Attachment Theory:Overview and Integration with Biblical Counseling by Nicholas Shipley

Attachment Theory: Overview and Integration with Biblical Counseling

By Nicholas Shipley1

Introduction

The development of attachment theory can be traced back to British psychologist John

Bowlby.2 Influenced by his own upbringing, and work in children’s homes, Bowlby sought to

understand the anxiety and stress children may experience when separated from their primary

caregiver.3 While Bowlby’s original focus was the parent-child attachment, his theories have

been used and expanded to cover other attachment-based relationships including adults, religion,

and organizational environments.

The purpose of this paper is three-fold. First, this paper will outline the major influences

of Bowlby’s attachment theory, as well as the bonds of parent-child relationships and other

attachment functions, the impact of early attachment, and psychophysiological considerations of

the attachment system. This foundation is important to understanding the expansion of Bowlby’s

theories to adult models of attachment.

Second, this paper will discuss the potential integration of attachment theory in a biblical

counseling setting, specifically regarding an adult’s response to God’s as an attachment figure.

1 Nicholas Shipley is a student in the Master of Arts in Biblical Counseling program at Luther Rice College & Seminary.

2 John Bowlby, Attachment, vol. 1, Attachment and Loss, 2nd ed. (New York: Basic Books, 1982).

3 Richard Bowlby and Pearl King, Fifty Years of Attachment Theory (London: Karnac on behalf of the Winnicott Clinic of Psychotherapy, 2004), 12-13.

This emphasis will involve comparison between and among Bowlby’s biological functions of the attachment system, Tan’s writing on counseling in a Christian setting, and Scripture.4 This

section will cite and reference secular sources, but the Bible will be given primary consideration.

Third, this paper will conclude with recent attachment theory research from 2015-2020,

and discuss areas of potential expanded research.

Influences on Attachment Theory

Like many influential theories of psychoanalysis, Bowlby’s theory was shaped by his

childhood environment (specifically his rearing by a nursemaid), the theories of his predecessors,

and the works of Freud and Darwin.

Bowlby was the fourth of six children, and his father was a successful surgeon. As was

typical of children in the upper-middle class in early twentieth-century England, Bowlby rarely

saw his father, except for Sundays and holidays, and would see his mother only one hour a day.5

The majority of his waking hours were spent with a senior nanny and several nursemaids. When

Bowlby was four years old, his nursemaid, Minnie, left her position with the family, effectively

severing the primary caregiver bond she had established with Bowlby. Bowlby felt “sufficiently hurt” by the separation.6

Along with his childhood experience, Bowlby was influenced by the ethological work of

Charles Darwin. Bowlby cited the Darwinian influence on his work, stating that

4 Siang-Yang Tan, Counseling and Psychotherapy: A Christian Perspective (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2011).

5 Richard Bowlby and King, 12.

6 Richard Bowlby and King, 13.

Though a theoretical viewpoint of this kind has long been applied to the morphological and physiological equipment of animals, it is only in comparatively recent times that it has been applied also in a systematic way to their behavioral equipment. For this development we are indebted to the ethologists. Recognizing, as Darwin the founding father of ethology himself did, that the behavioral repertoire of each species is as unique as its morphological and physiological characteristics, ethologists have sought to understand behavioral equipment by reference to the contribution it makes to the survival of members of the species…A main thesis of this book is that the same principle must be followed equally consistently if we are to understand the instinctive behavior of man.7

Using the ethological foundation of Darwin, Bowlby also built on Freudian theories of

human instinct and attempted to create systematic approaches that could be tested and

reproduced.8 In doing so, he did diverge slightly from Freudian theory of inherent instinct,

instead proposing the potential for the instinct.9

But arguably the most important factor in the development of modern attachment theory

was the work of Mary Ainsworth. Ainsworth’s description of attachment as a “secure base from which to explore” became a theme in future work on attachment theory.10 Her studies in

attachment theory, while discussed only briefly in this overview, should not be understated as

she was integral to the development of modern attachment theory.11

7 John Bowlby, Attachment, 54-55.

8 Robert J. Ludwig and Martha G. Welch, "Darwin’s Other Dilemmas and the Theoretical Roots of Emotional Connection,” Frontiers in Psychology 10 (2019), n. pag., Discover.

9 Ludvig and Welch, n. pag.

10 Mary Ainsworth, “The Development of Infant-Mother Interaction among the Ghanda,” in Determinants of Infant Behavior, ed. B.M. Foss (NY: Wiley, 1961), 67.

11 For a more complete discussion of Ainsworth’s contributions to attachment theory, see Klaus E. Grossmann et al., "Maternal Sensitivity: Observational Studies Honoring Mary Ainsworth’s 100th Year," Attachment & Human Development 15, no. 5-6 (2013): 443-447, doi:10.1080/14616734.2013.841058.

Parent-Child Bond and Attachment Behavioral System

In A Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development, Bowlby

concludes that infants inherently develop in a “socially cooperative way,” but this development is strongly influenced by the way the infant is treated.12 This cooperative bond is influenced by

the parental involvement with the infant, specifically meeting the child’s physical and emotional

needs. An infant may develop an attachment to a primary caregiver that consistently meets these

needs and will seek to keep proximity with the primary attachment figure.13 If removed from the

primary attachment figure, infants produce verbal and non-verbal cues of their anxiety, such as

crying and looking around for the primary attachment figure.14

Taking Bowlby’s theory, Ainsworth developed the “strange situations” experiment to demonstrate the anxiety an infant feels when separated from the primary attachment figure.15 In

the experiment, 12-month-old babies were brought into the laboratory and then separated and

12 John Bowlby, A Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 9.

13 John Bowlby, Attachment, 267.

14 R. Chris Fraley, "A Brief Overview of Adult Attachment Theory and Research," University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Department of Psychology, last modified 2018, http://labs.psychology.illinois.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.html.

15 Mary D. Salter Ainsworth et al., Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation (New York: Routledge, 2015).

reunited with their mothers. The results of the experiment led to the description of three

attachment descriptors: secure, anxious-resistant, and avoidant.16

Children with secure attachment will become upset when they are separated from the

attachment figure, but can be comforted when the attachment figure returns, while a child with

anxious-resistant attachment reacts in a way that seeks comfort from, and punishment of, the

attached figure.17 Avoidant attachment children will show little distress when the attachment

figure leaves and will avoid contact upon his or her return.

As Bowlby and Ainsworth describe, children with secure attachments will not only seek

to maintain close proximity with their attachment figure, but will also use their attachment figure

as “a secure base from which to explore. ”18 Through this function of attachment, children feel

safe to explore away from their primary attachment figure so long as they are assured that the

attachment figure will not leave or abandon them.

The final function of the attachment system, for the purpose of integrating attachment

theory with biblical counseling, is viewing the primary attachment figure as a “haven of safety. ”19 When a child as young as three months is startled by a loud noise or unexpected

commotion, she will look first to her primary attachment figure for comfort. At the age of eight

16 Ainsworth et al., Patterns of Attachment, 88-93.

17 Ainsworth et al., Patterns of Attachment, 88-93.

18 John Bowlby, Attachment, 302.

19 John Bowlby, Attachment, 303.

months, similar stimuli will cause the child to retreat to the safety of her primary attachment

figure “as fast as possible. ”20

Impact of Early Attachment

While Bowlby’s first volume of Attachment and Loss was released in 1969, his work into

the impact of early attachment began much earlier. In 1946, Bowlby published Forty-four

Juvenile Thieves, a case study of 44 juveniles with a history of thievery.21 Of the 44 juvenile

delinquents included in the study, 17 had experienced separation, prolonged or permanent, from

their primary caregiver before the age of five.22

Additional research has been conducted on this topic, with many pointing to the

importance of secure attachment early in life. Young et al. concluded that children who were

rated as secure in Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation” at 12 and 18 months scored higher in

agreeableness and conscientiousness at age 32. They also scored lower on neuroticism.23

20 John Bowlby, Attachment, 303.

21 John Bowlby, Forty-Four Juvenile Thieves: Their Character and Home-Life (London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, 1946).

22 Richard Bowlby and King, 13.

23 Ethan S. Young et al., "Childhood Attachment and Adult Personality: A Life History Perspective," Self and Identity 18, no. 1 (2017): 34, Ebscohost.

Conversely, participants who were rated insecure in the same experiment scored lower in

agreeableness and conscientiousness at age 32. They also scored higher on neuroticism.24

Other studies have shown a correlation between insecure attachment as a child with

neuroticism and anxiety as an adolescent and adult. Children who failed to establish a secure

attachment were more likely to be rated as anxious and have social phobias, and Kerns and

Brumariu concluded that insecure parent-child attachment was a risk factor for the development

of anxiety.25

Another study looking at the importance of early secure attachment involved children

raised on an Israeli kibbutz. 26 In this environment, children participated in communal activities

which included their sleeping arrangements. One longitudinal study suggests that the children in

these communal sleeping arrangements failed to develop secure attachments, and the attachments

they did develop were to the group rather than to caregivers.

This arrangement not only had an effect on the children but the parents as well. Another

study of the kibbutz revealed that fathers were more involved with their children and had a

24 Young et al., 34-35.

25 Kathryn A. Kerns and Laura E. Brumariu, "Is Insecure Parent-Child Attachment a Risk Factor for the Development of Anxiety in Childhood or Adolescence?", Child Development Perspectives 8, no. 1 (2013): 12-17, doi:10.1111/cdep.12054.

26 Klaus E Grossmann, Karin Grossmann, and Everett Waters, Attachment from Infancy to Adulthood (New York: Guilford, 2007).

higher level of satisfaction with fatherhood when the children were sleeping at home rather than

in the communal arrangements of the kibbutz.27

Physiological and Psychophysiological Considerations of the Attachment System

Much like Freud and Darwin, Bowlby combined the fields of biology and physiology

with his interdisciplinary interest in attachment theory. As science advanced, Bowlby’s original description of the attachment domain was discovered to be the orbitofrontal cortex.28

The orbitofrontal cortex is responsible for some decision making functions such as choice

behavior and recency judgment and emotion regulation. Damage to this area can have a negative

impact on working memory, context memory, and learning from previous mistakes.29 This

deficiency could inhibit attachment.

27 Rachel Lev-Wiesel, "The Effect of Children's Sleeping Arrangements (Communal vs. Familial) on Fatherhood Among Men in an Israeli Kibbutz," The Journal of Social Psychology 140, no. 5 (2000): 580-588, doi:10.1080/00224540009600497.

28 Allan N. Schore, "Attachment and The Regulation of The Right Brain," Attachment & Human Development 2, no. 1 (2000): 23-47, doi:10.1080/146167300361309.

29 Anaïs Llorens et al., "Preservation of Interference Effects in Working Memory After Orbitofrontal Damage," Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 13 (2020), doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00445.

Another psychophysiological consideration in attachment theory is that of children with

autism. According to Bowlby, “Whereas an ordinary child [when frightened or in pain] will

almost certainly go to his mother, neither a child who has become detached as a result of long

deprivation of maternal care nor an autistic child is likely to do so.”30 Bowlby’s claim about

autistic children has been challenged, however. Recent research suggests that autistic children

with “sensitively responsive” mothers may form attachments that are similar to those of non-

autistic children.31 This finding may further support the importance of the primary attachment

figure’s disposition, involvement, and availability during the early formative months, particularly

for autistic children.

Adult Models of Attachment

Simply put, attachment in adults takes Bowlby’s principles of attachment and applies

them to adult relationships. These relationships can include platonic and romantic relationships

with other adults, and also attachment with children and the elderly.

In 1987, Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver were among the first to take the tenets of

Bowlby’s attachment theory and apply it to adult romantic relationships.32 This was not to say

that romantic love is attachment, but rather a biological response to facilitate it. In their attempt

30 John Bowlby, Attachment, 335.

31 Agata Rozga et al., "A Short-Term Longitudinal Study of Correlates and Sequelae of Attachment Security in Autism," Attachment & Human Development 20, no. 2 (2017): 162, doi:10.1080/14616734.2017.1383489.

32 Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver, "Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52, no. 3 (1987): 511-524, doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511.

to create a “coherent framework for understanding love,” Hazan and Shaver used Bowlby’s

attachment theory to understand how love develops, how healthy and unhealthy forms of love

develop, how love and loneliness are related, and how love fits in an evolutionary context.33

Hazan and Shaver encouraged the pursuit of additional research in adult attachment, thinking

that future results could show “that adult love is more complex than infant-caretaker

attachment.”34

In 1991, Bartholomew and Horowitz expanded the research of Hazan and Shaver by

considering the role of attachment in shaping an individual’s self-view and view of others.

Bartholomew and Horowitz were the first to define four models of adult attachment: secure,

preoccupied, dismissing, and fearful.35

Adults with secure attachment have a positive view of self and others. They are

emotionally stable, being open to intimacy yet respectful of partners’ autonomy. By contrast,

adults with preoccupied attachment have a negative view of self but a positive view of others.

The resulting sense of inferiority causes them to be clingy or “preoccupied” with friends,

spouses, and significant others. Preoccupied attachment finds its mirror image in dismissive

attachment. Dismissive adults have a positive view of self but a negative view of others. Their

feelings of superiority make them prone to dismiss intimacy with others. The final attachment,

33 Hazan and Shaver, 511.

34 Hazan and Shaver, 511.

35 Kim Bartholomew and Leonard M. Horowitz, "Attachment Styles Among Young Adults: A Test af a Four-Category Model," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61, no. 2 (1991): 226-244, doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226.

fearful, features a negative view of self and others. An adult with this attachment is often fearful

of intimacy and is socially avoidant.36

The expansion on Bowlby’s attachment model continues in adult studies. Recent research

on adult models of attachment has studied topics such as volitional change in attachment type,

suicide in the elderly, and social network addiction.37, 38, 39 The future of adult attachment

research is seemingly without bounds so long as there is at least one adult in the relationship. For

example, there have been numerous studies since 2019 of attachment theory and smart phone

addiction.40, 41

Attachment Theory and God As Attachment Figure

Theologian Gordon Kaufman was perhaps the first to apply Bowlby’s theory of

attachment to a person’s relationship with God. In 1981, Kaufman stated, “the idea of God is the

36 Bartholomew and Horowitz, 226-244.

37 Nathan W. Hudson, William J. Chopik and Daniel A. Briley, "Volitional Change in Adult Attachment: Can People Who Want to Become Less Anxious and Avoidant Move Closer Towards Realizing Those Goals?", European Journal of Personality 34, no. 1 (2020): 93-114, doi:10.1002/per.2226.

38 Awirut Oon-arom et al., "Suicidality in the Elderly: Role of Adult Attachment," Asian Journal of Psychiatry 44 (2019): 8-12, doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2019.07.014.

39 Chang Liu and Jian-Ling Ma, "Adult Attachment Orientations and Social Networking Site Addiction: The Mediating Effects of Online Social Support and the Fear of Missing Out," Frontiers in Psychology 10 (2019), doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02629.

40 Natasha Parent and Jennifer Shapka, "Moving Beyond Addiction: An Attachment Theory Framework for Understanding Young Adults' Relationships With Their Smartphones," Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies 2, no. 2 (2019): 179-185, doi:10.1002/hbe2.180.

41 Jia Nie, Pengcheng Wang and Li Lei, "Why Can't We Be Separated from Our Smartphones? The Vital Roles Of Smartphone Activity in Smartphone Separation Anxiety," Computers in Human Behavior 109 (2020): 106351, doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106351.

idea of an absolutely adequate attachment figure…God is thought of as a protective parent who

is always reliable and always available to its children when they are in need.”42

Kaufman’s remark displayed a natural connection between Christian theology and

attachment theory. There is a consistent reoccurrence of terminology in Bowlby’s works that will

ring familiar in a Christian’s ears. Protection, safety, provision, and comfort are all key concepts

in attachment and are also attributes of God. Referring to God as “Heavenly Father” further

exemplifies the familial connection and expectation of secure attachment.

However, belief in God does not necessarily mean secure attachment for a child or adult.

Though there is benefit for many to think of God as a father figure, for some the thought of God

being anything like their earthly father would bring discomfort. Exline et al. confirmed in a 2013

study that parental neglect or cruelty can result in the child being angry with God or fearful of

His abandonment.43 Due to this hesitation to attach to God, there may be an important need for

the implementation of attachment theory in a biblical setting. Counselors in this situation should

be prepared (1 Pet. 3:15) to recognize in the counselee the four models of adult attachment, as

42 Kaufman, Gordon D., The Theological Imagination: Constructing the Concept of God (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1981), 67.

43 Julie J. Exline, Steffany J. Homolka and Joshua B. Grubbs, "Negative Views of Parents and Struggles with God: An Exploration of Two Mediators," Journal of Psychology and Theology 41, no. 3 (2013): 200-212, doi:10.1177/009164711304100303.

described by Bartholomew and Horowitz, and show God as a substitutionary primary attachment

figure.44, 45

In the following discussion, the phrases “biblical counseling,” “counseling,” and “in a

biblical setting” may be used interchangeably. Each describes a Christian approach to therapy

that Tan describes as “Christ centered, biblically based, and Spirit filled.”46

Applying Bowlby’s three functions of attachment -- proximity, secure base, and haven of

safety – can assist the Christian counselor in displaying God as a primary attachment figure and,

most importantly, can be supported by Scripture. A counselor in a biblical setting, according to

Adams, “must develop the ability to translate the principles of the Scriptures into concrete applications to specific life situations.”47 Fortunately, Scripture validates our need for proximity

to God, for God as a secure base, and for God as a haven of safety. The discussion of Psalm 23,

below, is by no means exhaustive but is a starting point for further research.

Proximity to God

As Bowlby describes infants seeking “proximity” to the “primary attachment figure,” so

Christians are called to “draw near” to God and “seek [His] face” (Hebrews 10:22, Psalm 27:8).

Furthermore, just as babies’ attachment to their parents stems from the provision of love,

noted. 44 All Scripture references are from the New American Standard Bible unless otherwise

45 Bartholomew and Horowitz, 226-244.

46 Tan, 15.

47 Jay E. Adams, The Christian Counselor's Manual: The Practice of Nouthetic Counseling (Zondervan, 2010), ch. 19, n. pag., Proquest.

protection, and assurance, so the Christian’s attachment to God stems from the provision of the

same or similar needs.

In the 23rd Psalm, David reflects on the many paternal attributes of God such as His

loving discipline, comfort, protection, and provision. Beginning with verse one of the Psalm,

David affirms the Lord’s role of protector and provider: “The Lord is my shepherd, I will not be

in need.”

Another important facet of this verse is the imagery that it conveys. Describing God as a

shepherd implies the idea of the author, and subsequently the reader, as being sheep. This

comparison, while potentially a “cute” visual by modern perceptions, was not a flattering

comparison. Sheep are thought as dumb and directionless, or, stated another way, in constant

need of protection and direction. This is not unlike the infant child, and this understanding of

dependence helps in the attachment process. Understanding the station of the person in the

presence of an omniscient, omnipresent God would assist similarly in the attachment to God.

David continues to outline the paternal aspect of God through the remainder of the 23rd

Psalm. In verse three, he acknowledges God as a healer when he penned “(God) restores my

soul,” and then again immediately in verse four as he describes the safety he feels knowing that

God is with him. His apparent secure attachment is displayed in verse six as David has

developed the faith that God’s “goodness and faithfulness will follow (David) all the days of

(his) life” and that his dwelling will be “in the house of the Lord forever.” The 23rd Psalm shows David as one that seeks and finds comfort in his proximity to God,

as a sheep find comforts from the shepherd. David’s admission of complete dependence upon

God for provision, protection, and direction is parallel to the dependence of an infant upon his or

her parents. Seeing oneself in a state of dependence upon God, and more importantly recognizing

when one has drifted from God’s protection, is an important factor in one seeing God as a

primary attachment figure.

God as a Safe Haven

When an infant is hurt or startled, she will look for her primary attachment figure to

provide comfort. So, too, the Christian walk includes many hazards and trials, but the 23rd Psalm

describes the safety found in being near to God: “Even though I walk through the valley of the

shadow of death, I fear no evil, for you are with me; Your rod and your staff, they comfort me.”

As an infant develops security by learning to trust in the constant presence and protective

nature of their primary attachment figure, the Christian can rest in the same protective and ever-

present attributes of God.

God as a Secure Base

Infants use their primary attachment figure as a secure base from which they explore and

to which they return. In verse six of the 23rd Psalm, David expresses his security in God as a

secure base when he writes, “Certainly goodness and faithfulness will follow me all of the days

of my life, and my dwelling will be in the house of the Lord forever.”

There are two implications from this verse that can be viewed through a lens of God as a

secure base. First, when David says that “goodness and faithfulness” will follow him, it implies

that David is not staying stagnant. This is not to say that David, or any Christian, has been given

carte blanche and can live outside the will of God, but rather that as a Christian examines his

faith (2 Cor. 13:5) and moves through sanctification, God will be ever present.

Second, David implies the permanence of God’s goodness and faithfulness. This security

of knowing that God, as a secure base, will be there today, tomorrow, and a thousand years from

now (Heb. 13:8) underscores the security in his attachment to God.

The 23rd Psalm is not an exhaustive reference for God as a primary attachment figure, but

it is succinctly thorough as a basis for demonstrating the benefit of proximity to God, God as a

safe haven, and God as a secure base in a biblical counseling setting.

Recent Research on Attachment Theory

As attachment theory has gained recognition, the amount and diversity of research has

increased apace. Below is a summary of some recent noteworthy research in regard to

attachment theory, adult attachment, and religious attachment.

Heidi Keller published her findings of the universality of attachment theory, specifically

applying the WEIRD (western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic) framework to

attachment theory as it is viewed in the rest of the world.48 She concluded that in order for

researchers to evaluate parent-child relationships accurately, researchers must first understand

the practices of the specific culture in question. This conclusion echoes the assertion made by

Tan that effective Christian counseling requires “cultural sensitivity and cross-cultural or

multicultural counseling skills. ”49

48 Heidi Keller, "Universality Claim of Attachment Theory: Children’s Socioemotional Development Across Cultures," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 45 (2018): 11414-11419, doi:10.1073/pnas.1720325115.

49 Tan, 337.

Guy Bosmans attempted to integrate attachment theory with cognitive behavior therapy

(CBT). Bosmans admitted that practitioners of CBT often feel hesitant to acknowledge

attachment theory, but postulated that restoring a child’s insecure attachment could be integrated with CBT for the benefit of the child.50 According to Tan, the most popular therapeutic model

self-reported by mental health professional is an eclectic/integrative therapy.51 Bosmans’

research may result in an increase of the integration of attachment theory and CBT.

Much of the recent research on adult attachment examines attachment style relative to

secondary variables such as living with HIV/AIDS, professional burnout, and online dating. One

research project of note is from Melissa McNelis and Chris Segrin. In 2019, they published their

findings on insecure attachment as a predictor for divorce.52 This correlation may have an impact

on biblical counselors, especially those in family and marriage counseling.

With attachment in religious context, a recent study by Leman et al. found that secure

attachment to God correlated to psychological health.53 Their findings underscore the necessity

for biblical counselors to have a basic understanding of attachment theory, specifically of adult

attachment styles.

50 Guy Bosmans, "Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Children and Adolescents: Can Attachment Theory Contribute to Its Efficacy?", Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 19, no. 4 (2016): 310-328, doi:10.1007/s10567-016-0212-3.

51 Tan, 8.

52 Melissa McNelis and Chris Segrin, "Insecure Attachment Predicts History of Divorce, Marriage, and Current Relationship Status," Journal of Divorce & Remarriage 60, no. 5 (2019): 404-417, doi:10.1080/10502556.2018.1558856.

53 Joseph Leman et al., "Secure Attachment to God Uniquely Linked to Psychological Health in a National, Random Sample of American Adults," The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 28, no. 3 (2018): 162-173, doi:10.1080/10508619.2018.1477401.

Conclusion

In sum, the depth and potential implementation of attachment theory in secular and

biblical counseling is seemingly boundless. Continued research on the topic may create a new

paradigm in biblical counseling as opportunities for integration grow. Christian counselors will

benefit from knowing the basic tenets of attachment theory and should use God-given

discernment to recognize attachment styles and their potential effect in the life of the counselee.

Conversely, they should recognize their limitations and be willing to refer if necessary.