meaning of a Chinese garden is difficult to comprehend without understanding the literary context in which it was produced.

CHINESE GARDENS

THE HUMBLE ADMINISTRATOR’S GARDEN • •

•

Covering 51,950 sq. m area, the humble administrator’s garden is the largest of all classical gardens in Suzhou. It is centered upon the broad expanse of a lake, making about one fifth of the total area. With well spaced buildings, the garden landscape and water scape are simple, extensive and natural, possessing the traditional appearances of the Ming Dynasty. It is divided into three parts: the eastern, middle and western parts. The house lies in the south of the garden.

Eastern garden: Composed of a few buildings around a central lawn and pond combination. The lawn is ringed by a grove of crape myrtle trees. Central garden: This section is composed of many scenes arranged around the ‘Surging Wave’ pond.

MAP OF THE GARDEN

Western garden: This part is only half the size of the central part, and is also mainly dominated by water. The pond runs from north to south, and at the central part rises an islet. Although small, it is planned with meticulous care and precision. The buildings, though numerous, do not clutter, small mountains and ponds do not give a cramped impression. VIEWS OF THE GARDEN

JAPANESE GARDEN ZOYA MATIN 2019MLA006

THE LAND OF RISING SUN JAPANESE

ENVIRONMENT

JAPANESE GARDEN

AND

CULTURE

• Japan’s geographical location has had profound effects both on the environment of the archipelago and on the culture that developed there. • Japan is positioned at the meeting point not only of the tectonic plates, that have created its seismically active geology, but also of the vast Pacific Ocean and the mainland of Asia. • The constantly forming volcanic mountains make for topographically varied landscape, much of the landscape is mountainous or hilly with at least three quarters of the land having slopes in excess of 15%. This topography limits urban development and agricultural practices principally to coastal areas and river valleys. • More than 60% of the land is covered with thin mountain soils composed primarily of sand and volcanic ash. Another 15% of the land has alluvial soils, resulting from the erosion of mountainous areas. • There are three major vegetation zones in Japan, all of which are dominated by forests. In Hokkaido and scattered elevated areas of Honshu conifers pre dominate. At lower elevations of hills and mountains on the mainland facing sides are deciduous forests. Finally occupying the largest areas are broadleaf evergreen forests that cover much of Honshu, and most of Shikoku and Kyushu.

The islands of Japans, of which there are four large onesHokkaido in the north, Honshu in the center, Shikoku in the southeast of Honshu, and Kyushu in the southeast numerous smaller ones surrounding them.

• The distribution of vegetation is, of course , closely tied to climate. The Japanese islands are generally moist and humid with both rainfall and ambient moisture increasing the farther south of location. • Temperatures also vary by latitude with Kyushu being Sub-Tropical and Hokkaido being in a Cold Temperate Zone. Japan map of Koppen climate classification 79

JAPANESE GARDEN

HISTORY OF JAPANESE GARDEN •

EARLY JAPAN (BEFORE 794)

•

HEIAN PERIOD (794-1185)

•

KAMAKURA AND MUROMACHI PERIODS (1192-1573)

•

AZUCHI-MOMOYAMA PERIOD (1573-1603)

•

EDO PERIOD (1603-1867)

•

MEIJI PERIOD (1868-1912)

•

MODERN GARDENS (1912 TO PRESENT)

JAPANESE GARDEN

EARLY JAPAN (BEFORE 794 A.D) The animistic beliefs of pre historic times eventually yielded the native religion of Japan, Shinto. It had a profound effect on the attitude towards land, for Shinto is based upon belief in native spirits of the environment, which they refer as Kami. The earliest shinto places of worship were outdoor sites such as woods or rocky coasts, later more structured built compounds developed, shinto shrines remained simple places with relatively little ornamentation. The shrine area is fenced with a gravel covered courtyard in which the main sanctuary and several other outlying buildings are set. This fenced precinct is surrounded by a groove of trees typical of woodland settings of shrines. It is often believed that Japanese appreciation for garden designs grew from the connection between natural settings and the spiritual.

Stones used to delineate sacred grounds (Ise Shrine) 81

EARLY JAPAN (BEFORE 794 A.D)

JAPANESE GARDEN

Early aristocratic pond garden (East Palace Garden at Heijo Palace in Nara) The widespread adoption of Chinese culture and Buddhism from the 6th century on heavily influenced Japanese garden design. During this era, gardens were built at imperial palaces for the recreation and entertainment of the emperor and aristocrats. They introduced ponds and streams as their focal points, contained many Buddhist and Taoist elements and attempted to reproduce famous landscapes. Unfortunately none of these early palace gardens survive. However, based on archaeological findings in Nara, the East Palace Garden at Heijo Palace was meticulously reconstructed and opened to the public in the 1990s and provides visitors with a good idea of these early types of palace gardens. 82

HEIAN ERA (794-1185)

JAPANESE GARDEN

The first truly significant period in japanese landscape design history began when the capital relocated to heian-kyo(modern kyoto) in 794 A.D. Designs of landscapes began to acquire a japanese flavor, although still covered by chinese influence. The sakuteiki(manuscript) gives a very clear statement of the basic conceptual principal that would influence japanese garden desin upto present.Most of the text is devoted to general rules of thumb that should guide design and construction with a great deal of emphasis place upon the selection and placement of rocks and the design of water ways. The distinctive type of garden landscape that standards such as those presented in the sakuteiki produced is referred to as the shinden style, the shinden was a group of buildings and pavilions linked by covered walkways, all arranged in a geometric u-shaped around a large central courtyard. Small courtyards adjacent to the dwelling rooms were usually gravel covered and intended to be used for active sports, such as archery, or entertainment, such as dance displays.

Heian period residence, circa AD 1000 83

JAPANESE GARDEN

HEIAN ERA (794-1185) Aristocrats started building Shinden Gardens at their palaces and villas, large gardens which were used for elaborate parties and for recreational activities such as boating, fishing and general enjoyment. Designed after Chinese concepts, the gardens featured large ponds and islands connected by arched bridges under which boats could pass. A gravel covered plaza in front of the building was used for entertainment, while one or more pavilions extended out over the water. No Shinden Garden survives today, but some of their large ponds are found incorporated into later gardens, e.g. Osawa Pond at Daikakuji Temple in Kyoto.

Remains of a Shinden Garden (Osawa Pond at Daikakuji Temple in Kyoto)

Pure Land Garden (Motsuji Temple in Hiraizumi)

In the late Heian Period, Pure Land Buddhism gained popularity, promising its devotees a spot in the the Western Paradise of the Amida Buddha or Pure Land. Consequently, gardens were built to resemble that Buddhist paradise. Similar in design to Shinden Gardens, they featured a large pond with lotus flowers and islands, as well as beautiful pavilion buildings. No complete Pure Land Garden survives, however, Uji's Byodoin Temple and Hiraizumi's Motsuji Temple preserve many major elements of the garden type.

HEIAN PERIOD (794-1185)

JAPANESE GARDEN

The above image is a conjectural recreation of a typical Heian villa, with the main buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the shindenâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;indicated at A. In the usual layout, one or two of the covered corridors of the villa would have terminated in a "fishing pavilion" (tsuri dono) (B) and/or a "spring pavilion" (C) overlooking the pond. 85

JAPANESE GARDEN

THE JAPANESE MIDDLE AGES: KAMAKURA AND MUROMACHI ERAS (1192-1573) At the beginning of the Kamakura Period a shift of power from the aristocratic court to the military elite was completed. The military rulers embraced the newly introduced Zen Buddhism, which would exert a strong influence on garden design. Gardens were often built attached to temple buildings to help monks in meditation and religious advancement rather than for recreational purposes. Gardens also became smaller, simpler and more minimalist, while retaining many of the same elements as before, such as ponds, islands, bridges and waterfalls. The most extreme development towards minimalism was the Karesansui Dry Garden which uses nothing but rocks, gravel and sand to represent all the elements of the garden landscape. Many gardens from this period still survive in Japan, especially in Kyoto's leading Zen temples, such as Ryoanji, Daitokuji, Tenryuji and Kokedera. Some older examples are also found in Kamakura, including the early Zen gardens of Zuisenji and Kenchoji

Karesansui Dry Garden (Ryoanji Temple in Kyoto) 86

JAPANESE GARDEN

THE JAPANESE MIDDLE AGES: KAMAKURA AND MUROMACHI ERAS (1192-1573) The trends in socio-political and landscape change that began the kamakura period reached a climax in 14th century with the rise of the Muromachi Shoguns, who ruled from 1333 to 1568.The muromachi era was one of the massive social and polital instability, culminating in a civil war known as Onin war. The most important design innovation of this era was full realization of the new style residential design, the Shoin-zukuri style. The relationship between buildings and setting changed radically. In the Shoin-zukuri style the buildings became feautures in lndscape that enclosed and defined them. Shoin-zukuri style buildings had a asymmetrical plan arragements in which the wings of the building generally stepped backwards from the main garden. This main garden, often centered upon a pond in the larger properties,was a secluded garden off the most private portions of the dwelling. To increase the sense of privacy and quiet in these rear gardens,separate araes, often gravel courts, were provided for more active recreation. The introduction of the transulent, sliding shoji screen during the muromachi shogunates empahsized indoor-outdoor relationships.

Traditional shoji screen

JAPANESE GARDEN

PERIODS OF TRANSITION: MOMOYAMA AND EDO ERAS (1568-1867) Momoyama period was a short one lasting from 1568 to 1600, it was important in Japanese garden design history for the introduction of distictive garden type- the tea garden. This new type of garden style returened the simplicity and love of rustic natural scenes that were the very foundation of Japanese garden design. The Japanese tea ceremony, refferd to as chado or shado is not a tea party or social event, rather a form of reflection that uses repetition of simple, ceremonial acts to shit oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concentration from the materialistic worls of daily cares towards appreciatin of the beautyof simplicity. This garden can be categorized into two sections: inner garden and outer garden. The outer garden follows a path which would lead to reach to its inner garden. Both inner and outer gardens are separated by covered gate. It is a custom to wash your hands before entering into the inner garden. One can wash hands from the stone water basin (tsukubai) which is placed in the garden. The gardenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main features are Ishidoro (a small stone lantern), Tsukubai (A stone basin where guests can wash their hands), Nakakuguri (a middle gate), Tobi-ishi (stepping stones) and Kakei (a bamboo pipe through which water flows constantly).

Tea Garden (Kotoin Temple in Kyoto) 88

PERIODS OF TRANSITION: MOMOYAMA AND EDO ERAS (1568-1867)

JAPANESE GARDEN

During the Edo Period, garden design departed from the minimalism of the Muromachi Period as the ruling class rediscovered its likings for extravagance and recreation. The product were large strolling gardens with ponds, islands and artificial hills that could be enjoyed from a variety of viewpoints along a circular trail. Many strolling gardens also included elements of tea gardens. The regional feudal lords constructed strolling gardens both in their home towns and at their secondary villas, which they were required to maintain in Edo (current day Tokyo). Therefore, strolling gardens today can typically be found in former castle towns and scattered around Tokyo. Among the most celebrated strolling gardens are Kanazawa's Kenrokuen, Okayama's Korakuen, Takamatsu's Ritsurin Koen, Kyoto's Katsura Imperial Villa and Tokyo's Rikugien and Koishikawa Korakuen.

Strolling Garden (Suizenji Park in Kumamoto)

JAPANESE GARDEN

PERIODS OF TRANSITION: MOMOYAMA AND EDO ERAS (1568-1867) In contrast, Tsuboniwa are small gardens that became popular among the urban population. These mini gardens (tsubo refers to the area of two tatami mats) filled in the small courtyard spaces within or between townhouses and provided a touch of nature as well as light and fresh air. Due to their size, they usually featured just a small amount of decorative elements and were not meant to be entered. Tsuboniwa can be seen in some of the historic merchant residences that are open to the public. They also remain a popular type of garden today among people who wish to incorporate a small green space into their homes, but lack the luxury of abundant space.

Tsuboniwa (Merchant House in Naramachi) 90

JAPANESE GARDEN

MODERNIZATION BEGINS: THE MEIJI PERIOD The Meiji period began in 1868 with restoration o fthe emperor as the actual ruler of Japan, rather than as merley a figurehead.This change, important in itself, led to even more revolutionar reforms. Modernization essentially meant adopting Western practices especially those related to econimic development. In addition, the concept of public landscapes was introduced to japan leading to the conversation of temple and residential landscapes to parks, or the creation of new parks such as Hibiya Park in Tokyo, the first public park built for that purpose in Japan in 1903. Many of the formerly private strolling gardens were opened to the public. Politicians and industrialists were the force behind the construction of new private strolling gardens which often contained Western gardening elements such as flower beds and open lawns. Many of these gardens were built in the new capital of Tokyo, for example the Kiyosumi Teien. Some modern garden designers also tried their hand at creating more traditional types of Japanese gardens, although they often included some new ideas into them. Good examples are the Zen gardens of the Tofukuji Temple in Kyoto and the stone garden in the back of Kongobuji Temple on Koyasan which date from the 1930s or the even more recent gardens of the Adachi Art Museum near Matsue.

Modern Gardens (Adachi Museum of Art near Matsue) 91

JAPANESE GARDEN

THE MODERN ERA At the end of Meiji period in 1912, Japan and Japanese designs were on the threshold of entry into the modern world.The early modrn period,which lasted till until the late 1950s, was one of the increasing experimentation with Western themes as interpreted by Japanese cultural and aesthetic preferences. Integration of traditional Japanese with Western design ideas continued to develop after 1950 producing extremely creative works that themselvesbecame models for international designs. The Japanese custom of gardens in small spaces served well as cities expaned and space becameat a premium.These new gardens for hotels, offices, and schools were often modeled after either dry or pond gardens.The dry garden concept proved particularly popular for offices, where small courtyardsand limited maintenance made use of water, or even plants impractical.

JAPANESE GARDEN

BASIC RULES IN THE JAPANESE GARDENS

DESIGN

Natural: that should make the garden look as if it grew by itself Asymmetry: that creates the impression of it being natural Odd numbers: It supports the effect of the asymmetry Simplicity: that follows the idea of 'less is more Triangle: that is the most common shape for compositions made of stones, plants, etc Contrast: that creates tension between elements Lines: that can create both tranquility and tension Curves: that softens the effect Openness: that indicates interaction between all elements

JAPANESE GARDEN

ELEMENTS OF JAPANESE GARDEN- WATERFALL

JAPANESE GARDEN

ELEMENTS OF JAPANESE GARDEN- PATHS OF TOBI-ISHI

JAPANESE GARDEN

ELEMENTS OF JAPANESE GARDEN- BRIDGE

JAPANESE GARDEN

ELEMENTS OF JAPANESE GARDEN- WATER BASIN

ELEMENTS OF JAPANESE GARDEN- STONE LANTERNS

JAPANESE GARDEN

TREES AND FLOWERS

Garden of the 10th to 12th centuries contained cherry, plum trees, pines and willows. Influence of the Zen sect and watercolor painting from Southern China transformed the colorful Japanese garden in the Middle Ages. Flowers, flowering plants and shrubs were regarded as signs of frivolity and were replaced by evergreen trees that symbolized eternity. Flowering trees found in Japanese garden are camelias, specifically the tsubaki and sazank. Japanese Fir Scientific Name: Abies Firma Habitat: Evergreen Texture: Coarse Height: 40’ to 70’ Leaf: 1.5" dark green needles are notched at base; sharp prickly point Flower/Fruit: 3.5 to 5" brown cones

Japanese stripped-bark maple Scientific Name: Acer capillipes Habit: Deciduous Growth Rate: Moderate Site Requirements: Sun to partial shade; prefers moist, well drained soil Texture: Medium Form: Round head; low branches Height: 30 to 35’ Flower/Fruit: Greenish white flowers on 2.5 to 4" pendulous raceme; attractive samara in fall

Japanese maple Scientific Name: Acer palmatum Growth Rate: Slow to moderate Site Requirements: Light dappled shade; evenly moist, well drained soil; protect from drying winds Texture: Medium to fine Form: Low; dense rounded top; spreading branches; assumes a layered look Height: 15 to 25' Flower/Fruit: Small red to purple flowers; attractive if viewed closely but insignificant from a distance

Japanese alder Scientific Name: Alnus japonica Site Requirements: Sun to partial shade; range of soil types including wet and infertile soil Form: Slender, narrow upright habit Height: 12 to 25’ Leaf: Oval, narrow leaves Flower/Fruit: Yellow brown to red brown catkins (male flowers); female flowers on short purplish brown strobili which persist until winter

JAPANESE GARDEN

TREES AND FLOWERS Japanese angelica tree Scientific Name: Aralia elata Growth Rate: Rapid Site Requirements: Sun to partial shade; range of soil types but prefers moist, well drained soil Texture: Medium Form: Irregular to spreading; often multi-stemmed Height: 20 to 40â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Leaf: 3 to 5.5" compound leaves; yellow to reddish purple fall color Flower/Fruit: 12 to 18" white flowers in August; purple fruit

Japanese cornel dogwood Scientific Name Cornus officinalis Growth Rate: Moderate Site Requirements: Sun to partial shade; range of soil types Texture: Medium Form: Picturesque; multistemmed ; low branches; oval to round habit Height: 15 to 25' Leaf: 4" opposite, simple leaves; purple fall color Flower/Fruit: Cluster of short stalked yellow flowers with drooping bracts on naked stems in early spring; .5" shiny red fruit in clusters in fall

Japanese cherry birch Scientific Name Betula grossa Growth Rate: Moderate Site Requirements: Sun; moist well drained soil Texture: Medium Form: Pyramidal Height: 20 to 25' Leaf: 2 to 4" alternate, simple leaves; yellow fall color Flower/Fruit: Nonshowy flowers

Japanese cedar Scientific Name: Cryptomeria japonica Habit: Evergeen Growth Rate: Moderate Site Requirements: Sun to light, high shade; rich deep, well drained soil but will thrive in a range of soil types Texture: Fine to medium Form: Pyramidal; semiformal Height: 50 to 60' Leaf: Awl shaped, bright to blue-green foliage; smooth to the touch; bronze tones in winter, especially if exposed to wind. Flower/Fruit: Small terminal cones

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RYOAN-JI TEMPLE, KYOTO, JAPAN

JAPANESE GARDEN

The Zen garden of Ryōan-ji is famous for its simplicity—made of nothing but clay walls, raked sand, and fifteen rocks. This simplicity belies Ryōan-ji's long history as an important site. In 983 Fujiwara Saneyoshi constructed the first temple at this location. Most traces of his original work have vanished except for the large pond that covers much of the lower garden. Destroyed in the Ōnin war that devastated much of Kyoto, reconstruction began in earnest with Hosokawa Katsumoto, a powerful member of the Buke clan of Kyoto, who founded Ryōan-ji proper in the upper half of the grounds. Here he lived with resident Zen monks until his death in 1473. Following a fire in 1488, his son Hosokawa Masamoto financed the construction of the present garden.

The red square is the boundary of the axonometric drawing at the top of this page. 101

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RYOAN-JI TEMPLE, KYOTO, JAPAN

Key plan

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Photo-2 102

JAPANESE GARDEN

RYOAN-JI TEMPLE, KYOTO, JAPAN

Key plan

Photo-3

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JAPANESE GARDEN

RYOAN-JI TEMPLE, KYOTO, JAPAN

Key plan

Photo-6

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Photo-8 104

PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICAN GARDEN

PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICAN GARDENS

AJIT KUMBHAR 2019MLA007

PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICAN GARDEN

HISTORY • •

PRE-COLUMBIAN ERA literally refers only to the time preceding Christopher Columbus's voyages of 1492. It Deonte's the entire history of indigenous American cultures until those cultures were extinguished, diminished, or extensively altered by Europeans.

•

even if this happened long after Columbus. The Mississippian Culture , Maya , Aztec and Inca were four organized developed and advanced pre-Columbian civilization. (3001500 A.D).

•

Many pre-Columbian civilizations were marked by permanent settlements, cities, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, major earthworks, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first permanent European colonies and the arrival of enslaved Africans and are known only through archaeological investigations and oral history. Other civilizations were contemporary with the colonial period and were described in European historical accounts of the time.

•

Before the development of archaeology in the 19th century, historians of the pre-Columbian period mainly interpreted the records of the European conquerors and the accounts of early European travelers and antiquaries.

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PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICAN GARDEN

MISSISSIPPIAN CULTURE MOUND BUILDERS (500 to 1000 AD) • The Mississippian culture was spread across the Southeast and Midwest from the Atlantic coast to the edge of the plains, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Upper Midwest, although most intensively in the area along the Mississippi River and Ohio River. •

One of the distinguishing features of this culture was the construction of complexes of large earthen mounds and grand plazas, continuing the mound building traditions of earlier cultures.

• In North America, the first developed towns in the Mississippi Valley. • Cahokia held a population of 20,000 and perhaps 40,000 lived in the region.

Cahokia

• A strong central authority existed and stratification of society but no written records remain. • Worship SUN. • Encompassed at least 120 mounds. • The most awesome example of landscape at Cahokia is the 100-foot (30-meter) tall "Monks Mound" — the name given to it because a group of Trappist monks lived near it in historic times.

Monk’s mound 107

PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICAN GARDEN

MAYAN CIVILIZATION (1200-1000 B.C.) • Contemporary with Teotihuacan's greatness was that of the Maya civilization. The period between 250 CE and 650 CE was a time of intense flourishing of Maya civilized accomplishments. While the many Maya city-states never achieved political unity on the order of the central Mexican civilizations, they exerted a tremendous intellectual influence upon Mexico and Central America. • The Maya built some of the most elaborate cities on the continent, and made innovations in mathematics, astronomy, and calendrics. The Maya also developed the only true writing system native to the Americas using pictographs and syllabic elements in the form of texts and codices inscribed on stone, pottery, wood, or perishable books made from bark paper.

Home garden

HOME GARDENS : • Contain combinations of trees with an understorey of annual and perennial crops and sometimes livestock. • Corn is the staple of the contemporary Maya diet, and is used in many forms, including in tortillas, as a drink, in dumplings, and eaten whole. ORGANIC / FOREST GARDENS • Contain combinations of trees with an understorey of annual and perennial crops and sometimes livestock. • Corn is the staple of the contemporary Maya diet, and is used in many forms, including in tortillas, as a drink, in dumplings, and eaten whole.

Monk’s mound 108

PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICAN GARDEN

A Z T E C C I V I L I S AT I O N ( 1 2 0 0 C E – 1 5 2 1 C E ) • The Aztecs were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec peoples included different ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to the 16th centuries. • Aztec culture was organized into city-states (altepetl), some of which joined to form alliances, political confederations, or empires.

• Contain Central valley of Mexico. • Agriculture, along with trade and tribute, formed the basis of the Aztec Empire

Chinampa

• The Aztecs created chinampas or "floating gardens" built in lakes in order to farm since there was a shortage of fertile land. • Chinampas were essentially man-made islands, raised bed gardens on the surface of Lake Texcoco’s shallow waters.

Chinampa’s section

Monk’s mound 109

PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICAN GARDEN

INCA CIVILISATION (1200 CE – 1550 CE) • The Inca Empire (Quechua: Tarantinesque, lit. "The Four Regions", also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. Its political and administrative structure is considered by most scholars to have been the most developed in the Americas before Columbus' arrival. • The administrative, political and military centre of the empire was located in the city of Cusco. The Inca civilization arose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. • LOCATED IN Andes Mountains and Pacific coast of South America • The largest empire in pre-Columbian America. • Built road systems through Andes that stretched over 12,000 miles (made of stone). • Terrace farming on the side of the Andes Mountains.

Home garden

Inka’s map

• The Incas invented a system called terrace gardening, they carved steps from the side of a mountain to create flat land for farming.

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MACHU PICHU • Machu Picchu is an Incan citadel set high in the Andes Mountains in Peru, above the Urubamba River valley. Built in the 15th century and later abandoned, it’s renowned for its sophisticated dry-stone walls that fuse huge blocks without the use of mortar, intriguing buildings that play on astronomical alignments and panoramic views. Its exact former use remains a mystery. • LOCATED IN Andes Mountains and Pacific coast of South America Machu Picchu is an Incan citadel set high in the Andes Mountains in Peru, above the Urubamba River valley. • Often mistakenly referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas“. • Built in the 15th century and later abandoned. • it’s renowned for its sophisticated dry-stone walls that fuse huge blocks without the use of mortar, intriguing buildings that play on astronomical alignments and panoramic views

Home garden

Machu pichu aerial view2,430-metre (8000 ft) mountain ridge

• Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry-stone walls. Its three primary structures are the Intihuatana, the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. Most of the outlying buildings have been reconstructed in order to give tourists a better idea of how they originally appeared. By 1976, 30% of Machu Picchu had been restored and restoration continues.

Zig-zag road leading up to Machu Picchu.

valley in Machu Picchu. 111

PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICAN GARDEN

Machu Pichuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s plan showing three sections .

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RELIGIOUS • The central plaza that separates the religious from the urban section, has a great rock in the center. • The religious section contains splendid architecture and masonry works. • One of the most important and enigmatic is probably the Intihuatana shrine, this block of granite was presumably used to make astronomical observations. • Curved outer temple of the Sun wall. • The "Temple of the Sun", is a circular tower with some of the best stonework of Machu Picchu.

Intihuatana shrine

• Its base forms a cavern known as the Royal Tomb. • Recent studies show that the actual purpose was for astronomical observance.

Intihuatana shrine

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AGRICULTURAL • The agricultural area consists of a series of terraces and channels that serve dual purpose, as cultivation platforms and as retention walls to avoid erosion. • Some smaller buildings next to large terraces are part of this section and thought to have served as lookout posts. URBAN • In the southern part of this section are found a series of niches carved on rock known as "the jail" with elements that include man size niches, stone rings would have served to hold the prisoner's arms, and underground dungeons.

Terrace farming

• The group of refined structures next to "the jail" is known as the "intellectuals' quarters", with tall walls, nooks, and windows built with reddish stone. • They are considered to have been accommodations for the Amautas (high ranked teachers).

Looking up terraces to huts

Looking up terraces to huts 114

PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICAN GARDEN

PICTURE GALLERY MACHU PICHU

Machu pichu’s distinct sections

Machu pichu’s sacred valley

Machu pichu aerial view 115

EGYPTIAN GARDENS

SINDHU CH. 2019MLA008

EGYPTICIAN GARDEN

INTRODUCTION Location : The location of ancient Egypt was in North-Eastern Africa, having formed and flourished along the lower portion of the Nile River around 3200BCE. It made up most of what is now the modern Arab Republic of Egypt.

THE NILE… •

•

The Nile is the world’s longest river. It flows north through the Sahara creating a long oasis in the desert eventually dumping into the Mediterranean Sea. It has massive arid climate and most of Sahara is too harsh for people to live , only the place that can support life is the Nile river. For thousands of years the Nile has flooded when the rainy season caused by snowmelt far to the south where the Nile begins. As the water level lowered, it would leave behind rich fertile soil for farmers. Fresh water, irrigation, fertile soil--this is why people called it the “Gift" of the Nile.

Lower

The city of living

The city of dead

Upper

EARLY HISTORY • •

10,000 years ago North Africa was a grassland with many plants and animals. Before civilization around 6000 BCE early humans came to the Nile River to hunt, fish, and gather food, but gradually as people learned to farm and domesticate animals.

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EGYPTICIAN GARDEN

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS • •

•

Garden was a significant place in the lifestyle of the ancient Egyptians. Egyptian gardens were formal and were axially planned They began as a simple fruit orchards and vegetable gardens, Gradually as the country became richer, they evolved into pleasure gardens, with flowers , ponds and alleys of fruit and shade trees. First artificial terrace garden in ancient Egypt appeared at elevated location where the water from the Nile could not be reached , so they crated channels and alleys with shaded trees and bushes along the channels to reduce the evaporation of water and shading purpose. Water was hoisted from the Nile in leather buckets and carried on the shoulders to the Gardens. At beginning of 4th century B.C., lifted from wells by hoists with counterbalancing weights called Shadouf in Arabic. The earliest gardens were composed of planting beds divided into squares by earthen walls, so the water could soak into the soil rather than run off.

Egyptian Shadouf – used to lift water from wells.

Tomb garden, Luxor, 1900 B.C.

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HOUSE GARDENS • • • •

Houses were set in a large garden surrounded by a wall. The front section had a rectangular pond parallel to the river, with water plants in it, and there was also date palms and sycamores. A second section in the middle area was enclosed within a wall and planted with light green trees that were perhaps rare species. A rear section has a small open kiosk of the type we find at Amarna. On either long side of the whole garden an enclosed path was planted with trees of alternating species, while tall trees formed an effective screen at the back of the estate.

Egyptians often had their own small gardens across from their homes that grew various amounts of fruits and vegetables.

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TEMPLE GARDENS • • •

• • • • •

Temples often had extensive gardens. The temple gardens were usually made of stone and had religious meaning , each god was symbolized by a sacred tree. Temple gardens often had rows of fig trees and sycamores (the tree sacred to the goddess Hathor), tamaris, willows, or palm trees. Rows of trees sometimes stretched for several kilometers , connecting several temples. When rows of trees were planted far from the river, wells had to be dug ten meters deep to reach water for irrigation. Temple gardens often were the homes of animals sacred to the gods, such as the ibis and the baboon. These gardens also produced medicinal herbs and spices such as cumin, marjoram, anise, and coriander. Flowers were important part of all the religious ceremonies during the time of the god Amon.

PALACE GARDENS • • • • •

Gardens of Amun from the Temple of Karnak, painting in the tomb of Nakh , the chief gardener, early 14th century B.C.

Palace gardens first appeared in Egypt just before the Middle Empire (2035–1668). These gardens were very large in scale, and laid out in Geometric patterns. The approach was symmetrical, usually with a pond on either side of the axis, bordered with rows of trees. Bigger trees are placed at periphery such as doum palms and date palms, are in the outside rows and low height trees are placed at he center. And space between the trees was occupied by vegetables and flowers. This arrangement provided a graded perspective about the center of the garden. Palace gardens were used for both decoration ,to grow herbs and as a botanical garden. The palace gardens had many plants that were imported from other countries.

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TOMB GARDENS • • • • • • •

Tombs of nobles are often garden scenes, which indicate high standard living of upper class. These were miniature versions of house gardens that were placed in tombs. They usually had a small square house or pavilion with wooden columns, surrounded by a wall. Within the wall was a basin surrounded by a row of trees. The house resembled the kiosks in gardens, where the owner would play checkers or relax. The dead were traditionally surrounded by the objects they would have enjoyed in life, and it was expected that they would continue to enjoy their gardens in their afterlife. Gardens were depicted on the tomb walls.

Rectangle fishpond with ducks and lotus planted round with date palms and fruit trees, in a fresco from the Tomb of nebamun ,Thebes , 18th Dynasty

A funerary model of a garden, dating to the Eleventh dynasty of Egypt, circa 2009–1998 BC. Made of painted and gessoed wood, originally from Thebes. 120

TREES AND PLANTS • • • • • • •

The trees were an important element of the garden, a source of shade and food, providing protection from the strong winds coming from the desert. Egyptians grew eighteen varieties of trees. The Pink flowered tamarisk, acacia and willow trees were common in gardens. The sycamore (Ficus sycomorus) and tamarisk trees were sometimes planted in front of temples. The most common fruit trees were date palms, fig trees and doum Plants used as symbols – papyrus and lotus symbols of upper and lower Egypt. The persea tree was considered sacred, and was found in both temple gardens and residential gardens. The pomegranate tree was prized for its aroma and color. Other fruits grown in the gardens were Jujube, olives, and peaches. Vegetables were grown for food or for ceremonies. Tomb paintings show that grape vines were sometimes planted a top pergolas to provide shade to the garden and also used to make wine. Flowers were raised in gardens to make decorative bouquets and for use in religious ceremonies.

The sycamore was often planted for shade. It was also often planted at temples, used inmaking coffins for mummies.

The Acacia tree, the primal goddess of Egyptian mythology.

Cyperus papyrus was used as a writing material, for making boats, and even eaten.

Egyptian blue lotus, found in garden ponds

Fruit of the Pomegranate tree, used as a medicine against tapeworm various infections.

The date palm, used in both as a food and for making wine. 121

SYMBOLISM • •

•

The Ancient Egyptian symbol for "plant" meaning "Tree of Life. The Egyptians used the lotus flower as the symbol of sun, creation and rebirth and was the symbol of upper Egypt. The papyrus represent the lower Egypt. When the two portions of Egypt united under one pharaoh, they used a symbol of an intertwining lotus plant with a papyrus to represent to union of the two nations.

PONDS AND POOLS •

• • • •

Ponds and pools were a common feature of the residential gardens of the wealthy and powerful of ancient Egypt, and are shown in a number of tomb paintings. They are either in rectangle or T shape. The water was usually hoisted into the pond from the river by hand, or using a Shadouf . Fish for food and ornament were raised in the ponds. They also were the home of migrating water birds. Flowers such as white and blue lotus and papyrus were grown in the ponds for decoration and for ceremonies. The higher classes had more than one pond & their gardens were divided into areas. Later, during the Persian occupation of Egypt, the pink lotus was introduced.

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HATSHEPSUT'S TEMPLE • Hatshepsut's temple is the most ancient masterpiece of western landscape architecture. • Temple is now known as Deir el-Bahri, 'Monastery of the North‘. • It sits directly against the rock which forms a natural amphitheater around it so that the temple itself seems to grow from the living rock. There are three great rectangular courts, connected by ramps. There was a garden in the first courtyard in which exotic trees and shrubs from Hathsepsut’s trading expedition to Punt were planted. • No trees or shrubs survive in the temple compound but archaeological investigations have revealed evidence of tree pits in the lower court. They formed a sacred grove which contained two T-shaped pools abutting the central path. • They must have been grown in pots on the terraces.

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GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

GREEK, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN PRIYANKA AGARWAL 2019MLA009

GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

LOCATION

AND

GEOGRAPHICAL

CONTEXT

•

Located in southern Europe, Greece forms an irregular-shaped peninsula in the Mediterranean with two additional large peninsulas projecting from it: the Chalcidice and the Peloponnese.

•

The Greeks' life was closely related to landscape as a large part of the population lived in the urban centre and commuted daily in the outskirts of the city, in order to work in the farmlands.

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The country has the largest coastline in Europe (13,676km) due to its numerous islands. Greece has a total of 2,000 Greek islands but only 168 are inhabited.

•

Much of the soils in Greece are made up of silty, sandy soil. Limestone is a characteristic type of soil found in this country. The soil is not very fertile.

Only about 30 percent of the total land area in Greece can support crops. Wheat is Greece’s main crop.

CULTURE AND SOCIETY

•

The mountains of Greece divide the agricultural lands into discrete geographical units, limited at all sides by sea and mountains.

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Heavy reliance on the “Mediterranean Triad” – grains, olives, wine – specifically, beans, barley, and wheat.

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Greece has a rich diversity in flora and fauna and many species are original in this country.

CLIMATIC •

CONDITIONS

Weather in Greece is fairly uniform throughout the mainland and the Greek islands.

Duecountry to its geographical mild winters and • • The is washedposition, to theGreece east byhasthe Aegean summers cooled by different kind of seasonal winds. Sea, to the west by the Ionian and to the south by the Mediterranean Sea.

warm

Painting depicting the Ancient Greek ladies spending their leisure time in garden.

•

Life of women in ancient Greece were closely tied to domestic work spinning, weaving and other duties. Greece was male dominating society.

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Greek people made their living from farming.

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There were grape gardens, olive trees majorly since it was criminal offense to cut olive trees.

•

Honey was probably was the only sweetening that exited at the time so beehives were kept in terracotta pots. 125

GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The period of Ancient Greece can be divided into four as follows: •

1100 B. C. – 750 B. C. Pre- Hellenic Civilization ➢Minoan grate ➢Mycenae

HISTORY •

Less is known of Greek gardens in the Golden Age than of Egyptian gardens from a thousand years earlier.

•

This is partly because Greek towns were constantly rebuilt and partly because so little Greek painting has survived, except on ceramics.

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Poetic evidence for gardening activity in Greece exists from at least the 8th C B.C. through Homer’s ( Father of Greek Literature) epic poems, The Illiad and The Odyssey.

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Homer describes three categories of designed outdoor space: groves, courts and gardens.

•

This was the period in which Indo- European migrants, the Dorians, ended the Mycenaean Bronze Age, giving Greece a Dark Age( c.1200-800 B.C.E) and then a Golden Age ( c.500-338 B.C.E), in which Classical literature, philosophy and architecture flowered. Landscape design of ancient Greece (VI B.C. - IV A.D.) was in essence garden design.

➢Dark Age •

750 B. C. – 490 B. C. Archaic Period

•

5000 B. C. – 323 B. C. Classical Period

•

323 B. C. – 147 B. C. Hellenistic Period

The classical and archaic period are sometimes collectively referred to as Hellenic period. Archaic Period - the period of artistic development in Greece from about 650 to 480 BC.

OF ANCIENT GREEK GARDENS

• •

The presence of a good combination of utilitarian, religious and aesthetical features was typical to the gardens of that time.

•

Ancient Greek gardens were far less ostentatious and more closely bound up with religion.

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They had their origins in sacred groves, springs and rivers believed to be inhabited by gods and spirits, the haunt of nymphs and satyrs.

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The trees and plants in them were associated with particular deities. Built structure like gazebo and fountains in Athens, Greece. 126

GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS •

Greeks learned to harmoniously combine the construction of cities with the natural landscape, mutually supplementing each other.

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In the landscaping construction of ancient Greece a strict symmetry predominated.

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Gardens and parks became similar to living organisms, which have a close connection with the natural environment and man.

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Alleys and parks were decorated with fountains, columns, vases, sculptures.

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Acropolises, theatres, forums, squares, seemingly grow from nature, harmonizing and merging with the surrounding landscape.

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Stepped gardens were also built, on which fountains were arranged and flowers and trees were planted.

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The Hellenic garden had many components: massive amounts of plants, spiral staircases and many decorations.

Components like water feature and vases in gardens.

Oak tree- Zeus

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Greek landscape dictated a predefined course through the built and unbuilt environment, which was perceived as an inseparable unity.

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"A neutral backdrop”. If you have hot summers, whitewashed walls and light colored stone facades function as effective scrims to reflect the sun’s heat and create a serene structure for a garden.

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An accent of bright color.

Myrtle tree- Apthrodite

•

Hardy plants, protective walls, and shaded patios are ubiquitous.

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In smaller villages, there was no tradition for a home to have a backyard, there was no soil even.

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The place that people had when they went outside was the street.

•

“They had to put pots with plants in the street. That's a typical garden.

Neutral background with colourful accents of flowers. 127

TYPES OF GREEK GARDENS 1.

GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

SACRED GROVES

HERRON

In Greece, sacred landscapes were places to make offerings and sacred precincts were defined by boundary stones or walls.

•

The memorial garden - grove, planted on the spot of the burial of a hero.

A grove for discussion, education and exercise, would often be created near a sanctuary.

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Gardens had a racetrack, a hippodrome, an area for gymnastic games and competition in the memory of heroes.

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With time Herrons began to be decorated with statues and colonnades.

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Became the accents of parks.

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Herrons had a memorial nature, they were made with the process of the creation of different architectural structures and forests.

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Over time these sacred groves ceased to bear a memorial nature and became sports parks.

The most famous sacred groves in mainland Greece was the oak grove at Dodona. Outside the walls of Athens, the site of the Platonic Academy was a sacred grove of olive trees.

Sacred Groves of Greece

The Oracular Oak of Dodana

The religious gardens were of two varieties: • CULTIVABLE TYPE which could be rented out while also being a pleasant gathering place. • RUSTIC SHRINE where statuary and trees coexisted; a subspecies of this latter type consisted of natural grottoes embellished by rock-cut sculpture, votive offerings and at times. FORM •

The first sacred grove was probably an altar in a wood, perhaps near a cave with a clear spring.

•

Groves were later furnished with a statue of the god and architectural elements, including temples and treasuries to contain gifts.

•

Important groves became walled sanctuaries.

Alexander of Macedonia’s Tomb 128

PHILOSOPHICAL GARDENS

NYMPH

GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

•

Were created specially so that philosophical conversations could be conducted in them.

•

Sacred oak, cedar or olive grove located in center of an artistic water source or grotto with a regular planning style.

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On the terraces were created straight, wide alleys with space for sports, statues, vases and fountains.

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Over time new decorations such as columns and sculptures appeared and enriched the nymphs.

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In such gardens school and gymnasium lessons were conducted by the famous philosophers Plato, Aristotle, etc.

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These places were thought to be inhabited by gods, nymphs and muses, because of this people brought

•

Academy Garden on the Ilisos river in the outskirts of Athens (460 B.C.).

•

sacrifices here.

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Philosophical gardens were isolated from the public parks.

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The largest squares of all of the cities belonging to the state were surrounded with plants which were also placed along the roads.

The flow of water, which fell into the pond, was the prototype of the water features in the parks of Western Europe.

PUBLIC GARDEN The public garden was located in the main area of the city near temples and fountains.

PRIVATE GARDEN The private gardens of prosperous owners most frequently bore an exceptionally utilitarian nature.

PLEASURE GARDENS

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The pleasure gardens like those of the Persian's appeared after Alexander of Macedon victoriously marched into Persia (336-323 B.C.).

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Such gardens were created for the aristocracy "nobles".

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In Alexandria, for example, they occupied ¼ of the city.

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• •

COMMON FEATURES colorful dashes on white or earthen background, pergolas with vines and other climbing trees creating deep shades. columns and sculptures ,vases.

GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

SOFTSCAPES - FLOWERS

Poppy anemone (Anemone coronaria)

Cyclamen (Cyclamineae)

Narcissus (Narcissus pseudonarcissus)

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GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

Statues

Olive trees & Citrus trees

Potted plants

Drought-tolerant natives 131

GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

THE SANCTUARY OF ANCIENT OLYMPIA AND ITS VARIOUS COMPONENTS

1. Gymnasium 2. Palaestra 3. Pheidias’ workshop 4. Heroon

5. Greek and Roman baths 6. Leonidaion 7. Temple of Zeus 8. Philippeion

9. Prytaneion 10. Temple of Hera 11. Treasuries 12. Echo Stoa

13. Stadium 14. Nero’s Villa 15. Bouleuterion 16. South Stoa

•

Olympia, as the leading panhellenic sanctuary of the ancient Greek world.

•

Around its early altars and shrines grew up a cluster of monumental Archaic and Classical temples or precincts dedicated to Hera, Pelops, Zeus.

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Religious ceremonies took place in a walled compound known as the Altis, or sacred grove of Zeus.

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Two administrative buildings were constructed on the Altis’ north and south sides: The Prytaneion, The Bouleuterion.

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A palaestra and gymnasium provided practice spaces for boxing, wrestling, jumping, running and the throwing of the javelin and discus.

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The palaestra was also used for instruction, recreation and the oiling and sanding of athletes’ bodies.

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To protect visitors from sun and rain, roofed, colonnaded shelters (South Stoa, Echo Stoa) were erected.

•

A massive banqueting hall, the Leonidaion, offered 80 couchlined rooms for ceremonial dining.

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GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

ACROPOLIS, ATHENS •

Rebuilt in about 450 B.C

•

The acropolis combined Doric orders and Ionic orders in a perfect composition in four buildings: the Propylea, the Parthenon, the Erechtheumn, and the temple of Nike.

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The entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway termed the Propylaea.

•

To the south of the entrance is the tiny Temple of Athena Nike.

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At the centre of the Acropolis is the Parthenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos.

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East of the entrance and north of the Parthenon is the temple known as the Erechtheum.

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A settlement, especially a citadel, built upon an area of elevated ground- frequently a hill with precipitous sides, chosen for purposes of defense.

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Greeks considered high places to be important and sacred.

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Other buildings such as gymnasia, stadia, and theaters were generally regarded as part of religious rituals.

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South of the platform that forms the top of the Acropolis there are also the remains of the ancient, Theatre of Dionysus.

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A few hundred meters away, there is the now partially reconstructed Odeon of Herodes Atticus.

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All the valuable ancient artifacts are situated in the Acropolis Museum, which resides on the southern slope of the same rock, 280 meters from the Parthenon.

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SANCTUARIES

(Temenos)

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An ancient Greek sanctuary was a sacred space reserved for the worship of a deity by his or her followers.

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a sanctuary was a small place featuring only a simple altar or shrine.

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Panhellenic sanctuaries, which ultimately drew pilgrims, athletes and other travelers from all over ancient Greece and neighboring regions, were large, highly developed complexes that served many functions and could accommodate their visitors’ diverse needs.

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The idea of a sacred grove derives from the religious sanctuaries of Mesopotamia and Egypt.

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Springs and caves were especially valued, because the water was fresh, pure, cool, healthy.

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Groves associated with a presiding god were marked by boundary stones.

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Offerings were made at outdoor altars.

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Statues were erected and treasuries built to house gifts.

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Shelters built to protect statues became temples.

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Sacred groves outside walled towns became places of resort for exercise( gymnasiums) and rest( stoas)

Ancient Greek Sanctuary Apollo Hylates Cyprus

Ruins of the Temple of Zeus

Sanctuary of Zeus- Nemea, Greece

The Philippeion Greek Sanctuary 134

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CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE •

Every four years, the Athenians held a festival called the Panathenaea that rivalled the Olympic Games in popularity.

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During the festival, a procession moved through Athens up to the Acropolis and into the Parthenon.

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There, a vast robe of woven wool was ceremoniously placed on Phidias' massive ivory and gold statue of Athena.

Propylaea

THE ACROPOLIS RESTORATION PROJECT •

The Project began during 1975 but as of 2017 it has almost ground to a halt.

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The goal of the restoration was to reverse the decay of centuries of attrition, pollution, destruction stemming from military use, and misguided past restorations.

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The project included collection and identification of all stone fragments, even small ones, from the Acropolis and its slopes and the attempt was made to restore as much as possible using reassembled original material. 135

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Propylaea Theatre of Dionysus

Odeon of Heron Atticus

Stoa of Eumenes 136

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Erechtheion

Parthenon

Temple of Athena, Nike

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ACROPOLIS FLORA AND FAUNA •

GREECE, OLYMPIAN AND ATHENS GARDEN

The area of Acropolis has a wide variety of species of flora and fauna.

Akanthos- Acanthus spinosus •

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This is an endemic plant that inspired the ancient Greeks to create the design of Corinthian order columns. The leaves, roots and flowers of the plant are still used today in various way for the preparation of home made drugs.

Elia- Olive Tree According to ancient Greek Tradition, home of the olive is Athens. This tree is the symbol of the Greek ancient goddess named Athena. Olive tree gives olive oil, which is essential for the Mediterranean diet.

Rodia- Pomegranate It is a tree which grow in Athens from the ancient years. Its related with important Greek customs such as fertility and well being. 138

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STUTI ARORA 2019MLA010

ROMAN GARDENS

INTRODUCTION ROMAN GARDENS, in their conception, style, and planting, were inspired by the earlier gardens of the Near East, Egypt, and Greece. In their turn, Roman gardens influenced the great Italian gardens of the Renaissance, the early nineteenth century Neoclassical gardens of the Western world, as well as twentieth-century gardens in England, France, and the United States, most notably the garden at the J. Paul Getty Museum in Malibu, California. Roman gardens are an essential part of the continuum that is the garden history of the Western world.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND •

The Persian Influence • Narrow water canals or rills graced many gardens in ancient Rome. The best-known example is in the garden of Loreius Tiburtinus in Pompeii. Many centuries earlier, such rills had been the organizing feature of Persian gardens. Their abundance in the gardens of the Persian royal palace complex at Pasar-gadae and at other sites must have struck the soldiers of Alexander the Great's army when they swept through Persia in 330 B.C.

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The Egyptian Influence Egyptian garden designers anticipated many of the features traditionally associated with the Roman garden—a symmetrical layout with water features, brightly painted pavilions, terraces, and avenues of trees. Atrium gardens, or gardens in internal courtyards, which we have long associated with the city of Pompeii, had been laid out in Egypt many centuries before. Romans created extensive garden water features in deliberate mimicry of the river Nile.

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The Creek Influence The principal Greek influence on the Roman garden was on its architecture. The Greeks began using the portico, or colonnade, as an intermediary space between house and garden in the fourth century B.C., and this technique was later adapted by the Romans. The earliest use of such colonnades at Pompeii, for example, dates to the second century B.C. After this date the gardens of Roman town houses were often surrounded by covered colonnades known as "peristyles," and the gardens of Roman country villas boasted porticoes that were open to the surrounding view. As Romans looked to Greece for their artistic inspiration, they often decorated their gardens with Greek or Greek-inspired sculptures.

Map Showing Roman Empire Source: Gardens of the Roman World by Patrick Bowe

Source: www.aviewoncities.com 140

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN GARDEN The Roman garden synthesized elements from the above traditions, crystallizing them into a view of the garden as an art form that was to become a hallmark of Western culture. The earliest records of the ornamental garden on Italian soil date from the third century B.C. At that time, the Greek rulers of Syracuse, on the island of Sicily, had hunting parks. One such park contained an Amaltheion, a sanctuary dedicated to the nymph Amalthea (see "Grottoes and Nymphaea," pp. 24-25). It was ornamented by a grove of trees, some pools of water, and a grotto. Hieron n, a ruler of Syracuse, is known to have had a garden laid out on his boat so that he could enjoy the pleasures of a garden at sea. Among the earliest recorded Roman colonnaded, or peristyle, gardens are those at Pompeii. However, the peak period of classical gardening in Italy was later, stretching approximately from 150 B.C. to A.D. 350. GARDEN FUNCTIONS •

Food Production • A clearer picture of the kitchen gardens attached to Roman villas is emerging from recent archaeological evidence. Excavations in the gardens of villas at Boscoreale, north of Pompeii, have revealed extensive raised vegetable beds.

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Pleasure • Among the principal pleasures of a great Roman villa garden were its elegant pavilions designed for the enjoyment of the arts. Usually set deep in protective vegetation, these pavilions were either square or circular in plan. Others were surmounted by a roof terrace.

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Health and Exercise • Physical health was as important as mental health to the ancient Romans. Many great Roman villa gardens included facilities for private physical exercise: baths, gymnasiums, stadiums, and hippodromes built on a smaller scale than the public facilities enjoyed by the citizens at large.

Fresco detail from the House of the Golden Bracelet, Pompeii. A magpie perches on a bay laurel, and a white fan-tailed pigeon is about to alight on a laurustinus, a shrub with close, flat clusters of white flowers. A panel known as a pinax depicts a reclining goddess painted in realistic colors. 141

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PARTS OF A ROMAN GARDEN Private Roman gardens were generally separated into three parts. •

The first, the xystus, was a terrace that served as an open air drawing room and connected to the home via a covered portico. The xystus overlooked the lower garden, or ambulation.

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The ambulation consisted of a variety of flowers, trees, and other foliage and served as an ideal milieu for a leisurely stroll after a meal, some mild conversation, or other Roman recreation activities.

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The gestation was a shaded avenue where the master of a home could ride horseback or be carried by his slaves. It generally encircled the ambulation, or was constructed as a separate oval shaped space.

Ambulation: walking from place to place Source: www.aviewoncities.com

Xystus was the Greek architectural term for the covered portico of the gymnasium

GARDEN DESIGN Two distinct types of Roman gardens can be identified: The Enclosed Garden, in which buildings entirely or partially surround the garden, and the open garden, which surrounds a building. The enclosed garden is typified by the urban gardens excavated at Pompeii and Herculaneum, the cities submerged by the volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in A.D. 79. The Open Garden is characteristic of suburban or rural villas, in which views from the garden over the surrounding countryside are possible. This kind of design is exemplified by some of the gardens at the emperor Hadrian's Villa near Tivoli, east of Rome. Most Roman city gardens were formal in their design, but the gardens of the great Roman villas had distinct areas with different design characteristics. For example, it is well known that the villa at Tivoli contained many garden areas of formal design, but it is less well known that other areas were deliberately landscaped in a contrasting informal style.

Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli. Below this circular Temple of Venus was an informal landscape valley that anticipated the English landscape garden familiar in the 18th Century. The valley was a representation of the famous Vale of Temple Source: Gardens of the Roman World by Patrick Bowe 142

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FORMAL GARDENS The formal areas of a large garden were usually in the vicinity of a house, their form and proportion tending to follow those of the architecture of the house itself. Unique to ancient Rome were the formal gardens that were based on the shapes of the great sports arenas of the time. Miniature versions of the characteristic Roman hippodrome, or horseracing course, were common in gardens. These were usually designed as isolated units within a larger park. They were long, narrow spaces, with the long, straight sides joined by semicircular ends.

Fresco from the House of M. Lucretius Frontus, Pompeii. This painting shows a Ushaped villa enclosing a formal symmetrical garden with an axial approach to the villa's central portico.

Examples could be seen at the imperial palace on the Pincian Hill in Rome and at Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli. Some hippodrome-shaped gardens were surrounded by raised gardens echoing the terraced seating that surrounded a real hippodrome.

Informal Gardens The Romans remained attached to their agrarian origins, and a fondness for naturalism prevailed in Roman culture. It was exemplified in many ways, none more dramatic than the choice of the emperor Tiberius (r. A.D. 14-37) to create an outdoor dining room within a natural sea cave at his Sperlonga villa near Naples. It was also demonstrated in the creation of naturalistic areas in the great villa gardens. Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli contained the area called the Vale of Tempe that was landscaped so as to call to mind the fabled natural beauty of the valley of the same name in Greece.

Sperlonga. The emperor Tiberius had a predilection for building on extraordinary sites. He adapted this natural cave on the coast near Naples as a summer banquet room.

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PORTICO GARDEN AND TERRACE GARDEN •

The Portico Garden • Rural and maritime villas had colonnades on their exterior, so that the occupants could look out through the columns and enjoy the view over the neighboring land or sea. Architecturally, the portico acted as a link between the villa's interior and exterior, so much so that in many villas the portico or porticoes came to have a visual importance greater than that of the villa itself. The architectural lines established by the portico were often continued into the design of the garden, becoming the frame around which the garden's paving, pools, and planting beds were developed. Examples can be seen not only at Poppaea's Villa at Oplontis, west of Pompeii, but also in the frescoes depicting rural and seaside villas that have survived from ancient cities on the Bay of Naples.

•

The Terrace Garden • On hillside sites, terraces were created in gardens in order to make walking easier but also for the practical reason of soil retention. Each level had its own design, which was usually linked aesthetically with the designs on the other terraces. The late republican terraced gardens of Lucullus and Sallust, located near the Pincian Hill in Rome, have already been mentioned. A great villa at Stabiae near the Bay of Naples had a garden in which terraces were partly supported by stone or brick vaults. Elaborate architectural staircases linked one level with another. The top and most important terrace was designed around a deep pool. The pool was surrounded by colonnades and shaded by twenty-four magnificent plane trees (Platanus orientalis), their crowns rising high above the surrounding roofs.

Villa Jovis, Capri. On the island of Capri in the Bay of Naples, with its mountainous coastline, high cliffs, and deep caves, the emperor Tiberius developed a series of villas, terrace gardens, and grottoes.

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ROMAN MOSAIC GARDENS The Villa Romana del Casale (Sicilian: Villa Rumana dรป Casali) is a Roman villa built in the first quarter of the 4th century and located about 3 km outside the town of Piazza Armerina, Sicily, southern Italy. Containing the richest, largest and most complex collection of Roman mosaics in the world, it is one of 44 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Italy. "Early Roman mosaics belonged to the floor"; except in Nero's Domus Aurea, there is little evidence of ambitious wall mosaics before the Christian period, even at Pompeii and surrounding sites, where their chances of survival were better than elsewhere. The famous Alexander Mosaic (c. 100) from Pompeii, arguably the finest pre-Christian mosaic to survive, was a floor, and the main use of vertical mosaics there is in places unsuitable for frescos, such as fountains, baths and garden architecture

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GARDEN BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES •

Altars and Shrines • In large gardens, there was a tendency to place figures of such gods in specially constructed pavilions. In smaller gardens, they were usually placed in a smaller architectural setting such as a niche set in a high garden wall. The niche setting was sometimes given added visual importance with a frame of attached columns or pilasters topped with a pediment.

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Grottoes and Nymphaea • "Grotto" was the name given to a cave, either natural or artificially constructed, that was adapted as a cool summer retreat. Shade was the key ingredient of a successful grotto, since it ensured the desired cool atmosphere.

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Arbors and Pergolas • Arbors were open garden structures designed to provide comfortable overhead shade to the areas where people sat, dined, and relaxed.

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Fencing and Balustrades • Roman gardens were often divided into small subsidiary spaces by means of low ornamental fences and balustrades.

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Prospect Towers • Prospect towers, now often called "belvederes," were sometimes built on great estates to allow for a bird's-eye view over the garden and its surrounding landscape. Being high, their uppermost rooms caught lofty breezes and served as cool retreats in summer. They were usually attached to the main structure of a villa, but were sometimes built as freestanding structures at some distance from the main building..

Grotto at The House of the Grand Fountain, Pompeii

Villa Fersen, Capri. Terraced gardens led out to viewpoints graced by circular belvederes like this one, from which the emperor Tiberius might enjoy distant marine panoramas.

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•

Garden Walls ·The high boundary walls that enclosed some Roman gardens, especially urban examples, were not seen as merely functional structures. They were also considered opportunities for enhancing a garden's decoration. Garden walls incorporated patterned brickwork, decorative mixtures of brick and stone, and different stones laid in bands of alternating color. Some garden walls had niches that could be used for statuary. Simpler decorative recesses to house oil lamps for a garden's illumination at night were also used. A small number of walls have been found that boasted elaborate architectural treatments, some with planned schemes of attached columns and pilasters bridged on top by arches or by triangular or semicircular pediments.

WATER •

Garden pools were filled directly with rainwater from the roofs of adjoining buildings. Later, the roof water was first stored in an underground cistern or in a roof-level holding tank before being redirected to a pool or fountain. Pools in urban gardens were filled with the public water supply from the city aqueducts.

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Pompeian gardens were able to boast elaborate water features after the construction at the end of the first century B.C. of the aqueduct known as the Aqua Serino.

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Rills, the long artificial canals conceived to mimic natural streams, were sometimes constructed in gardens, as seen in the garden of the House of Loreius Tiburtinus in Pompeii. There water was made to flow down a stepped cascade to enter a long narrow canal that traversed the garden.

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Fountains: Early Roman technology allowed for fountains only in the form of low-level jets of water. Figures of gods, goddesses, nymphs, dolphins, fauns, and children were favored

Fresco from villa at Pompeii. This painting illustrates the use of architectural trelliswork in the Roman garden.

The House of the Ceii, Pompeii. This wide brimmed stone bowl would have contained water and a small bubbling fountain.

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SELECT LIST OF PLANTS GROWN IN ANCIENT ROMAN GARDENS •

ACANTHUS • Acanthus mollis

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CAEN ANEMONE • Anemone coronaria

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DILL • Anethum graveolens

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AFRICAN MARIGOLD • Tagetes erecta

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CAMPANULA • Campanula sp.

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DUSTY MILLER • Artemisia stelleriana

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ALDER • Alnus sp.

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CAROB • Ceratonia siliqua

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ELM • Ulmus campestris

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ALEPPO PINE • Pinus halepensis

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CELERY • Apium graveolens

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EVERGREEN (or "WINTER") OAK • Quercus ilex

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ALLIUM • Auium sp.

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CHAMOMILE • Chamaemelum nobile

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FENNEL • Foeniculum vulgare

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ALMOND • Prunus dulcís

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CHERRY • Prunus cerasus (EDIBLE CHERRY)

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FENUGREEK • Trigonellafoenum-graecum

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APPLE • Malus sp.

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CHICKWEED • Cerastium sp.

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FEVERFEW • Chrysanthemum parthenium

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APRICOT • Prunus armeniaca

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CITRON • Citrus medica

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FIG • Ficus carica

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ARTICHOKE • Cynara scolymus

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CORIANDER • Coriandrum sativum

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FLAX • Linum sp.

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ASPARAGUS • Asparagus offidnalis

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CORNEL • Cornus mas

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FORGET-ME-NOT • Myosotis arvensis

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ASTER • Aster sp.

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CRAB APPLE • Malus sylvestris

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GARLIC • Allium sativum

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BASIL • Basilicum sp.

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CROCUS • Crocus sativus

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GLADIOLUS • Gladiolus sp

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BAY LAUREL • Laurus nobilis

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CUCUMBER • Cucumis sativus

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GOLDEN PLUM • Prunus itálica

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BLACKBERRY • RubuS Sp.

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CYPRESS • Cupressus sempervirens

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GOURD • Cucúrbita sp.

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BOX • Buxus sempervirens

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DAISY • Bellis perennis

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GRAPEVINE • Vitis vinifera

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BULLACE • Prunus domestica

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DAMSON PLUM • Prunus damascena

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HART'S-TONGUE FERN • Phyllitis scolopendrium

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BUTCHER'S BROOM • Ruscus aculeata

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DATE PALM • Phoenix dactylifera

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HYACINTH • Hyacinthus orientalis

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CABBAGE • Brassica deracea

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DILL • Anethum graveolens

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IRIS • Iris sp.

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CASE STUDY: VILLA ADRIANA BY EMPEROR HADRIAN AT TIVOLI DESCRIPTION •

Built in early decades of 2nd centaury AD

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Area: 200 acres

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Inspired by ancient Greek and Egyptian architecture

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Vast area of land with many pools, baths, fountains and a mixture of landscaped gardens, wilderness areas and cultivated farmlands.

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Columns, statues and water features, bathing areas were the main features

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A 10 mile long aqueduct was used to supply water to the villa’s countless pool and fountains

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The beauty of the lake was the reflection of the landscape

Buffer Zone: 500 acres

PLAN OF VILLA ADRIANA 1 Teatro Marittimo 2 Hall of Philosophers 3 Heliocaminus 4 Nymphaeum Stadium 5 Canopus 6 Large and Small Thermae

7 Piazza d'Oro 8 Hall of Doric Pillars 9 Palace 10 Library 11 Temple of Venus 12 Greek 13 Poecile

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Inside the Villa complex, one can see the Poecile, a huge garden surrounded by an arcade with a swimming pool. This area was built so that one could take walks whether it was winter or summer. The pool's dimensions measure 232 by 97 metres (761 by 318 ft).

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Then there is the Canopus, a long water basin embellished with columns and statues that culminate in a temple topped by an umbrella dome, and the remains of two bath areas: the Grandi Terme and the Piccole Terme (the large and small baths or thermae).

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The former contained a frigidarium or large pool of cold water (open-air) and a round room with a coffered dome; these coffers were rather particular in that they opened into five large windows. Covered in valuable and decorative stucco, these structures were purposed for the Imperial Family and their guests.

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The Grandi Terme, reserved for the personnel of the Villa, consisted of a heating system located under the floor, and a circular room outfitted as a sudatio or sauna.

Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli. The Canopus with water feature. Source: UNESCO World Heritage Sites

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Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli. Source: UNESCO World Heritage Sites

The Library Courtyard at Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli. The villa is a site rich in innovative courtyard garden design. The water channel in this courtyard is terminated at either end by an unusual octagonal pool

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BIBLOGRAPHY •

Gardens of the Roman World by Patrick Bowe

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http://www.italia.it/en/travel-ideas/unesco-world-heritage-sites/the-emperors-abode-hadrians-villa.html

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https://www.aviewoncities.com/rome/villaadriana.htm

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ASHA RAJAN 2019MLA011

MIDDLE AGES OF EUROPE

INTRODUCTION ● ●

The Middle Ages (Dark Ages)was the time after the fall of the Roman Empire up to the time of the Renaissance. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical period, the medieval period (Middle ages), and the modern period. Christianity was the motive force of the Middle Ages and monasticism was established as the ideal form of religious life Roman empire (state religion) in 323 AD Internal dispute East (Greek orthodox church)

West (Roman church)

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France and England became rival monarchies, Germany disintegrated into smaller states Monasticism spread from middle east and Italy throughout all Europe. Spain was continuously in war with the Muslims. 14 th century – Europe suffered from disasters, plague , famine , war 15th century – Intellectual and economic revival ( called as Renaissance) With commerce , learning and establishment of universities ,feudalism began to crumble.

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Man did not wish to project his personality over the landscape but rather be apart of it .(upward forest, cultivated gardens of vegetables and medicinal plants, open field around habitation). But again labourers were summoned to gather in large number to pray. The illiterates outnumbered the literates, where taught by an international and brilliantly organized religion to believe blindly that the good life let to heaven and the evil to the fires of the hell.

ARCHITECTURE ●

Early Christian was an adaptation of roman basilica and enraging into Byzantine, then had first characteristics of gothic arch . Roofs of all structures were pointed to throw of snow and rain, windows were enlarged to draw in light. Gothic arch suitable to northern light

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CULTURE

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It was Barbaric and common people had little to no rights. Beliefs of the church was imposed on the people and had to obey those in power to have safeguard their lives. It was a huge time for superstition, and the lack of education. Medicine was pretty much non-existent, so the treatment for someone that fell ill or had some sort of medical issue was basically to wait it out and see what God decides.(Blood letting was a popular treatment) There were games and fairs that existed and the citizens of a town were often all in attendance. The average person’s life was filled with a great deal of hard work and modest earnings. The expectancy of life for peasants was very low. Their children were often married off at a very young age. The wealthier people of the society had a easy and luxurious life. The culture in the Middle Ages was extremely limited due to strong restrictions placed on society by the church. The church worried that the more education the people received the more likely they were to question their beliefs, so they encouraged the hindrance of the culture.

The culture in the Middle Ages had a strong concentration on the artistic talents of many individuals. Education was given least importance in the middle ages. It was in the end of middle ages that they began to focus on the education of at least the higher end of society so that the countries would be able to grow and flourish.

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LANDSCAPE ● ●

● I. II.

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Garden art- Cloister Gardens(west),domestic or castle gardens rich with raised beds, fountains,pergolas (east) Landscape art of this age was more intuitive rather than conscious designs and symbolism. Cross and Calvary in the open ground(countryside) provided a sense of purpose and meaning to the common man whose bible it was. Age is of emotional rather than intellectual landscape influenced the world in two waysInspiration for romanticism of 18th and 19th century. As an aesthetic standard for asymmetrical composition

Medieval Castles, and to an even greater extent Monasteries, carried on an ancient tradition of garden design and intense horticulture Gardens were functional and included KITCHEN GARDENS(, fennel, cabbage, onion, garlic, leeks, radishes, parnips) INFIRMARY GARDENS(Savory, costmary, fenugreek, rosemary, peppermint, rue, iris, sage, bergamot, mint, lovage, fennel and cumin, amongst other herbs), CEMETERY ORCHARDS, CLOISTER GARTHS and VINEYARD. They had vegetables and medicinal herbs in their gardens. Gardens were laid out in rectangular plots, with narrow paths between them to facilitate collection of yields. Often these beds were surrounded with wattle fencing to prevent animals from entry. Monasteries might also have had a "green court," a plot of grass and trees where horses could graze, as well as a cellarer's garden or private gardens for obedientiaries, monks who held specific posts within the monastery. A herber was a herb garden and pleasure garden. A Hortus Conclusus was an enclosed garden representing a religious allegory. A Pleasaunce was a large complex pleasure garden or park mainly designed for two senses ,sight and smell. The word paradise comes from a Persion word for a walled garden. The term was used by St. Gall to refer to an open court in monastery garden, where flowers to decorate the church were grown.

Clonmacnois- Irish open monastry

http://www.castlesandmanorhouses.com/life_06_gardens.htm 156

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Pietro Crescenzi, a Bolognese lawyer, wrote twelve volumes on the practical aspects of farming in the 13th century and they offer a description of medieval gardening practices. From his text we know that gardens were surrounded with stonewalls, thick hedging or fencing and incorporated trellises and arbors. They borrowed their form from the square or rectangular shape of the cloister and included square planting beds. Grass was also first noted in the medieval garden. In the De Vegetabilibus of Albertus Magnus written around 1260, instructions are given for planting grass plots. Raised banks covered in turf called "Turf Seats" were constructed to provide seating in the garden. Fruit trees were prevalent and often grafted to produce new varieties of fruit. Gardens included a raised mound or mount to serve as a stage for viewing and planting beds were customarily elevated on raised platforms. Medieval and particularly Renaissance gardening was heavily influenced by the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans . While there isn't a clear delineation between gardens for pleasure and utilitarian gardens, orchards, etc. it's clear that some parts of some gardens were intended primarily to be a delight to the senses, and others for their end products. Most every manor, abbey, and great estate would have utilitarian gardens, demesne farm fields, and perhaps woods and even vineyards or orchards in addition to some sort of pleasure garden. Primary characteristics of the medieval garden was that, large or small, it was always enclosed by pole fences, hedges, banks and ditches, Stone, Brick , Wattle (a sort of basket work of willow withies, osiers, etc. woven around stakes in the ground.)

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Trees were planted either along walls, geometrically placed in orchards (about 20 feet apart), or pleached into alleys. Some trees, such as the walnut, were avoided in gardens, but fruit trees and other trees with a good smell or pleasant aspect were included in most gardens as well as adjoining orchards. Sometimes trees were trained against a wall but that may be a late period development. There are two techniques used in forestry that are worth mentioning: pollarding and coppicing. Both were and are used to get the maximum growth of branches and wood out of farmed trees, so they wouldn't have been used much in gardens, except possibly in hedging. Coppiced trees, such as beeches, were cut down at ground level or a little above, and the stumps allowed to sprout suckers. After the suckers had grown to medium sized branches-- or the right size for fences, wattle, poles, etc-- they were harvested. Pollarding is the same process, but done much higher off the ground, beyond nibbling reach for deer, cattle, etc. Pollarding survives as a landscaping technique and as the result of trees being cut back for electric and telephone lines. Potted plants ( eg: Gillyflowers) and trees are depicted placed on top of grassy beds in gardens and entryways-- these may have been tender perennials or fruit trees. Pots made of ceramic seem to have been the norm, usually in the familar 'Italian' flowerpot style, or in the shape of urns, with either wide tops or narrow. Plants are also pictured growing from widemouthed jugs or crocks. Woven baskets are shown being used to transport plants from one place to another

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Tender perennials and Mediterranean trees such as the orange, bay and pomegranate were sometimes managed this way in Northern Europe during the Renaissance, raised in tubs and brought into a shed, sometimes a heated shed, in the winter. Turfed seats were a major feature of 'gardens of pleasure'. Marble or stone seats also appear. One illustration shows a portable wooden bench. Turfed seats, also called excedra, were generally built along the lines of slightly higher raised beds, the outer wals constructed with wood planks, bricks or wattles, though some illustrations show the benches with sod sides as well. Often turfed seats were arranged around the inner borders of an enclosed 'herber', providing seats as well as anchorage for the trellised plants The 14-16th century gardens we have depictions of generally include a water feature. They were generally surrounded by a lawn, rather than a planting of any sort. Springs were popular, often opening into a square pool or trough from which water could be drawn or washing done. Springheads and streams could supply pools for drinking from, washing in, or even keeping fish in. Though the most popular presentation of outside bathing is Bathsheba, other illustrations show outside bathing in houses of ill repute also. Big ornate fountains with statuary became popular in the Renaissance. Fountains were powered by hydraulics, either water from a springhead or stream, or water piped in via aqueduct. A stream might run through or around a garden (like a moat) or the runoff from a fountain or to a fountain could be made into an artificial stream or water-stairs. The Italian villa gardens would detour an entire stream to run downhill through the property and power its fountains. Statuary does not appear to have been a major part of early medieval gardens, except in the cases of fountains, and in abbeys, elaborate fountain-type handwashing arrangements. 159

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Major manor gardens of the latter part of the 16th century often sited the gardens so that they could be seen from the owner's principal private quarters; royalty might have two gardens, one for the king and one for the queen.

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"Sun-entrapping fruit walls, concave, niched, or alcoved . Lining concave walls with lead or tin plates, or pieces of glass, which would reflect the sun's heat back onto the fruit trees. Warming the walls with the backs of kitchen chimneys."Hugh Platt, in Floraes Paradise (1608).

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MONASTERIES-have multiple gardens: vegetable gardens, an Infirmarer's garden of medicinal herbs, cloisters or orchards for pacing and praying, and perhaps herbers.

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Castles and manors often had gardens of pleasure for walking in, with seats, private nooks screened from the wind for sitting, flowery meads for sitting and/or playing games.

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“On its outer edges and through the centre ran wide walks as straight as arrows, covered with pergolas of vines which gave every sign of bearing plenty of grapes that year. . . . The sides of these walks were almost closed in with jasmine and red and white roses, so that it was possible to walk in the garden in a perfumed and delicious shade, untouched by the sun, not only in the early morning, but when the sun was high in the sky. . . In the midst of this garden was something which they praised even more than all the rest; this was a lawn of very fine grass. And in the midst of this lawn was a fountain of white marble most marvellously carved. A figure standing on a column in the midst of this fountain threw water high up in the air, which fell back into a crystal-clear basin with a delicious sound, the water which overflowed and ran out of the lawn by some hidden way where it reappeared again in cunningly made little channels which surrounded the lawn, (From The Decameron (Bocaccio, mid-14th century)

MIDDLE AGES OF EUROPE

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RENAISSANCE GARDENS- ITALY order, harmony and beautyâ&#x20AC;¦

PRIYANKA GUPTA

2019MLA013

THE RENAISSANCE GARDEN

INTRODUCTION The 15th century was an age of explorationâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;a period of expansion and cultural advancement that proceeded at a different pace, however, across the world. New discoveries and new lands reshaped medieval worldviews. Europe emerged as a world power, with Italy at the center of early Renaissance thought. The new merchant class challenged aristocratic power structures and church authority. As horizons broadened, gardens became places to contemplate nature, not escape from it. Garden prototypes established during the Middle Ages reached maturity in the 15th century. The Italian villa evolved as the physical representation of a philosophical ideal. European history can be divided into three parts ancient, medieval and modern. Before 5th century was considered as ancient, 5th to 15th century was medieval and further up to 17th century was modern. A N C I E N T Classical time of Greek and Romans (Before 5th century) The ancient Greeks respected nature as the sanctuary of the Gods, but equally valued the human domain. Their focus on the role of the individual in relationship to the larger community fostered democratic ideals that were revealed in architecture, in urban form, and in the consideration of the landscape as a place of civic responsibility. M E D I E V A L Walled Minds; Walled Gardens- The Dark Age in 5th To 14th Century From the fall of the Roman Empire to the rebirth of humanist ideals in the Renaissance, the focus of western European culture turned inward. Lacking a central authority to maintain the political, social, economic, and physical infrastructure, the landscape fell into ruin. People sought protection within walled castles, and spiritual fulfillment within walled monasteries. The church pope and nobles were the highest authority in these times, they established their dominion, god and pope was everything not the humans and society. M O D E R N Curious Minds Broadened Vistas- The Rebirth of Europe In 15th -17th Century The story began with turkeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attack on European centre of knowledge of 15th century Qustuntuina (todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Istanbul) Cardinal from Qustuntunia migrated to Europe with 800 manuscripts of Greek and Roman history, further the classical writers Dante and Petrach translated it and there began the rebirth of Europe. The 15th century was an age of exploration- a period of expansion and cultural advancement that proceeded at a different pace. New discoveries and new lands reshaped medieval worldviews. Europe emerged as a world power, with Italy at the center of early Renaissance thought. The new merchant class challenged aristocratic power structures and church authority

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WHY ITALY… ? Italy was the locus of transformation from close mindedness of medieval thinking to the expansiveness representative of 15th century thought.

Both climate and topography were irregular. Clear skies, cool yet sunny, terrain slightly stepped. LATITUDE : 41.9 North LONGITUDE : 12.6 East CLIMATE : Mediterranean, having cool rainy winters and hot dry summers. LOCATION : Located in southern Europe • Long boot shaped Italian peninsula • Southern side of alps • Large plain of po valley • Islands of Sicily and sardana BASELINE INFORMATION • Time line: 1300AD-1600AD • Perception: Sensitivity of Environment • Spatial organisation: Architectural view • Function: Celebration/show off dominance/ pleasure • Ownership: Elite section and pope • Scale: Monumental • Elements: Buildings, Grotto, Sculptures

Flat plains of Lombardy

River valleys and plains (mild in winters but hot in summers)

In south- climate was tropical

Renaissance brought change in ideologies, breaking away from tradition was observed, creation of literature art and architecture flourished in Europe. People started exploring and exploiting the nature, sensitivity to environment was observed. With human intervention deliberate attempt of creation can be seen. Gardens functioned as celebration or show off of dominance as ownership was elite sections or the pope. Scales were huge and gardens were limitless.

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FEATURES OF RENAISSANCE GARDENS Gardens were orderly geometric, symmetric, inspired by classical method of order and beauty, gardens became grander with time and to show dominance, incorporation of features like grottos, statues, fountains was seen to impress owners and visitors.

Renaissance had formal style of garden, orderly geometric, symmetric, inspired by classical method of order and beauty, gardens became grander with time. As to show dominance garden evolved to grander scale. As the scale was monumental within large landscapes they started incorporating niches, which had pergola like elements to play with sun and shade.

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Use of historical theme Influence of French baroque garden Formal intersecting lines Parterres and geometric patterned beds More evergreen trees less flowers Use of water features Contrast of sun and shade used with shady pathways Within large landscapes they began to create niches, pergola like structures came in existence Took advantage of topography Creation of elements Entire scene was Italian garden They had plenty of land, very grand, limitless gardens.

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ELEMENTS OF RENAISSANCE GARDENS Renaissance gardens are frequently compared with Mughal gardens because of their similar timelines and similar elements, the Mughal was not extravagant and ornamental like Italy also none of the two gardens styles emulated each other.

PROMENADE With wide and raised pathways flanked by formally clipped hedges

HIDEWAY With wine draped pergola or a tucked away bench in entire greenery

GROTTO Artificial cave / enclosure filled with sculptures and furnishing

FOUNTAINS Ornate stone fountain, bubbling fountains, pools or cascade.

SCULPTURES Statues of God, goddesses, heroes or Ancient legends.

POTTED CITRUS Variety of Lemon trees potted in stone urns and pots.

TOPIARIES Less flowers, evergreen plants, manicured into geometric hedges or topiaries.

Low height promenades were used to define path, if they wanted pathways to be volumetric hedges were created. Hideaways were the retreats where they could relax, sit and chat. Whereas grottos were the intimate spaces of enclosure. Whole landscape started being filled with statues and spouts of fountains were fixed within statues. Further new entry to landscape design was citrus potted plants, and topiaries used at entrances to create extravagant impression of garden. Well planned garden with mature trees at backdrop, the whole scene was a Italian garden.

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RENAISSANCE GARDEN PERIODS

EARLY RENAISSANCE

HIGH RENAISSANCE

LATE RENAISSANCE

THE MEDICI VILLA, FEISOLE (1455-1461) THE PALAZZO PICCOLOMINI AT PEINZA, TUSCANY (1459) THE CORTILE DEL BELVEDERE IN VETICAN PALACE, ROME (1504-1513) THE VILLA MADAMA, ROME (1515)

VILLA DI CASTELLO, TUSCANY (1538) VILLA D’ESTE AT TIVOLI (1550-1572)

VILLA DELLA TOREC (1559) SARCO BOSCO AT BOMZARO LAZIO (1552-1584)

• Florence was the center of humanist thought, the cradle of early Renaissance activity. Humanism described a trust in human intellect, a belief in the creative abilities and rational capacities of human beings. The focus of inquiry was not so much on the next world, on the nature of God or of heaven, but on the present context of earthly life and on the social and political relationships of the real world. • The power center of the Renaissance shifted from Florence to Rome in the 16th century. Dynastic families supplied the Church of Rome with wealthy princes who were able to employ the greatest artistic talents of the era to create works that expressed the status of their patrons. The classical design vocabulary applied by these artists enabled popes to associate their authority with that of the ancient Roman emperors. Renaissance designers such as Donato Bramante, Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola, and Pirro Ligorio studied Roman architecture and sculpture and were inspired by the logic and rationale behind these forms. Classical principles of order and symmetry organized space. • As foreign powers made claim to Italian territories, and Italian artists fled Rome after the sack, classical organizing principles spread throughout Europe in the latter part of the 16th century. The new vocabulary of design expressed the regional and cultural characteristics unique to each country.

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VILLA MEDICI AT FEISOLE (1455-1461) • Regarded as first true classical renaissance villa in Tuscany • Simplicity in design and harmonious in proportion. Ornamental pleasure garden having harmony with their natural surrounding • Gardens had to be laid out at various levels. • Level differences were made structurally stable with buttressed walls/stone walls • It did not have a grand staircase or other feature to link two levels • From reception rooms on first floor, guest could go out to the loggia and from their to garden GARDEN AT TOP

VILLA

Large rectangular lawns with potted lemon trees. On highest level in front of the villa. At the end of an avenue lines with cypress trees SECRET GARDEN

CARETAKERS HOUSE

Large fountain at centre Located at rare of the villa accessible with indoor staircase. Typical parterre garden with lined flower beds with box hedges. LOWER LEVEL GARDEN

UPPER TERRACE RETAINING WALL

Was built in later time, 20th century. Strong geometric patterns- lot of flat green lawns on between Pergola was created in mid way essentially to protect orchids and protect people from strong exposure to sun.

LOWER TERRACE RETAINING WALL WITH BUTTRESS

LOW RETAINING SLOPPED WALL AT LOWER TERRACE

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VILLA DI CASTELLO, TUSCANY (1538) The garden was based on harmony and order. They wanted to show dominance, political power and used it for pleasure. Garden was filled with statuary associating with virtues of ancient Rome, that demonstrated and appreciated heros of history. The citrus garden contained more than 500 pots of lemon and orange trees Hydraulic system of garden was one of the wonders. They built large reservoir at the upper elevations and allowed water to flow down by gravity through bronze pipes to fountain and spouts The garden was designed to deliver a political message along side of being a pleasant garden. Guest were invited and taken sround to show power of the garden owner.

FOUNTAIN OF HERCULES AND ANTEAUS Marble base fountain with 8 sides; base with full of children sculptures; statues protected by basin above from rain.

FOUNTAIN OF THE FLORENCE Originally in upper garden; made to complement the fountain of Hercules and antaeus, situates in lower garden

GROTTO OF THE ANIMALS Cave in the upper wall of the garden; walls covered with limestone moulded to resemble natural cave; embedded with stone and sea shells; marble basin in each shell

CITRUS GARDEN Five hundred dwarf citrus trees, especially lemon trees; grown in large wooden and stone tubs; put under shelter in winters; pots came into elemental list.

HERB GARDEN Ortaccio is a separate walled garden east of main garden; aromatic and medicinal herbs were grown, along with exotic species of flowers; even today we copy this style.

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WATER FEATURES- Hydraulic system of gardens -the wonders of high renaissance

•

Statue

Appenino

symbolizes

•

upon

gravity, elevation of

portrayed as an old man

the water source was

shivering

above the fountain

with

water •

Water source for the

Located at centre of

fountain of Hercules

reservoir

and Antaeus was on

above

the

ground in sacred wood

hill side high above

Water flowers down from

fountain

reservoir through bronze

•

Emerged

fountains

built

representing Florence

ingenious

giochi

two

d’acqua (water jokes)

to entertain the duke and his visitors

retaining wall in either

side

The garden consisted of

pipes •

fountains

Tuscany,

pouring over his head

•

the

depended

the

mountains

•

All

grotto rivers

of STATUE OF APPENINO

FOUNTAIN OF HERCULES AND ANTAEUS

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VILLA D’ESTE AT TIVOLI (1550-1572) •

The Villa D'este is a 16th-century villa in Tivoli, near Rome, famous for its terraced hillside Italian Renaissance garden and especially for its profusion of fountains. It is now an Italian state museum, and is listed as a UNESCO world heritage site.

•

The fame and glory of the Villa D'este was above all established by its extraordinary system of fountains; 51 and nymphaeum's, 398 spouts, 364 water jets, 64 waterfalls, and 220 basins, fed by 875 meters of canals, channels and cascades, and all working entirely by

the force of gravity, without pumps. •

The garden plan is laid out on a central axis with subsidiary cross-axes, refreshed by some five hundred jets in fountains, pools and water troughs. The water is supplied by the Aniene, which is partly diverted through the town, a distance of a kilometer, and, originally, by the Reveilles spring, which supplied a cistern under the villa's courtyard

THE FOUNTAIN OF NEPTUNE BELOW THE FOUNTAIN OF THE ORGAN

THE ROMETTA FOUNTAIN

ONE HUNDRED FOUNTAINS

THE FONTANA DELL'OVATO ("OVAL FOUNTAIN")

THE FOUNTAIN OF THE OWL

THE FOUNTAIN OF DIANA OF EPHESUS, MOTHER-NATURE

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•

A large terrace, 200 meters long, called the Vialone, lies between the Villa and the gardens, with a panoramic view of the gardens and countryside beyond; The Cardinals used the space for fireworks, games, spectacles and festivities.

•

The terrace is enclosed at one end by the Fountain of Europa, and at the other by an immense loggia and belvedere in the form of a triumphal arch called the Cenacolo; provided shade beneath in summer, as well as commanding viewpoints of the scenery.

•

Two ramps lead down to the upper garden from Fountain of the Tripod, and there are symmetrical double flights of stairs at either end.

•

The Cardinal's Walk is a shaded path, attached to the retaining wall of the terrace, which leads from one side of the garden to the other, passing by several grottos which are built into the retaining wall.

THE FOUNTAIN OF THE TRIPOD, WITH THE VIEW OF THE GARDEN BELOW

THE DOUBLE LOGGIA; ACCESS TO CEREMONI AL ROOMS

THE CENACOLO, OR GRAN LOGGIA, AT THE END OF THE VIALONE

THE VIALONE, OR TERRACE, AT THE TOP OF THE GARDEN

THE FOUNTAIN OF THE BICCHIERON E, SEEN FROM THE TERRACE

THE FOUNTAIN OF PEGASUS

THE FOUNTAIN OF THE BICCHIERONE, BY BERNINI, AND THE LOGGETTA OF THE CARDINAL

MASK SPOUTING WATER IN THE GROTTO OF POMONA

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SARCO BOSCO AT BOMARZO LAZIO (1551-1584) •

Park intended to portray an element of astonishment.

•

This is a landscape which they did not intend any specific plan.

•

All the geometry, harmony is absent here.

•

Whatever they imagined was created.

•

Positioning of status was in haphazard manner, trying to break geometry.

•

The many monstrous statues appear to be unconnected to any rational plan, and appear to have been strewn almost randomly about the area.

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SUMMARY •

Italian renaissance gardens are on grand track of land, generally stepped in nature

•

There were strong expression and exploitation of the nature

•

They used grand paths very symmetrical layouts with large plantation at back ground

•

They introduces sculptures within landscape

•

intelligently used water floe from higher to lover elevations; storing at higher elevation and allowing it to flow by gravity and activating all fountains; making fountains very strong elements

•

Profiles were geometric very orderly not blended with just architecture but just sitting next to the structure either in front or the back or maybe flowing further down frontward.

•

Similar to Mughal but very concrete to Chinese or Japanese styles.

TERRACES

LOGGIAS

PORTICOS

HYDRAULICS

COMPARTMENTS

SCULPTURES 178

THE RENAISSANCE GARDEN

FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION. BOOKS •

Illustrated history of landscape design by Elizabeth boults

•

The Garden at Bomarzo: A Renaissance Riddle by Jessie Sheeler

•

The Landscape of Man: Shaping the Environment from Prehistory to the Present Day by Geoffrey Alan Jellicoe

•

Gardens of Renaissance Europe and the Islamic Empires: Encounters and Confluences by Mohammad Gharipour

PAPERS •

A spatial analysis of three Italian renaissance gardens - A field study of Villa Gamberaia, Villa Lante and Villa Medici at Fiesole by Camilla Göller

•

The Fourfold Water Garden, a Renaissance Invention by Carmen Toribio Marin

VIDEO LINKS.

•

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OY413RwBzB0 BBC Italian Gardens Rome Part 1of 4

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F7H8wh8IWnI&t=327s Villa Lante by BBC

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZATgQ_mGkZw Villa D’este by BBC

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NNnCp9Tmtno&t=1173s by NPTEL

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ITALY: MANNERISM AND BAROQUE OCEANDEEP KAUR 2019MLA014

Italy: Mannerism And Baroque

MANNERISM STYLE ( 1 5 2 0 - 1 6 0 0 ) 1 6 TH C E N T U R Y

•Mannerism is the name given to a style of art in Europe from c. 1520–1600. •Mannerism came after the High Renaissance and before the Baroque. Not every artist painting during this period is considered a Mannerist artist, however, and there is much debate among scholars over whether Mannerism should be considered a separate movement from the High Renaissance, or a stylistic phase of the High Renaissance. •Mannerism will be treated as a separate art movement here as there are many differences between the High Renaissance and the Mannerist styles. •Mannerism was a style which developed in painting in the 1520s, which defined the traditional rules of renaissance painting. •Mannerist paintings were intensely stylish, polished and complex, their composition bizarre, the subject matter fantastic.

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SACRO BOSCO AT BOMARZO, LAZIO(1552-1584) (PARK OF THE MONSTERS) •The sacro bosco, or “Sacred Wood”, was the most famous and extravagant of the mannerist garden.

•It was created for pier francesco orsini (152384) near the village of bomarzo. •It was witty and irreverent, and violated all the rules of renaissance gardens; it had no symmetry, no order, and no focal point. •An inscription in the garden said:” you who have travelled the world in search of great and stupendous marvels, come here, where there are horrendous face, elephants, lion, orgres and gragons. •The garden was filled with enormous statues, reached by wandering paths. It included a mouth of hell, a house that seemed to be falling over, fantastic animals and figures, many of them carved of rough volcanic rock.

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BAROQUE

STYLES

High baroque (1650-1700) Vaux-le-vicomte,1656 Versailles,1661 drottningholm,1680 Peterhof,1716

Early baroque (1600-1650) Villa aldobrandini,1600 Villa garzoni,1652 Isola bella,1630

Cover the France

Cover the Italy • • • •

Bramate used an axis as the central feature in a garden layout Aavenues projected towards garden features Avenues projected towards features outside the garden Avenues began to radiate in all direction to the greater glory of their owners.

•

Characteristic feature : a centrally positioned building, extensive avenues, elaborate parterres, fountains, basins and canals. Line of perspective integrated residential architecture, garden architecture, sculpture, fountains, cascades, planting and other features.

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ORIGINS IN ITALY The ideas that inspired the Baroque garden, like those of Baroque architecture, first appeared in Italy in the late Renaissance. In the late 15th century, the architect, artist and writer Leon Battista Alberti proposed that the house and garden were both sanctuaries from the confusion of the outside world and that they both should be designed with architectural forms, geometric rooms, and corridors. In a very popular allegorical story, Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (The Song of Poliphile) (1499), one of the first printed novels, the Dominican priest and author Francesco Colonna described a garden composed of carefully designed ornamental flowerbeds and rows of trees shaped in geometric forms

CHARACTERISTICS Baroque gardens were intended to illustrate the mastery of man over nature. They were often designed to be seen from above and from a little distance, usually from the salons or terraces of a chateau. They were laid out like rooms in a house, in geometric patterns, divided by gravel alleys or lanes, with the meeting points of the lanes often marked by fountains or statues. Flower beds were designed like tapestries, with bands of shrubbery and flowers forming the designs. Larger bushes and trees were sculpted into conical or dome-like shapes, and trees were grouped in bosquets, or orderly clusters. Water was usually present in the form of long rectangular ponds, aligned with the terraces of the house, or circular ponds with fountains. The gardens usually included one more small pavilion, where visitors could take shelter from the sun or rain. Over time, the style evolved, and became more natural. Grottoes and "secret gardens" enclosed by trees appeared, to illustrate the literary ideals of Arcadia and other popular stories of the time; these were usually placed in the outer corners of the garden, to give suitable places for quiet reading or conversation. 185

Italy: Mannerism And Baroque

BAROQUE STYLES •Landscape become more theatrical. •Italian gardens of the 17th century were largescale productions, no longer limited by the conception of villa, garden, and bosco as an ensemble complete in itself •Gardens now functioned as places of spectacle and entertainment. •Places and architecture because the set decoration for figurative and literal garden theaters. •The use of sculpture and water to animate a space was taken to new levels.

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PRINCIPAL FEATURES

•Avenues •Canals •Parterres •Green structures formed by hedging •Building on axes •Focal point with in gardens (fountain) •Focal points outside garden(churches) •Axially coordinated steps, water features and statues •Integration with the surrounding landscape.

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VILLA ALDOBRANDINI, FRASCATI (1592-1630) •The villa is set on a large terrace, creating in the front a platform to launch sight line and in the back a garden. •The south façade of the villa, the side toward the garden, is more articulated and detailed than the north façade. •The long entrance allee helps merge the huge mass of the structure into the landscape. •A unique illusion is created at the end of the allee the roof of the villa appears to sit on the top of a grotto. •The highlight of the rear garden terrace is the nymphaeum, or water theater.

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•The space is define by a large semicircular retaining wall, with arched niches containing sculptures of mythological figures. •Atlas is at the center holding up the world, drenched by a cascade from above. •The water features were made possible by the construction of several new aqueducts. Water was brought to the villa from mount Algido, 6 miles away. •Optical illusions become evident: The garden terrace disappears and the uppermost loggias of the villa appear to hove over the water staircase, framed by the pillars. 190

Italy: Mannerism And Baroque

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VERSAILLES ,1661( FRENCH BAROQUE STYLE)

Versailles is the most famous garden in the world. The scale is monumental and there is little sense of enclosure.

•

The Gardens of Versailles cover some 800 hectares of land, much of which is landscaped in the classic French .

•

The park and garden were designed by Andre Le Nôtre between 1661 and 1700.

•

Trees used in the gardens of versailles were: -Hornbeam, beech, chestnut, elm and linden for the most part.

•

Avenues project from Louis XIV's palace towards distant horizons, enfolding town, palace, garden and forest.

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Italy: Mannerism And Baroque

Plants • 200,000 trees • 210,000 flowers planted annually Features • 50 fountains • 620 water jets (fed by 35 km. piping) • 5.57 km Grand Canal (circumference; surface area 23 ha.)

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THE FOUNTAIN OF APOLLO

THE LATONA FOUNTAIN

Shows different shapes in a pattern( parterreenbroderie) shows square pattern(Parterre)

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KEY FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS The residence •Is the number one focal point . •The home is the centre point of the design with large paths that provide axial views. Geometric plan •Virtually everything in the design is geometric and planned with symmetry. Water •Is incorporated as a number one element within the landscape. Referred to as “reflecting pools” in circular, oval and rectangular shapes.

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KEY FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS Parterres â&#x20AC;˘The intricate patterns created from hedged shrubs or planting beds are usually designed in near proximity to the residence. â&#x20AC;˘These designs are less detailed the further away they are from the house. Statuary The point was to create these garden ornaments that were beyond the typical garden sculpture. Terraces Are located in the landscape where the entire garden and all of its detail can be viewed.

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THE FRENCH GARDENS

DURING 17TH AND 18TH CENTURY

GARGEE 2019MLA015

THE FRENCH GARDEN

INTRODUCTION • •

France in the 16th century was not fragmented as Italy. After the collapse of the feudal system, power was centralised in an absolute monarchy. Gardens became outsized expression of royal authority. French gardens were inspired by the Italian renaissance garden and were largely fixed by the middle of the 17th century.

•

French gardens were inspired from Baroque garden style of renaissance period of Italy.

•

It was the leading country in the development of high baroque gardens and they became associated with autocratic government .

•

The French gardens followed the Baroque garden style which was evolved from Early Renaissance, High Renaissance, mannerist, early baroque style and high baroque style.

Fig: 1 Shows the evolution of high baroque style

Fig: 2 Shows the high baroque style 198

THE FRENCH GARDEN

•

French gardens followed symmetry, order, harmony and geometry in their design. They were also created to be seen as a whole.

•

It was also a physical expression of the owner’s power and importance: one had to be there.

•

A geometric plan using the most recent discoveries of perspective and optics .The principal axis is crossed by one or more perpendicular perspectives and alleys.

•

A terrace overlooking the garden allowing the visitor to see all at once, the entire garden.

•

Trees are planted in straight lines and carefully trimmed at a set height.

•

The house/ palace/ chateaux serves as the central point of the garden, and it central ornament. No trees are planted close to the house rather the house is set apart by low parterres and trimmed bushes.

•

The most elaborate parterres for planting beds in the shape of square oval circle or scrolls are placed in a rectangular and geometric order close to the house to compliment the architecture.

•

The parterres were filled with broderies, designs created with low boxwood to resemble the pattern of a carpet and given polychrome effect by planting of flowers or buy colored brick gravel for sand.

•

Bodies of water canal basins serve as mirror doubling the size of the house.

Fig: 3 Garden of Tulleries, France

Fig:4 Garden of Lucia Gracia ,Normandy

Fig: Showing plan of Versallies

Fig: 5 Chateau de Courances 199

THE FRENCH GARDEN

ELEMENTS OF FRENCH GARDEN PARTERRE A planting bed , usually square or rectangular, containing an ornamental design made with low closely clipped hedges, coloured gravel, and sometimes flowers. They are laid out in geometric patterns separated by gravel pathways and are intended to be seen from above. Fig: 6 Parterre

EMBROIDERY A curling decorative pattern within a parterre made by cutting lawn and filling it with coloured gravels.

BOSQUET A small group of trees, usually some distance from the house, designed as an ornamental backdrop. ALLEY A straight path, often lined with trees or hedges

Fig: 7 Embroidery

TOPIARY Trees or bushes trimmed into ornamental shapes. In French gardens they were usually trimmed in geometric shapes. GOOSE FOOT “ PATTE D’OIE” Three or five paths starting from a single point. Fig: 8 Bosquet

FOUNTAIN /CASCADES A small waterfall, typically one that fall in stages down a steep rocky slope.

Fig: 9 Alley

Fig: 10 Topiary

Fig: 11 Goose foot

Fig: 12 Cascade

Fig: 13 Fountain 200

THE FRENCH GARDEN

TREES •

Trees are planted in straight lines and clipped to keep a perfect shape and size . They may be formed into shape to form topiary.

•

Trees used in the garden of Versailles were: hornbeam, beech, chestnut, elm and linden for the most part HEDGES

•

The clipped hedges are usually box lavender, rosemary and occasionally Santoline.

•

Rectangular trimming to stop them going leggy and woody is important

•

Many French chateaux have wonderful vegetable garden with the vegetable laid out in pattern and parterres in the style of ornamental formal garden.

Fig: 14 Hornbeam

Fig: 15 Hornbeam clipped in rows

PLANTS

•

Bedding plants and bulbs are popular choices for parterres with for example parterres are filled with bulbs in formal pattern for spring flowering and then taken out and replaced with bedding plants for the late spring and summer.

Fig: 20 Lavender

Fig: 21 Rose Mary

Fig: 22 Sandoline

Fig: 16 Beech tree

Fig: 18 Elm tree

Fig: 17 Linden tree

Fig: 19 Chesnut tree 201

THE FRENCH GARDEN

THE LOIRE VALLEY, FRANCE

•

The royal estate of France was situated in Loire valley of France. French gardens were sprawling, complex arrangements of ground plane features

•

Renaissance gardens in France during 16th were mostly additions to the existing medieval chateaux. .

•

Defensive moats typically surrounded the a chateaux of the Loire valley.

•

Space was limited, constrained by the moat and the configuration of the fortified castles.

•

The gunpowder introduction made the fortified castles obsolete and indefensible, but the moats still essential for good drainage were still incorporated in the gardens as ornamental canals.

Fig: 23 Map of France

Fig: 24 Chateau

Fig: 25 Moat

Fig: 26 Moat at Vau-le-Vicomte 202

THE FRENCH GARDEN

CHATEAU OF CHENONCEAU, LOIRE VALLEY FRANCE • • •

• •

The Chateau of Chenonceau is situated in the Loire valley, at the bank of the river Cher. It was constructed during the 16 the centaury. During the reign of King Henry II his wife Diane De Poitiers constructed a huge garden at the north bank of the Chateau. The axial arrangements of the Italian gardens were ill suited to these irregular spaces so the landowners built gardens as separate entities, on adjacent properties, not directly related to the house. The garden is divided into eight triangular compartments of flowers, vegetables and fruit tress, with raised terraces to see the garden as whole, decorated with the plant topiary and pathways. When the king died his wife Catherine de Medici took over the chateau from Diane and constructed another garden which was similar to the first garden but smaller in size.

Fig: 27 Garden of Catherine de Medici

Fig: 28 Topiary of plants in geometric shape

Fig: 29 Garden of Diane de Poitiers

Fig: 30 Retaining wall to support the structure 203

THE FRENCH GARDEN

VAUX-LE-VICOMTE France in the mid 17th century was riven with rebellion and intrigue. The king Louis XIV had been on throne since he was a boy but had only just taken control of his kingdom •

The first important garden of France was the chateaux of Vaux-le-Vicomte created by Nicholas Fouquet.

•

Nicolas Fouquet was a risen finance minister of France , who commissioned Louis Le Vau to design the chateaux, Charles Le Burn to design the statues of the garden and Andre le Notre to create the gardens.

•

He asked Le Notre to make something more impressive and radical than anything that have ever been done.

•

At the first glance every thing seems ordered and absolutely symmetrical, but its not as you look through, there are differences on the either sides, but everything is harmonious unbalance.

•

Vaux-Le-Vicomte garden with a single great axis, that runs unbroken, shutters the entrances to the far horizon.

Fig: 31 Vaux le Vicomte aerial view

Fig: 32 Vaux le Vicomte 204

THE FRENCH GARDEN

• • •

•

Le Notre's idea was to cut through the landscape on a scale that no one has imagined before and that created and impression of these great gardens. Grand perspective of 1500 m extended from the foot of the chateaux to the statue of Hercules of France. The space was filled with parterres of evergreen shrubs in ornamental pattern bordered by colored sand and the alleys were decorated at regular intervals by statues, basins, fountains and carefully sculpted topiaries. The chateau is at the center of the street perspective organization which symbolizes power and success. Le Notre had eighteen thousand men to carve this landscape , also he had the knowledge of army . By the middle of the 17th centaury cannons had developed enormously in response to that the French in particular developed the ability to create ramparts with very sophisticated earth moving skills and that Le Notre used to construct the garden. The numerous water reservoirs and fountains were fed by the geniusly done engineering, all by gravity.

Fig: 35 Topiary of the plants

Fig: 33 Hercules statue at the end, Opposite to the palace

Fig: 36 Fountains with different statues

Fig: 34 Vaux le Vicomte parterres

Fig: 37 Terraces to view the garden as a whole 205

THE FRENCH GARDEN

VERSAILLES Versailles is the most famous garden in the world the scale is monumental and there is little sense of enclosure. There are immaculate parterres, great basins, orangeries, a vast collection of outdoor sculpture and some of the grandest fountain which have ever been made.

•

The gardens of Versailles was created by Andre Le Notre between 1662 and 1701 the greatest achievement of the garden of France.

•

They were the largest garden in Europe with an area 15000 hectares and we'll a doubt on and east-west axis followed for the course of the Sun.

• •

The sun rose over the court of honor, lit the marble court cross the chateaux and lit the bedroom of the king and set at the end of the grand canal reflected in the mirror of Hall of mirrors.

•

In contrast with the grand perspectives reaching to the horizontal the garden was full of surprises form fountains to small gardens, filled with statuary which provided a more human scale and intimate spaces.

•

Central symbol of the garden was the sun the emblem of Louis XIV illustrated by the statue of Apollo in the central fountain of the garden. The views and perspective to and from the palace continued to.

Fig: 38 Plan of garden of Versailles 206

THE FRENCH GARDEN

•

The king louis XIV was in a fury for Nicolas Fouquet’s show-off of wealth and power and he arrested him and Le Notre. He ordered Le Notre to construct exactly same but more grand garden at Versailles.

•

Nearly 2000 acres of garden. There was already an avenue running in the east-west so he winded and put in business the large canal and clipped hedges that created an expression of dominance of order over wildness.

•

Similar to the Vaux-Le-Vicomte Le Notre laid a series of parterres, elaborate patterned implants designed to see from above. The parterres got their colour from, ground, broken pots, gravels but increasingly from flowers like tulips.

•

Versailles had the biggest orangery in Europe. There are over 1100 trees planted in large terracotta pots known as Versailles pots.

•

Le Notre used various devices to create a sense of scale, vast reflective pools and series of various type of fountains, another was the dramatics alley of large tightly clipped trees . These trees can grow very tall and at the same time can be clipped narrowed.

•

Series of bosquet that are small woods that are contained by clipped hedges. Inside each Bosquet is an entertainment element or a spectacle designed.

Fig: 39 parterres surrounded by the clipped hedges

Fig: 40 Cascade fountain hidden in a Bosquet

Fig: 41 Parterres decorated with embroidery

Fig: 42 Fountain decorated with unique sculptures

Fig: 43 Large water body for the effect of reflection 207

18TH CENTURY FRENCH GARDENS

THE FRENCH GARDEN

In the 18th century England gave birth to a style of gardens that focused on the rediscovery of nature. This type of garden gained popularity in France for its connection to a French philosopher- Jean Jacques Rousseau's ideals of natural escapes within the city. In France, this style became known as "le jardin paysager" or the picturesque landscape garden •

•

This picture shows the plan for Petit Trianon during the 18th century. The plans obviously differ from the previous geometrical trends, as seen in Versailles. Here the paths wind around numerous free-formed gardens. The long, winding pathways surrounded by gardens and acres of natural lands, seen in the plan above, allowed visitors to escape into the peacefulness of the countryside. By examining the two images below one can see how drastically garden styles changed between the 17th and 18th centuries. All sense of geometry and organization is gone, and is replaced with a very relaxed, natural setting.

Fig: 45 shows an artist's interpretation of the a mansion during the 17th century. This clearly shows the traditional geometric rigidity of the period

Fig: 46 shows same artist's interpretation of the same mansion having undergone a make-over to suit the freer style of the 18th century. Fig: 44 Plan of Petit Trianon 208

THE FRENCH GARDEN

•

The beauty and simplicity of "le jardin paysager," coupled with gardens' increasingly touted health benefits, founded the French garden as an ideal place for bourgeois socializing.

•

The overall appeal of the French garden to the bourgeoisie was the goal of a Rousseau-inspired escape to nature, while one remained in Paris.

•

The ‘picturesque’ garden became popular in France from the 1760s among the wealthy classes. It did not necessarily replace a formal garden and the two quite often co-existed (as shown in fig 3).

•

Unlike the formal gardens of the seventeenth century and early eighteenth century, with their geometric paths, parterres and main vista, the picturesque garden was composed of meandering paths and could not be seen all at once. It could only be fully experienced by walking through it. Eliciting effects on the viewer was the focus of the picturesque garden, which often tried to evoke memories of a landscape painting. Views were deliberately arranged, with a rustic building, temple, or ‘ruin’ as the focus of a view, and poetic inscriptions were sometimes used to encourage an ‘appropriate’ response in the viewer.

• •

Fig:47 French garden for Jardin Anglais shows the coexistence formal and informal garden 209

THE FRENCH GARDEN

SUMMARY With straight lines, monumental axes and line of sight, gardens in the 17 th centaury was ordered by geometry that expressed power and authority of humans over nature.

Fig: 48 Showing the principles of French gardens

DESIGN PRINCIPLES • EXTENSION French gardens of the 17th centaury were projected into the landscape through monumental axes. Vistas merged with the horizon. • HIDE AND REVEAL Space unfolds incrementally as various focal points capture the viewer’s attention • SUBDIVISIONS The gardens are divided into divisions for creating interesting patterns and modulation of space. • ILLUSION Perspectives were manipulated to create theatrical effect and a sense of mystery. Later in the 18th century the formal gardens changed to an informal style of meandering pathways, with views created by not disturbing the natural landscape, so that the viewer will get a feel of country side being in Paris itself. 210

16TH & 17TH CENTURY GARDENS ENGLAND | NETHERLAND

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16TH CENTURY ENGLISH GARDEN

1 6 TH C E N T U R Y E N G L I S H G A R D E N S The civil strive between the house of York and Lancaster known as the war of roses, where Tudor acclaimed the throne as henry VIII(15091547)). His rivalry with the French motivated his interest in art and gardening .When henry VIII claimed the throne was unable to obtain divorce under catholic church policies, he held several ties with Rome and other catholic monasteries. His actions has two important effects: a land gentry class developed, establishing and enduring pattern of land tenure in English countryside and northern Europe , rather than Italy, became the source of design influence. Interest in gardening escalated; Ornamental gardens flourished at the country house aristocracy. Queen Elizabeth’s reign in gardening was an extension to the Tudor’s garden design. Hence the garden style was called as the Tudor-Elizabthean garden

Vistas

Geometric beds

TUDOR-ELIZABTHEAN GARDEN FEATURES • •

• • • • •

Knot gardens, geometric beds edged with a low hedge of box or other shrubs Flowers, cultivated not only for their beauty but for flavouring sweets and desserts. Favourites were violets, marigolds, and most importantly the rose Mounts, an artificial hill for viewing often situated at the corners of the garden to provide views both of the garden and the landscape beyond Banqueting Houses to provide an intimate room for enjoying desserts and for entertainment Fountains and automated water features to animate the garden, reflecting an interest in hydraulics Deer parks, not only living larders providing meat for the household but also a symbol of wealth and status Use of symbolic devices and ornaments such as poles topped with colourful heraldic animals and labyrinths associated with religious or mythological significance

Knot garden

Mounts

Intricate ground pattern

Fountains & water element

Labyrinth

Ornamental garden 212

16TH CENTURY ENGLISH GARDEN

MONTACUTE GARDENS, SOMERSET •

Roy Strong corrected this opinion, decisively, in his 1979 The renaissance garden in England, stating that 'nothing could be more misleading' than to regard Montacute as an Elizabethan garden: 'Alas for Triggs and Tipping the famous north garden which we see today was laid out in the 1840s;

•

the pond in the centre was added in the nineties. Conceivably the banking and terracing might have been Elizabethan but what may have been a mount in the middle was demolished for the fountain'. The beautiful corner pavilions are, however, Elizabethan, as is the long terrace.

•

The towering walls, glorious gables, Tudor artwork and fragrant gardens of Montacute House provide the perfect starting point for a six-mile walk through south Somerset’s ancient countryside

•

The gardens were well established by 1633, and by 1667 several walled gardens and courts had been added with established orchards. They were accompanied by stone gate lodges, which were removed in the 18th century.

•

The garden planting, grassed parterre square

laid

out

within

the

former

forecourt

and

the

slightly

The garden compartments cross the straight lineof the sight created by the Entry road and allee.

sunken Clipped yew is one of the dominant features

•

The avenue of clipped yews that reinforces the slightly gappy mature avenue of trees stretching away from the outer walls of the former forecourt to end in fields, and the clipped yews that outline the grassed parterre date from that time

•

The sunken parterre garden design, with its Jacobean-style central fountain, designed by Robert Shekelton Balfour (1869–1942)Conceivably the banking and terracing might have been Elizabethan but what may have been a mount in the middle was demolished for the fountain. The formal pond at Montacute

sunken lawn is backed by pavilions and walls with balustrades and pinnacles

fine lawns are surrounded by neatly-trimmed yews,.

The house is at the centre of the garden surrounded by lawns hedges and avenues of trees.

Balustrade and garden pavilion 213

EVOLUTION OF DUCTH GARDENS Renaissance : After the long struggle for independence from Spain (1609) the Dutch Garden began to flourish, its design following rectilinear patterns and division into enclosed, square areas, with a clear, main axis. The structural elements comprised leafy arbors, fountains, and mazes. Dutch Classical Garden (1630-1690) : With the increasing prosperity from trade, shipping and industry ,developed landscape gardening in the Republic. The Dutch Classical style, with its emphasis on proportion, symmetry and harmony. (often 4:3, or combined with Golden Mean). A strict axis of symmetry, divided this rectangle into two equal parts, on either side of the centrally placed house. French-inspired Baroque Garden (1680-1750) At the end of the 17th-century the layout of Dutch gardens became strongly influenced by the French Baroque.Enclosing canals was opened up, with the main axis visually extending beyond;the inner garden sections decorated with complex parterres designs.The principal structural elements consisted of parterres star woods, cabinets, wildernesses, mazes, and elegantly shaped hedges. 214

1 6 TH •

• • • •

•

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1 7 TH C E N T U R Y D U T C H G A R D E N S

International horticulture has been dominated by prairie planting. A naturalistic blend of hardy perennials and ornamental grasses this style For 17th-century observers it was, by contrast, the fussy formalism of Dutch gardens that prompted irritation Descriptions of these gardens vary but most agree on clipped hedges, axiomatic layout and water features. excessive topiary, stringent symmetry and unnecessary statuary that muddled continental gardens. Dutch, French and Italian influences can be seen in 17 th century.During the reign of William and Mary ,garden spaces displayed a compactness of Dutch gardens Emphasis was on the planting of flowers, particular tulips as well as the creation of topiary forms Dutch saw an influx of French refugees as did other northern countries. These artist and craftsmen transported continental design ideas with new plants and Channels were of particular interest to English. They adapted French idea of vistahe Gardens are most Sumptuous and Magnificent, adorned with great variety of most noble Fountains, Casacades, Parterres, Gravel walks, and Green Walks, Groves, Statues, Urns, Paintings and pleasant Prospects in the Country The limited space of the landscape did not allow gardens of enormous sizes, Dutch gardens were rather small.

Channels

Spaciousness

Tulip gardens

Geometric layout

Axiality

Topiary form

Vistas

New variety of trees and plants

Parterres

Unnecessary statuary

Mazes

215

HET LOO PALACE GARDENS , NETHERLAND •

Het Loo Palace (meaning "The Woods Palace") is a palace in Netherlands. The gardens of Paleis Het Loo are reconstructed to the original 17th-century design of King-stadtholder William III and his wife Queen Mary II, the founders and first inhabitants of Paleis Het Loo.

•

Het Loo was planned and created from 1686 onwards as a Gesamtkunstwerk combining a palace and baroque garden. The high level of the water table and the numerous natural springs in the area favoured the construction of fountains, canals and water features.

•

A Dutch Baroque garden, with many symmetrical parterres, impressive fountains and historical planting. The gardens were intended to give prestige and status to William and Mary and impress their guests.

•

It was the royal palace of William and Mary, exemplifies 17th century dutch garden.Dutch architect Jacob roman and french guy Daniel marot collaborated on the design.His french influence can be seen in the parterre design and the expansiveness of the upper garden

•

The Great Garden has a central axis designed by a protestant refugee in the beginning of 1970.The garden was completely destroyed by louis napolean in 18th century and covered it over with picturesque garden- english style garden.

•

Various fruit trees such as apple, pear, peach, apricot, nectarine, cherry and plum grow on the south walls in espalier form, a typical element of Dutch garden design. The semicircular colonnades at the end of the park provide a magnificent view of the palace, the delicate parterres and the avenues

216

HET LOO PALACE GARDENS , NETHERLAND

•

A Dutch baroque garden with rich decoration, made by William and Mary, who later held the English throne. Foreign visitors have often seen Het Loo as 'the Versailles of Holland - axial layout, fountains, parterres and statues.

•

At Het Loo, William's garden does not dominate the landscape. It is an enclosed space, tucked into the woods for private enjoyment. Outside the garden there are a few avenues, for hunting and for scenic effect. The box parterres in the lower garden are simple

•

The large upper garden was built 1689, reflecting the new trend towards spaciousness. Grass parteress continued the strict geometry and formal symmetry about the central axis.The enormous King’s fountain, fed by natural spring marks the centre.

•

A semi circular colonnade marks the termination of axis which contrasts the previous configuration of the colannade created an axial vista. The garden to Het loo contains neumerous fountains, canals, and cascades.

•

Clipped hedges, strait canals have been for some time very properly exploded.137-metre-long rectangular pond flanked by clipped yew topiary

•

The U-shaped gardens is defined by rasied walkway on the three sides, opening to an oak lined cross avenue on the three sides, The garden contains intricate parterres.

•

Sculptures mark the intersection of the pathways. Queen’s gardens located on either side the palace , below the royal apartments.Rectangular planting beds around the parterre displayed new plant species between the clipped evergreen

217

1 7 TH C E N T U R Y G A R D E N S O F E N G L A N D FEATURES AND IDEOLOGIES OF ENGLISH GARDEN Water elements

17 the century is described as the beginning of “The age of reasoning”, an advances in scientific knowledge challenged the belief in religious and renaissance order. Nature was shaped according to human will and typically royal privileges.The idea of extension applied not only to geo-political influence- gardens merged into the landscape with vistas to endless horizonsLarge views were part of the drama and idea of mobility that characterized baroque styles.The main development of gardens in the Stuart period is that of scale as they were influenced by the vast formal gardens of France, and later, in a more sober fashion, Holland.These gardens were designed to be symmetrical with long axial walks and rides stretching into the woods and parks beyond, resulting in the advent of the Avenue. Great expanses of water were brought to life by dancing fountains or pleasure boats. Pleached trees formed the boundaries around the garden and elaborate free flowing parterres replacing Tudor knot gardens. Topiary was used to create formal shapes out of evergreen shrubs in the ultimate expression of man’s control over nature.

Different geometries

Sculpture

CHARACTERISTICS OF 17TH CENTURY GARDEN OF ENGLAND • • • • • • • • •

Style at a glance Formal layout influenced by the great gardens of France Terraces controlling the irregular natural landscape Parterres evolved from the Tudor knots Avenues, an expression of welcome as well as status Canals reflecting the fashion for all thing Dutch at the end of the 17th century Fountains and extravagant water displays to animate the gardens Topiary, an expression of the ultimate control over nature Wildernesses, not exactly wild, but a woody place for intrigue and exercise

Exaggeration of detail

Ambiguous & illusionistic 218

HAMPTON COURT PALACE GARDENS , MIDDLESEX •

• • •

Henry VIII assumed the control of Hampton court in 1531. Hampton Court Palace’s world-famous gardens include 60 acres of spectacular formal gardens and 750 acres (304 hectares) of parkland, all set within a loop of the River Thames. He immediately enlarged the palace compound to include thousands of acres of parkland and hunting grounds to the north. The pond garden and privy garden date from this reign. The neat , rectangular pond gardens include knot gardens, turf banks, abode, covered walkway, a central fountain and a banqueting house. The sunken privy garden contains coloured gravel parterres ,topiary , a maze, a circular pool with raised turf bank. Most spectacular was the hedge path that spiralled around the mount. Painted heraldic beasts placed throughout the garden and parks, posed atop poles. Charles II appointed two French architects, hence French formalism and spatial definition In 1660 Henry VIII’s Tudor gardens were altered to reflect Dutch styles – broad walk , long canal, semicircular alley, radial avenues.Future in Queen anne (1702-1714) obliterated any trace of Dutch garden styles , grassing over parterres and removing fountains and topiaried trees.

Wren's Hampton Court inspired Florham, a Vanderbilt family house in Madison, New Jersey.

Rose garden of the Palace

Hampton Court Palace, with marked reference points referred to on this page. A: West Front & Main Entrance; B: Base Court; C: Clock Tower; D: Clock Court, E: Fountain Court; F: East Front; G: South Front; H: Banqueting House; J: Great Hall; K: River Thames; L: Pond Gardens; M: East Gardens; O: Cardinal Wolsey's Rooms; P: Chapel

Flowers and trees in the Great Fountain Garden

One of the Palace's sunken gardens. In the background is William III's Banqueting House (H on plan) of 1700. 219

HAMPTON COURT PALACE GARDENS , MIDDLESEX

The Great Fountain Garden Relax in the shade of the historic yew trees, marvel at the glistening fountain or take a stroll along the Broad Walk. At 580 metres it is the longest herbaceous mixed flower border in Britain.

Privy Garden Be inspired by the re-creation of William III's Privy Garden. Based on the original 17th century design and historic planting lists, the stunning symmetrical pattern incorporates the original varieties of plants and shows off magnificent marble sculptures.

Lower Orangery Garden Once the home of Queen Mary IIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Exotic plant collection, this garden has been restored to its former glory. Nearby, you can discover the magic of the hidden Pond Gardens which were originally used for holding freshwater fish for the royal courts.

The Great Vine Planted in 1768 by the celebrated gardener Lancelot 'Capability' Brown, the magnificent Great Vine is the largest in the world and still produces a yearly crop of black, sweet grapes that are sold in the palace shops in early September.

Kitchen garden Kitchen Garden and seasonal fruits, vegetables and herbs growing as they would have done for the Georgian kings in the 18th century. We have restored this garden to an approximation of how it would have looked in the 18th century.

The Maze Planted over 300 years ago, the world's oldest puzzle Maze consists of half a mile of winding paths surrounded by towering yew tree walls. The layout of the Maze has survived from the late 17th century. The maze itself was created as a humorous diversion for the court of William III and Mary II.

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1 6 TH - 1 7 TH C E N T U R Y G A R D E N S O F E N G L A N D FEATURES AND IDEOLOGIES OF ENGLISH GARDEN

AXIAL SYMMETRY

OCCUPYING SPACE

BOUNDARY

TRANSITION

HARMONY

gardens were organized along the central lines of sight Creating a geometric Ordering of spaces

Places for passive space Of enjoyment â&#x20AC;&#x201C; carpets, flat or elevated platforms

Edged by moats, canal, Galleried walkway, ordered ground plane

The sequence and progression of spaces Representing physical and Psychological transition

on states how spaces corresponds wit each spaces

Mazes, mounts and topiary

Parterre, canal, galleria

Hydraulics, compartment ,sculptures

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1 6 TH - 1 7 TH C E N T U R Y G A R D E N S O F D U T C H FEATURES AND IDEOLOGIES OF ENGLISH GARDEN

VISTA

HIDE AND REVEAL

SUBDIVISION

EXTENSION

ILLUSION

Distant landscapes are borrowed and incorporated into the pictorial composition.views are framed by vegetation.The garden elements are strategically placed in fore ground with viewer in the scene

Space unfolds incrementally as various focal points capture the viewers attention

Four squared paradise form. The recursive subdivision of the four square geometry creates interesting patterns and modular spaces

The landscape is projected through the monumental axes. Vistas merged with The horizons

Perspective was manipulated in baroque gardens to create theatrical effects and a sense of mystery

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CHRONOLOGY

P R E H I S T O R Y T O 6 TH C E N T U R Y 1 2 5 4 1

3 5 6 6 0

8 0 3 0 0

0BCE 0 BCE–612 BCE –483 BCE BCECE

EGYPTI AN GARDENS PRECOLUMBI AN ERA ANCI ENT I NDIA GREECE ROME

6 TH T O 1 5 TH C E N T U R Y 7

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CENTURY

MI DDLE AGES OF WESTERN EUROPE MOORI SH SPAI N MI DDLE AGES OF CHINA MI DDLE AGES OF JAPAN

8 TH - 1 0 TH C E N T U R Y L AT E 6 TH C E N T U R Y

MID 6

- EARLY 10

1 5 TH C E N T U R Y JAPAN (MUROMACHI ERA) CHINA-MING DYNASTY CENTRAL ASI A (I SLAM) RENAI SSANCE

1 6 TH C E N T U R Y RENAI SSANCE FRANCE AND ENGLAND MUGHAL GARDENS MOMOYAMA DYNASTY JAPAN

1 7 TH C E N T U R Y JAPAN- EDO PERI OS PERSI AN GARDENS MUGHAL GARDENS I TALY MANNERSI M AND

1 8 TH C E N T U R Y DUTCH AND

ENGLAND

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