Metrics as a Foundation for Systematic Design: Incorporating Performance Measures into the Architectural Design Process
Amanda J. Raymond 1
Metrics as a Foundation for Systematic Design: Incorporating Performance Measures into the Architectural Design Process
Author:
Amanda J. Raymond
Advisors: Robert Koester Robert Fisher College of Architecture & Planning Ball State University May 2011
Abstract: The purpose of this Master of Architecture Final Project is to examine how to incorporate performance measures (metrics) into the architectural design process by understanding metrics as a systematic foundation for design. This project is used to examine both traditional and integrated-design processes in the making of architecture, using the existing framework of these process models to incorporate performance measures. It is important to understand metrics as an evolving part of the design process, rather than a singular task which occurs near the end of that process. By framing performance measures as a construct within the design process I intend to demonstrate the relationship between metrics and design process. This project uses metrics as a systematic foundation for design process, developing ways to organize performance measures into elements, relationships, and ordering ideas. The design implications and relationships among these are analyzed and evaluated in a whole-systems approach to design process. The performance measures addressed in this project involve the sun, wind, water, and energy. Within each category, key issues are examined, including, but not limited to, energy production, energy loads, daylighting, ventilation, water collection and reuse. Over-arching goals of this final project include how metrics can promote integrated design, achieve high-performance building operation, and assure long-term effectiveness.
Preface: I believe that architecture should be about more than creating a building or an image; it should be about high-performance with cost-effectiveness, and changing from our “business as usual� approach to design into a more integrated design process. Public and professional understanding of green building, sustainability, net-zero performance, etc needs to improve in order for the popular emphasis on design-for-design sake to move towards design-for-performance. Highperformance leads to cost-effectiveness as we begin to examine long-term versus short-term costs during the lifecycles of buildings.
Amanda J. Raymond Graduate Student, 2011 Ball State University
Table of Contents: Summary pgs 14 - 17 Thesis pgs 18 - 27 Project pgs 28 - 47
Reflection
pgs 48 - 55
Appendix pgs 56 - 113
Keywords: • • • • •
Net-Zero Energy Design Carbon-Neutral Regenerative Practices High-Performance Green Building
• • • • •
Design Process Principles of Sustainability Environmental Responsibility Living Building Challenge Beyond LEED and Green Globes
Summary
Key Concepts: • • • • • •
Filtering of Information and Ideas Wide Spectrum of Results No “Right” Answer Parallel Design Process (look at all the issues) Supports Integrated-Design Processes Design Managment Tool
Thesis
Summary
decisions, as well as to verify net-zero energy performance. 13
Reflection
My final project seeks to incorporate metrics as an IDEA within the design process, but not to explore metrics as a CALCULATION. I intend to examine the structural implications of metrics; how metrics as a system of design can be a way of organizing information, to better understand the interrelationship of design decisions and building performance. I believe incorporating performance measures within the architectural design process will help reveal design potentials, while better integrating the engineering and architectural aspects of the project. As a system of design, metrics can be modulated to understand a piece of the whole, building upon an incremental system, while adding complexity to a project. My final project is not a singular results argument, but rather a structural model of how performance measures can be a part of the design process. Calculations and analysis of building performance will be utilized to substantiate design
Appendix
Project Introduction:
Project
• Adaptive VS Interactive Metrics
Expectations of Thesis Project: To demonstrate how using metrics as a system of design can improve and support hi-performance building design.
My final project is NOT: How to calculate formulas How to understand calculations What specific formulas to use in metric analysis Not a numbers answer
My final project IS: Using performance measures in the design process Using metrics as a foundation of systematic design Developing ways to organize metric components Elements Relationships Ordering Ideas Examining the design implications of components Examining the relationship among components
14
We can compare the design process to that of writing a novel by dissecting the system. We understand the basic components of the novel: introduction, body, and conclusion. However knowing how to put those pieces together does not guarantee a good book, but understanding storyline, sentence composition, and paragraph organization will certainly improve the quality of the novel. The architectural design process is made up of five components: schematic design, design development, construction documents, bidding and negotiation, and construction observation. Following these steps does not necessarily make a good building, but if performance measures were included in this process, a more efficient building would be the result. So if we examine the various components of a building and how they affect efficiency, we can begin to understand the relationship among the mechanics as a whole, just like the sentences that form a novel. 15
Thesis
Summary
Architectural Design Process:
Project
As architects we are expected to know a little about a lot of different subjects, and use that information to design. Performance measures are typically not part of the architect’s responsibility, in fact they are usually considered a engineers’ task, yet we make many design decisions early in the process that can dramatically affect the metrics of a project. These metric performance areas are interrelated within the whole systems of a project, so a change in one factor results in a change in another factor, a cascading effect that can be negative or positive.
Reflection
Performance Measures:
Appendix
Argument:
Methodologies: Performance measures in the architectural design process is a relatively new concept in the profession, with more focus on the practice of integrative design. The change towards an integrated-design process is a step in the right direction, however metric analysis has yet to be included in this whole-systems thinking. In this final project I intend to use a combination of research methods to understand and give validity to my argument for incorporating metrics into the design process. These methodologies include: theoretical, simulation, and qualitative research. I will address the concept of performance measures within the architectural design process, while also taking into consideration specific metric analysis topics (sun, wind, water, and energy).
Theoretical Research: Theoretical research is important in framing performance measures as an abstract construct within the design process. I will evaluate the architectural design process, both the traditional model and the integrated-design model, while seeking to understand how metric analysis can be incorporated into practice. Using deductive logic, I will create a systematic approach to using performance measures in the architectural design process.
Simulation Research: Simulation research is critical to developing a model to test specific performance measures. I’ve limited the scope of this simulation and evaluation to the analysis of sun, wind, water, and energy. Descriptive and quantitative data will emerge from this methodology, however I am not after numbers answer. Simulation research is simply a way to test performance measures, while examining the implications each of these variables have in relationship to the whole design project. 16
Summary
Qualitative Research:
Design Program: The project wis a 3 story mixed use development that seeks sto meet net-zero energy efficiency. The ground floor supports a contemporary furniture shop and a cafĂŠ, while the above floors accommodate 8 apartment units. The project is located in Indianapolis, Indiana.
Metric Analysis: The project uses metrics as a system of design, creating dialog and figures validating the design response. The analytical metrics of sun, wind, water, and energy are documented through written and graphic means. I have limited my research scope through these four boundaries in order to achieve greater depth and understanding of these metric components. Explicit discussion of the metrics will accompany the design response, using various simulation and modeling tools. 17
Appendix
Project Information:
Reflection
Project
Thesis
Qualitative research is the basis for understanding current architectural design and practice in correlation with metric performance. Through case studies, literature review, and my own perspective, I will be able to synthesize and analyze information producing descriptive-focused data. Case studies will evaluate a variety of hi-performance buildings and the literature review will examine current published works about hi-performance buildings and the design process, while I assess the viability of incorporating performances measures into the design process.
18
Summary
Thesis Discovery
Design & Construction
Water
Occupancy
Thesis
Habitat
Energy
Budget Prep. Evaluation Conceptual Design
Schematic Design
Design Development
Construction Documents
Bidding & Construction
Project
Materials
Diagram Based on Reed, 7group: Integrative Design Guide to Green Building
19
Appendix
In order to understand metrics without getting lost in the numbers of performance data, I’ve framed metrics as a construct within the architectural design process. Using the design process as a framework for incorporating performance measures into a project, I’ll be better able to examine design implications at a larger scale, which will help in understanding and organizing metric components into a system of design. I’ll use two types of design processes found within architectural practice, traditional and integrated-design, to incorporate performance components in the existing process structure.
Reflection
Discussion of the Design Process:
Predesign
Design & Construction
Occupancy
Conceptual Design
Schematic Design
Design Development
Construction Documents
Bidding & Construction
Diagram Based on Reed, 7group: Integrative Design Guide to Green Building
20
A traditional design process that includes performance measures within its structure would start to reflect an integrated-design process because stakeholders would be brought into the conversation early in the design, setting project goals for various performance components, while also sharing ideas across disciplines to address the building as a whole. Performance measures would be a broad range of categories in the initial phases of a project, evaluating strategies and applications. As the project moved into more development the performance measures would be become more analytic, requiring more precise estimations, such as energy modeling.
PROGRAM DEV.
Summary Thesis
BUILDING DESIGN BUILDING PLANNING
21
Appendix
SITE ANALYSIS
Project
Traditional design process is commonly defined in five stages: schematic design, design development, construction documents, bidding and negotiation, and construction observation. This model has been used for many years within the architectural profession, with changes and developments governed by the American Institute of Architects (AIA). Traditional design process is linear-organized, constraining those involved within a project to follow the same pattern for almost any project. This model brings stakeholders to the table at incremental points during the process, with little regard for genuine collaboration among parties.
Reflection
Traditional Design Process:
Predesign
Design & Construction
Occupancy, Operations, & Performance Feedback
Prep.
Evaluation
Conceptual Design
Schematic Design
Design Development
Construction Documents
Bidding & Construction
Diagram Based on Reed, 7group: Integrative Design Guide to Green Building
22
Zoning
Integrated-design process is rapidly catching on within architectural practice, as buildings Site Structure become more complicated and require greater collaboration among all parties involved. WholeTyp. systems thinking has grown out of this approach, finding Floor better ways to integrate all the various Verticle Building Services components and systemsConfig. within a building, whether toTyp. saveLiving money, energy, or just to create a Detailed Unit the expertise Data of many disciplines better building. This smart-design thinking is simply applying Design Building Strategies Goals Design into a design that reflects a practical application of systems and components. 1st Floor Refine An integrated-design process already has the structure Service for incorporating performance measures Spaces Data because all stakeholders Wind are involved from the beginning of a project, so collaboration among disciplines is already encouraged. Similar to the traditional process model, using performance
Water measures as a broad category within the initial design discussions of a project would help determine goals for the metrics, while also evaluating strategies and applications. As the project Energy moved from general to specific, performance data would be needed to provide more concise estimates of the metrics, informing team members if the design was working as predicted or if alterations needed to be made.
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT SITE ANALYSIS
Project
Simulations
Reflection
Sun
Summary
Integrated-Design Process:
Thesis
Program
BUILDING DESIGN 23
Appendix
BUILDING PLANNING
Adaptive VS Interactive Metrics: • Adaptive: Unchanging Climatic Fit • Gestures • Proportioning of Form • Harvest of Flows Sun Wind Water Energy
• Interative: Mitigatation • Resolutions • Elements/Components that Affect Performance • Interior & Exterior Variables
Slab / Block / Tower Proportioning Systems • Same Total Floor Area • Different Amounts of Surface Area 24
Summary Thesis Project 25
Reflection
To begin to understand performance components in any great detail (and in a limited timeframe), I’ve specifically examined two key issues within each performance category. The cascading effect of these issues is quite evident when I begin to analyze their affect on the whole systems of a building. I hope to integrate these factors through better understanding of their relationship to metric performance, resulting in a positive cascading effect.
Appendix
Discussion of the Metrics:
SUN: Solar analysis is one of the most important performance components because so much of a building’s design is affected by orientation, sun penetration, daylighting, thermal mass capability, and photovoltaic array placement. Rules of thumb, such as elongating the footprint of the building in an east-west direction will maximize solar gain and daylighting potential, are helpful in the pre-design/schematic phase of a project. However, a more thorough approach to the sun’s affect on a project design would be beneficial in developing design responses that reflect an understanding of the building as a whole integrated system. Daylighting Solar Energy Production
ENERGY:
Energy perhaps is the most important performance component because so much of the building is reliant upon electrical power. In order to meet net-zero energy efficiency, design teams’ must balance the building energy consumption with energy production, whether those solutions focus on reducing a building’s loads to lessen its energy needs, or providing more energy production through photovoltaics, wind turbines, etc. Energy loads are typically categorized under four areas: heating, cooling, lighting, and plug loads. Heating Cooling Lighting Plug Loads 26
WATER:
Water analysis is a vital part of any project aspiring to meet net-zero water efficiency because building water usage has to balance with how much water can be collected on site. Once water collection is determined, the design team can then work to reduce water needs within the building, while also evaluating wastewater reuse strategies, such as a living machine. Another important aspect of water management is stormwater runoff, and finding ways to allow that water to recharge into the water table rather than diverting it to a typical drain and sewer system. Rainwater Collection & Management Water Treatment & Reuse 27
Summary Thesis Project
Passive Ventilation Wind Energy Production
Reflection
Wind analysis is particularly beneficial in developing designs that seek to use passive ventilation strategies or intends to use wind as an energy source. Although wind is not typically considered a major factor in design, except for building-types such as skyscrapers or high-rises, it can be an instrumental component in the design of systems because passive ventilation strategies can help lower the energy load needed for heating and cooling. In addition, wind turbine technology is becoming more developed, resulting in more efficient and economical equipment.
Appendix
WIND:
28
Summary Location: 400 Block of Vermont St Indianapolis, IN Site Boundaries: 200’ X 140’ = 28,000 sf Climate Type: Temperate Building Type: Mixed Use Size: 16,000 sf Construction Type: Steel Stud w/ Masonry Veneer
Mixed-Use Building 8 Apartment Units 2 Lease Units 12 Parking Spaces Lobby Elevator Service Spaces (Mechanical, Delivery) Outdoor Space (Plaza, Courtyard, or Terrace)
Design: Following the design process established in the thesis research, the project was developed through various adaptive and interactive responses to sun, wind, water, and energy. Overall design responses such as building orientation and relationship to the urban context played large roles in initial simulation studies, while smaller measures, such as the localized double-skin window system, further enhanced the building’s performance. Analysis of the four metric areas produced varying results from multiple software simulations and hand calculations, however using these tools did provide greater depth and understanding of design decisions. 29
Thesis
• • • • • • • •
Project
Project Infomation:
Reflection
Building Program:
Appendix
Project
Project Design Process:
Sun Wind Water
• • • • • •
Site Resources
Energy Organization
Orientation
Height Materials
Site Analysis Identify Key Issues Preliminary Footprint Analysis Base-Case Energy Modeling Refine Design Determine Areas of Improvement
• Make Appropriate Response(s)
Indy Design Guidelines
Streetscape # of Units
Re-Examine Program
BUILDING
Amenities Energy Use Targets
Baseline Energy Criteria
3 Step Process:
Energy Modeling
1. Site Analysis - Harvesting of Flows (Sun, Wind, Water, Energy)
Open Studio Energy 10 Vasari Social Environmental Economic
30
2. “Big Moves” Triple Bottom Line
- Footprint, Orientation, Etc. 3. “Small Moves” - Envelope, Materials, Etc.
31
Summary Appendix
Reflection
Project
I decided to use an urban site to design a mixed-use building because I felt that a downtown area presented more of a challenge in achieving net-zero energy, and there are few precedents in high-performance building that are located in urban settings. I chose Indianapolis, Indiana as my location because I’m familiar with the city and it’s close proximity provides the opportunity for me to visit the site personally. The site I’ve selected is located near Massachusetts Avenue, which is a street that has seen much redevelopment in the past few years. This diagonal street is important to the history of the city because it does not conform to the orthogonal grid pattern street layout. I chose a parking lot on a city block that was a mix of residential and retail-use, and was elongated in an east-west direction for easier sun penetration control.
Thesis
Site Information & Analysis:
PV Production: Fixed Tilt (39.7*) 1,700 Panels = 13,600 sf
32
YEAR: 176,528 kWh (12.98 kWh/sf)
MONTH
AC ENERGY (kWh)
PV PRODUCTION (kWh/ft2)
MONTHLY PRODUCTION (kWh)
January February March April May* June July August September October November December**
315 kWh 370 kWh 416 kWh 453 kWh 506 kWh 479 kWh 497 kWh 485 kWh 438 kWh 427 kWh 278 kWh 231 kWh
.84 kWh/ft2 .98 kWh/ft2 1.1 kWh/ft2 1.2 kWh/ft2 1.34 kWh/ft2 1.27 kWh/ft2 1.32 kWh/ft2 1.29 kWh/ft2 1.16 kWh/ft2 1.13 kWh/ft2 .74 kWh/ft2 .61 kWh/ft2
11,424 kWh 13,328 kWh 14,960 kWh 16,320 kWh 18,224 kWh 17,272 kWh 17,952 kWh 17,544 kWh 15,776 kWh 15,368 kWh 10,064 kWh 8,296 kWh
TOTAL
4895 kWh
12.98 kWh/ft2
176,528 kWh
Summary Thesis
Wind Speed Frequency:
280 + hrs
Reflection
140-168 hrs
33
Appendix
Frequencies: 1-28 hrs
Project
Primary Winds = Southwest
Water Collection: 700 Cisterns (7’ Ht. X 5’ Dia) = 1025 gallons/cistern Month
34
YEAR:
716,000 gallons (40.95”)
January
Precipitation (in, ft) 2.48” (.21’)
Collection (gal) 44,100 gal
Percentage of Total 6.2%
February* March
2.41” (.20’) 3.44” (.29’)
42,000 gal 60,900 gal
5.9% 8.5%
April May
3.61” (.30’) 4.36” (.36’)
63,000 gal 75,600 gal
8.7% 10.6%
June July** August
4.13” (.34’) 4.42” (.37’) 3.82” (.32’)
71,400 gal 77,700 gal 67,200 gal
10% 10.9% 9.4%
September
2.88” (.24’)
50,400 gal
7%
October
2.76” (.23’)
48,300 gal
6.7%
November
3.61” (.30’)
63,000 gal
8.7%
December
3.03” (.25’)
52,500 gal
7.3%
TOTAL
40.95” (3.41’)
716,100 gal
100%
Summary
Energy Load TARGETS: (Architecture 2030)
• Typical = • 50% Reduction = • 70% Reduction =
49.5 kBTU/sf/yr 24.8 kBTU/sf/yr 14.9 kBTU/sf/yr
• 90% Reduction =
5.0 kBTU/sf/yr
Thesis
*Multi-Family Building-Type
Electrical Energy
• 90% Reduction =
23,096 kWh/yr Reflection
228,645 kWh/yr 114,554 kWh/yr 68,825 kWh/yr
35
Appendix
• Typical = • 50% Reduction = • 70% Reduction =
Project
BTU/sf/yr X sf 3413 BTU/kWh
Bioswale Parking Screen
Permeable Pavers
PV Panels
N
36 Community Garden
Cisterns
Street Trees
PV Tubes
Ventilation Tower
Summary Thesis Project
Outdoor Cafe Seating
South Elevation
37
Appendix
Reflection
Community Garden
Entry
Lobby Storage
Storage
Contemporary Furniture Shop
Cafe Atrium
Entry
Outdoor Cafe Seating 1’
5’
10’
1st Floor Plan 38
Summary Living Room
Dining
Dining
Living Room
Kitchen Bedroom
Bath
Kitchen Kitchen Atrium Dining
Bath
Project
Bath
Bedroom
Elevator
Thesis
Bedroom
Living Room Bedroom
Bath
Kitchen
Living Room
Reflection
Bedroom
Dining
1’
5’
10’
2nd & 3rd Floor Plan 39
Appendix
Bedroom
40
Summary Thesis
East Elevation m Su
1’ 5’
10’
North/South Section 41
Appendix
Reflection
un
Project
rS
un rS
nte
me
Wi
w/ #6 Rebar, Thermal Mass 5” Stone Veneer Galv. Drip Edge 28 Ga. Flashing Integrated Gutter Built-up Roof Membrane 8” Polyisocyanurate Insulation, R-72 Vapor Retarder
Sill Cap Galv. Drip Edge 5” Stone Veneer Galv. Drip Edge
Triple Glazed, Low-E, D.H. Window, R-3
12”x12” Cast-in-Place Reinforced Concrete Column, Typ.
un rS me
Single Glazed, Clear, Fixed Window, R-1
14” Two-Way High Strength Cast-in-Place Concrete Slab w/ #5 Rebar, Thermal Mass Ceiling Board, Adhered to Floor Plate, Typ.
Sum
Aluminum Louvers
PV Panel, Angled 39*
Storefront Window 6” Permeable Concrete Walkway Typ. Gravel and Sand Base Expansion Joint
4” Brick Veneer Metal Tie-Backs 1/2” Air Space 6 mil Vapor Barrier
4” Polyisocyanurate Insulation, R-36
1/2” Sheathing Light Gauge Steel 2x4 Framing @ 24” O.C. 4” Polyisocyanurate Insulation, R-36 1/2” Post-Consumer Gypsum Wall Board, Typ.
Waterproof Membrane
Sum
8” CMU
rS me
6” Concrete Slab w/ Wire Mesh 4” Polyisocyanurate Insulation, R-36
Raised Floor System Under Floor Ventilation Plenum 12” Two-Way High Strength Cast-inPlace Concrete Slab w/ #6 Rebar, Thermal Mass
un
Continuous Spread Footing w/ #4 Rebar 8” Drain Tile
5” Stone Veneer Galv. Drip Edge
6”
Wall Section 42 12”x12” Cast-in-Place Reinforced Concrete
3’
8’
Summary
Details:
Ventilation
Combined Strategies Energy Production
East/West Shading
Vegetated Screen Shading
43
Appendix
Reflection
South Shading
Project
Thesis
Window System: • Localized Double-Skin in Combination with Standard Double-Hung Window • Interactive Metric • Thermal Buffer • Window Selection Based on Performance Needs
Performance: Win te
r Su
n
26* 39.7* 8’-4”
Photovoltaic Production: Fixed-Tilt PV Roof 382 Panels = 3,056 sf 13 kWh/sf/yr X 3,056sf = 39,727 kWh/yr
Passive Ventilation: Stack Effect 225sf (area of stack) X 50’ (height) = 11,250 cubic ft
PV Tubes 4 Panels = 576 sf 8 kWh/sf/yr X 576 = 4,608 kWh/yr
Energy Production:
Water Collection:
44,335 kWh/yr
3 Cisterns (12’ Ht X 6’ Dia) = 2550 gallons/cistern YEAR: 173,450 gallons (24% Site Water)
20% (Offset) 44
Envelope:
Envelope:
Summary
Heat Gains:
Summer: (CDD X U X 24 hrs) Gains: 1,798 X (2,735 + 36,415) X 24 = 1,689,400,800 BTU
Infiltration:
Infiltration:
107,161 BTU/sf Winter: (HDD X U X 24 hrs)
798 BTU h F
20,940 BTU h F
Ventilation:
Ventilation:
567 BTU h F
8,400 BTU h F
Heat Loss Coefficient:
Heat Gain Coefficient:
(UA total = Envelope + Infil. + Vent.)
(UA total = Envelope + Infil. + Vent.)
Losses: 5,282 X (2,735) X 24 = 346,710,480 BTU
2,735 BTU h F
36,415 BTU h F
21,992 BTU/sf
(# Occupants X Constant X 15 CFM/min/person)
(CFM/person X people / Floor Area X Constant X Area)
Gains: 5,282 X (36,415) X 24 = 4,616,256,720 BTU Project
(Surfaces/Floor Area X Constant X Floor Area)
292,817 BTU/sf
Reflection
(# AC/hr X Constant X Building Volume)
Thesis
Opaque+Glazing+Roof TOTAL: 1, 370 BTU h F
(Area of Surface/Floor Area X Constant X Area of Surface) Glazing+Opaque+Roof TOTAL: 7,075 BTU h F
(U value / Area of Surface)
45
Appendix
Heat Loss:
Simulations:
PROJ1 - ANNUAL ENERGY USE Reference Case
Low-Energy Case
70
Energy-10
68.9
Performance:
60
50
Reference Case =
68.9 kBTU/sf/yr
Low-Energy Case =
41.6 kBTU/sf/yr
41.6
kBtu / ft²
40
32.4
30
27.8
20.8
20
12.7
10 6.6
5.7
3.0
0
Heating
1.5
Cooling
Lights
Other
Total
PROJ1 - ANNUAL ELECTRIC USE BREAKDOWN
Annual Energy Use
Reference Case
Low-Energy Case
9 8.1
8
7
Project Vasari
kWh/ft²
6
5 4.3
4
3.7
3
2.9
2.9 2.4
0.8
0.8
0.1
Int lights
0.1
Ext lights
Hot water
Annual Electricity Use
46
Current Performance: Electricity EUI: Fuel EUI: TOTAL EUI:
10 kWh/sf/yr 30 kBTU/sf/yr 64 kBTU/sf/yr
1.9 1.7
0.4
0
15 kWh/sf/yr 83 kBTU/sf/yr 133 kBTU/sf/yr
2.4
2
1
Starting Performance: Electricity EUI: Fuel EUI: TOTAL EUI:
Other
Heating
Cooling
Fan
Summary Thesis Monthly Heating Load
Monthly Cooling Load
47
Appendix
Annual Carbon Emissions
Reflection
Project
Annual Energy Use Energy Use: Electricity
48
This Final Project accomplished some of my initial goals, such as providing a framework for design, however the main objective of this project was to be part of a larger conversation about the design process and how we can use performance measures to help inform architectural design. Using the project as a way to test the thesis claim helped validate my argument while also giving me new insight and understanding about the realities of incorporating performance measures in the architectural design process. 49
Appendix
Reflection
Project
Establishing the site’s ‘carrying capacity’ by gathering information about sun, wind, water, and energy helped determine maximum baselines for these metrics areas in the project. ‘Big Moves’ such as building orientation and form play important roles in energy simulations and the harvesting of resources from the site. Making smart and informed choices in this stage of development is likely to make the biggest impact in metric analysis. ‘Small Moves’ such as building construction and glazing size/placement play secondary roles in the grand scheme of the project. However, these areas are also the easiest to change and manipulate to achieve desired performance levels when the building has reached a more refined development stage.
Summary
In completing this Masters of Architecture Final Project, I learned much about measuring building performance through both hand calculations and computer simulations. Although my thesis argument was about using metrics as a foundation for systematic design, the design process of my final project could not fully replicate a traditional or integrated process model because of the nature of this Masters Final Project. Still, using metrics as a guiding principle for the design of this project helped me make important design decisions and led me to various design opportunities.
Thesis
Reflection:
Thesis Conclusions: I began my Final Project with the thesis concept of incorporating performance measures into the architectural design process to improve and support high-performance building design. I feel metrics is a way to further enrich the architectural design process through both traditional and integrated process models. Through my research I’m come to understand the potential for a performance-based design process within the architectural community. Traditional Design Process The Traditional Design Process (as discussed in the Thesis Section of this book) is a typical example of the process model used in architecture firms across the globe. Although this process model is not the ideal for incorporating performance measures, it is possible to use some of these metrics at various stages to help inform the design. Firms might slowly transition into this type of design process, such as in the case with Building Information Software (BIM), in which they could gradually add metric-based analyses to each of the five design stages. Any changes to the Traditional Design Process in favor of performancebased or environmentally-responsive measures could help in the movement towards efficient building design.
50
51
Summary Thesis Project Reflection
It is important in the field of architecture today, that we incorporate performance measures in design to produce more healthy, efficient, and environmentally responsible projects. By using metric analysis as a design tool, we can better understand how certain aspects of building affect energy performance, harvesting of site resources, etc. therefore creating more environmentally efficient and responsive buildings.
Appendix
Integrated Design Process The Integrated Design Process (as discussed in the Thesis Section of this book) is a process model that is beginning to catch on in firms across the world as we start to see more collaboration among all stakeholders involved in the design process. This process is ideal for incorporating performance measures because everyone involved in the design is already at the table early in the design process, therefore the metrics can create more informative conversation among architects, engineers, etc. Firms using this type of process model are more likely to take performance measures seriously because they realize how important early and continued collaboration among the design team is to the development of a better project. With the process model framework already predisposed for the implementation of performance measures, it seems an Integrated Design Process is strongly suited to the creation of high-performance buildings.
Project Conclusions: The overarching goal of the Final Project was to incorporate performance measures into the design process by exploring this idea through the Thesis while testing its implications through the Project. The project did use metrics as a foundation for design, however a true measurement of the thesis would be better understood using a real design team and project. I gained a great deal of knowledge and insight about metric analysis, both through hand calculations and computer simulations, including the pros and cons of various software and measurement tools. As I developed the design, I caught myself examining the decisions I made based on design conventions versus those based on performance analysis. It does take some initiative to teach oneself to think of design from a performance perspective; however using the information gained from metrics can help architects make better and more informed decisions. Energy Modeling Software I sought out a variety of energy modeling software tools, including Energy + and Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES), but the programs most easily understood were Energy-10 and AutoDesk’s Project Vasari. As architects we need visual modeling tools to better communicate our ideas, and Project Vasari helps fulfill some of that need by providing a fairly simple energy modeling interface. This software was helpful because one can create forms within the program or import models from other programs, such as Revit, and define basic parameters before running the energy simulations. The outputs were easily understood and graphically pleasing, however I found the input parameters to be too simple and generic for any in-depth analysis. Energy10 on the other hand is very technical and can provide specific output data if one knows what they want to analyze. A downfall of the program is its lack of a visual modeling interface, in which all the simulations are based on a ‘box’ analysis, so the true implications of an irregular-shaped building are not fully realized. 52
Summary Thesis Project
Window System The interactive window system is a unique feature of the project, which is able to adjust based on performance needs, such as shading or energy production, or interior needs, such as daylighting or ventilation. Although the current system is based on a simple punched opening with a doublehung window, the system could easily be manipulated to adjust to a variety of sizes in order to accommodate building or user needs. As a component of the building envelope, the window system could be modulated to provide easy application to the building faรงade and metric performance.
Window Elevation (x or y direction)
Reflection
y Window Section (larger than window opening)
Window System Expansion 53
Appendix
x
Window System Exploration 54
Finally, as a Graduate student without any advanced training in metric analysis, I feel that more education is needed in our architecture schools to help understand the meaning behind ‘the numbers’ produced by simulations and calculations, while also teaching students about the tools used in the workforce today. As we begin to see a shift towards green buildings and highperformance design, it will be necessary for architecture students to understand these concepts and tools in order to excel in the field. 55
Summary Thesis Project
The calculations and simulations used in this project were beneficial and informative to some extent, but I am not convinced that all the tools are available to make metrics an easily understood and used tool for design. We need more visually oriented programs, such as Project Vasari, that can perform both baseline simulations with minimal data and highly developed simulations with detailed information. This combination of both simple and detailed modeling capabilities would allow beginners to learn the software interface and understand basic analysis, while the more advanced users could run refined performance simulations.
Reflection
This Final Project allowed me to explore this idea of incorporating performances measures into the design process, while diving into the logistics and workings of energy modeling software in order to develop a high performance building. Although my project did not meet net-zero energy efficiency, I am more confident and knowledgeable in using these tools to validate building performance. In addition, this project further enforced my belief that there is a need for better tools and education to help promote the design of energy-efficient and environmentally responsible buildings.
Appendix
Final Thoughts:
56
Summary
APPENDIX:
Thesis
Literature Review - Integrative Design Guide to Green Building - The Green Studio Handbook - Remaining Postive - Computation Building Performance Modelling and EcoDesign - Want the Medal? Keep the Metrics.
Image Sources
Reflection
References
57
Appendix
Project
Case Studies - Beddington Zero Energy Development - Adam Joseph Lewis Center - Aldo Leopold Legacy Center - Omega Center for Sustainable Living - Tyson Living Learning Center
Literature Review The following five literature reviews are important in my understanding of performance measures and the architectural design process. These references help establish goals and framework within my final project, while also providing the knowledge base to support and validate my design response and conclusions. The Integrative Design Guide to Green Building: Redefining the Practice of Sustainability 7group & Bill Reed The Green Studio Handbook: Environmental Strategies for Schematic Design Alison Kwok & Walter Grondzik “Remaining Positive: Resource-Positive Design is Becoming the Latest Approach in Adapting the Design Process to Incorporate Broader Issues of Sustainability” Douglas Macleod Canadian Architect, March 2009 “Computation Building Performance Modelling and Ecodesign” Khee Poh Lam & Ken Yeang Architectural Design, Sept-Oct 2009 “Want the Medal? Keep the Metrics” Nate Berg Architect, Jan 2010
58
Summary
The Integrative Design Guide to Green Building: Redefining the Practice of Sustainability
The Integrative Design Guide (IDG) to Green Building was conceived as a guidebook for practicing professionals seeking to use an integrative design process; it is also one of the most thorough and respected books on integrative design within the architectural profession. This text sets up a framework for practitioners to use as a foundation for integrative design, which can evolve and change with the architect’s own design process. It is divided up into three sections to give readers a holistic view of integrative design, these divisions include: the philosophy behind integrative design, the “manual� for using integrative design, and deeper levels of integration. The IDG presents an alternate design process, yet reflects some of the conventional design process stages, such as schematic design, and construction documents, providing a level of adaptability between the two different processes. 59
Reflection
A.0
Appendix
Synopsis:
Project
Thesis
7group & Bill Reed
Key Points: Discovery (pgs 99-196) The Discovery Phase of the integrative design process is primarily made up of workshop and analysis stages. This expansion and contraction form of collaboration allows all parties to voice their ideas at the workshops (expand), and then disperse to research and analyze specific strategies and concepts posed at the meeting (contract). The key categories discussed at these workshops are habitat, water, energy, and materials. The group considers these topics from a broad scope and then delves into the specifics of each topic gathered by individuals or teams. During the initial workshops, principles and touchstones are defined for the project, setting the framework for which the following meetings should focus on addressing. Design & Construction (pgs 197-308) The Design & Construction Phase of the integrative design process begins with Schematic Design, however much of the conceptual ideas have already been brought to the table during the Discovery Phase, but now these ideas can be more developed because of previously gained knowledge. Design Development follows, but again this phase is different from the conventional process model because all major building components and systems are in a reasonably resolved state, allowing for optimization of the design to occur. Construction Documents are also a part of this phase, but again the design has been resolved to a level of detail that makes this part of the process easier and more efficient than the conventional model.
60
Summary Thesis Project
Occupancy, Operations, & Performance Feedback (pgs 309-374) The Occupancy, Operations, and Performance Feedback Phase of the integrative design process encompass many issues regarding the completion and functioning of a project. It seeks to gather feedback from all aspects of the building, particularly the relationships between building occupants and their environment. Without this informative information, we have little evidence to support what aspects of the design were successful and what ones were unsuccessful. Typically this information comes from a Post-Occupancy Evaluation (POE), however POEs are not usually performed for most projects. The commissioning process is also part of this phase, but that process is evolving as we begin to see the value in bringing these individuals to the table earlier in the construction phase to help with quality control.
“Discovery Phase of Design 4 E’s:” Reflection
Everybody Engaging Everything Early
61
Appendix
(7group & Reed, 2009 pg 62)
Evaluation: The Integrative Design Guide to Green Building was extremely helpful in understanding the integrative design process, and had great examples to help readers understand the issues. I focused more on the framework IDG prescribes to see how they have addressed performance measures within the design process. Metrics, benchmarks, and performance targets are established within the Discovery Phase, and then during the Design and Construction phase the team validates these goals. The real test of performance happens after construction by monitoring utility bills, but we can also go a step further by analyzing the utility data to determine what factors have affected cost and energy use. In keeping the team on track throughout this integrative design process, a Process Road Map is created at the beginning of the project, helping the project move forward in logical stages while also establishing a schedule, task list, and next steps. I found the IDG to be an excellent precedent resource, and feel that many of its strategies and concepts will be applicable to my final project design, such as principles/touchstones, process road map, and performance targets/benchmarks.
“Most of us have been conditioned and trained to design our buildings by utilizing a fragmented process that optimizes each system or subsystem in isolation, based upon conventions and rules of thumb.� (7group & Reed, 2009 pg 24) 62
Summary
The Green Studio Handbook: Environmental Strategies for Schematic Design
B.0
Project
Thesis
Alison Kwok & Walter Grondzik
63
Appendix
The Green Studio Handbook was developed as a reference guide for student and professionals wanting to incorporate green strategies within schematic design. The book is organized so that readers are briefed about the design process and integrated design, and then more detailed information is found in the sections about design strategies and case studies. Design strategies are categorized under six categories: envelope, lighting, heating, cooling, energy production, water and waste. This text is a helpful guide for schematic design because it provides basic understanding of strategies through principles and concepts, while also giving design procedures to help with baseline estimations of each strategy.
Reflection
Synopsis:
Key Points: Design Process (pgs 7-13) The Design Process chapter breaks down the methods of design using language outside the conventional process phase titles (schematic, design development, construction documents, etc). It refers to the initial steps of design as “defining the problem,� which includes setting design criteria, intentions, and validations. The text goes on to describe project data collection, form givers, feedback loops, building organization, transitional spaces, structure, envelope, and climate control systems. The basic idea of this chapter was to make clear that implementation of green strategies is not a simple choose and apply type of system, and that these methods are threaded throughout the process. Integrated Design (pgs 15-20) The Integrated Design chapter defines this collaborative process, but also defines what it is not. For example, integrated design is not sequential-based design, it is not hi-tech design, it is not design by committee, etc. The text goes on to describe various phases within the integrated design process, including: establishing commitment, team formation and goal setting, information gathering, conceptual/ schematic design, testing, design development, construction, and assessment/verification. The main point of this chapter was to explain that the integrated design process is more conducive to green design, and the good solutions developed from this team organization usually resolve many problems at various scales within a project.
64
Summary Thesis Project
Green Strategies (pgs 21-261) The Green Strategies chapters examine six topic categories, with six strategies posed for topic. The strategies are more conceptual than detailed to allow readers to understand the basic idea without getting lost in the data and formulae associated with each method. Each strategy provides a description, defines architectural issues and implementation considerations, along with design procedures for estimating component sizing, performance, etc. Although these chapters present a general understanding of each strategy, giving designers a knowledge base from which to use in communications with technical team members, a list of references is also provided to examine more detailed information.
“Design is a Process of Inquiry.” Reflection
“Design is a Process of Collaboration.” “Design is a Process of Integration.”
65
Appendix
(Kwok & Grondzik, 2007 pg 16)
Evaluation: I think The Green Studio Handbook is a great reference for all designers seeking to implement green strategies within a project. The book is well organized and has clear content, which works well as a goto guide, without having to read through a bunch of text to find back-of-the-hand estimates or design considerations. The strategies section of the text is most beneficial to my project because it addresses the metric areas I’m studying in a way that readers can easily understand (doesn’t involve much number crunching). The sections on design process and integrated-design were also useful to my project because I address performance measures as part of the design process. The Green Studio Handbook provides a simple reference for designers to understand green strategies, while also stressing the value of combining systems and strategies for optimum performance.
“Integrated design looks at the ways all parts of the system interact and uses this knowledge to avoid pitfalls and discover solutions with multiple benefits.” (Kwok & Grondzik, pg 17)
66
Summary
“Remaining Positive: Resource-Positive Design is Becoming the Latest Approach in Adapting the Design Process to Incorporate Broader Issues of Sustainability”
Reflection
This article focused on the changes coming within the architectural profession, particularly the adaptation of sustainability in the design process. MacLeod states that this transformation “will make computerization look like a minor disturbance.” He uses the term “resource-positive design” to describe a way to provide comfort through material resources, not machines. The “triple-bottom line,” coined by John Elkington, plays a key role in the implementation of sustainability because these three dimensions together help create successful developments. MecLeod also writes about the main issues impeding the movement towards sustainability, including cost, behavior, and comprehensive multi-disciplinary green building research information. On a positive note, he does believe that a change for good is coming through the
Project
C.0
use of resource-positive design, and that the AEC industry has the chance to make a significant difference in the future of the world. 67
Appendix
Synopsis:
Thesis
Douglas MacLeod Canadian Architect, March 2009
Key Points: Resource-Positive Design Resource-positive design means we do not need to rely on mechanical systems as the “energy solutions� for a building, but rather the inherent building fabric to provide comfort, such as passive design solutions. Triple-Bottom Line The triple-bottom line refers to three dimensions: economy, environment, and equity (sometimes referred to as people, plant, profit) and their affect on the built environment. Inhibitors Cost is the main issue slowing down the adaptation of sustainability because some technologies and products are still not economical in North America. Behavioral changes need to be made by everyone to reduce our wasteful energy habits. Multi-disciplinary green building information needs to become available to help those involved in the building industry understand sustainability as an integratedsystem, encompassing all aspects of a project.
C.1 68
C.2
C.3 69
Summary Appendix
Reflection
Project
I felt this article raised quite a few good points connecting sustainability and the design process, particularly emphasizing a “common-sense design approach,� which I think is the simplest means of achieving an environmentally responsible building. If architects were to use smart, passivedesign strategies instead of relying on mechanical systems to make their designs work, it could make a dramatic influence on the design process and on the finished building itself. Granted, we might never get rid of the big-box store, but if the profession could get into a mindset to reduce basics loads through smart design, and then purchase the energy efficient equipment and/or power-generating technology, the building would be better for it.
Thesis
Evaluation:
70
Summary
“Computational Building Performance Modelling and Ecodesign”
This article focused on the need for user-friendly computer simulation tools that address all the needs of a building’s lifecycle. It addressed both the architect’s role in communicating performance measures while taking a leadership position in simulation modeling, and the call for integrated-design processes that are more conducive to performance-based design approaches. Yeang and Lam also write about the various simulation tools that are available, in particular research and development of “seamless” interfaces among modeling software, that would allow easy transferability of projects into multiple simulation tools. The growing concern about fossil fuels, climate change, and the environment were discussed as reasons why the building industry is being challenged to create energy-efficient and hi-performance buildings. This article does end on a positive note stating, “A new generation of designers is being training with knowledge of these tools and their application in real-world conditions.” (pg 129) 71
Reflection
D.0
Appendix
Synopsis:
Project
Thesis
Khee Poh Lam & Ken Yeany Architectural Design, Sept-Oct 2009
Key Points: Challenge for the Architect The challenge for the architect is understand a client’s needs and operation requirements, use this description to form a design solution and further translate those design measures into a set of parameters for the engineers. Since building performance is becoming so critical to the design process, Yeang and Lam write that architects should take a proactive role in simulation modeling, specifically so they can communicate client needs as well as operational benchmarks. Simulation Tools Simulation tools are evolving, seeking to address accessibility of the product to architecture professionals and allowing ‘real-time’ sharing of project files and information among the whole design team. The accessibility objective needs to provide cost-effective, easily manageable tools, while providing quick simulations with limited input. Green Building Studio (GBS) is used as an example because it can provide energy prediction early within the design process using two basic parameters (building type and geographic location). GBS can also be used in more detailed simulations, incombination with the Department of Energy’s energy-simulation engine. Sharing of project information across disciplines and software is slowly developing, but “seamless” interfaces are appearing, allowing a CAD model to transfer into an energy simulation model.
72
D.1 Ventilation Model 73
Summary Thesis Appendix
Reflection
Project
Concerns for the Environment While regulatory requirements and other efficiency standards are encouraging sustainable and green developments, growing concern about non-renewable fuel sources and climate change is challenging the building industry to create more efficient and hi-performance buildings. With roughly 40% of energy use consumed by buildings (pg 129), and energy needs expected to increase in the coming years, it is no surprise that we are seeking to create buildings that meet a higher standard of performance.
Evaluation: This article was helpful in understanding the challenges computer simulation tools are facing within the architecture profession. I am familiar with a variety of simulation tools, but much of the available software still requires many parameters and data inputs. Simulation tools are important to incorporating performance measures within the design process because they provide a more accurate depiction of how the building functions. This article also mentioned a shift towards an integrated design process, while also making project information accessible to the whole design team which I think aids the collaboration among the design team. I felt this article addressed the concerns of performance modeling in the profession, while also giving hope that the software is evolving to meet our needs and students are being exposed to these types of programs.
D.2 Ventilation Model 74
Summary
“Want to Keep the Medal? Keep the Metrics.”
The main focus of this article was to make readers aware of key changes to the United States Green Building Council’s (USGBC) LEED 2009 rating system. One of the major flaws that was often criticized in the previous LEED rating system was the lack of reporting or link between the USGBC and a certified LEED project. The USGBC allowed projects to become LEED certified, without a strategy for further inquiry as to how the building is functioning after achieving its credentials. LEED 2009 requires a commitment to report building performance for five years, or risk losing certification. These new changes will also mean firms need to use seminars and workshops to help keep the staff up to date with the new requirements. There is also a prediction that as we begin to see LEED 2009 become the standard for green building, we’ll see a shift in the design process that promotes earlier collaboration among stakeholders to better address these requirements. 75
Reflection
E.0
Appendix
Synopsis:
Project
Thesis
Nate Berg Architect, January 2010
Key Points: Data Reporting LEED 2009 requires buildings to report data for a period of five years in order to keep its credentials. This data collection creates a feedback loop, providing performance data that can be analyzed for a better understanding of the building’s operation, while also identifying areas that are successful or unsuccessful. This data also reveals the full potential of the building to clients and makes architects accountable in regards to their performance targets. Site & Regional Environmental Issues More points are now awarded for site-specific issues, such as access to public transportation, and regional environmental measures. Clients are becoming more interested with the LEED rating system, and have started contacting the architect earlier in the project to help with tasks such as site selection, to make earning some of the LEED credits easier. Water and Energy Efficiency Water and energy efficiency standards have been raised in LEED 2009, however it is believed that these changes won’t have much affect on architects or clients. With the greater availability of green products and technologies and falling costs, it stands to reason new efficiency standards won’t present much of a problem.
76
E.1 LEED Certified
E.2 LEED Silver
E.3 LEED Gold
E.4 LEED Platinum 77
Summary Thesis Appendix
Reflection
The title of this article really captures what LEED 2009 is trying to achieve, a rating system that is more than just points for static building components, but rather a system that requires buildings to validate their performance measures. Although I’m not a big supporter of LEED, I do believe that this rating system is a step in the right direction, and LEED 2009 seeks to raise the ‘greenness’ bar for buildings. Data reporting is essential to corroborate performance strategies used within a project, and I do think that this evidence will help clients and architects alike understand the impacts of their design decisions. It is interesting the article didn’t place much value on the increase in water and energy efficiency standards, simply stating that the technology was available to address these issues. Additional emphasis on passive strategies might create a more thoughtful approach to water and energy efficiency, rather than relying on a product to meet requirements. As a whole, I felt this article effectively communicated the important changes within the LEED 2009 system, while clearly stating the importance of performance data reporting.
Project
Evaluation:
78
Summary
Beddington Zero Energy Development Surrey, United Kingdom Adam Joseph Lewis Center Oberlin, Ohio Aldo Leopold Legacy Center Baraboo, Wisconsin
1.0 Beddington Zero Energy Development
Thesis
Case Studies:
Project
Omega Center for Sustainable Living Rhinebeck, New York Tyson Living Learning Center Eureka, Missouri
Reflection
2.0 Adam Joseph Lewis Center
Synopsis • Energy Conservation & Production • Water Management • Materials Selection & Acquisition Evaluation 3.0 Aldo Leopold Legacy Center 79
Appendix
The following five case studies are important in the history of net-zero energy developments. I’ve arranged the case studies in chronological order, while organizing each precedent using a format that provides:
It is my intent to use these three criteria (energy, water, and materials) as a way to compare projects, while also presenting my evaluation of each case study. To make clear the distinction between the independent rating systems of each of these projects, I’ve described these definitions below. LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design): “LEED is an internationally recognized green building certification system, providing third-party verification that a building or community was designed and built using strategies aimed at improving performance across all the metrics that matter most: energy savings, water efficiency, CO2 emissions reduction, improved indoor environmental quality, and stewardship of resources and sensitivity to their impacts.” (USGBC) Living Building Challenge: “Living Building Challenge is a philosophy, advocacy tool, and certification program that addresses development at all scales. It is comprised of seven performance areas: Site, Water, Energy, Health, Materials, Equity, and Beauty. These are subdivided into a total of twenty Imperatives, each of which focuses on a specific sphere of influence.” (Intl. Living Building Inst.)
4.0 Omega Center for Sustainable Living 80
5.0 Tyson Living Learning Center
Summary
Location:
Cost:
Wallington, Surrey, UK
$20.6 Million
Architect(s):
Size:
Bill Dunster Architects
3.5 acres
Completion:
Project Type:
2002
Mixed-Use,
Thesis
Beddington Zero Energy Development
Multifamily Project
Residential 1.1 Aerial Perspective
The Beddington Zero Energy Development, located on a brownfield site in South London, is an older, yet important model in the application of net-zero energy and carbon standards. Residential, office, retail, and recreational spaces are incorporated into BedZED, focusing on overall sustainability in 3 ways: environmental, social, and economic. BedZED was conceived as a prototype to show how a high level of sustainability can be practical and cost-effective in large-scale developments. There are 83 mixed tenure homes within the complex, ranging from privately owned homes, shared ownerships, rentals, and apartments. Other amenities include: a recreational field, sports clubhouse, local car club, cafe, daycare, and eco-friendly lifestyle. 81
Appendix
Reflection
Synopsis:
Energy Conservation & Production: BedZED’s effectiveness relies much on the building mass and orientation to maximize solar heat gain, daylighting, and natural ventilation. By orienting the residential spaces to the south, BedZED is able to take advantage of passive heat gain, while placing the workspaces to the north to reduce excess heat gain and need for artificial lighting. Massing also provides thermal stability between units and helps reduce air loss through the building envelope. The units do not have a conventional HVAC system, but rely on a tightly sealed envelope; passive internal and solar heat gains (winter months), and natural ventilation and night flushing (summer months). A supplementary active heating is provided as a backup system for days when solar gain and internal loads are not enough to warm the space. The iconic wind cowls along the roofs of the development assist in the natural ventilation of the units, and in the winter months deliver preheated fresh air. A cogeneration plant provides district heating and electricity for BedZED. In addition, 8365 square feet of photovoltaics supply renewable energy, but that electricity is primarily used in the charging of electric cars as part of a Car Club.
1.2 North Facade 82
1.3 Wind Cowls
1.4 South Facade
Summary Thesis Project
Water Management: A Living Machine wastewater treatment system was integrated into the design, however it currently is not operating. At the time of its design, Living Machines were still being studied, but the general idea was to use the natural filtration processes of plants to purify wastewater through various stages using low energy. Rainfall is collected from roof surfaces and stored in underground cisterns for use in irrigation and toilet flushing. Water efficient fixtures and equipment were also chosen to reduce the amount of water used by the development. Stormwater management is handled through a sustainable drainage system (SuDS), which uses permeable surfaces with a foundation filter membrane to remove contaminates from which the water is dispersed into the ground and local water-courses, rather than into a conventional sewer. 83
Reflection
1.6 Terrace
Appendix
1.5 Living Machine
Materials Selection & Acquisition: 52% of materials for BedZED came from within a 35-mile radius, primarily from renewable or recycled sources. Even some of the structural steel for the project was reused from an old building in the area, as well as some reclaimed timber that was used for interior framing. Building waste, both construction and operation, is segregated on-site and sent for recycling. Transportation on and off the site is another key feature in the development initiative to reduce carbon emissions. BedZED utilizes a Car Club which gives residents access to an electric vehicle, with free charging stations located on-site (powered by PV panels). A Green Transport Plan has been established, encouraging car pools, public transportation, cycling, and walking.
1.7 Interior View 84
1.8 Interior View
1.9 Alleyway
Summary Thesis The Beddington Zero Energy Development is a valuable case study because it is one of the few residential-scale developments that have made a commitment to sustainability. Natural ventilation using wind cowls, passive solar heat gain, and daylighting are particularly effective, but unfortunately, the cogeneration plant and Living Machine have been in and out of operation. Overall, BedZED’s large-scale initiative to reduce carbon emissions has been fairly successful. Many design features have made BedZED a more energy efficient development, but many of those features might not have come about without the integration and coordination among the project team. The project team worked together to develop a design that maximized passive strategies, and reduced the need for active systems, thereby reducing the energy needs for the entire project. For example, the team reduced the need for an active HVAC system by using wind cowls for passive ventilation along with solar gain for passive heating. Residents use significantly fewer resources including 55% less electricity and 60% less water consumption. 85
Reflection
Project
1.10 Building Section with Design Strategies
Appendix
Evaluation:
As with any project, maintenance and repairs are necessary to keep systems running smoothly, and the Living Machine and cogeneration plant have fallen victim to these inadequacies. Understandably, the Living Machine needs constant attention and monitoring to keep the delicate ecosystems alive and filtering properly. There has been much advancement in the research and development of Living Machines since BedZED incorporated the system, which could be evaluated and restored to function properly again. The cogeneration plant was unreliable and was eventually replaced by gas boilers. The CHP system was prototype designed by a small company that went out of business before it could solve all the problems with the system. Currently it is rumored that a biomass boiler is to be installed, which would run on local waste wood.
Even though some of the technologies of BedZED aren’t working as predicted, the tried and true passive strategies are important in this project because end-use components like energy can always be changed, but inherent design features like solar gain need to be incorporated early on in the design process. And what’s even more empowering is the public’s want for sustainable housing, proven by BedZED residences averaging 15% above market value. The eco-friendly lifestyle that BedZED provides along with innovative design features is setting the benchmark for future housing developments. 86
1.11 Aerial View
Summary
Location:
Cost:
Oberlin, Ohio
$7.2 Million
Architect(s):
Size:
William McDonough &
13,600 sqft
Partners
Project Type:
Completion:
Institutional
Thesis
Adam Joseph Lewis Center
Synopsis: The Adam Joseph Lewis Center is a building ahead of its time when it was completed in 2000. Environmental Studies Professor David Orr at Oberlin College was critical in achieving the support and funding for this project. The Lewis Center houses classrooms, offices, a library, and auditorium. Its main focus was energy efficiency and production, having the goal to produce 110% of the energy needed to power the building. The Lewis Center seeks to raise sustainability awareness by demonstration through its own design and performance. 87
Appendix
2.1 Wetlands and East Facade
Reflection
Project
January 2000
Energy Conservation & Production: Daylighting is an important aspect of the Lewis Center, evident in the large south-facing windows. A lowemissivity coating is used on the glass panes to reduce the heat loss through building envelope. Various technologies, such as motion-sensitive lighting, photo sensors, and occupancy sensors help control the electric lighting within the building. Passive solar heating through the use of the thermal mass of the concrete floors, reduces the need for mechanical heating in the winter months. A 60 kW photovoltaic array covers the roof of the Lewis Center, while an additional 100 kW array has been installed over the parking area, producing enough energy that the building is able to export electricity on a net-annual basis. A closed-loop, ground source heat pump system is used to heat and cool the building, using 24 vertical wells to circulate water through tubes underground.
2.2 South-Facing Atrium 88
2.3 Building PV Array
Summary Thesis Project
2.4 Living Machine
2.5 North Facade
the building, which is then reused for flushing toilets and landscape irrigation. The landscape surrounding the building is designed to reduce stormwater runoff, such as the constructed wetland that serves as a basin to retain rainfall collected from the roof, sidewalks, and parking lot, with the overflow draining into an underground 9,700-gallon cistern. The water from the cistern is pumped out for irrigation and to maintain the wetland during periods of draught. 89
Appendix
The Lewis Center uses a Living Machine to process wastewater from the building. This system uses a combination aerobic and anaerobic processing system that treats all wastewater from
Reflection
Water Management:
Materials Selection & Acquisition: Material selections for the Lewis Center were an important aspect of the project, chosen for their sustainable qualities. Materials needed to be recycled or reused, low-energy (production, use, maintenance), local (harvested, produced, or distributed), products of service (leased from a company), or creative in their approach to environmental issues. Meeting these criteria was somewhat challenging because of the lack of a local market for recycled/used materials and difficulty finding genuine “green” products. The Lewis Center was able to use ”green” materials, which included: sustainably harvested wood, recycled steel I-beams, and interface carpet panels. The auditorium featured below uses compostable upholstery.
2.6 Auditorium 90
2.7 Evening View
Summary Thesis
Using today’s standards, the Lewis Center probably would achieve LEED Platinum certification, while also meeting many of the Living Building Challenge criteria. It is interesting that the project team was able to establish high goals addressing many of the issues found in LEED and achieving many of those objectives through a collective design team. This team took the initiative to implement sustainable design strategies, with a focus on attaining net-zero energy operation, making the Lewis Center one of the most important precedents in the green building field. 91
Project
The Adam Joseph Lewis Center is a valuable case study in my research because of its significance within the hi-performance building community, and its long-term establishment as a net-zero energy building. After meeting David Orr and hearing about the challenges his team overcame to create this remarkable building, I was intrigued about the design decisions they made to produce an environmentally responsible building, without the guidance or judgment of LEED or the Living Building Challenge. I also think the Lewis Center itself serves as great learning tool for visitors because it seeks to teach through demonstration, while also providing information through an interactive dashboard system.
Reflection
2.8 Exterior View
Appendix
Evaluation:
The Lewis Center itself as a teaching tool is an interesting goal that the team expressed early in the design process. The building exhibits the qualities of an environmentally sensitive project, while also pushing the ideas and strategies of green building through demonstration, such as the Living Machine and photovoltaic panels. In addition, the interactive dashboard on the Lewis Center website is a fantastic resource for those interested in the building’s performance, including current operating levels and past metric data. This piece of technology is an easily readable tool that helps people understand performance data regarding energy use and production, along with water consumption and reuse. As technology becomes more integrated within the building and its systems, we can better understand how a building functions in terms of energy, water, and other variables that can be quantified. The Lewis Center has made a significant impact within the hi-performance and green building fields, demonstrating smart and innovative design strategies before the development of “green tools� such as LEED. The Lewis Center has served as a catalyst for the sustainable design movement, and continues to educate people everywhere about the environment and green building.
2.9 Aerial View 92
2.10 Parking PV Array
Summary
Cost:
Baraboo, Wisconsin
$4 Million
Architect(s):
Size:
The Kubala Waskatko
12,000 sqft
Architects
Project Type:
Completion:
Environmental
April 2007
Center
“A land ethic reflects the existence of an ecological conscience, and this in turn reflects a conviction of individual responsibility for the health of the land.� -Aldo Leopold
Project
Location:
Thesis
Aldo Leopold Legacy Center
3.1 Aerial View
of the Aldo Leopold Foundation, while also serving as a visitor center for the foundation. At the time of its construction, the Leopold Center was the highest certified LEED Platinum building in the United States, achieving 61 out of 69 points. The goal of the project was to create a model of environmental stewardship that would foster a low-volume, high-intensity experience that would infuse visitors with a deeper appreciation of a land ethic. 93
Appendix
The Aldo Leopold Legacy Center is a 12,000 square foot wood construction building located near Baraboo, Wisconsin. The building houses the facilities needed for the 15 staff members
Reflection
Synopsis:
Energy Conservation & Production: The Leopold Center maximized daylighting through abundant windows, clearstories, and a long and narrow floor plate. The building is adequately shaded during the summer months with roof overhangs, while allowing the winter sun to passively heat the interior space. The use of an interior, south-facing corridor provides a thermal-flux zone, reducing the heat flow between the main office and the outdoors. Operable windows allow staff to turn off the mechanical systems on nice days, utilizing passive ventilation to provided thermal comfort and indoor air quality. Some spaces, such as the three-season classroom, do not have mechanical HVAC systems and rely entirely on passive strategies for ventilation and thermal comfort. The Leopold Center is a well-insulated building, using structural insulated panels (SIPs) that provide a continuous infiltration barrier, unlike a typical framed building where the framing creates a gap in the insulation. The Leopold Center uses a 198 panel photovoltaic array, located on the roof of the main structure, to provide 60,000-70,000 kWh annually, which serves as the main energy source for the building’s operation and systems. A vertical-loop, geothermal HVAC system is used to heat and cool the building through a radiant floor system. Earth tubes were also used as a ventilation strategy, bringing fresh air through large pipes buried in the ground, which pre-heats or cools the air before it enters the building. The Leopold Center gets its hot water through the use of solar–heated evacuated-tube collectors; a small array is located on the roof.
3.2 PV Panels 94
3.3 Earth Tubes
3.4 Solar-Hot Water Collector Array
Summary Thesis Project
Water Management: The Leopold Center diverts water runoff to a rain garden that allows the water to be absorbed in the ground, replenishing underground aquifers. The watershed from the roofs makes a statement as it is directed to a large stone aqueduct that flows into a constructed streambed. The parking lot is composed of red-colored, crushed limestone that is locally quarried and allows the water to penetrate into the water table below. Native plants are used continuously throughout the landscape blending with the surrounding forest and prairie, while helping absorb water runoff. 95
Reflection
3.6 South Facade & Rain Garden
Appendix
3.5 Watershed Aqueduct
Materials Selection & Acquisition: Nearly 100% of the wooden structural members for the Leopold Center come from the 1,500-acre Leopold Memorial Reserve. The reserve was suffering from overcrowding, and thinning the forest reduced the chances for severe fire and insect damage, while supplying the foundation with a large quantity of raw building material. In addition to the 90,000 linear feet of board were processed through on-site milling, the project team developed a structural system that could use the natural, round diameter of the trees, eliminating the waste produced by milling straight structural members. Most of the other building materials came from within the state of Wisconsin, many were recycled or reused, or are “green� versions of typical materials.
3.7 Meeting Room 96
3.8 Kitchen Common Area
Summary Thesis
The Aldo Leopold Legacy Center is important to my research on metric performance because this project was one of the first of its kind to push toward carbon neutral building. After seeing the project first-hand, I was inspired by how design features were incorporated with performance measures in order to achieve a net-zero energy building. The Leopold Center is a good model to examine design performance strategies and as well as current operational performance. The Leopold Center uses a combination of active and passive strategies to meet net-zero energy building operation. A geothermal heating and cooling system is a typical mechanical system nowadays, but the earth tube ventilation system is a relatively uncommon design strategy. Earth tubes were practical for this project because of Wisconsin climate conditions and there is significant reduction in energy usage by pre-conditioning the fresh air needed to maintain indoor air quality. Water (in the form of humidity and condensation) and air contaminants are common problems with an earth tube system, however the Leopold Center uses a variety of filters and fans to address these issues. Operable windows allow the building’s HVAC systems to be shut off in favor of natural ventilation, while an abundance of windows help reduce the building’s electric lighting load. 97
Project
3.10 3-Season Room
Reflection
3.9 3-Season Room
Appendix
Evaluation:
The Leopold Center’s current operational performance is still under evaluation, as it is not yet meeting net-zero energy performance. The primary factor in the building’s energy consumption are the plug loads, which are at 17,000 kWh per year, rather than the 7,000 kWh per year that was estimated. Computers and LCD displays are the main culprit behind the energy use, however electric lighting loads are much lower than expected, but not enough to offset the increase in plug loads. The project team is working with the foundation’s IT department to develop ways to decrease the electrical demand of the current network. The Aldo Leopold Legacy Center is an excellent example of hi-performance design, which serves as a realistic model because the project is being analyzed and evaluated for its operational performance. Although the Leopold Center is not yet 100% net-zero energy, the team is striving to meet that design criterion.
3.11 Aerial View 98
3.12 Building Section
Summary
Location:
Cost:
Rhinebeck, New York
$4.1 Million
Architect(s):
Size:
BIM Architects
6,250 sqft,
Completion:
4.5 acres
May 2009
Project Type:
Thesis
Omega Center for Sustainable Living
Institutional,
4.1 South Facade View
Synopsis: The Omega Center for Sustainable Living at the Omega Institute is leading the way in the movement to create better, more-efficient buildings. In fact, the Omega Center was one of the first buildings in the country to be certified under the Living Building Challenge requirements. The building serves as a water treatment facility for the 198-acre Omega Institute campus, and houses a classroom/laboratory facility. All the wastewater from the campus is processed at the Omega Center, using an EcoMachine that treats the water through natural methods. 99
Appendix
Facility
Reflection
Project
Water Treatment
Energy Conservation & Production: The Omega Center is a net-zero energy building, using photovoltaics to produce the electrical energy needed to power the building on a net-annual basis. An array of over 200 panels supplies energy to the building, and sells the excess to the local utility’s power grid from which it draws in times the array is not producing enough electricity. The Omega Center uses a geothermal heating and cooling system connected to a radiant floor system, which disperses heating or cooling throughout the building. Solar gain through the use of thermal mass during the winter months reduces the heating load of the building; the aerated lagoons of the EcoMachine also help with the heating and cooling of the facility because they also serve as a thermal mass.
4.2 Interior View of EcoMachine 100
4.3 Electrical Panel
Summary Thesis 4.6 Wetlands
Project
4.5 EcoMachine Young Plants
Water Management:
Reflection
The EcoMachine for the Omega Center was designed by John Todd, and uses a seven-step system to treat wastewater (water from toilets, showers, & sinks) from the Omega campus. This water treatment system uses the natural purification processes of algae, fungi, bacteria, plants, and snails to filter the water, while using zero chemicals. The treated water is then dispersed into the landscaping so it can naturally filter through the soil to reach an underground aquifer, replenishing the water table. The unique part of the system is that it can process high and low amounts of water (up to 52,000 gallons of water per day, busy-season; 5,000 gallons of water per day, off-season), without affecting the different stages because it is designed to divide the wastewater among the “cells� of the EcoMachine feeding all the living components that filter the water. A green roof helps absorb some rainfall and provide additional insulation, while the remainder of the watershed is directed off the roof to be used within the EcoMachine. 101
Appendix
4.4 EcoMachine
Materials Selection & Acquisition: In order to meet LEED platinum and Living Building Challenge requirements, building materials had to come from within a certain distance and have limited amounts of chemicals involved in their production or use. A 250-mile radius was the maximum distance to acquire some materials, such as brick, stone, and concrete, while other materials were sourced within 1,000 to 8,000 miles. The project scope extended to all the contractors working on the building, setting green standards such as participating in construction waste recycling, and even drinking from reusable coffee cups and composting their food scraps. In fact, 99% of all construction waste was recycled or diverted from landfills, these materials included metals, cardboard, rigid foam, and wood.
4.7 North Facade 102
4.8 West Facade
Summary Thesis
A natural water processing system is a large goal for any project, but because of the size and scale of the Rhinebeck campus, it made the situation more ideal for the design of the EcoMachine. The greater quantity of wastewater actually makes the purification process work better. The development of processing “cells� to treat the wastewater is an innovative design strategy because it enables the EcoMachine to function properly even with small amounts effluent, rather than upsetting the balance of flows among the seven purification stages. The EcoMachine is lowenergy, most of the water entering the treatment facility is gravity-fed and requires minimum power for various pumps and aerators. 103
Project
The Omega Center for Sustainable Living is a significant precedent in my research on building metric performance because of its Living Building certification. Certification can only be made after a one-year evaluation of the project, ensuring the net-zero energy performance of the building, along with other Living Building criteria. The Omega Center is more than just a greenhouse, it is a building that uses no chemicals in the water treatment process that is lowenergy, and is a teaching tool to the community. These were the initial goals set out by the Omega Institute and they have been successful in their implementation.
Reflection
4.9 South Facade
Appendix
Evaluation:
The Omega Center is an excellent teaching tool not only because it is a quality building, but also the EcoMachine and photovoltaic arrays are exceptionally intriguing to visitors. Most of the public is uninformed about alternative wastewater treatment processes and this building showcases its main purpose, which is to purify wastewater using natural processes. The Omega Center provides a learning laboratory for visitors, while also playing host to groups such as a yoga class who want to be in the space because it is simply beautiful. The Omega Center is a particularly impressive building with the fact that it is a Living Building, which seeks to give back to the environment through net-zero energy efficiency and processing wastewater for an entire campus facility. Strong determinations to use a water treatment process free of chemicals, while being low-energy, and providing learning experiences were important decisions in the design process. The design team followed through with these goals, evident in the Omega Center’s success both functionally and aesthetically, earning it attention from multiple discipline fields.
4.10 Building Section Rendering 104
4.11 South Facade
Summary
Location:
Cost:
Eureka, Missouri
$1.5 Million
Architect(s):
Size:
Hellmuth + Bicknese
2,260 sqft
Architects
Project Type:
Completion:
Institutional
Thesis
Tyson Living Learning Center
Project
May 2009
5.1 West Facade
105
Appendix
The Tyson Living Learning Center is a relatively new building on the forefront of sustainable design. It recently achieved Living Building status, demonstrating net-zero energy and net-zero water performance through a variety of sustainable design strategies and components. The Tyson Center functions as a research and learning facility for ecology and environmental biology. The building’s energy production comes from both fixed-tilt and dual-axis photovoltaic panels, which power the reduced needs of the building, achieved using a heat pump HVAC system and energyefficiency measures within the building. Rainwater from the roof is collected and stored in an underground cistern that filters the water and is used inside the building.
Reflection
Synopsis:
Energy Conservation & Production: Arranging the occupied spaces along the perimeter building with access to views and daylight, along with clerestory windows, provides adequate daylighting for most occupied spaces. Operable windows allow for passive ventilation, while retractable doors along the exterior of the indoor-outdoor classroom particularly open up the space to the outdoors. A heat pump system was selected to heat and cool the building. The 84 photovoltaic panels on the roof and the two dual-axis, solar tracking arrays on the property produce 21.1 kW to meet the project’s net-annual energy needs. The two dual-axis arrays were added after systems monitoring indicated the Tyson Center was not producing as much energy as it was consuming.
5.2 South Facade & PV Array 106
5.3 Dual-Axis PV Array
Summary Thesis Rainwater is collected from all roof surfaces and stored in a 3,000-gallon tank underground, where it is treated for potable use within the building. A unique feature of the rainfall collection is an artistic interpretation of a rainchain, which allows the water to flow down into a cistern. Composting toilets were selected for the building, which require no water for flushing and break down wastes through natural bacteria processes, resulting in fertilizer compost. Graywater from the building is collected and dispersed through an infiltration garden, where it can be absorbed and purified naturally within the ground. Pervious concrete is used as a hard surface for parking and sidewalks, which filters the stormwater runoff and diverts it to a rain garden. 107
Reflection
5.5 Rainwater Catchment (Rainchain)
Appendix
Water Management:
Project
5.4 Underground Cistern
Materials Selection & Acquisition: Material reuse was an important aspect of the Tyson Center, evident in many of the products used on the building, such as salvaged doors, hardware, and some light fixtures. Nearly all the finished wood was sustainably harvested and salvaged from the Tyson Center’s 2,000-acre property, including Eastern Red Cedar, Maple, Walnut, White Oak and Ash. Other lumber used in the project was FCS certified and came from within a 500-mile radius. The Tyson Center followed the Living Building Challenge materials “Red List,” choosing materials and finishes without hazardous chemicals such as formaldehyde, lead, and PVC.
5.6 Indoor-Outdoor Classroom 108
5.7 Courtyard
Summary Thesis
The Tyson Living Learning Center is an impressive project that is demonstrating to the world that we can create buildings that do more than serve a functional purpose. This precedent is relevant to my research because of the extensive energy modeling and monitoring that went into its design and evaluation in order to achieve Living Building status. The Tyson Center is a good model to look at not only in terms of energy efficiency, but also water management is a significant component.
Reflection
Net-zero energy was an important goal for the Tyson Center, and many aspects of the building were designed especially to reduce the energy loads of the project, such as the envelope and HVAC system. A fast-track time schedule complicated the process of design and construction, while difficulties with system performance, envelope infiltration, and photovoltaic production added to the growing energy imbalance of the project. The Tyson Center eventually mitigated these problems after careful performance analysis, through various measures such as adding insulation, caulking, tree-trimming, and more photovoltaic panels. The design team felt that
Project
5.8 Artist Rendering
more precise and predictive energy modeling would have been beneficial in the design process, helping them understand how certain design decisions impact the performance of the building. 109
Appendix
Evaluation:
Net-zero water efficiency was also important in the design process because it was one of the criteria for the Living Building Challenge. Selecting composting toilets for the Tyson Center drastically reduced water usage, and low-flow faucets also helped minimize water needs for the facility. The design team validated these choices by running a few quick calculations of worst-case and best-case rainfall scenarios, producing a base estimate of how much water would be available for the building. They found out that even during a drought period, the Tyson Center would be able to supply water for up to 60-days. Typically it rains in Eureka, Missouri more than once within a 60-day period, so the design team was confident in its ability to meet net-zero water efficiency. The Tyson Center is a good example of how a building can do more than simply a building that has very low impact on the environment. Achieving net-zero energy and water efficiency is a significant undertaking, but it is becoming easier as design teams understand the impact of systems and design decisions on the building as a whole. As we begin to see more integrated design teams, we should start to see an increase in more efficient and environmentally responsible buildings such as the Tyson Center.
5.9 North Perspective 110
5.10 Front Entrance
Summary
7group, & Reed, B. (2009). The integrative design guide to green building. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc
MacLeod, D. (2009, March). Remaining positive. The Canadian Architect, 54(3), 36-38.
Aldo Leopold Foundation. (2007). Aldo leopold legacy center. Retrieved from http://www.aldoleopold.org/legacycenter/
Oberlin College. (2000). Adam joseph lewis center. Retrieved from http://www.oberlin. edu/ajlc/ajlcHome.html
Berg, N. (2010, January). Want the medal? Keep the metrics. Architect, 99(1), 20-21.
Omega Institute. (2009). Omega institute for sustainable living. Retrieved from http://www. eomega.org/omega/about/ocsl/
International Living Building Institute. (2009). Living building challenge. Retrieved from http://ilbi.org/ Kwok, A.G., & Grondzik, W.T. (2007). The green studio handbook. Oxford, UK: Architectural Press.
Project
United States Green Building Council. (2000). Leadership in energy & environmental design. Retrieved from http://www.usgbc.org/ Washington University St. Louis. (2009). Tyson research center. Retrieved from http://tyson.wustl.edu/index.php
Reflection
Hellmuth, D.F., Smith, K.G., Howard, D.S., & Ford, M. (2010, Fall). Nature’s way. High Performance Buildings, Retrieved from http://www.hpbmagazine.org/images/ stories/articles/Tyson.
Poh Lam, K., & Yeang, K.G. (2009, September/October). Computational building performance modelling & ecodesign. Architectural Design, 79(5), 126-129.
Yudelson, J. (2008). The green building revolution. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Zed Factory LTD. (2002). Beddington zero energy development. Retrieved from http://www.zedfactory.com/bedzed.html# 111
Appendix
Boehland, J. (2008, March). Building on aldo leopold’s legacy: the aldo leopold foundation aims to uphold the land ethic in its new headquarters. Green Source, Retrieved from http://greensource. construction.com/projects/0804_ Aldoleopoldlegacycenter.asp
Thesis
References:
Image Sources: (Literature Review)
Image Sources: (Case Studies)
The Integrative Design Guide to Green Building A.0 http://www.leedlibrary.com/administrator/
Bedding Zero Energy Development 1.1 http://www.homedesignfind.com/wp-content/ 1.2 http://www.ecozine.co.uk/Bedzed_001.jpeg 1.3 http://yourdevelopment.org/public/uploads/ 1.4 http://webbreak.typepad.com/photos/ 1.5 http://www.iwapublishing.com/cms/ 1.6 http://www.floornature.es/media/photos/ 1.7 http://www.ameinfo.com/112576.html 1.8 http://wwwdelivery.superstock.com/WI/223/ 1.9 http://www.hughpearman.com/illustrations5/ 1.10 Kwok, & Grondzik, 2007. pg 277 1.11 http://www.greenroofs.com/projects/bedzed/
The Green Studio Handbook B.0 http://bldgsim.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/ “Remaining Positive” C.0 MacLeod, pg 36 C.1 MacLeod, pg 37 C.2 MacLeod, pg 38 C.3 MacLeod, pg 39 “Computational Building Performance Modelling & Ecodesign” D.0 Poh Lamg &Yeang, pg 126 D.1 Poh Lamg &Yeang, pg 128 D.2 Poh Lamg &Yeang, pg 129 “Want to Keep the Medal? Keep the Metrics.” E.0 Berg, pgs 20-21 E.1 http://norfleet.us/NorfleetUSA/wp-content/ E.2 http://slpenvironmental.com/images/leed_silver E.3 http://www.inhabitat.com/wp-content/uploads/ E.4 http://www.ohlone.edu/org/
112
Adam Joseph Lewis Center 2.1 http://inhabitat.com/oberlin-college 2.2 http://www.nrel.gov/data/pix/Jpegs/10866 2.3 http://static.howstuffworks.com/ 2.4 http://clearenvironmental.files.wordpress.com/ 2.5 http://oberwiki.net/images/f/f2/AJLC 2.6 http://www.taxelimagegroup.com/photos/arch/ 2.7 http://inhabitat.com/oberlin-college 2.8 http://www.neogbc.org/assets/ 2.9 http://new.oberlin.edu/student-life/facilities/ 2.10 http://www.industcards.com/oberlin-pv
Summary Thesis Project
Tyson Living Learning Center 5.1 http://jetsongreen.typepad.com/ 5.2 http://www.straightupsolar.com/Files/Photos/ 5.3 http://cdn.physorg.com/newman/gfx/news/ 5.4 http://c1.cleantechnica.com/files/2009/05/ 5.5 http://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/ 5.6 http://1.bp.blogspot.com/ 5.7 http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3559/ 5.8 http://www.studlife.com/files/2009/07/ 5.9 http://inhabitat.com/wp-content/blogs.dir/ 5.10 http://www.pittenvironmental.org/blog/
Reflection
Omega Center for Sustainable Living 4.1 http://www.mnn.com/eco-biz/building 4.2 http://www.instablogsimages.com/images/ 4.3 http://www.flickr.com/photos/anonymousrose/ 4.4 http://www.sincerelysustainable.com/ 4.5 http://www.sincerelysustainable.com/ 4.6 http://inhabitat.com/omega-center/ 4.7 http://files2.world-architects.com/projects/ 4.8 http://www.residentialarchitect.com/Images/ 4.9 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 4.10 http://www.inspired-design-daily.com/ 4.11 http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2644/
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Appendix
Aldo Leopold Legacy Center 3.1 http://www.bustler.net/images/uploads/Aldo 3.2 http://inhabitat.com/files/leopold 3.3 http://www.treehugger.com/earth-tubes 3.4 http://www.architecture.uwaterloo.ca/faculty 3.5 http://www.concreteconstruction.net/images/ 3.6 http://greensource.construction.com/projects/ 3.7 http://www.aldoleopold.org/images/ 3.8 http://www.treehugger.com/AIA-cote 3.9 http://greensource.construction.com/projects/ 3.10 http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3131/ 3.11 http://www.aldoleopold.org/images/ 3.12 http://www.archdaily.com/