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Bio-control of Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) and Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. with Multipurpose Bushy Legumes in ‘Ataulfo’ Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Article in Indian Journal of Horticulture · January 2018 CITATIONS
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Indian Horticulture Journal; 8(1): 01-07, January-March (2018) ©Indian Society of Advanced Horticulture ISSN: 2249-6823
Research Paper
DI: 494-17-IHJ-1509-01
Bio-control of Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) and Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. with Multipurpose Bushy Legumes in ‘Ataulfo’ Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Marroquín-Agreda Francisco1*, Gehrke-Velez Malc Rodney1, Ley-de Coss Alejandro1, Pohlan Juergen2 and Toledo - Toledo Ernesto1 1*
Cuerpo Académico - Productividad de Agroecosistemas Tropicales “UNACH – CA-146”. Facultad de Ciencias Agrícolas, Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas. Entronque Carretera Costera - Pueblo de Huehuetán, Huehuetán, Chiapas, México. CP. 30660. 2 Freelance Consultant in Tropical Agriculture, Germany e-mail: marroquinf@gmail.com Received: 15 September 2017; Revised accepted: 28 January 2018
ABSTRACT Due to their evolution and proliferation, Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. and Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) in mango orchards in southern Mexico are now considered weeds of quarantine importance by Mexican plant health authorities. With this problem in mind, the present research was carried out from July 2011 to April 2012 in a five-1 year old ‘Ataúlfo’ mango orchard having a planting density of 32 trees ha located in Soconusco, Chiapas, Mexico. Legume species (Crotalaria spectabilis, Crotalaria longirostrata and Cajanus cajan) were planted in a 2 m wide area along the outer limits of the mango tree raindrop area. During the experiment, weed behaviour (diversity, abundance and dominance) was analyzed as influenced by the association of legumes in the mango orchard. Results show that the association of legumes in mango plantations increases “acceptable weed” diversity and reduces biomass of S. halepense in 90.9% and 87% in R. cochinchinensis. The rapid growth and biomass production characteristics of the legumes positively changes the weed kenosis structure in favour of enhanced homogeneity and equity, and in so doing, reduces grass dominance. These results prove that the association of multipurpose bushy legumes in mango plantations works as biological of Sorghum halepense, Rottboellia cochinchinensis y Cynodon plectostachyus. Key words: Ataúlfo, Mango, Fabaceae, Weed kenosis, Poaceae, Legume association
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n the Soconusco region of Chiapas, Mexico, „Ataúlfo‟ mango (Mangifera indica L.) cultivation has become an alternative with a high economic and ecological potential for regional fruit growers. However, yields have fallen from 16.44 t ha-1 during the 1980‟s to scarcely 5.45 t ha-1 at present (SIAP 2013) and in many cases no commercial-quality fruit at all is produced. Orchards are spread over a 20,079 –hectare area under an intensive management system which is dependent on high exogenous inputs which contribute to an ecophysiological unbalance wherein weed control contributes with the highest input and production cost of the system. Indiscriminate herbicide use, mainly glyphosphate, paraquat and 2,4-D have generated and continued to produce serious consequences in farmer and consumers health and in farming systems as well mainly by contamination of water
tables, soil erosion and deterioration of natural resources. Furthermore, persistent weed control in mango orchards in southern Mexico has caused proliferation, dominance and resistance of a few grassy species to systemic and contact herbicides, resulting in application intensification and higher herbicide rates per acre (Liebman 2001, Matson et al. 1997, Tilman 1998, Marroquin 2008). Kenosis characteristics of S. halepense and R. cochinchinensis have resulted in plant health authorities considering them as weeds of quarantine importance (official Mexican norm NOM-043-FITO-1999). Intensive chemical application measures are being applied as a quarantine measure for controlling and impeding specimen dispersion toward central and northern Mexico. The association of legumes in annual crops increases the diversity of acceptable or “noble” plant species. It has been 01
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Two sampling locations were selected at random (1m2) in each experimental unit for wild plant analysis. One was established within the tutor area (2 m in contour on the outer limits of the dripzone) and one inside the dripzone. In each sampling area wild plant dynamics was analyzed using the following variables: 1. Weed Diversity (Number of species per m2 in the agrecosystems) determined according to the plant taxonomic classification. 2. Weed Abundance (Number of specimens per m2).This was determined by counting the number of individual species and their sums. 3. Weed Dominance (Dry biomass per m2) was obtained by summing dry matter production per species, extracting aerial biomass, and then weighing it in a granatory balance. 100gr were then taken per species and dried in a forced air oven at 55ºC up to constant weight. Thus, fB × dB B= 100 B= Biomass per m2; fB = Total Fresh biomass per species dB = Dry biomass per sample Weed Equity (Shannon) and Simpson Index (λ)
shown to provide soil protection and insure plant-insect balance. With this in mind, a number of sub utilized legumes (Crotalaria spp.) may well offer alternatives for biological weed control and a sustainable agro ecological management of fruit crop systems. Based on the weed problem in mango orchards, the objective of the present work is to analyze the diversity, abundance and biomass production of weeds in an „Ataúlfo‟ mango orchard as a result of the association with multipurpose bushy legumes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS The experiment was carried out from July, 2011 to April 2012 in a conventionally sized and managed „Ataúlfo‟ mango plantation located in the Soconusco region of Chiapas, Mexico. The specific location is 14° 55‟ north latitude, 92° 22‟ de west longitude with an altitude of 41 masl. Climate is warm humid with abundant rain in summer (Aw2 (w”) ig (Kôeppen modified by Garcia 1988) characterized by high temperatures and heavy rainfall from May to November. Mean annual rainfall is 2,800mm and average temperature is 28ºC with a high of 37ºC and a low of 18ºC (Gerardo-Méndez 2013). Geomorphological characteristics are of a euthric cambizol, soil texture is a clayey loam. The orchard was planted in 2007 with a density of 32 trees ha-1 and a 20 × 20 m spacing. Three legume species (Crotalaria spectabilis, Crotalaria longirostrata and Cajanus cajan) were planted in a two-metre-wide contour on the outer limit of the mango tree dripzone during the 2011-2012 productive cycle. Treatments were distributed in a randomized block design with a total area of 12800 m2 (160 × 80 m). Made up of 4 blocks with 4 experimental units, each one represented by two mango trees. This arrangement allowed analysis of ecobiological interactions between the legume-mango associations and their effects on the taxokenosis growth and development of wild plants. Due to the need for generating floral synchronization in the mango-legume association as a possible alternative for attracting pollinators in mango, C. spectabilis and Cajanus Cajan were seeded on July 18th and C. Longistrata on August 6th.
Legume crops 1. Crotalaria spectabilis 2. Crotalaria longirostrata 3. Cajanus cajan
4. No legumes (mango monoculture)
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Where: H’: Equity index (Shannon); s = number of species; Pi = Proportional number of species i with respect to the total and:
Where: λ = Simpson‟s index; D = Diversity; Pi = Proportion of individuals of the species within the community In order to analyse weed diversity and abundance dynamics, samples were taken at 42, 49, 56, and 63 days after seeding (DAS) of each legume species. Only one destructive sampling was taken for biomass production 63 days after seeding. Field observation results were analyzed with descriptive statistical parameters supported with tables and figures. Statistical analyses and calculations were made with the Statgraphics Centurion XVI Statistics Programme.
Table 1 Legume management in an interplanted mango orchard Agronomic management of associated species Legume seeding: July (C. cajan, C. longirostrata), August (C. spectabilis and V. unguiculata) Planting density: Crotalaria spp 0.70 × 0.10 m and Cajanus cajan 0.70 × 0.40 m (row planted). 1st weed control: post-emergent applicatión 5 days before Seeding (DBS) Paraquat (20%) + Diuron (10%), application rate 18 %, approx. 2 l / ha (180 ml / 20 l H 2O). 2nd weed control: mechanical control (machete) 40 days after seeding (DAS) Crotalaria and Cajanus harvested in January Conventional system (Hand-weeded). 1st weeding post emergence 5 days before seeding Paraquat (20%) + Diuron (10%), Application rate 18 %, approx. 2 l / ha (180 ml / 20 l H2O) 2nd Weeding: mechanical Control (machete) 40 DAS 3rd weeding post emergence 66 DAS Paraquat (20%) + Diuron (10%), Application rate 18 %, approx. 2 l / ha (180 ml / 20 l H2O) 02
R. cochinchinensis and S. halepense with Multipurpose Bushy Legumes in ‘Ataulfo’ Mango
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
affected, with a decrease in species number in the legume scenarios. This pattern is in response to changes in light, temperature and soil humidity promoted by the association. The mango crop conventional system, bases weed control on a chemical decision (Glyphosphate, Paraquat, Diuron and 2,4 D) and a mechanical one. This control persists and incites evolution and resistance of a few species of accompanying flora, namely Sorghum halepense, Rottboellia cochinchinensis and Cynodon plectostachyus. That is why the monocltivated system showed a richness of 15 species, a much eroded diversity as compared to the 26 in the legume system (Table 3).
Weed diversity and abundance Bushy legumes associated as tutors (2m wide in contour) within the mango tree dripzone enhance wild plant richness and thus overcome the area diversity of the conventional system. During the cycle studied, highest weed diversity occurred in the legume area, an ecological niche that promoted germination and development of 22 new species within the tutor area (Table 2). The greatest diversity in the evaluated areas occurred 56 days after seeding (DAS) the legumes in the evaluated systems (Table 3). At floral initiation of legumes (63 DAS) diversity was shown to be
Table 2 Weed diversity during the reproductive cycle of legumes associated with mango Treatments C. spectabilis C. longirostrata Cajanus cajan Control Scientific name Family Samplings (das) Samplings (das) Samplings (das) Samplings (das) 42 49 56 63 42 49 56 63 42 49 56 63 42 49 56 63 Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth Piperaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ipomoea quinquefolia L. Convolvulaceae 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Bouchea prismatica (L.) Kuntze Verbenaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 Fimbristylis annua (All.) Roem. & Schult Cyperaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Phyllanthus niruri L. Euphorbiaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Richardia scabra L. Rubiaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Poaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex Thell. Amaranthaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. Caryophyllaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 Priva lappulacea (L.) Pers. Verbenaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 Indigofera hirsuta L. Fabaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Boerhavia decumbens Vahl Nyctaginaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers Poaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Boerhavia erecta L. Nyctaginaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 Caperonia palustris (L.) A. St.-Hil. Euphorbiaceae 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Digitaria sanguinalis L. Poaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 Mollugo verticillata L. Molluginaceae 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aizoaceae 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 Ipomoea hirta M. Martens & Galeotti Convolvulaceae 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Mirandaceltis monoica Greene Ulmaceae 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Cynodon plectostachyus (K. Schum.) Pilg Poaceae 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 Cucumis dipsaceus C.G. Ehrenb. ex Spach Cucurbitaceae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 Cenchrus echinatus L. Poaceae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 Cyperus ferax Rich. Cyperaceae 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Cyperus luzulae L Cyperaceae 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Passiflora subpeltata Ortega Passifloraceae 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link Poaceae 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Leonotis sp Lamiaceae 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Jussiaea linifolia Vahl Onagraceae 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Desmodium tortuosum (Sw.) DC Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Cenchrus brownii Roem. & Schult Poaceae 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Syngonium podophyllum Schott Araceae 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Spigelia anthelmia L. Loganiaceae 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Melampodium divaricatum (Rich.) DC Esteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Chloris polydactyla Sw Poaceae 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 22 26 25 25 25 26 26 24 23 26 26 24 11 13 15 15 das : days after seeding
139.4 g m2 of weed biomass during the entire cycle (63 days) which is well below that produced by the nonassociated area (505.2 g m2) (Fig 1). This represents a biomass reduction of S. halepense of 91% and 87.2% for R.
Weed biomass Weed biomass production is the most practical indicator for their control. Interplanting of Crotalaria spp and Cajanus cajan within the tutor area produced an average of 03
Francisco et al. 2018 Cochinchinensis. Similar effects were expressed in the dripzone in the C. longistrata association where only 98.23 g m2 were produced, representing a 54.34% decrease regarding the control (Fig 2). Biomass production in the control was 87.1% (440.1g m2) represented by only three species of Poaceae (Sorghum halepense, Rottboellia cochinchinensis and Cynodon plectostachyus). The remaining 12.8% consisted of 12 species (Fig 1). However, when associated with legumes those three grassy species only accounted for 34.0% (46.6 g m2) of the biomass in the associated system and the remaining 66% (92.7 g m2) included 27 species. Biomass results from the dripzone show the effect of legumes on weeds. In the control 75.1%
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of the biomass was represented by 3 species (Rottboellia cochinchinensis, Sorghum halepense and Digitaria sanguinalis) and the remaining 24.95 was made up of 12 species. In the system using traditional control, Sorghum halepense produced 276.6 g m2 (54.75% of total biomass) whereas in the Crotalaria spectabilis treatment this species was reduced to 24.9 g m2 (22.6% of total biomass). In the case of Rottboellia cochinchinensis, control produced 73.0 g m2 (14.4% of total biomass), decreasing to 9.4 g m2 (8.5% of total biomass) in C. Spectabilis. Weed control effectiveness was shown in Cynodon plectostachyus, a species that produced 90.4 g m2 (17.9%) in the traditional system but did not spread under legume conditions (Fig 1).
Fig 1 Weed species biomass in a mango-legume associated orchard 63 days after seeding (das)
Table 3 Statistical variability of weed diversity during the legume reproductive cycle in a mango orchard Weed richness Treatments Ab(X̅) D(X̅) Dmax (eS) (E) Intervals of confidence (X̅) C. spectabilis 273.5 24.50 26 1.73 0.86 21.74 - 27.25 C. longirostrata 262.7 25.25 26 0.95 0.47 23.72 – 26.77 Cajanus cajan 291 24.75 26 1.5 0.75 22.36 - 27.13 Traditional system 211.7 13.50 15 1.91 0.95 10.45 - 16.54 Ab: Abundance; Dmax: Máximum richness; E: Error; eS: Standard Deviation
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R. cochinchinensis and S. halepense with Multipurpose Bushy Legumes in ‘Ataulfo’ Mango In the drip zone, predominant species in the control treatment were Digitaria sanguinalis with 81.1 g m2 (45.8% of biomass), whereas in the legume treatments this weed species produced 1.12 g m2 in the C. spectabilis system. Similarly, Rottboellia cochinchinensis contributed 30.8 g of biomass,decreasing to 14.4 g m2 in C. Spectabilis. Likewise, Sorghum halepense, in the control, gave only 20.7 g of biomass, differing completely from the Crotalaria
spectabilis variant where this species did not spread (Fig 2). Biomass results from the dripzone show the effect of legumes on weeds. In the control 75.1% of the biomass was represented by 3 species (Rottboellia cochinchinensis, Sorghum halepense and Digitaria sanguinalis) and the remaining 24.95 was made up of 12 species. In the legumes, 42.9% was composed of these three species and the rest (57.1%) by 20 species (Fig 2).
Fig 2 Weed species biomass within the dripzone in a non-associated mango orchard
Table 4 Dominance (Simpson) and equivalence (Shannon) Indexes in weed species Tutor Area Drip zone Simpson (λ) Shannon (H´) Simpson (λ) Shannon (H´) Crotalaria spectabilis 0.10 2.69 0.08 2.86 Crotalaria longirostrata 0.09 2.77 0.14 2.25 Cajanus cajan 0.11 2.59 0.08 2.68 Traditional system 0.15 2.23 0.26 1.90 Weed structure and dominance Biological community weed structure within the drip zone and tutor areas is modified by the association with legumes. Dominance determined by biomass production and by Simpson‟s index (λ) is strongly affected by legumes in both areas (drip and tutor) of agricultural interest. Associated areas showed a much higher λ factor than the
traditional system (Table 4). This indicates that change is expressed as a better abundance distribution and lower grass dominance. Lowest dominance and better distribution occurred with Crotalaria spp (0.08 y 0.09). Similarly, equitability is affected, weeds in the legume areas showing the highest values (2.77 and 2.86) and control the lowest. Hence legume association areas have the highest equitability 05
Francisco et al. 2018 and distribution in contrast with the structure shown by the traditional system where the lowest equity and dominance occurred (Table 2). The association of legumes as tutors in mango systems enhances weed taxokenosis diversity in the dripzone area and in its contour, agroecologically stimulating proliferation of new “noble” species and dormancy and/or control of noxious weeds quarantined in Mexico “Rottboellia cochinchinensis and Sorghum halepense” (Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-043-FITO-1999). To this respect, other authors sustain that agro ecological management of crops based on rotation and the use of cover crops increases the diversity of weed species. The inverse is true in monocultures where diversity diminishes and resistance is generated by certain weeds to mechanical (machete) and chemical control (Marroquin 2008, Sans 2007). Gutiérrez et al. (2006), point out that live cover with Teramnus labialis in citric fields, significantly reduces monocotyledonous weeds. Nonetheless, there are species of the Malvaceae family that show persistence even under legume cover crops. In this respect, Zwart et al. (2005), found that Arachis pintoi, Centrocema molle, Desmodium ovalifolium and Flemingia macrophylla reduce new weed germination and prevent their development, allowing the persistence of narrow-leafed species such as Cyperus and Elusine indica in fallow lands. The greater richness of accompanying flora in the mango-legume associated orchards is due to changes in solar exposure of the soil surface in response to shading by the tall growing legumes (Crotalaria spp and Cajanus cajan) as well as to the increased moisture, lower temperatures and solar radiation received by the soil. These factors induced changes in the taxokenosis pattern favouring dicots and affecting monocots. Studies on mango varieties with different structures show that wide leafed weeds represented 90.6% of the wild plant population (1888 plants) (Adeoye and Akinyemi 2011). Studies in velvet beans as a cover crop in corn and Mucuna pruriens in mango, demonstrate the decrease of abundance and the limited growth of weeds present as indicated by etiolation resulting from velvet bean shade (Caamal et al. (2001), Ayala and Basulto (2004). This
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makes evident the effect of weed suppression by Crotalaria spp and C. Cajan which is greater as their biomass increases, thus having a positive relationship between biomass and suppression or control (Bárbery and Mazzoncini 2002). Furthermore, cover crops such as velvet beans possess allelopathetic compounds, useful in weed management (Fujii et al. 1992, Caamal et al. 2001). Significant differences were obtained as well in weed control with Mucuna pruriens and Clitoria ternatea in guava (Psidium guajava) plantations where more than 80% control of existing weeds was obtained (Negrín et al. 2007). However, use of legume cover crops (Lablab purpureus L. and Neonotonia wightii) in weed control in guava (Psidium guajava) plantations showed that monocotyledonous species such as Sorghum halepense L. and Rottboellia exaltata L. prevailed and have to be controlled additionally by mechanical means. Similar results were obtained in other fruit crops by Casamayor and Pérez (1971), FAO (1987). In this regard in Costa Rica, Argel and Villareal (1998) sustain that Arachis pintoi is a preferred species in coffee, citric, and forestry plantations and despite doubts in that country as to nematode infections, there are no conclusive reports on findings in this respect. There are abundant scientific results on associations with creeping legume species. Contrarily, studies on bushy and multi-purpose species are few. The association of bushy multi-purpose Fabaceae species (Crotalaria longirostrata, C. spectabilis and Cajanus cajan) offers efficient control of Rottboellia cochinchinensis, Sorghum halepense and Cynodon plectostachyus, species known to be hosts for insect pests and are quarantined for mango orchards in Mexico. Furthermore, the association of legumes changes weed kenosis structure in favour of better homogeneity and equitability. These results show that this association in mango reduces grassy weed dominance problems and hence the application of herbicides. Characteristics of floral timing coincidence in bushy legume-mango associations, the attractive flowering and plant height of the legume species as well as biomass production and nutrient value of their seeds and foliage, makes these plants an agroecological alternative for diversifying and increasing pollinator presence and for mitigating the effects of climate change in fruit orchards.
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R. cochinchinensis and S. halepense with Multipurpose Bushy Legumes in ‘Ataulfo’ Mango Casamayor R and Pérez C. 1971. Control químico de las malas hierbas en plantaciones jóvenes de cítrico. 2da Reunión nacional de cítrico. La Habana. pp 105-127. Cuba. Castillo B J, Caamal J A, Jiménez J J, Bautista F, Amaya M J and Rodríguez C R. 2010. Evaluación de tres leguminosas como coberturas asociadas con maíz en el trópico húmedo. Agronomía mesoamericana 21: 39-50. FAO. 1987. El reciclaje de materias orgánicas en la agricultura e América Latina. Roma, Italia. pp 253. Fujii Y, Shibuya T and Yasuda T. 1992. Allelopathy of velvetbean: its discrimination and identification of L-DOPA as candidate of allelopathic substances. Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly 25: 238-247. García E. 1988. Modificaciones al Sistema de Clasificación Climática de Koppen. Serie número 6. Instituto de Geografía. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Gerardo M C. 2014. Comportamiento Reproductivo y Calidad del Fruto de Mango Ataulfo (Mangifera caesia Jack ex Wall.) como Respuesta a un Manejo Agroecológico en Tapachula, Chiapas. Tesis de Maestría. Facultad de Ciencias Agrícolas. Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas. México. Gutiérrez R, Iván R, López F, Pérez C M A, Fontes D R and Vernon I D. 2006. Efectos de una cobertura viva de Teramnus labialis (l. f.) sprengel sobre las arvenses en campos citrícolas. Fitosanidad 10: 49-53. Liebman M. 2001. Weed Management: A Need for Ecological Approaches. In Ecological Management of Agricultural Weeds. (Eds) M. Liebman, C. L. Mohler, C. P. Staver. 1-39. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Marroquín A F J. 2008. Sustainable Management of fruit Orchards in the Soconusco, Chiapas. Mexico-Intercopping Cash and Trap Crops. Diss. Universiät Bonn. Matson P A, Parton W J, Power A G and Swift M J. 1997. Agricultural Intensification and Ecosystem Properties. Science 277: 504-509. Negrín B A, Pérez R, Mazorra C and Gutiérrez I. 2007. Control de especies arvenses en plantaciones de guayaba (Psidium guajava) mediante el uso de coberturas vivas de leguminosas. Avances de Investigación Agropecuaria 11: 57-69. NORMA Oficial Mexicana NOM-043-FITO. 1999. Especificaciones para prevenir la introducción de malezas cuarentenarias a México. Rebolledo M A, Del Ángel P A L, Megchún G A, García J A, Nataren V J and Capetillo B A. 2011. Coberteras vivas para el manejo de malezas en mango (Mangifera indica L.) cv. Manila. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems 13: 327338. Sans F X. 2007. La diversidad de los agros ecosistemas. Ecosistemas 16: 44-49. SIAP. 2013. Sistema de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera. MX. Disponible: http://www.siap.gob.mx. Tilman D. 1998. The greening of the green revolution. Nature 396: 211-212. Zwart M A, Rojo J M, De la cruz R and Yeomans J. 2005. Coberturas y la salud del suelo. Tierra Tropical 1: 9-20.
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