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ANCIENT EASTERN NEAR ART

THEMETROPOLITAN MUSEUMOF ART

On the cover: The stag vessel with a frieze depicting a religious scene is a rare example of Hittitesilverware. It is part of a collection of silver and gold objects from Anatolia generously lent by Norbert Schimmel for the newly installed permanent galleries of ancient Near Eastern art. Inside covers: Reliefs from the Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal 11(883-859 B.C.). Above: Lion's-head dress ornament (see fig. 67).

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This Bulletincelebratesthe new installationof the Metropolitan's collectionof ancientNear Easternart.Itis dedicatedto the memoryof CuratorinCharge VaughnE.Crawford, formerly of thatdepartment,underwhose leadership the plansforthe new gallerieswere initiated. Hiseffortsand those of his colleagues now culminatein a significantachievementinthe historyof the Museum:oursubstantialholdings of ancientNearEasternartwillbe once againfullydisplayed. Formanyreaders,"ancientNearEastern art"bringsto mindthe monumentalreliefs fromthe Assyrianpalace of AssurnasirpalII, whichcommandthe firstgalleryof the new otherswillthinkof the strong, installation; compactsculptureof Gudea,governorof Lagash,the stridinglionsfromBabylon,orthe imposingsilverhead of a Sasanian king,all highlightsof previousinstallations.NowMuseum visitorswillhavethe chance to become acquaintedwiththe fullrangeof ancientNear Easternart,producedovera span of more thansix thousandyears and across a vast regionthatincludesancientMesopotamia, Iran,Syria,Anatolia,and otherlands.The visitor'stourof the chronologicallyarranged installationconcludeswiththe splendidcourtly

artof the Achaemenidand Sasanian dynasties of Iran,housed ingalleriesleadinglogicallyto the Islamicdepartment,whose holdings date fromthe seventh centuryA.D.to the modern era. Althoughthe Departmentof AncientNear EasternArtwas notofficiallyestablisheduntil 1956, the historyof the collectionbegan much earlierwithsubstantialgiftsfromJ. Pierpont MorganandJohn D. Rockefeller,Jr. Charles K.Wilkinson,a specialistinthe fieldaffiliated withthe Museumsince 1920, administeredthe departmentfrom1956 untilhis retirementin 1963, when VaughnCrawford,a prominent Sumerologist,tookcharge.Bothmen were seasoned archaeologistsand each furthered the Museumexpeditionsindispensableto a deeper understandingof this art.AlthoughDr. Crawforddied in 1981, he livedlongenough to see the completionof the Raymondand BeverlySacklerGalleryforAssyrianArt,which opened in the springof thatyear.He was succeeded by PrudenceO. Harper,who has of the supervisedthe rest of the reinstallation collection. The new galleriesare a tributealso to those collectorswhose giftsand supporthaveenrichedand strengthenedthe collection.We

thankthe RightReverendPaulMoore,Jr., Bishopof the EpiscopalDiocese of New York, forthe long-termloanof the Mrs.WilliamH. Moorecollectionof seals. Weare most gratefulforthe recentgiftsof glypticartfromDr.and Mrs.MartinCherkaskyand the two largegifts of seals, tools, weapons, and vessels of westernCentralAsiafromJudge Steven D. Robinson and SheldonLewisBreitbart.Special thanksgo to NorbertSchimmel,forhis great generosityto the departmentovera long periodof time-reflected inthe numerousgifts and loans highlighting the galleries-and his importantroleinthe developmentof the collection. Forthe installationitselfwe are deeply indebtedto The HagopKevorkian Fund;James N.Spear;The DillonFund;the NationalEndowmentforthe Humanities;and Raymondand BeverlySackler,whofundedthe expansionof the gallerythatbears theirnames. Onlya few of the manydonorsand supporterswho have aidedthe growthof the departmentcan be acknowledgedinthisbriefspace, butallshould take prideinthe new installationand the role they playedin itsformation. Philippede Montebello Director

INTRODUCTION Mesopotamia, the heart of the Near East and the land that has produced the first traces of civilization,lies between two great rivers,the Tigris and the Euphrates. These riverswere majorroutes of communication, opening the way to distant regions and encouraging contacts between the settle-

ments thatsprang up as earlyas the seventh millenniumB.C.Intime, irrigation canals were constructedto divertthe watersand bringfertilityto landswhere rainfallalone was notadequateto support agriculture. Twoimportantdevelopmentsare often associated withthe beginningof civilization:the establishmentof largepopulation centers withincities, and the introduction of a system of writing.Archaeological excavationshave revealedthatthis stage inthe historyof mankindwas reached shortlybefore3000 B.C.in southern Mesopotamia.Urbancenters replacedthe pastoralvillagecultures,and specialized

societies withpriests,scribes, craftsmen, and farmerscame intoexistence. The people responsibleforthis urbanrevolution,as it has been called, were the Sumerians.They enteredMesopotamia sometimeduringthe fifthmillenniumand developedthe firstknownscript,a system of pictographsthatlaterevolved into wedge-shapedcuneiformsigns. Throughthe millennia,southernMesopotamiaremainedan importantcenter, strategicallylocatedon landand water routesto Egyptand the Mediterranean worldinthe west, and to the IndusValley and CentralAsia inthe east. The capital cities of the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians,Kassites, Seleucids, Parthians, and Sasanians all lay in this fertile agricultural region.Because southern Mesopotamiais poorin naturalresources -primarily metal,stone, and wood-the inhabitantsof Sumerestablishedcontacts at an earlyperiodwithneighboring

countriesrichin rawmaterials.Excavationsof Urukperiod(ca. 3500-3100 B.C.) settlementshave revealedthatthe Sumerianstradedwithpeoples livingin Anatolia,Syria,and Iran,and maintained outposts inthese lands. By the mid-third millenniumB.C.gold, silver,tin,copper, and semipreciousstones (carnelianand lapislazuli)were importedfromthe regions east and west of Mesopotamia. This livelytradeis documentedinthe cuneiformtexts and in the richand exotic burialsin the RoyalCemetaryat Ur(see fig. 66). A thrivingtextileindustrydeveloped in Sumer,and the woven goods manufacturedinthe south formedan importantpartof its foreigntrade. The Sumerianlanguagedoes not belongto a recognizedlinguisticgroup, and consequentlythe ethnicoriginof the Sumeriansis not yet known.They were succeeded, however,by a Semitic people, the Akkadians,who had entered

The MetropolitanMuseumof ArtBulletin Spring1984 VolumeXLI,Number4 (ISSN0026-1521) Museumof Art,FifthAvenueand 82nd Street,New York,N.Y10028. Second-class postage paid at Publishedquarterly? 1984 by The Metropolitan New York,N.Yand AdditionalMailingOffices. Subscriptions$18.00 a year.Single copies $4.75. Sent free to Museummembers. Fourweeks' notice requiredfor change of address. Back issues availableon microfilm,fromUniversityMicrofilms,313 N. FirstStreet,Ann Arbor,Michigan.Volumes I-XXVIII (1905-1942) availableas a clothboundreprintset or as individualyearlyvolumes fromThe AyerCompany,Publishers,Inc.,99 MainStreet, Salem, N.H.03079, or fromthe Museum,Box 700, MiddleVillage,N.Y11379. GeneralManagerof Publications:John P O'Neill,Editorin Chiefof the Bulletin:Joan Holt.Associate Editor:Joanna Ekman.Photography:LyntonGardiner,The MetropolitanMusuemof ArtPhotographStudio. Design: AlvinGrossman. 2

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southernMesopotamia,probablyfrom the west, duringthe centuriesof Sumerian domination.This new dynasty(23342154 B.C.) expanded its controlwithin Mesopotamiaand made its presence felt, throughtradeand militaryinvasion,as far as the "cedarforests"of Lebanon,the Taurusmountains,and "silver-bearing" the highlandsof Iran.The artsflourished duringthe Akkadianera. Seal stones are finelycarvedwithelaboratemythological scenes (see fig. 30); stone and metal sculpturesare of highartisticandtechnical quality. This periodof brillianceended with invasionsof Guti,tribesmenfromthe Zagrosmountains,who disruptedthe course of lifeinsouthernMesopotamia. Duringthe followingdecades a few Sumeriancity-statesgraduallyreestablishedtheirauthorityover a limitedarea. One of these states, Lagash,was ruled by Gudea (fig.2), who is prominentin the historyof ancientNear Easternartbecause of the largenumberof massive dioritesculpturesthathave survivedfrom the periodof his rule(2144-2124 B.C.). By the end of the thirdmillenniumB.C. a new wave of Semiticpeoples, Amorites fromthe ArabianDesert, had spread into Mesopotamia and Syria. A common writtenlanguage,the OldBabyloniandialect of Akkadian,came intouse over a widearea and opened the wayto increasinglyefficientcommunications.The most famousof the Amoriterulersis Hammurabi of Babylon(1792-1750 B.C.),whose code of laws, based on earlierSumerianmodels, is a comprehensiverecordof legal practicesand an importantdocumentfor the historyof Mesopotamiancivilization. Interconnectionsin the Near East, both peacefuland warlike,increasedduring the second millennium.Assyrianmerchants fromthe northof Mesopotamia establishedtradingcolonies inAnatolia (see fig. 73); Hittitekingsrulingin central AnatoliamarriedBabylonian,Hurrian, and Egyptianprincesses; Elamitearmies fromsouthernIraninvadedMesopotamiaand carriedoffstatues of the kings and gods to the capitalat Susa. The firstmillenniumwas a periodof greatempiresinAssyria,Babylonia,and AchaemenidIran.Assyria-or northern Mesopotamia-differsgeographically fromits southernneighbor,Babylonia. Cropsgrownon the fertilenorthernplains producedsufficientfood forAssyriaand sustained her armiesand herempirein times of expansion.Stone and timber, whichthe south lacked,were also available inthe moretemperatemountain countryof the north.WhileBabylonia

was to some extentborderedand enclosed by the Tigrisand Euphratesrivers, Assyriawas notclearlydefinedby natural features,and so its boundariesexpandedor contracteddependingon the balanceof powerwithinthe region.Inthe firstmillenniumB.C.-fromthe ninthto the seventh century-Assyria achieved supremepowerinthe NearEast.Assyrian rulerscontrolledthe majortraderoutes and dominatedthe surroundingstates in Babylonia,Anatolia,and the Levant.Lavishlydecoratedpalaces were constructed inthe capitalcities of Nimrud,Nineveh, Khorsabad,and Assur.The downfallof this mightykingdomwas finallyachieved, at the end of the seventh century,by Babylonia,a long-standingrival,and by Medianand Scythianforces. Fora briefperiodBabyloniareplaced Assyriaas a majorpower.Inthe seventh and sixthcenturiesB.C. Chaldeankings fromthe southernmostregionof Mesopotamiaunifieda diversesociety and fended offattacksof westernSemites-Aramaean tribesmen.Butrebellionswithinthe kingdom weakenedthe powerof Nebuchadnezzar'sdynasty(625-539 B.C.)and left Babyloniaand all Mesopotamiaopen to attackand conquest by Iran. SouthwesternIranwas Mesopotamia's closest neighbor,bothgeographicallyand The modern-dayprovinceof politically. Khuzistan-ancient Elam-in southwestern Iranis an extensionof the southern Mesopotamianplain,and throughouthistorythe developmentof civilizationinthis importantculturaland politicalcenterwas affectedby events thatoccurredinthe landbetweenthe Tigrisand Euphrates rivers.Inmoredistantareas, on the centralplateau,the eastern desert, and the northernhighlandsof Iran,Mesopotamianinfluencewas alwaysweaker.Duringthe fifthand fourthmillenniaB.C.both Khuzistanand the centralplateauwere sources of particularly strikingpottery thatwas decoratedwithelaborategeometric,plant,and animaldesigns (see fig. 58). Since writtenrecordsare lackingfrom before3000 B.C., it is impossibleto give a name or an ethnicidentification to the peoples who producedthese wares. Inthe latefourthmillenniumB.C., contacts withMesopotamiaincreasedas the Sumeriansbecame active inthe tradein semipreciousstones and metalsthat movedthrougheastern Iranand Afghanistan. UnderSumerianinfluencethe cuneiformscriptwas adoptedin Iran,and before3000 B.C.a majorcenterwas established in Khuzistan,at Susa, a site that has been excavatedby Frencharchaeologists. Thiscityand Anshan(modern

Malyan),in neighboringFarsprovince, were the most importantpoliticaland culturalcenters throughoutthe long historyof the Elamites.OldElamiteworksof artproducedinthis regionduringthe third and earlysecond millenniawere influenced by the artof Sumerianand AkkadianMesopotamia.The images, however-particularlythose of animals and fantasticcreatures-are renderedin a distinctiveElamitestyle thatis characterizedby naturallyrenderedformsand decorativesurfacepatterns.Contactswith landsfarto the northand east, in presentday Afghanistan,as wellas withpeoples livingalong the Induscoastline inthe southeast, exposed the artistsof Iranto culturesthatwereunfamiliar to theirMesopotamianneighbors,and this is reflected inthe characterand appearanceof their worksof art.UnderkingsrulingfromSusa inthe second halfof the second millennium B.C. Elambecame a majorpoliticalforce inthe Near East. Wheneversouthern Mesopotamiawas controlledby weak or ineffectiveleaders,Elamitearmiesinvaded the region,destroyedits cities, and briefly controlledthe course of events there. Northwestof Khuzistanlies a region withinthe Zagrosmountainchainthatin antiquitywas the home of semi-nomadic peoples. Littleis knownof the historyor cultureof the inhabitantsof Luristan,as the regionis nowcalled. Inthe third, second, and earlyfirstmillenniaB.C.the importanceof the areaas a centerof horse breedingresultedin frequentcontacts betweenthe mountainpeople and their sedentaryneighborsin Babyloniaand Elam.Bronzes made in Luristanduring the thirdand second millenniaB.C. illustratethe influenceof southernMesopotamiaand Elam.Inthe firstmillennium B.C.the florescence of a distinctivelocal style is documentedbya profusionof cast andhammeredworksof art-the "Luristan bronzes"-for whichthis regionis justifiablyfamous. Excavationsin recentyears have uncoveredbuildingsand tombs, but the ethnicoriginof the inhabitantsandthe reason forthis richartisticproduction remainuncertain. Lateinthe second millenniumB.C., the arrivalof Indo-Europeans,the Iranians, began a new periodinthe historyof the region.Bythe middleof the firstmillenniumB.C., Mesopotamiaand Iran, underthe ruleof Achaemenidkings, were partof an empirethatexceeded in its geographicalextentanythingthat had come before.Fromcapitalcities at Susa, Ecbatana,and Babylon,the Iranian rulerscontrolledan empirethat reachedfromTurkmenistan to the Mediterraneanseacoast and Egypt.Inthe art 3

of the Achaemenidcourt,influencesfrom Assyria,Babylonia,Egypt,and Greece are apparentin bothstyle and iconography. The imperialambitionsof the Achaemenids,whichled them twiceto attack the Greekmainland,were the cause of theirdownfall.In334 B.C.Alexanderthe GreatinvadedAsia fromMacedoniain Greece. Fouryears later,the victorious Greekarmyreached Persepolis in southern Iranand burnedthis greatceremonial centerto the ground.Achaemenidrulein the Near East was at an end. The Greekconquestof the Achaemenid the culturaldevelopempireinterrupted mentof the Near East and alteredthe course of civilizationinthatregion.Earlier invasions,inthe thirdand second millennia,had broughtpeoples fromdesert and mountainareas as well as fromthe steppes intothe fertilelands and urban centers of the Near East. The arrivalof these seminomadictribesmenfromoutside the civilizedworlddid not radically transformthe culturesthathad developed overthe millennia.New concepts and values were graftedonto existingtraditions, the societies were modified,and the fabricof civilizationwas enriched. The invasionof the Greeks, however, differedfromthese earlierincursionsbecause itbroughtintothe NearEastforthe firsttime a people who had highly 4

developed culturaltraditions.Greek soldiersand merchantscame to livein Syria,Anatolia,Mesopotamia,and Iran; they foundedcities and introduceda new way of life.When,inthe latethirdcentury B.C.,the IranianParthiansreclaimedMesopotamiaand Iranfromthe Seleucidsthe successors of Alexanderthe Greatthe Greeksettlers and theirculture remained.The Orienthad adoptedthe West,and forthe nextmillennium,intimes of peace and war,the kingdomsof the Near East and the Romanand Byzantine empires inthe West maintainedpolitical and economicties as wellas commonculturaltraditions. A reassertionof a NearEasternidentity, an Iranianrenaissance, is apparentin the artsat the beginningof the firstcenturyA.D., and itdeveloped underanother Iraniandynasty,the Sasanians, who ruled Mesopotamia,Iran,and partsof Syria and AnatoliafromA.D.226 to 651. Forms and motifswere adoptedfromthe West, buttheirsignificancechanged, and they expressed OrientalratherthanWestern concepts. Similarly,in the Iraniannationalepic, the Shahnameh, originally compiledat the end of the Sasanian period,a legendaryAlexanderthe Great is half-Persianand half-Greekby birth,a modificationof historythatmade events understandableand meaningfulto the Near Easterner.

Anatoliaand Syriaare geographically and culturallypartof the Near East, butthey also face the West and are neighborsof the Mediterraneanworld,of Egypt,Cyprus,Crete,and Greece. Their proximityto these lands affectedtheir culturaldevelopment,and a distinctive characteris apparentinthe worksof art. Manydifferentcivilizationsflourishedin Anatoliaand Syriaoverthe millennia, and new peoples enteredbothregionsat varioustimes: Hittitesand Phrygians inAnatolia;Hurrians,Mitannians,and Aramaeansin Syria. Anatoliais richin metalore-notably gold, silver,and copper-and the skillof the Anatolianmetalworkeris evidentin findsdatingfromthe end of the third millenniumB.C. (see fig. 32). Vessels of gold and silverfoundinthe tombs of local rulershave long,delicatespouts and handsome curvilineardesigns on the bodies (see fig. 10), featuresthatare also seen on the exceptionallyfine ceramicwares made inthis period.When the Indo-EuropeanHittitesenteredAnatoliaat the beginningof the second millenniumB.C., they maintainedmany of the traditionsin metalworkingand potterymakingestablished by theirpredecessors. A spectaculargroupof gold and silverobjects inthe collectionof NorbertSchimmeldeserves special mentionhere bothas an illustrationof the

skill of the Hittiteartist (see front and back covers, fig. 24) and as a rare example of the art made in court workshops. The Hittiteempire collapsed at the end of the second millennium B.C.in a period of foreign invasions and general chaos that also affected much of southwestern Anatolia and Syria. Inthe early first millennium B.C.,a number of smaller kingdoms replaced the Hittites as major political powers in Anatolia-notably Urartu,with its capital city at Lake Van, a rivalof Assyria from the ninth to the end of the seventh century B.C.(see fig. 74), and Phrygia, which in the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.occupied the earlier Hittite realm in central and western Anatolia and established its center at Gordion. Duringthe seventh century B.C.,nomadic tribesmen from the steppes north of the Caucasus mountains poured into Anatolia, destroying Phrygian power and disrupting life in western Anatolia. In eastern Anatolia Scythian tribes moved into Iranand Mesopotamia, where they joined with Median and Babylonian armies in their attack on Assyria late in the seventh century. The influence of the Scythians on the art of the Near East is apparent in works made in Iran,Anatolia, and Syria during this period. The objects are executed in a distinctive, beveled style and display a repertory of designs in which stags, panthers, birds of prey, and griffins are favorite subjects. By the beginning of the sixth century B.C.the Scythians had retreated from the Near East through Anatolia and had returned to the steppes around the Black Sea. The rising power of Achaemenid Iranreached into Anatolia, and in the middle of the sixth century, Persian satraps and officials, responsible to the Achaemenid king at Susa, extended their control as far as the Aegean seacoast. Syria, to the south of Anatolia and west of Mesopotamia, was a crossroads between the great civilizations of the ancient world and was often disputed by rivalpowers. The rulers who controlled this land held vitaltrade routes linkingthe Mediterranean worldand Asia. Evidence of trade between Syria and Mesopotamia in the late fourth millennium B.C.marks the beginning of direct contacts that increased over the centuries. Although foreigners, notably Mesopotamians, lived and traded in Syria continuously from the earliest times, its art had a distinctive character, which has been demonstrated in recent excavations of the third-millenniumlevels at such sites as Mariand Ebla. Inthe second millennium B.C.a trulyinternational style developed

inthis region.Motifsand designs from

worldwere Egyptand the Mediterranean adoptedand passed intimefromSyria intothe artof Mesopotamia.Inthe first millenniumB.C.Assyriaand Phoenicia replacedEgyptand the Myceneanand Minoanempiresas a majorsource of influencein Syrianart.Ivorycarvings fromArslanTash-exhibited now inthe Raymondand BeverlySacklerGalleryfor AssyrianArt-clearly illustratea combinationof variousartisticstyles. The small plaqueswithreliefcarvingsof human, animal,and plantdesigns decoratedfurnitureand objectsof luxury.Egyptianizing motifsintroducedthroughPhoeniciaare combinedwithstylisticand iconographic detailstakenfromthe artof Assyria. Exhibitedin the same galleryare ivories excavatedat Nimrud,in northernMesopotamia,where craftsmen,deportedfrom Syriaand Phoenicia,workedforthe Assyriancourt.TheAssyriansmustalso have receivedsome ivories,whichwere treasuredobjects,as tributeand bootyfollowingtheirconquest inthe earlyfirstmillenniumB.C.of towns inthe Syrianwest. The Assyriandominationof Syriawas followedby Babylonianconquests and finallyby Achaemenidrule.Withthe invasion of Alexanderthe Greatinthe fourth century,a largepartof Syriafell into Greekhands, and latercame under Romanand then Byzantinecontrol.The borderbetweenthe westernempiresof Rome and Byzantiumand the Parthian and Sasanian lands inthe east ranalong the centraland northernEuphratesRiver throughSyria. Fora thousandyears, fromthe last centuriesbeforeChristto the comingof Islam,the historyof the regionwas one of almostcontinualwarfareas the great empiresof Byzantiumand Sasanian Iran battledand ultimatelyexhaustedtheir resources inthe effortto controlthe rich traderoutesand cities of Anatoliaand Syria.Finally,Arabarmiesfromthe western desert-followers of the prophet Muhammad-overranthe NearEast, and bythe middleof the seventhcenturyMesopotamiaand Iranas wellas almosthalfof the ByzantineempirehadfallenunderIslamicrule.Withthe introduction of this new religionand way of lifeanotherperiodin the historyof the Near East began.

ingof the universeand man'srelationship to the divinepowersare the religionsof and ZoroastrianJudaism,Christianity, ism. Ofthese faithsthe least familiarto us is the Zoroastrianreligion.Duringthe Sasanian period(thirdto seventh century A.D.)thiswas the officialstate religioninthe Near East, as Christianity became, under Constantinethe Great(A.D.313-37), the religionof the ByzantineWest.The prophetZoroaster,who mayhave lived abouta thousandyears beforeChristor somewhatlater,preacheda doctrinein whichthe powerof Good (personifiedby the god Ahuramazda,orOhrmazd)is confrontedbythe powerof Evil(personified bythe god AngraMainyu,or Ahriman). Man'snaturalroleis to followGood, buthe is free to choose betweenthe two principles.Incontrastto otherearly NearEasternreligions,few of the deities are depictedin art.The most notable representationsof Zoroastriangods from the pre-lslamicera appearon rockreliefs carvedduringthe Sasanian periodon the clifffaces of Iran.

in processions celebrating special occasions. Ancient man believed that the gods controlled the forces of nature and governed the course of events in daily life. Notable exceptions to this understand-

A section on writingis by IraSpar, Associate Professor of Historyand Ancient Studies at Ramapo College. PRUDENCE 0. HARPER Curator,Ancient Near Eastern Art

Archaeologicalfieldworkand the study of ancientrecordsprovidethe means to reconstructancienthistoryand to understand the worksof art.Since the early 1930s, whenexpeditionsfirstwentto Iran, the Museumhas continuedto mountand supportexcavationsinthatcountryas well as Iraq,Jordan,Syria,and Turkey.A portionof thisBulletinis devotedto thiswork. Inscribedclay tabletswere amongthe firstNearEasternantiquitiesthe Museum acquired,andthe presentcollectionranges in date fromaround2600 B.C.to the first centuryA.D.The writtentexts and the designs on stamp and cylindersealsobjectsof exceptionalinterestand oftenof greatbeauty-document aspects of Near Easternlifeand culturethatwouldotherwise remainunknown. Worksof artfromMesopotamiaand Iranformthe majorpartof the exhibition inthe new galleriesof the Departmentof AncientNearEasternArtand are the primarysubjectof this Bulletin.The artof Anatoliaand the Levant,as wellas the collectionof seals and tablets, is represented by a smallerselection of objects. Galleriesforthe displayof these artifacts are plannedforthe future. Allof the curatorialmembersof the Throughoutantiquityone of man'sprimary concernswas his relationshipto the gods. Departmenthave contributedto this Statues of the deities, generallyin human Bulletin:OscarWhiteMuscarella,Holly form,were set up intemples and carried Pittman,BarbaraA. Porter,and myself.

Beginninginthe earlyNeolithicperiod, representationsof humanfigures in terracotta,stone, or bone were made all overthe Near East. We cannotoftentell whetherthe figuresrepresentdeities or humans,or if indeed such distinctions were intended.Butbythe latefourthand earlythirdmillenniaB.C., backgroundsceneryor physicalattributesand activities were includedthatcan sometimes help us to distinguishgods frommen. Itis difficult,however,to tell an ordinary citizen-a priest or a worshiper,for example-from a ruler. Inthe course of the thirdmillennium B.C.variousNear Easternstates were engaged in organizedtradeand imperial conquest, and then, politicallyand economicallysecure, theirrulersbegan to have themselves portrayedunambiguously and sometimes withinscriptions. Theywere depictedperformingsecular, military,and religiousfunctions,and the formsemployedwere statuaryinthe roundor carvingson cylinderseals and reliefs,usuallyin stone. Thefiguresreproducedhere are clearly rulers,identifiedas such eitherby inscriptions or theirregalcharacteristics.Possiblythe earliestis the heavy,almost solid-casthead (fig. 1), masterfullyand subtlyexecuted to indicatecalm dignity and inherentpower.The heavy-lidded eyes, the prominentbutnotoverlarge nose, the full-lippedmouth,and the intricatelycoiffedbeardare all so carefully and skillfullymodeledthatthe head may wellbe a portrait,almostcertainlyof a ruler.Ifthis is a portrait,then the head is uniqueamong Near Easternartifacts. Some scholars date itto the second millenniumB.C., othersto the latethird millenniumB.C., which,consideringthe style, seems more likely.The makerand the date of the piece remainunknown,as does the identityof this king,whose representation,muteand nameless, nevertheless remainsone of the greatworks of ancientart. The seated stone figure(fig.2) represents Gudea (2144-2124 B.C.), the ensi, or governor,of the ancientSumerian state of Lagash,whose name and title are includedinthe long inscription.A numberof stone statues of Gudea,seated or standing,were excavatedat Tello (ancientGirsu),insouthernMesopotamia, whileothers, presumablyfromTello,surfaced on the artmarket;manyfromboth sources are fragmented,lackingheads or bodies. The Museum'sGudea is complete and depictsthe rulercharacteristicallydressed in a brimmedhatdecorated withhairlikespiralsand a longgarment thatleaves one shoulderbare. His hands 7

are clasped in prayer-appropriatelyso, forthe inscriptioninformsus thatthe statuewas placedin a templeto represent Gudea in supplicationbeforethe gods. The Museumalso possesses a stone head, whichwas joinedto a body inthe the son of Gudea; Louvre,of Ur-Ningirsu, the completestatue (fig.69) is exhibited at the Metropolitan and the Louvrein alternatingthree-yearperiods. Duringthe firstmillenniumB.C.Assyrian and PersianAchaemenidkingsruled manynationsand peoples. Theywere mastersof politicalpropaganda,which was expressed in numeroustexts and in variousformsof art.The Assyrianpalaces were embellishedwithstone wall reliefs(see insidecovers) depictingroyal activitiesinwar,the hunt,and domestic and religiousceremonies. On the illustratedrelieffromNimrud(fig.3), the king Assurnasirpal11(883-859 B.C.)holds a bow-a symbolof his authority-and a ceremonialbowl.Facinghim,an attendantholds a flywhiskand a ladlefor replenishingthe royalvessel. The peaceful,perhapsreligious,natureof the scene is reflectedinthe calm, dignifiedcomposure of the figures. The Achaemenidkings(550-331 B.C.) employedthe politicaland artisticiconographyof earlierperiods.Althoughwarlike activitiesdo not appearon theirpalace reliefs,the Persiankingsdid represent themselveson cylinderseals vanquishing enemies. On the seal at the lowerleft(fig. 4) an Achaemenidkingholdsa bow,again a symbolof authority, andthrustshis spear intoa soldier,identifiedas Greekby his helmetand clothing.The naturalismof the carvingand detailssuggests thatthe artist was eithera Greekworkingforthe Persians or a Persiantrainedin the West. The PersianSasanians (thirdto seventh centuryA.D.)consideredthemselves the spiritualand politicalheirsto the Achaemenidkings. Representationsof Sasanian rulersappearon coins, vessels, and rockreliefs,and in stucco busts. On the coins each kingis named by an inscriptionand wears a personalized crown,whichusuallyhelps to identify other,uninscribedportraits.Unfortunately, this is notthe case withthe Museum's slightlyunder-life-sizehead (fig.5), which was hammeredfroma single piece of silver.Because of slightvariationsinthe crownand the presence of the striated globe headdress, we can inferthathe was a fourth-century king,whose controlledfierceness characterizesa posturedepictedformillennia.We do not knowthe functionof the piece, butit is a rareexampleof a Sasanian kingportrayedin the round. O.W.M.

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Mudbrick,unbakedand baked,reed, wood, and stone were the chief building materialsof the ancientNear Eastern world.The collapse of successive mudbrickwallsgraduallyled to the formation of mounds,whichmarkthe sites of human occupationinthe Near East (see figs. 44, 49, 51). Because stone is rarein southern Mesopotamia,mudbrickand reeds were used to fashionstructures.Wood was also generallylackinginthe south, where the onlycommontree was the date palm(see figs. 4, 39). InSyriaand Anatolia,however,wood formedan integralpartof all largestructures.On a clay culttowerprobablymade in Syria(see fig. 22), sizable wooden beams are represented betweenthe two stories and in the frameworkof the building. The wallsand doorwaysof most importantroyaland cultbuildingswere embellished withdifferentmaterials,stone, metal,and paintedplaster.Claybricks moldedintofiguraland plantformsfirst appearas a type of decorationin architecture of the second millennium B.C. in

Mesopotamiaand Syria.Some of the most impressiveexamples of molded brickscome fromthe cityof Babylon. The wallsof gateways,the royalbuildings, and a long processionalroad,built duringthe reignof NebuchadnezzarII (604-562 B.C.), were faced with molded 7

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brickscoveredwithyellow,blue, black, and redglazes. The lions (see fig. 11

9), symbolsof Ishtar,the greatMesopotamiangoddess of love and war(see fig. 27), are fromthe wallsof the processional roadleadingto the BitAkitu, or house of the New Year'sFestival (see p. 23). The Babyloniantaste formoldedand glazed bricksspreadto Iran,and in the Achaemenidperiod(550-331 B.C.) the wallsof the palaces at Susa had brightlycoloredglazed surfaces. The mostfamiliarAchaemenidarchitecture, 12

to representthe forepartsof various however,is at the site of Persepolis,in southwesternIran.Manyof the stone animals:griffins,bulls,andhuman-headed sculpturesdecoratingthe entrancegates, bulls.The head of a bull(fig.6) inthe stairs,and wallsof the royalbuildingsstill Museum'scollectionis partof one of stand, butthe mudbricksthatformedthe these blocksand combines realisticand wallsof these buildingshave longsince decorativeformsinthe typicalstyle of the crumbledaway.Some of the hallsat Achaemenidroyalworkshops.The aniPersepolishad huge stone columnsover mal'sears and horns,now lost, were made fromseparate pieces of stone. sixtyfeet high.On the tops of these columnsand the capitalssurmounting Royaland cultbuildingswere constructedwithconsiderable care and them, impostblocksheldthe wooden ceilingbeams. These blockswere carved deliberation.The groundchosen fortem-

pie buildingswas clearedbeforeconstructionand the soil speciallyprepared.One customarypractice,datingfromas early as the mid-thirdmillenniumB.C., was the burialof foundationfiguresat selected pointsbeneaththe temple.A nude male figuresupportinga box (fig.7) may have originallyserved this purpose.Foundationfiguresoftenend in a taperednaillikeformso that,in a sense, they secure the buildingin place. This is trueof many Sumerianfigures(see fig. 45) and of a

particularly strikingexample (see fig. 35), probablyfromnorthernMesopotamia, toppedwitha snarlinglion. The conquest of the Near Eastern lands inthe fourthcenturyB.C.by the GreekrulerAlexanderof Macedon broughtforeigncraftsmenin considerable numbersto the NearEast, and the architecture soon reflectedtheirpresence. Stone was used morefrequentlyforbuildings of importance,and Greekcapitals, columns,and moldingsbegan to trans-

formthe appearanceof buildings.A beardedmale head of Parthiandate (first to second centuryA.D.) providesevidence of westerninfluenceinthe rather realisticstyle and the functionof the piece as a waterspout(fig.8). The person portrayed,however,has the moustache, long, loose locks of hair,and prominent nose of a Near Easterner,probablyan Iranian.The head was originallyglazed, and the beardstillretainstraces of iron pyrites. P.O.H. 13

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Vessels fashionedfromsilverand gold were made in several areas of the Near East as earlyas the middleof the third millenniumB.C.Ores producingsilver exist in Iran,and silverwas broughtback fromAnatoliaby merchantsfromnorthern Mesopotamia(Assyria)in the early second millenniumB.C.Goldcame to Mesopotamiafroma varietyof sources, includingthe Taurusand Caucasus mountains inthe northwestand Egyptin the southwest.Textsalso recordthe shipmentof gold fromthe Induscoastline (Meluhha)in the east. Some of the most spectacularand earliestobjects in gold come fromthe RoyalCemeteryat Ur(ca. 2500 B.C.)in Mesopotamia(see fig. 66). Neithergold norsilveris nativeto Mesopotamia,and the appearanceof these materialsindicates thatan effectivesystem of trade had developed by this time. Slightlylaterin date thanthe objects discoveredat Urare gold vessels found in royaltombs in north-central Anatolia.A ewer made of hammeredgold (fig. 10) originallyhad a longspout thatprojected fromthe narrowneck. Duringthe second millenniumB.C. spoutedjugs became extremelyelaborateand elegant in form.A representationof a cultscene on a Hittite cup (see backcover)shows one of these jugs in use at a ceremonywhere a liquid offeringis being pouredout beforea god. One vessel type thathad a long history inthe ancientNear East incorporatesthe head orforepartof an animal.A spectacularexample (see frontcover)comes from Anatoliaand was made duringthe period of Hittiterule(fifteenthto thirteenth centuryB.C.). The handledcup is inthe shape of the forepartof a recumbent stag, an animalcommonlyrepresentedin the artof Anatoliaand associated witha stag god,whocan be seen on the bandencirclingthe neck of the vessel (see back cover).The meaningof this cultscene is uncertain,butthe associationof certain animal-shapedvessels withparticular divinitiesis describedin Hittitetexts. Religiousor cultscenes of the type foundon the Hittitecup are unknownon latervessels of gold or silverthatare preservedfromthe periodof Achaemenid rulein Iran.Ingeneral,the decorationof these worksof artis fairlysimple. Bodies are oftenflutedand decoratedwitheggshaped bosses (see fig. 72), designs that appearon Near Easternceramicsand metalworkin the second and earlyfirst millenniaB.C. Stylizedplantmotifsinclude lotuses, palmettes,and rosettes. AnAchaemenidcup made of silveris inthe shape of a horse'shead (fig.12). The bridleand the fileof birdsaroundthe 15

neck are coveredwithgoldfoil.This combinationof gold and silverwas commonlyused on metalworkof the Achaemenidperiod,and the fashioncontinuedon laterworksof Parthianand Sasanian date. AnotherAchaemenidvessel (fig.14) ends inthe forepartof a lion.The mouth of the lionis open, and incharacteristic NearEasternfashionthe tongue protrudesfrombetweenthe teeth. The vessel is madeof seven different parts,almost invisiblyjoined. A gildedsilverrhyton(fig.13), hornshaped and havinga smallspoutfor pouring,dates fromthe Parthianperiod

male figure,beardedand partiallynude. The vine scrolland the nude male figure (an unusualsubjectinSasanianart)reflect the influenceof Dionysiacimagery.The significanceof the Dionysiacmotifsin Iranianartis unknown.Theyare commonon silverwareof late Sasanian date and, duringthatperiod,mayhave referredto Iraniancourtfestivalsrather thanto specific Dionysiaccultpractices. Althoughroyalimages do notappear on the gold and silvervessels thathave survivedfromthe Achaemenidperiod, names of kingswere inscribedon some examples aroundthe rim(see fig. 72). On latervessels, notablythose of the (ca. first century B.C.)and is much influSasanianperiod,thereare no royalinscripenced, informand style, bythe artof the tions butthe kinghimselfis represented, late HellenisticWest.The pantherwears usuallyin a huntingscene (see fig. 63). a grape-and-leafvine woundaroundits Silver-giltplates decoratedinthis fashion chest, and an ivywreathencirclesthe rim were probablyintendedas giftsforneighof the vessel. These motifsare symbols boringrulersorformembersof the king's of the Greekwine god Dionysos,whose own court. cultspreadeastwardat the timeof the Ancienttextsstate thatgoldsmithsfashinvasionof Alexanderthe Greatinthe ioned notonlyvessels butalso statues of latefourthcenturyB.C.Dionysiacimages kingsand divinitiesand manysmall ob-panthers, grapevines,and dancingfejects, such as jewelryand otherdecoramales (see fig. 26)- continueto appear tions forthe clothingof the kingand god. on the silverwareof the Sasanian period Onlya smallnumberof these treasured (A.D. 226-651). On an oval bowl(see fig. objects have survived,butthe remains 11) datingfromthe end of this perioda providea glimpseof the luxurywares that curlinggrapevinescrollis populatedwith were used at the royalcourtand dedibirdsand animalsand framesa small cated by rulers to their gods. P.O.H. A

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Weaponsare documentedinthe archaeologicalrecordsof the NearEast fromat least the Neolithicperiod.Theywere initiallymade of stone and probablywood, and as soon as metallurgywas exploited, they were fashionedof copper,then bronze,and lateriron.Ourknowledgeof weapons and theiruse in warand the huntis based on findsfromcemeteries, settlements,and on representations. Sennacherib,kingof Assyria(704-681 B.C.), was frequentlyat warwithhis neighbors,andhis palacewallsat Nineveh were linedwithstone reliefsdepictinghis victories.Manyof the battlescenes are bloodyand dramatic;others, likethe Museum'sfragmentaryexample (fig. 15), illustratetroopson the march.Heretwo cavalrysoldiersare shown wearinghelmets, armor,and boots;theycarryspears, swords,and bows forbothclose- and long-rangecombat.Because of the rough terrain-mountainsand a spring-the soldierswalktheirhorses, an exampleof The Assyrianconcernforverisimilitude. horses weartassels, fordecoration,and bells, to create a terrifyingnoise during charges. The reliefsnotonly informus of historicalevents, butthey also yielddocumentationof contemporaryartifacts-in this case, weapons, clothing,and equestrianparaphernalia.Archaeologicalfinds oftenmatchitemsdepictedon the reliefs,

whichplayan importantrole indating and attribution. Althoughapproximatelyeightyexamples of ironswords likethe Museum's (fig.16) are known,notone is represented in artor has been excavatedby archaeologists.Fortunatelythe culture and generaltimeof theirmanufacture are revealedby stylisticanalysisof both the figuresand the blade shape. The two beardedmale heads thatprojectfromthe pommeland the crouchinglionson eitherside of the ricassoresembleLuristan styles fromthe late eighthand early seventh centuries B.C., and the willow-leaf

blade is paralleledon plainswords excavatedfromLuristantombsof the same period. The placementof the blade at right angles to the hiltandthe complexmethod of constructionmakethis class of sword unique.Eachswordwas individually hand-forgedand consists of aboutten separate pieces neatlyjoinedto give the impressionthatthe swordwas cast in one piece. Whythese swordswere so painstakinglymade is unknown,butthe largenumbersuggests thatthey may have signaledthe special rankof their bearers. Identicalinform,they were probablymanufacturedinone place. The swordwitha giltbronzeguardand a hollowgold hilt(fig.17) is moredifficult

to attributeto a specificarea. The iron blade (notshown) is preservedin a gold scabbarddecoratedwitha stampedor punchedfeatherpatternon the obverse and withfive pairsof spiralwireson the reverse.The hiltand the two mountswith P-shapedflanges are decoratedwith granulationsand garnetand glass inlays. These mountsheld leatherstrapsthat allowedthe swordto hang froma beltfor a "quickdraw." Morethan a half-dozenotherexamples of this formof swordand scabbard are known,butnone are so elaborately decorated;a few are also representedin art.The double P-shapedmountsare foundon swordsrecoveredfromEuropeto the Eurasiansteppes, includingIran,and are associated withthe nomadicTurkishspeakingAvarsof the sixthand seventh centuriesA.D.A rockreliefat Taq-i Bustanin Iranprovidesthe only known exampleof a Sasanian kingwearinga similarswordand mounting;otherrepresentationsof Sasanian swords depicta different formof attachment.Therefore,we cannotbe certainwhetherourswordwas once inthe armoryof a Sasanian king, or whetheritand its mates were once in the possession of an Avarchief. O.W.M.

15 18

The peoples of the Near East, likethose of othercultures, were preoccupiedwiththe world(of Iand eternallymysteriousspiritual ic demonicforces. Theirartisti impulseswere largelyexpre,ssed inconceptualizingand dociJ-

mentingtheirmanifoldbeliefs, interpretations, and fears. AncientNear Eastern artand textualmaterialeloquentlyreveal howover the millenniathese people resolved theirneed to relateto and placate the ever-presentspiritsand deities that manifestedthemselves in natureand in dailylife. The gold necklace (fig. 19) is a good example of how decorativeand spiritual functionswere oftencombined.Itis composed of doubleand triplestrandsof hollowbeads withseven pendants,each inthe formof a deityor a symbolof a deity.Althoughapparentlycomplete,the reconstructionof the morethantwo hundredpieces is modern,so the original positionof each element is not absolutely certain.The two hornedfemales in long

flounceddresses most probablyrepresent Lama,a protectivegoddess; the centraldiskwithraysemanatingfroma boss representsShamash, the sun god; the crescent, the moon god, Sin;and the forkedlightningsymbol, probablyAdad, the stormgod. The two disks withgranulatedrosettes may be purelydecorative. Whileno otherelaborateexample exists in completeform,wallreliefsdepict Assyriankingsof the firstmillenniumB.C. wearingnecklaces likethis one withpendantdivinesymbols, indicatingthatthey were to be wornby royalty.The necklace was most probablyapotropaic-that is, it protectedthe royalwearerfromharm. Similarindividualelements excavatedat Larsain Mesopotamialead us to assume thatthis necklace was made in the early

second millenniumB.C., and as Assyrian examples attest, necklaces withapotropaicfeatureshad a long historyin the region. The bronzehelmet(fig.20) withfour raisedfiguresprominentlypositionedon its fronthad apotropaicvalue in addition to its immediatepracticalfunction.Each of the figureswas sculptedfroma bitumen core overlaidwithsilverand gold and then fastened to a bronzeplateriveted to the helmet.Inthe centralposition is a beardedmale deity,identifiedas a mountain-water god bythe scales on a conicalbackgroundand the waterflowing fromthe vessel he holds. He is flanked bytwo identicalgoddesses and protected fromabove by a giantraptor.The goddesses holdtheirhandsopen inrever-

ence beforetheirbreasts. They,too, are placed againstbackgroundswithscales, whichsuggests thatthey may be mountaindeities associated withthe male god, who is probablydominantsince his crown has multiplepairsof hornswhiletheirs have onlysingle pairs.Because of the style and deportmentof the figures depicted,and the special techniqueof manufacture,the helmetmaybe attributedto the Elamitesof the fourteenth centuryB.C. Thatourhelmetwas wornby a personof rankis suggested bythe preciousmaterialused and the complexityof the construction.Itssymbolicand spirituallyprotectivevalue is impliedby the presence of the deitiesinsuch a prominentand chargedposition. The Neo-Assyriancylinderseal (fig.

18) depicts a religiousscene commonly foundon these ubiquitousobjects.A humanworshiperis in reverencebefore the stormgod Adad,who stands on a bull,the animalusuallyassociated with him.A bull-man,one of manymixedcreaturespiritsdepictedby ancientNear Easterners,appears in attendancebehindAdad,and varioussymbols of other deities-the standardsof Mardukand Nabu,the seven dots representingthe Pleiades, and the wingedsun disk-are distributedunobtrusivelythroughoutthe scene, whichinterestinglymixes the formsof the gods and anthropomorphic theirsymbols.Whilethe ownerprobably used this device to seal documentsand cargo, he no doubtalso carrieditas his personaltalismanand sign of piety.O.W.M.

his gods was not personal diateone of manymodernbelievers. Instead,itwas distantand formal,definedessentiallythroughthe performance of elaboraterituals.Ancientman's primaryfunctionon earthwas to serve the gods, whose decisions and actions determinedthe outcome of all events and mankind'sultimatefate. Itseems thatthe common manwas excludedfromall butthe majorreligious was festivals;in most ritualsparticipation the privilegeand the responsibilityof priestsand, most important,of the king. These ritesare not clearlyunderstood, and whatlittlewe knowcomes largely throughtexts writteninvariousdialects, visual representations,and archaeological remains. Mesopotamiandeities were conceived in humanformand were believedto reside in images erected in cultbuildings. This imagewas the focus of the cultand was carefullynurturedthroughmanyprecisely prescribedritualsforfeeding,clothing,and washing,inthe hope thatthe god mightthen be pleased and disposed to act favorablytowardhis subjects. Cuneiformtexts tell us thatmost of the cultimages-none of whichare entirely preserved-were madeof preciouswoods and were eitherdressed in elaborate garmentsor covered entirelywithgold. They had staringeyes inlaidwithprecious stones, often lapis lazuli,forthe pupiland shell or alabasterforthe surroundingwhite.Statues of otherdeities and of important,often royal,worshipers were frequentlyplaced in the temples. The gypsumstatue (fig.21) was foundat TellAsmarinthe SquareTemple,which was builtshortlybeforethe middleof the thirdmillenniumB.C.Itis probablyan imageof a piousworshiper,not a deity; his hypnoticallystaringeyes may resemble those of his reveredgod. Offeringsof foodanddrinkwere brought to the deityeveryday;they were "consumed"by it behinddrawncurtains.In additionto the ritualfeeding, libations were offered,usuallyof water,wine, beer, oil, or the bloodof a sacrificialanimal. These liquidswere pouredfroma special vessel onto an altaror intoanothersacred receptacleor object.Such a ceramic vessel (fig.22), probablyfromSyria,is in the shape of a two-storiedtowertopped by a humanfigurewearinga conicalcap and restrainingtwofelines bytheirtails. Betweenthem is a narrow-neckedopening throughwhicha blessed liquidwas poured,to flowfromone of the two doors cut intothe frontof the towervessel. 22

Across the top of the towera cylinderseal impressionshows a variationof the presentationscene. The figurineof a kneelingbull(fig.23), fromearlythird-millennium Iran,is magnifiin silver (see p. 46). Itis centlysculpted clothedas a human,in a textiledecoratedwitha stepped pattern,and holds a tall,spoutedvessel in its outstretched hooves inthe postureof a supplicant.We knownothingof the religiousritualsof Iranfromthe beginningof the thirdmillen-

cylinderseals do show animalsin human posturethatmaybe engaged in some kindof ritualactivity. Inadditionto the dailyritualssurroundingthe cultimage,the Mesopotamian calendarwas fullof special days on which particularriteshad to be observed by the priestsand the king.The most important of these was the New Year'sFestival, which,aftermanychanges throughthe ages, was celebratedinthe firstmillen-

nium B.C. Contemporary Proto-Elamite

Nisan. InBabylon,the kingand priests

nium B.C.during the spring month of

performedritualsforeleven days;the highpointof the festivaloccurredwhen the cultstatues of Marduk-the chief Babyloniangod-and otherdeities were paradedalongthe ProcessionalWay leadingfromthe templeprecinctto the Akituhouse. Outsidethe magnificent IshtarGate, the wallsalongthe waywere linedwithcolorfulglazed-brickimages of lions(see fig. 9) stridingboldlytoward the sacred destinationwhere a mysteriousand crucialritualmusthave takenplace. H.P.

Some of the most elaboraterepresentations of females inthe artof the ancient Near East are images of divineand cult figureswhose association withcertain aspects of lifemade them essential to the welfareof mankind.Fertility,procreation, the growthof crops and livestock,and such naturalphenomenaas thunderstormsand rainwere among the basic concepts identifiedwithfemale divinities by ancientpeoples. Representationsof nude females in clay,stone, and metal arethe simplestand mostobviousexpression of these concepts, and such figures appearedthroughoutantiquityin many regions and periods.A strikingexample in clay fromnorthwesternIran(fig.25) is hollowand probablyserved as a cult vessel as well as a sacred image.The exaggeratedwidthof the pelvis may be intendedto emphasize the roleof women as childbearers. One of the most importantMesopotamiangoddesses was Ishtar,a divinity who combinedin her natureaspects of bothlove andwar.She is frequentlyrepresented on cylinderseals (fig.27) with

weapons risingfromher shouldersor holdinga distinctivelion-headedweapon. Herrightfoot rests on a lion,her animal attribute.Ishtaris a goddess to whom rulersturnedforaid, protection,and victoryin battle. A smallgold pendant(fig.24) represents a goddess worshipedin Anatolia. The Hittitefigureholds a childon her lap, thus underscoringher roleas a mother goddess. The identityof this divinityremains uncertain,butthe wide, disklike headdress may representthe sun and the figurethereforemaybe a sun goddess. Althoughthe enthronedfigurerests on a flatpodiumor base, a loop attachedto the backof the headdress indicatesthat this was a pendant,once suspended, perhapsfroma necklace similarto the examplefromMesopotamiainthe Museum'scollection(see fig. 19). On thatnecklace, smallfiguresof another benevolentgoddess, Lama,are included amongthe pendants. Dancingfemale figuresdecorate a Sasanian silver-giltewer (fig.26), a ceremonialor cultvessel of a type datableto the sixthor earlyseventh centuryA.D. The appearanceof these images was influencedby Romanrepresentationsof maenads, female worshipersassociated withthe cultof the Greekwine god Dionysos,a complexdivinitywhose worship was particularly widespreadinthe ancientworld.On the Sasanian vessels the females are alwaysin a dancingpose and holda select groupof objects, including grape-and-leafbranches,birds,animals, and vessels. No texts remainfrom this periodto explainthe appearanceor functionof these females in the Sasanian world,and we can onlysuppose that they were associated withsome court festivalof the Iranianyear. P.O.H.

26 25

28 29

Forancientman the worldwas full of supernaturalspirits,beneficentand malevolent,who had to be constantly appeased or repelled.By the thirdmillenniumB.C.a few of these spiritshad been representedintangibleformsthat,althoughmonstrous,were probablyless frighteningthan previously,when their formwas leftsolely to a believer'simagination.The specific identityof most of these creaturesis not knownbecause there is so littlecoincidence of textual descriptionand visual representation. Butoftentheirfunctionis suggested by theirappearanceor fromthe contextin whichthey are depicted. Whenrepresentedin art,these supernaturalcreatureswere alwaysmade up of naturallyoccurringformscombined in an unnaturalmanner.Wingswere often used to transforma realcreature intoa fabulousone, as was the mixingof humanand animalfeatures (see fig. 64). Untilthe last halfof the thirdmillenniumB.C. onlya few such mixedcrea26

tureswere represented;amongthemwere the bull-man,the human-headedbull, and the lion-headedeagle, Imdugud.But duringthe Akkadiandynasty(2334-2154 B.C.)a richvarietyof these fabulouscreatureswere placedintothe artisticrepertory. On the illustratedseal (fig.30) is carved the snake god, whose formis human above and reptilianbelow;he is approachedfromfrontand behindby minor deitieswithscorpionsor snakes forhands and feet. One of these divinitiesis winged, whilethe otherhas felines emergingwinglikefromits back.The domainof the snake god was the underworld,and because he is often associated withgrowing vegetationor,as here, withscorpions and felines and the gatepost of Inanna (the Sumeriangoddess of love and war), he is thoughtto be a fertilitydeity,perhaps of Iranianinspiration. Monstrousimages were often borrowedfromothercultures,eitherwithor withouttheiroriginalidentity.The image of the sphinx-a creaturewitha lion's

bodyand a humanhead-was borrowed fromEgyptand adaptedby the cultures of westernAsia. Fromthe OldAssyrian palace at the site of Acemhoyukcomes an ivoryfigurineof a female sphinxwearing Hathorcurls(fig.29). Allof its elements are Egyptian,butthey are combinedina completelyun-Egyptian manner. This ivorysupportis one of a groupof fourthatmost probablyserved as decorationfora throne. Anexpertlycast silveraxe withgoldfoilgilding(fig.28) is decoratedwith elements of the livelyiconographyof superhumanheroes and demons that was developedduringthe MiddleBronze Age inwesternCentralAsia. The heroic demon, composed of a humanbodywith birds'heads, talons, and wings, is a creaturemost probablyborrowedfromeastern Iran.Itis shownsometimesenthroned and sometimes strugglingwithnaturalor fantasticcreatures.Itsopponenton the axe is a dragonlikecreaturedistinguished by a single horn,a curledbeard, a ridgedruff,staggeredwings, a feline's body,and bird'stalons. This same creaturealso served as a symbolof the IranianShimashkidynastyof the late third millennium B.C.

Representationsof fabulouscreatures served notonlyas images of numinous spirits,butalso as heraldicsymbolsfor the propagandaof the secular state. Althoughits meaningis not understood, the hornedand wingedlionoccurs in AchaemenidPersianiconography,frequentlyinconjunctionwiththe king.On a gold plaqueof this period(fig.31) are two wingedand hornedlions,each rearingwithits head turnedback.The plaque was most probablysewn on a soft cloth or leatherbackingthatserved as partof the resplendentpanoplyof an Achaemenid courtier. H.P.

Eveninthe densely populatedcities of the ancientNearEast naturewas never farfrommen'sdailylives. This is reflectedinthe art,where images of animalswere used fromthe earliesttimes. Theywere representedas naturalforms, as symbolsof abstractconcepts, or as attributesof one of the manyNear Eastern deities. Alongwithdomesticated sheep, goats, and bovids,images of wild animalspredominate:lions,caprids, mountainsheep, and wildbullsare especiallyimportant. As earlyas the latefourthmillennium B.C., when urbansocieties were firstforming inthe lowlands,the lionwas clearly

associated withpower,bothsecularand divine.The forepartof a lionemerges froma bronzepeg-shaped foundation figurine(fig.35). The platebeneaththe lion'sextended paws is inscribedwiththe name of Tishatal,a kingof Urkish,inthe languageof the Hurrians,a non-IndoEuropean,non-Semiticpeople who, from the second halfof the thirdmillennium B.C., were presentinthe northernpartsof Mesopotamiaand Syria.Stylisticfeatures suggest thatthisfoundationpeg-frightening enough to scare offevildoers-was made eitherby an Akkadianartistor by one withinthe Akkadiansphere of influence.

The yokedpairof long-hornedbulls (fig.32) served as a decorativefinial, perhapsfora ceremonialstandardor chariotpole. Itis reportedlyfroman Early BronzeAge royalburialat the site of HoroztepeincentralAnatolia.These bulls are examples of how importantanimal featuresare oftenemphasized in ancient Near Easternart.Herethe hornsare morethanone and one-halftimes the lengthof the animal'sbody,impossiblein nature,butan effectivestylisticconvention.The identificationof these earlybulls as sacred or divineis based onlyon an analogywithHittitebullsthatwere associated withthe weathergod Teshuba 29

millenniumlater. Near Easternartistsmust have carefullyobserved animalsin nature;the renderingscapturetheiressence either throughnaturalisticor stylizedconventions. A fine sculptureof a wildmountain sheep (fig.36), or mouflon,identical to several foundat MohenjoDaro(an urbansite of the thirdmillenniumB.C. inthe valleyof the IndusRiver),shows the animalresting;his hindquarters are stronglytwistedto receivethe full weightof his body.The physicalpower of this creatureis emphasized bythe closed outlinethatincorporateshis sweeping hornsintothe massive volume of his chest. Thethree-dimensional,sculpturalqualityof these animalscontrastswiththe bodintricately patterned,two-dimensional ies of the gazelles stridingaroundthe side of a lovelygold cup (fig.34). The heads at a rightangle to the bodies are a featureshared by several similar cups foundat KalarDashtand Marlik, second-millennium B.C. sites of royal

burialssouth of the CaspianSea. Fromthe earliesttimes in Mesopotamiahuntingwildbeasts was a religious responsibilitythatdemonstratedthe prowess and potencyof a ruler.Fromthe time of the Neo-AssyriankingAssurnasirpalII, such huntingscenes were depictedon the carvedstone reliefsinthe palaces; excerptsfromthese compositionswere copied in minorartsbothin Assyriaand inthe lands underits domination.On an ivorypanel (fig.33) fromnorthwestern Iran,a male figure,possiblyroyal,is seen aboutto thrusta spear intothe breastof a chargingwildbullchased by a royalchariot. H.P.

Inthe ancientNear East plantmotifs were incorporatedintodesigns on the richlydecoratedpotteryof the prehistoric periods.Theycontinuedto be represented, ina stylizedfashion,on a variety of objectsthroughoutthe millennia.Favorite designs includedsprigpatterns,rows of trees, stylizedflowers,and chains of leaves and buds.A schematicrepresentationof rowsof date palmsappears in three registerson a finelycarvedchlorite vase (fig.39) of the firsthalfof the third millenniumB.C.The date palmof the oases and riverareas of southernMesopotamia and nearbyIranwas a majorsource of food, of timberforlightconstruction,and of frondsformats. The reed, nativeto the marshes of southernMesopotamia,is represented duringthe Urukperiod(3500-3100 B.C.) on cylinderseals, whichalso depictother plantsand palmtrees in decorative, nonrealisticdesigns. Inthe Akkadianperiod (2334-2154 B.C.) trees and plants

were morerealisticallycombinedwith naturalfeaturesto give the impressionof actuallandscape.AnAkkadianseal (fig. 37) shows a huntingscene in whicha manseizes a hornedanimal.Firtrees and moundswithimbricatedpatternsindicate thatthe setting is a mountainous region,probablythe forestlandsto the northor east of Akkad. The ivorycarvingsfromthe NeoAssyrianpalaces at Nimrudincorporate manyplantformsas decorativeelements inthe designs. On one example executed in Syrianstyle (fig.38) a goat is naturalistically portrayedrearingup on its hindlegs and nibblingat the leaves of a tendrils. highlystylizedshrubof intertwined The sacred tree was alwaysa popular motif.Thisimaginary,decorativeplant, composed of ornamentalleaves and waterliketendrils,was repeatedmany times on the ninth-century B.C. reliefsof the NorthwestPalace at Nimrud(see insidefrontcover). Frequently,attending divinitiesare shown administeringsome purifyingsubstance witha date palm spathe and a bucket.The sacred tree was a symbolof vegetallifeandfertility-a significancethatwe attributeto most plantmotifsand designs inthe artof the ancientNearEast. B.A.P.

38 32

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The Scythianswere one of the nomadic tribesthatroamedthe steppes northof Iran,Mesopotamia,and Anatoliainthe firstmillenniumB.C. They are knownto us fromthe writingsof theirneighbors,the earliestrecordsbeing those of the Assyriansand Urartians.By the timeof the AssyriankingEsarhaddon(681-668 B.C.) intothe Scythiannomads had infiltrated rich,settled lands south of the Caspian. GreekhistoHerodotus,the fifth-century rian,who wroteaboutthem in Book IV of his monumentalhistory,tells of sumptuous royalburialsof Scythianchieftains, whichhave been confirmedbythe discoveriesof burialmoundsin southern Russia. The tombs covered by the moundswere filledwithweapons and horse equipmentas wellas intricately and lavishlycraftedpieces of jewelry, drinkingvessels, and combs. Typicalof Scythianartis the so-called animalstyle, whichchieflyrepresented such creaturesas stags, panthers,boars, and birdsof prey.The animalsare rendered in a decorative,stylizedfashion, as illustratedby griffin-shapedappliques (fig.41), partof a groupof ornaments that has been attributedto a fifthcenturyB.C.treasurefoundat Maikopin the KubanRiverregionnorthof the Black Sea. The Scythianswere great horsemen and theirpassion foradornment extendedto the harnesses wornby their horses. The boarclasp (fig.42) of carved bone coveredwithgold is probablya decorativeelementforthe strapsof a harness. The Scythiananimalstyle influenced the artof othernomadictribes.This is reflectedin a rareexampleof fourthcentury B.C.Thracian workmanship, a

silverbeaker(fig.40) probablymade in the regionof present-dayRumaniaor Bulgaria.Similarbeakershavebeen found in a princelytombat Agighiol,nearthe Danubedelta in eastern Rumania.The Museum'scup depicts several animals, some realand some fantastic.Aneightlegged stag has antlersterminatingin birds'heads, whichform partof the decorative borderaroundthe rim. A bronzebeltclasp (fig.43) has an intricateopenworkdesign witha horse and smallerfiguresof a foal, a dog, and a bull-all enclosed bya framewithbosses. Manybeltclasps of this same type and style have been foundin ancientColchis, nowwesternGeorgiainthe Soviet Union. Recentlyit has been suggested thatthey date to the firstto thirdcenturyA.D.These small,portable,and highlydecorative objects preservedmanyof the featuresof the earlier,nomadicanimalstyle. B.A.P. 35

Beginninginthe early1930s and continuingto the present,the Metropolitan Museumhas been a sponsor of archaeologicalexcavationsinthe Near East. BeforeWorldWarIIthe Museumsupportedexcavationsat Qasr-iAbuNasr and Nishapurin Iran,and at Ctesiphonin Iraq;duringthe 1950s its concernwith archaeologicalactivityincreaseddramatically.Inthe past threedecades excavations and researchhave been conducted withotherinstitutionsat fourteensites in Iran,five in Iraq,two each in Syriaand Jordan,and one inTurkey.The Museum has helpedto financethese projects,and membersof itscuratorialstaffhaveserved as directorsor codirectorsof several excavations.As a resultof its support, the Museumhas acquiredmuchmaterial frommanyculturesand periods,butits supporthas not alwaysbeen contingent on receivingobjects in return. MuseumfirstparticiThe Metropolitan

patedin excavatinginthe NearEast in 1931-32, when itjoinedforces withthe GermanState Museumsat the site of Ctesiphonin Iraq.Andfrom1932 to 1934 the Museumitselfsponsoredthree seasons of excavationsat Qasr-iAbuNasr,a few miles southeast of Shirazin southwesternIran.The site consists of a large townand fortressand dates fromthe late Sasanian and earlyIslamicperiodsfrom the sixthto the eighthcenturyA.D.Remains of earlierAchaemenidarchitectureand carvingsthathad been transportedfrom nearbyPersepoliswere also recovered. The Achaemenidmaterialwas subsequentlyrestoredto Persepolis,and a largenumberof objectscame to the Museumas its share of the finds.These includeseals and sealings, coins, pottery, and objectsof glass, stone, bone, and metal.One of the metalobjectsacquired is a bronzestand (fig.46) thatprobably helda lampor candle. Qasr-iAbuNasris

a significantsite because itdates to the transitionfromthe Sasanian to the Islamicperiod,and the extensivearchitectureand objectsfurnishus withevidence of the cultureduringthisperiodof change. Nippurin southernMesopotamiawas firstexploredinthe mid-nineteenthcenturyand firstexcavated,bythe University of Pennsylvania,from1889 to 1900. Commencingagainin 1948 and continuingto 1961, seven campaignswere sponsored bythe OrientalInstituteof the University of Chicagoandthe Universityof Pennsylvania,the latterreplacedin 1953 bythe AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch. MuseumactivelyparticiThe Metropolitan patedinthe campaignsof 1957-58 and 1960-61. Ancienttexts indicatethatNippurwas a majorreligiouscenterratherthana powerfulsecularstate, and the archaeologicalremainsdocumentthatreputation. A largetempleprecinctcalled the Ekur

witha templeof the god Enlilwitha ziggurat,a templeof the goddess Inannathat was rebuiltmanytimes overthe millennia (fig.44), and scribalquartersare the mainarchitectural and culturalfeaturesat the site. Seven brickfoundationboxes of the kingShulgiwere discoveredbeneath the templeof Inanna,whichdates from the ThirdDynastyof Ur(2.112-2004 B.C.), and three boxes of his father,Urnammu, were discoveredbeneaththe Ekurfoundations;they are amongthe most notable artifactsfoundthere. Each box containeda bronzepeg statuetteof the king, representedcarryinga basketof mortar forthe ritualbuildingof the temple.One of the Shulgistatuettes(fig.45) is inthe Museum'scollection. A massive area withfortification walls five miles longsurroundingan area of some nine hundredacres, the Assyrian site of Nimrudin northernMesopotamia has concernedarchaeologistssince

48 37

4950

1845-54, when AustenHenryLayard excavatedthere. He was followedby WilliamKennettLoftusin 1854-55, and George Smithin 1873 and 1876, and three-quartersof a centurylaterby Max E. L.Mallowan,who conductedthirteen campaignsbetween 1949 and 1963. The Museumsupportedeleven Metropolitan of these campaigns,from1951 to 1963its longestand most fruitfulinvolvementin archaeologicalresearchinthe NearEast. Nimrudhas manypreservedpalaces and temples builtby variousAssyrian kings,each yieldingquantitiesof artifacts. The Citadel,inthe southwestcorner,and the militaryarea called FortShalmaneser, inthe southeast, are particularly interesting because fromthe palaces, fort,and wells were recoveredthe most extraordinaryfindsat the site, the Nimrudivories: thousandsof carvingsin reliefand inthe round,depictingbattle,ritual,and genre scenes, executed inthe styles of the Assyrianand neighboringcultures,in 38

particular Syrianand Phoenician.Forits supportthe Museumreceivedaboutone hundredfortyivories,two of whichare illustratedon p. 37. One is masterfully sculptedin Phoenicianstyle and depicts a Nubianbringingan oryxand a monkey as giftsto the Assyrianking(fig.48). The other,in Syrianstyle, is the head of a womanwithnecklace and braidedhair (fig.47). Eachshows the skilland precision of ancientartistswithdifferent backgrounds. Hasanlu(fig.49) in northwesternIran was excavatedin 1936 by AurelStein; from1956 to 1974 bythe Universityof Pennsylvania;and from1959 on, with the Metropolitan. Itwas settled inthe sixthmillenniumB.C.and was occupied throughthe Bronzeand IronAge periods. The mostextensivelypreservedlevel is PeriodIV,or IronAge II,datingfromthe twelfthor eleventhcenturyB.C.to close to 800 B.C., when the site was violently

destroyed.The precedinglevel, PeriodV, IronI,dates frombetweenthe fourteenth andthe twelfthor eleventhcenturyB.C. The continuityof cultureof the two periods is indicatedby architectural features andmonochromepotterycommonto both. Thousandsof artifactsmade of terracotta, bronze,iron,gold, silver,and ivory were foundinthe monumentalPeriodIV buildings,whichare characterizedby a columnedcentralhallsurroundedby storageroomsand an entrancethrough a grandportico.Withineach hallare hearths,benches, and a raisedthrone

area. Whetherpalaces or temples,the buildingsclearlyhad a majorstate function. TheMuseumhas acquiredmanydiverse artifacts,some of whichare characteristic of Hasanluand notfoundelsewhere. Amongthese are bronzelionsjoinedto ironshanks (fig.50), whichare associated withvictimsat the largestbuilding uncovered,BurnedBuildingII.The lion pinswere worntwo or threeto a garment. Because the artifactsrecoveredfrom PeriodIVwere in use at the timeof the destruction,archaeologistshave a significantand preciselydatedcorpusof material. In1967,1970,1973, and 1974, the Museumand the British Metropolitan Instituteof PersianStudiesjointlyexcavatedthe site of Nush-iJan, forty-two miles south of HamadaninwesternIran. Builton the summitof a naturalshale outcropthirty-sevenmetershigh,the site dramaticallydominatesthe surrounding plain(fig.51). Threeperiodsof occupationwere revealed,the earliestof which is Median,datingfromthe lateeighth century to about 600 B.C.,followed by

Achaemenidand Parthianlevels. The best preservedis the Median,containing fourlargemud-brickbuildings. The CentralTempleat Nush-iJan is architecturally unparalleledinthe Near East. Lozenge-shaped,it has a freestandingfirealtar,suggestingthatthe buildingwas a templeforfire-worshiping ceremonies.Sometimebeforethe aban-

donmentof the site, the templewas painstakinglyfilledwithstones and mud, allowingthe buildingto be preservedto a heightof eight meters.Whythis "burial" occurredis a mystery.The adjacentFort Building,identifiedas such by its buttressed wallsand arrowslots, had four parallelmagazines,suggesting thatit also served to store goods. Ina passageway a hoardof 200 silverobjects -earrings, bars, quadrupleand double spirals(fig.52)-was discoveredin a bronzebowl.The OldWesternBuilding, one of the earliest,also has an altarand mayhave been a temple.This building was not buriedbutallowedto decay beforethe finalabandonment.The fourth buildingis rectangularand has a columnedhallof the same basic planas the contemporaryhallat nearbyGodinTepe and those at the earliersite of Hasanlu. Nush-iJan is significantforits unique and well-preservedMedianremains. Atpresentonlyone otherprobable Mediansite has been excavated,Godin Tepe;the capitalcityat Hamadan remains unexcavated.

O.W.M.

Inthe late1920s, largequantitiesof bronze artifactsbegan to circulateinthe art market,and by 1930 theirsource was recognizedas Luristan,a mountainous regionin westernIran,borderingMesopotamiaand Elam.Aside froma few archaeologicalcampaigns, especially those of ErichSchmidtat SurkhDumin 1938 and LouisVandenBergheat many sites from1965 to 1979, the great majorityof Luristanbronzes derivefromclandestinedigging.The Metropolitan Museum has in its collectionforty-oneobjects, twenty-fourof them bronzes,fromSurkh Dum.Because so manybronzes have been dispersed so widely,it is impossible to estimatethe numberin existence, but there mustbe thousands. We do not knowthe ancientname and languageof Luristan,or whythe bronzes were made, or whatconstitutedthe economy thatsupportedtheirmanufacture.It is also difficultto identifythe fullrangeof culturalartifactsand to establishtheir

chronology. Nevertheless, we are able to recognize as classic Luristantypes the stylized standards and finials, horse cheekpieces, hammered and cast pins, bracelets, whetstone handles, weapons, and quivers. And although ancient cultures existed in the region from as early as the thirdmillennium B.C., the typical Luristanbronzes did not appear untilthe early first millennium B.C.They reached full production in the eighth and seventh centuries B c and mysteriously terminated a century before the advent of the Persian empire. Each of the four objects shown here is a typical Luristanbronze, representing one of a variety of forms for its class. The openwork pin (fig. 54), was excavated at Surkh Dum along with other examples, some enclosed within walls, others stuck in cracks or joints. This pin depicts a squatting female who holds at bay two horned animals, represented only by their heads and necks that curve into a frame.

The female may be in a birthingposition, and because it came from a sanctuary, the pin may have been dedicated by a woman seeking a healthy delivery. Horse bits with figured cheekpieces (fig. 56) and iconic finials are ubiquitous and represent the most characteristic forms of the Luristancorpus. The cheekpieces are in the shape of horses, lions, mouflons, goats, or fantastic creatures. If they were in fact buried in graves, then it was probably the custom for an individual to carry his personal bit with him to the next world, to serve for future ridingor symbolically to represent the horse itself. Finials were also presumably taken by their owners to their graves. Mounted on bottle-shaped supports, a number of which survive, they occur in a great variety of forms, often depicting heraldic animals or a central figure between two animals. On the Museum's example (fig. 53) a detached male head is held by two heraldic felines. Because of the large

number known, we may assume that finials existed in most Luristanhouseholds. serving as icons or representations of the many spirits and deities who required to be placated and worshiped constantly. The quiver plaque (fig. 55) was once attached to a leather backing and is decorated with seven uneven horizontal panels in repousse with superbly rendered mythological scenes. Rampant winged bulls flanking a tree and a procession of antelope frame three narrative panels. At the top are horned and winged humanoids holding a lion at bay, followed by rampant lions flanking a small figure who holds lions and a central figure seemingly threatened by two bulbousnosed creatures. We cannot interpret these scenes, but clearly they represent mythological or cultic events of some importance. A small number of other Luristanquiver plaques exist, but none is so richlyembellished as the present example. O W.M

Clay, so abundant and useful a resource, was developed and exploited throughout Near Eastern history. The great potential

of fired clay was first understood in the seventh millennium B.C. From that point on, pottery was the most common type of object to come from the ancient ruins of Near Eastern civilizations. In the Chalcolithic period of the fourth millennium B.C., painted decoration on pottery flourished, particularlyin Iran.Artisans first painted geometric designs in dark brown or black on buffclay vessels, which were made on a slow wheel. Gradually they included more and more animal figures in their decorative schemes. A large storage jar (fig. 58) is similar in shape, fabric, and painted decoration to ones found at the central Iraniansite of Tepe Sialk in levels III6-7. Ithas on its side schematic silhouettes of three mountain goats, whose enormous ridged horns arch majestically over their bodies. The zigzag-and-band decoration separating the goats is typical of Sialk pottery of this early period. More than a thousand years later, from

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the site of Tureng Tepe in the Iranian Gurgan Plain just to the east of the Caspian Sea, a completely different but equally successful variety of pottery (fig. 57) was produced. Its gray-colored surface-the result of firing in a reducing rather than oxidizing kiln-is textured with six registers of crisscross patterns made by burnishing the surface to a high polish. Duringthe second millennium B.C.the technology was developed for both the glazing of pottery and the manufacturing of glass vessels. A large jar (fig. 59) glazed with green, blue, brown, yellow, white, and black and decorated with petals above bulls kneeling before trees is one of three in the Museum's collection reportedly from the early first-millennium B.C site of Ziwiye in northwestern Iran. It is similar in shape and decoration to examples excavated at the Assyrian city of Assur on the Tigris. H.P.

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Inantiquitythe manymountainrangesof the NearEast, includingthe Taurusof easternTurkey,the Zagrosof western Iran,and the Caucasus betweenthe Blackand Caspianseas, were richin B.C. metallicores. Atseventh-millennium sites such as Cayonu,TellRamad,and AliKoshthe earlieststages of metalworkingtechnologyare documented. Towardthe end of the fourthmillennium B.C., the burgeoning urban centers

inthe lowlandsbegan to demandmetals to makeobjectsforthe rulingelite and for the growingtemplecomplexes. Bythis time,the basic propertiesof some nonferrous metals-especially copper,gold, silver,and lead-were understood.Itwas known,forexample,thatthe shape of

metalcouldbe alteredby heatingitto a liquidstate, pouringit intoa mold,and lettingitcool and harden.Metalswere also shaped by alternatelyhammering and heatingthem in a process nowcalled annealing.Artisanshad learnedas well -probably bytrialand error-that when some metals are mixedintheirliquid state, they combineto forma metallic alloy,a new materialthatis often,when liquid,morefluidand, when cool, harder than its components. malleThe propertiesof meltability, ability,and miscibilityare the basis of two of the most importanttechniquesof ancient metalworking-hammeringand casting. Hammeringwas used to make orto finishall kindsof objects.Vessels,

such as the elaboratelydecoratedone (fig.62) fromLuristan,were made entirelyby hammering.The shape was formedbyraisingorsinkingthe bronze-a copper-and-tinalloy-by hammerblows. This particularvessel was made intwo parts,joinedin the middleby bronze rivets.Six registersof birds,trees, and hornedand stridinganimalswere hammeredup fromthe vessel's surfaceinthe repousse technique.The bodies were then elaboratelydecoratedwithchased lines createdby a dulltoolthat,when struck,pushed the metalto eitherside. Goldis a soft metal,easily workedby hammering.A westernIraniantrapezoidal plaqueof the firstmillenniumB.C. (fig. 64) was made inthe same way as

62 44

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the decorated bronze vessel: by hammering, repousse, and chasing. A most impressive example of the hammering technique is the lovely silver figurine of an antelope (fig. 61), which is identified here on the basis of stylistic and iconographic traits as the creation of a ProtoElamite master of the third millennium

the earliest examples of the more complex technique of lost-wax casting around a central ceramic core. A handsome silver plate (fig. 63), a product of the last part of the Sasanian

period(fifthto earlysixthcenturyA.D.),

millenniumB.C. ibex stand (fig.60),

combines the metalworking techniques described above with others. The plate itself was hammered into its final shape from a cast ingot. The low-relief decoration was formed by carving away the background close to the figures, while the higher relief of the bodies of the king, his horse, and the rams was made from separate cast or hammered pieces that were crimped into place. The linear details were either chased into the silver or engraved-a process of cutting instead of pushing away strips of metal. A ring base was attached with solder to the bottom of the plate. Except for the king's face and hands, all the decoration is gilded with an amalgam of gold and mercury. Niello, a shiny black, hard compound of silver and sulphur, accents the king's quiver and bow, and the rams'

of copper alloyed with arsenic, is among

horns,tails, and hooves.

B.C. Boththe gazelle and the contempo-

rary kneeling silver bull (see fig. 23) were made from separate pieces of silver hammered into shape; each piece was then fitted into the other and finallyjoined by silver solder. By the fourth millennium B.C., lost-wax, as well as open- and bivalve-mold casting had been developed. Inthe ingenious lost-wax process the desired image is sculpted in wax, which is then surrounded with a clay investment that hardens into a mold when baked. The mold has a negative space, corresponding to the burnt-wax image, into which is poured molten metal that hardens into the shape of the original wax model. The third-

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Pieces of jewelryare mentionedin ancient Near Easterntexts as royalgifts, partsof bridaldowries,tribute,and booty. They are also recordedin the inventories of templesandworkshops.Althoughthere musthave been manysuch precious objects,only a few have been preserved. A majorexceptionis the jewelrydating fromthe mid-thirdmillenniumB.Cfound by SirLeonardWoolleyin his excavations at UrinsouthernMesopotamia.The headdress ornament(fig.66), made of gold pendantsinthe formof poplarleaves and carnelianand lapis-lazulibeads, belongedto one of the lavishlyadorned female attendantsin the "King'sTomb." She also woretwo necklaces of gold and lapis lazuli,gold hairribbons,and two silverhairrings,allof whichare now in the Museum'scollection.The largenumberof objects made of preciousmaterials attestsnotonlyto greatwealthand sophisticatedtechnicalability,butalso to a far-reachingtradenetwork:the materials had to be importedintosouthernMesopotamia(see p. 15). A rareexample of second-millennium B.C.craftsmanshipis the gold necklace withpendants(see fig. 19) illustratedon page 20. The granulationis particularly finelyexecuted. Similarjewelryelements of gold-medallions, crescents, and beads-found in recentexcavationsat Larsain southernMesopotamiasuggest thatthe Museum'spiece maydate from the nineteenthor eighteenthcenturyB.C. Ourknowledgeof jewelryof the first

millenniumB.C. is augmentedbydetailed representationson the stone reliefsfrom the Neo-Assyrianpalaces. Forexample, inthe relief(see fig. 3) fromthe Northwest Palace at Nimrud,whichshows the kingAssurnasirpalIIand an attendant, one can see the richarrayof jewelry worn-necklaces, bracelets,armlets,and crescent-shapedearringswithpendants. Plaques sewn on garments-also called bracteates-were commonin the fifth-century Scythiangravesof southern Russia (see fig. 41). Goldappliqueswere also popularin AchaemenidPersia.The lion-headbracteates(fig.67) have five ringson the back,allowingthemto be attachedto clothgarmentsor tent hangings. The gold necklace (fig.65) is made up of elements fromthe Achaemenidperiod, includinga head of Bes-an Egyptian god-plaques of a male figurewitha horse, and lotusterminals.Similar jewelryelements were excavatedat Pasargadae,where morethanone hundredthirtyimages of Bes, humanheads in profile,and the heads of ibexes and lionswere foundtogetherin a jar. The sumptuousobjectswornbythe Persiansare confirmedby Herodotus (VII,83): "Ofallthe troopsthe Persians were adornedwiththe greatestmagnificence.... they glitteredalloverwithgold, vast quantitiesof whichthey wore about theirperson."Herodotusalso tells us that Persiantentscapturedat PlateainGreece were"adornedwithgoldandsilver." B.A.P.

66 I

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Clothingin the Near East was commonly made of goat's hairand sheep's wool.A formof dress frequentlyrepresentedin Sumerianand Akkadianartis the calflengthskirtcoveredwithtuftsof wool (see figs. 21, 70). Wrappedaroundthe lowerbodyand occasionallydrapedover one shoulder,this distinctivegarment was wornthroughoutthe thirdmillennium B.C. in Mesopotamia.Intime, longergarments (see figs. 2, 69) made of a single piece of wool or linenfabricreplacedthe earlierskirt.The robes had fringedborders or severalhorizontalbands of fringes (see figs. 20, 27). Sleeved garmentsand shawls (see fig. 3, inside covers) of the Neo-Assyrian period (883-612 B.C.)re-

tainedthisfringedborderand were also enrichedwithwoven and embroidered designs and metalappliques. On a relieffromthe Achaemenidpalace at Persepolis(fig.68), one figureis in Persiandress and wears a longfullsleeved tunicof a lighttextile.A second figureis in Mediandress, a knee-length tunicand close-fittingtrousersof thick wool or leather-clothing appropriatefor a horseman.The folds of a similartunic and trouserswornbythe Sasanian king (see fig.63) indicatethat inthis case the fabricis thin,perhapssilk. Impractical as this materialwas forhuntingwear,itwas representedto symbolizethe luxuriousness of royaldress. Throughthe millennia,in the artof the Near East, a cap decoratedwithbull's horns(see figs. 20, 27) signifiedthatthe wearerwas a god. Onlyrarelydidhuman rulers claim divinityand adopt this headgear. A headdress wornby southern Mesopotamianrulersin the latethird and earlysecond millenniaB.C. is a wool cap (see figs. 2, 69). Laterinthe second millennium B.C.andearlyinthe firstmillenniumB.C.a high,fezlikecap (see fig. 3) was wornin Mesopotamiaby nobles and kings.Underthe AchaemenidPersiansa new crownwithstepped crenellations made its appearance.This form,enrichedby many elements such as crescent moons, sun rays,wings, and globes, became the royalcrownof Sasanian 70 ^^^^9 P.O.H. kings(see fig. 5).

69 51

About3000 B.C. writingwas inventedin Mesopotamia as a method of recording and storing primarilyeconomic information. In Egypt early records were kept on papyrus. But since Mesopotamia was located along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, where clay was plentifuland inexpensive, this material was used for the earliest documents. Writingwas done with a reed or bone stylus on small pillowshaped tablets, most of which were only a few inches wide and fit easily into one's palm. The stylus left small marks in the clay that we call cuneiform, or wedgeshaped, writing. The earliest script was pictographic -rendering realistic drawings of objects familiarin everyday life. It is not certain who developed this picture writing;we can only inferfrom archaeological records that it was the Sumerians, who soon after developed a system in which drawings in clay were replaced by signs

representing the sounds of the Sumerian language. Cuneiform was adopted by other cultures, and its use quickly spread throughout the Near East. The early Elamites, who lived to the east of Mesopotamia (in the area of modern-day Iran), and various groups of Semitic-speaking peoples, who dwelt along the Tigris and Euphrates, also used cuneiform signs in their writing. By the second millennium B.C.,

cuneiformwritingwas widelyused

by many cultures in the Near East. Later the Urartians,in the northernmost parts of Mesopotamia, also used cuneiform, which can be seen on the band above the second arcade on the Urartianbell (fig. 74) inscribed with the king's name, Argishti. Hundreds of thousands of cuneiform tablets have been excavated in the Near East, while countless others still lie buried beneath the rubble of ancient, unexcavated cities. The Museum has over five

hundredtexts and inscriptionsdating fromearlySumeriantimes (ca. 2800 B.C.) untilthe firstcenturyA.D. MostMesopotamiantabletsare records of commercial,legal,or administrativeactivities.One of the earliest Mesopotamianlegal documentsinthe Museum'scollectionis a smallSumerian stone stele (fig.71), probablyfromthe E-nunTempleof the god Sharaat Umma. The stele has been interpretedas either a recordof the purchaseof properties and commoditiesbythe priestUshumgal or as a recordof his bequest of these propertiesand commoditiesto various people, includinghis daughter. The clay envelope of a tablet(fig.73) dates to the OldAssyrianColonyperiod inAnatolia(1920-1750 B.C.). The actual tabletcontainedin the envelope is a legal depositionregardingtheft,swornin a courtof law.The clay envelope is impressed on each side (herethe obverse) fivetimeswithtwodifferentcylinderseals. Recordsand inscriptionsalso commemoratedroyalachievements,such as the buildingof a palace, or extolledmilitaryvictories.The rimof the Achaemenid gold bowl(fig.72) is inscribed"Darius, the great king"in OldPersian,Elamite, and Neo-Babylonian. The writtenrecordfromthe ancient NearEast is extensive. The documents provideinformationneeded to understandthe political,economic,social, legal, intellectual,and religioustraditionsof mankind'sfirstcivilizations. i.s.

74 53

iconographically varied seals in the ancient Near East. The lapis-lazuli seal (fig. 76) depicts the struggle of a nude hero and his allies, bull-men, to protect the herd animals from lions. Many seals of the Third Dynasty of Ur through the Old Babylonian period (2112-1595 B.C.)show scenes of presentation and worship. On an amethyst example (fig. 77) are a male figure with a mace and a suppliant goddess, both of whom are represented on many contemporary seals in virtuallythe same manner. The ownership of the seal is indicated by the inscription: "NurShamash, comptroller in the palace, son of Dummuqum, servant of Rimsin [king of Larsa].' The carnelian seal (fig. 78) with a design of two lion-griffinsattacking a mountain goat belongs to the Middle Assyrian period (1350-1000 B C ), when a naturalistic style was favored. The rest of the design includes a bird, a star, and

Seals were prized possessions in the ancient Near East and served as propitious amulets for their owners. They were impressed on the clay that sealed doors, storage jars, and bales of commodities as well as on clay tablets and envelopes (fig. 73). They are miniature works of art carved with designs whose style and iconography vary with period and region. Seals first appeared in northern Syria and Anatolia during the late sixth millennium B.C. in the form of stamps. In Mesopotamia, from the mid-fourthmillennium untilthe first millennium B.C., the cylinder was the preferred shape. The cylinder seal (fig. 75) depicting women with their hair in pigtails was excavated in the Inanna Temple at Nippur. Similar seals with pigtailed figures of the late Urukand Jemdet Nasr periods (ca. 3200-2900 B.C ) have been found at sites from Egypt to Iran. The Akkadian period (2334-2154 B.C.) produced some of the most beautiful and

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a thistlelike flower. Landscape elements were frequently depicted on seals of this period. The seventh-century B C Neo-Assyrian seal (fig. 79) was found in the Nabu Temple at Nimrud. Seals were frequently deposited as offerings in temples, which were also centers of economic activity. From the Neo-Assyrian period (883612 B C ) stamps began to be used along with cylinders. This was apparently due to the adoption in Mesopotamia of the Aramaic script, written on papyrus or leather that was sealed with small clay dockets, more easily impressed with a stamp. In the Neo-Babylonian period (625-539 B.C.) symbols of gods were a major part of the seal design. The example below (fig. 80) is engraved with a male worshiper standing before an altar surmounted by a spade, symbol of Marduk,chief god of the Babylonian pantheon, and the stylus of Nabu, god of writing. B.A.PR

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Sumero-Elamite Susa IV

Troy II

Early Bronze

2500 B.C.

Early Dynastic IIIb 2500-2334 Akkad Dynasty 2334-2154 Neo-Sumerian period Gudea of Lagash 2144-2124 Third Dynasty of Ur 2112-2004

Alaca Hiuyk royal tombs

Akkad suzerainty in Susa

First Intermediate 2160-2060

Old Elamite

i'" ,ffNnv' luu R V0

Isin-Larsa period 2017-1763 Old Babylonian period 1894-1595 Hammurabi 1792-1750

Old Kingdom 2636-2160

Assyrian Colony period 1920-1750

Old Assyrian period Middle Bronze

Old Hittite Empire 1650-1400

1500 B.C.

1500 B.C. Kassite Dynasty 1595-1157

Mitannian Empire

Hittite Empire 1400-1200

1600-1350 Second Dynasty of Isin 1156-1025 IUU

2000 B.C.

Middle Kingdom 2060-1786 Second Intermediate 1786-1570 Hyksos 1667-1559

Middle Assyrian period 1350-1000

Middle Elamite Iron I

D.C.

Hasanlu IV ca. 1200-800 Neo-Assyrian Empire 883-612

Iron II Iron III

Destruction of Uqarit by Sea Peoples Iron Age NE eo-Hittite and Kingdoms of Israel Arramaean states and Judah Phoenicians

Neo-Elamite Median Empire

UrartianKingdom 850-600 Phrygian Kingdom 775-690

Neo-Babylonian Empire 625-539

500 B.C.

New Kingdom 1570-1085

Late Bronze

ThirdIntermediate 1000 B.C. Third Intermediate 1085-656

Late Dynastic 656-332 500 B.C.

Achaemenid Empire 550-331

0 B.C./ A.D.

Alexander the Great 331-323 Capture of Babylon 331 Seleucid Empire

Seleucid Empire

Alexander the Great Capture of Tyre 332 Antigonid and Seleucid Empires

Macedonian period 332-305 Ptolemaic period 305-30

Parthian period 200 B.C.-A.D. 224

Parthian period

Sasanian Empire 226-651 500 A.D.

Sasanian Empire

Roman period

Byzantine Empire

Roman period

Byzantine Empire

~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~----

Roman perno 30 B.C.-A.D. 325

0 B.C./ A.D.

Coptic period 325-641

500 A.D. II~~~~~~~~~~~~~

CREDITS Front cover: Stag vessel. Silver with gold inlay Anatolia, Hittite,Empire period, 15th-13th century B.C.L. 611/16in. (17 cm.), H. 71/16 in. (18 cm.). Lent by Norbert Schimmel (L.1983.119.1) Back cover: Detail of frieze on the stag vessel depicted on front cover showing a male god standing on a stag and facing a man who is pouring liquid from a spouted vessel. Inside front cover: Relief with two registers of sacred tree attended by divinities. Alabaster. Northern Mesopotamia, Nimrud, Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal 11(883-859 B.C.),Neo-Assyrian period. H. 893/4 in. (227.9 cm.), W.83 in. (210.8 cm.). Giftof John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932 (32.143.3) Inside back cover: Relief of bird-headed divinity Alabaster. Northern Mesopotamia, Nimrud, Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal II(883-859 B.C.), NeoAssyrian period. H. 905/8(230.2 cm.), W. 713/8in. (181.3 cm.). Giftof John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1931 (31.72.3) 1. Head of a dignitary Arsenical copper. Western Asia, late 3rd millennium B.C.H. 131/2in. (34.3 cm.). Rogers Fund, 1947 (47 100.80) 2. Seated statue of Gudea. Diorite. Southern Mesopotamia, probably Tello, Neo-Sumerian period, 21442124 B.C.H. 175/16 in. (44 cm.) HarrisBrisbane Dick Fund, 1959 (59.2)

3. Relief of king and attendant. Alabaster. Northern Mesopotamia, Nimrud, Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal 11(883-859 B.C.),Neo-Assyrian period. H. 92 in. (233.7 cm.), W.901/4in. (229.2 cm.). Giftof John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932 (32.143.4) 4. Cylinderseal and modern impression. Chalcedony Iran,Achaemenid period, 550-450 B.C.H. 7/8in. (2.2 cm.), Diam. 7/16in. (1.1 cm.). Collection of Mrs. WilliamH. Moore, Lent by Rt. Rev. Paul Moore, Jr. (L.55.49.126) 5. Head of a king. Silver,with mercury gilding. Iran, Sasanian period, A.D.4th century H. 153/4in. (40 cm.). Fletcher Fund, 1965 (65.126) 6. Bull head. Limestone. Southern Iran, Persepolis, Achaemenid period, ca. 5th century B.C.H. 181/2in. (47 cm.). Rogers Fund, 1947 (47.100.83) 7. Statuette of man carrying box on head. Arsenical copper. Mesopotamia, Sumerian, Early Dynastic II period, 2750-2600 B.C.H. 147/8in. (37.8 cm.). HarrisBrisbane Dick Fund, 1955 (55.142) 8. Male head used as a spout. Ceramic, originally glazed. Iran,Parthian period, ca. A.D.1st-2nd century H. 81/4in. (20.9 cm.). Giftof WalterHauser, 1956 (56.56) 9. Panel with striding lion. Glazed brick. Southern Mesopotamia, Babylon, Processional Way, Neo-Babylonian period, reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562 B.C.).W.891/2in. (227.3 cm.), H.

381/4in. (97.2 cm.). Fletcher Fund, by exchange, 1931 (31.13.2) 10. Ewer.Gold. North-centralAnatolia, late 3rd millennium B.C.H. 7 in. (17.8cm.), Diam. 43/4in. (12.1 cm.). Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1957 (57.67) 11. Oval bowl. Silver with mercury gilding. Iran, Sasanian period, A.D.6th-7th century L. 93/16in. (23.3. cm.), W.43/8in. (11.1 cm.). Fletcher Fund, 1959 (59.130.1) 12. Vessel in shape of horse's head. Silver with gold foil. Iran,Achaemenid period, ca. 5th century B.C. L. 81/16in. (20.4 cm.). Rogers Fund, 1947 (47.100.87) 13. Rhyton with forepart of a panther. Silver with mercury gilding. Iran,Parthianperiod, ca. 1st century B.C. H. 107/8in. (27.5 cm.). Purchase, Rogers Fund, Enid A. Haupt, Mrs. Donald M. Oenslager, Mrs. MurielPalitz, and Geert C. E. Prins Gifts; Pauline V Fullerton Bequest; and Bequests of MaryCushing Fosburgh, Edward C. Moore, and Stephen Whitney Phoenix, by exchange, 1979(1979.447) 14. Vessel with forepart of a lion. Gold. Iran, Achaemenid period, ca. 5th century B.C.H. 63/4in. (17.1 cm.). Fletcher Fund, 1954 (54.3.3) 15. Relief with cavalrymen in the mountains. Alabaster. Northern Mesopotamia, Nineveh, Palace of Sennacherib (704-681 B.C.),Neo-Assyrian period. H. 22 in. (55.9 cm.), W.34 in. (86.4 cm.). Giftof John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932 (32.143.16)

16. Sword.Ironwithcarnelianinlays.Iran,Luristan, ca. 750-650 B.C. L. 193/4in.(50.1 cm.). Giftof H. DunscombeColt,1961 (61.62) 17. Detailof swordhiltand scabbard. Goldover wood withgarnetand glass paste jewelsand giltbronzeguard.Iran,Sasanianperiod,ca. A.D. 7th centuryFullI. 391/2in. (100.3 cm.). RogersFund, 1965 (65.28) 18. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Yellow chert.Mesopotamia,Neo-Assyrianperiod,ca. 9th8th centuryB.C. H. 17/16in. (3.7 cm.), Diam. 5/8in. (1.6 cm.). Giftof MatildaW.Bruce,1907 (07.155.1) 19. Necklacewithpendants.Gold.SouthernMesopotamia,ca. 19th-18thcenturyB.C.L. 1615/16in. (43 cm.). FletcherFund,1947 (47.la-h) 20. Helmet.Bronzewithgold and silverfoilover bitumen.SouthwesternIran,Elamite,ca. 1300 B.C. in.(22.1 cm.). Fletcher H.61/2in.(16.5 cm.), W.811/16 Fund,1963 (63.74) 21. Standingmalefigure.Gypsum.SouthernMesopotamia,TellAsmar,SquareTemple,ShrineII,Sumerian, EarlyDynasticIIperiod,2750-2600 B.C. H. 115/8 in. (29.5 cm.). FletcherFund,by exchange, 1940 (40.156) 22. Cultvessel inshape ofa tower.Ceramic.Syria(?), ca. 19thcenturyB.C. H. 123/8in.(31.4 cm.), W.31/4 in. (8.3 cm.). RogersFund,1968 (68.155) 23. Kneelingbullholdingvessel. Silver.Southwestern Iran,Proto-Elamite period,ca. 2900 B.C. H.67/16 in. (16.3 cm.), W.21/2in. (6.3 cm.). Purchase, Joseph PulitzerBequest, 1966 (66.173) 24. Pendantof seated goddess holdingchild.Gold. Anatolia,Hittite,Empireperiod,15th-13thcentury B.C. H. 11/16in. (4 3 cm.). Lentby NorbertSchimmel (L.1983.119.3). 25. Femalefigure.Ceramic.Iran,ca. 900B.C.H.125/16 in.(31.3 cm.), W.61/4in. (15.9 cm.). HarrisBrisbane DickFund,1964 (64.130) 26. Ewer.Silverwithmercurygilding.Iran,Sasanian period,ca. A.D. 6th-7th century.H. 133/8in.(34 cm.). Purchase,Mr.and Mrs.C. DouglasDillonGiftand RogersFund,1967 (67.10) 27. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Hematite. Mesopotamia,OldBabylonianperiod,ca. 1850-1700 B.C. H. 11/16 in. (2.7 cm.), Diam. 9/16 in. (1.4 cm.).

Collectionof Mrs.WilliamH. Moore,Lentby Rt.Rev. PaulMoore,Jr.(L.55.49.180). 28. Shaft-holeaxe. Silverwithgold foil.Northern Afghanistan,ca. 2000-1750 B.C.L.57/8in. (15,cm.). Purchase,HarrisBrisbaneDickFund,James N. Spear and SchimmelFoundationInc.Gifts,1982 (1982.5) ornamentof femalesphinx.IvoryAna29. Furniture tolia,Acemhoyuk,ca. 19thcenturyB.C.H.5 in. (12.7 cm.), W.11/2 in.(3.8 cm.). Giftof Mrs.George D. Pratt,in memoryof GeorgeD. Pratt,1936 (36.70.8) 30. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Metadiorite.Mesopotamia,Akkadianperiod,2334-2154 B.C. H. 11/4in. (3.2 cm.), Diam. 11/16in. (1.7 cm.).

Giftof WalterHauser,1955 (55.65.5) 31. Ornamentwithconfrontedleoninecreatures. Gold. Iran,Achaemenidperiod,ca. 6th-5th century B.C. H.53/8in. (13.6 cm.), W.37/8in. (9.8 cm.). RogersFund,1954 (54.3.2) 32. Standardwithtwo long-hornedbulls.Arsenical Anatolia,reportedlyfrom copper.North-central Horoztepe.EarlyBronzeAge period,2300-2000 B.C.H.61/4in.(15.9 cm.), W.53/4in. (14.6 cm.). Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest, 1955 (55.137.5) 33. Panelwithbullhunt.IvoryNorthwestern Iran, reportedlyfromZiwiye,ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.H.21/4 in. (5.7 cm.), W.63/16in. (15.8 cm.). FletcherFund, 1951 (51.131.5) 34. Cupwithfourgazelles. Gold.Northwestern Iran, ca. 1000 B.C.H.to rim21/2in. (6.3 cm.), Diam.of rim 33/8in. (8.5 cm.). RogersFund,1962 (62.84) 35. Foundationpeg withlion.Bronze.NorthernSyria ca. 2200 B.C. H.45/8 in. or Mesopotamia,Hurrian, (11.7 cm.), W.31/8in. (7.9 cm.). Purchase,Joseph

b. H. 43/16in. (10.6 cm.), W.51/8in. (13 cm.)

36. Recumbentmouflon.Marble.IndusValleyca. 2500-2000 B.C. L. 111/16in.(28 cm.). Anonymous Giftand RogersFund,1978 (1978.58) 37. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Serpentine.Mesopotamia,Akkadianperiod,2334-2154 B.C.

c. L.81/2in.(21.5 cm.) [mouthpiece]. Bequestof CoraTimkenBurnett,1957(57.51.40a-c) 57. Jar.Ceramic.NortheasternIran,TurengTepe, ca. 1900 B.C.H.81/2in.(21.7 cm.), Diam. 61/4in. (15.8 cm.). RogersFund,1948 (48.98.24) 58. Jar.Ceramic.CentralIran,ca. 3100 B.C. H.207/8 in.(53 cm.). Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest, 1959 (59.52) 59. Jar.Glazedceramic.Northwestern Iran,reportedly fromZiwiye,ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.H. 171/4 in.(43.5 cm.), Diam.of rim43/8in. (11 cm.). Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest, 1955 (55.121.2) 60. Vesselstandwithibexsupport.Arsenicalcopper withshelland lapis-lazuliinlaySouthernMesopotamia, Sumerian,EarlyDynasticIIIperiod,2600-2334 B.C.

of W.Gedney Beatty,1941 (41.160.192) 38. Plaquewithgoat. IvoryNorthernMesopotamia, Nimrud,FortShalmaneser,Neo-Assyrianperiod,ca.

61. Antelope.Silver.Iran,Proto-Elamite period,ca. 2900 B.C.L.4 in. (10.2 cm.). RogersFund,1947 (47.100.89)

Pulitzer Bequest, 1948 (48.180)

H. 11/8 in. (2.8 cm.), Diam. 11/16 in. (1.8 cm.). Bequest

8th centuryB.C.H.65/16in.(16 cm.). RogersFund, 1961 (61.197.6) 39. Vase.Chlorite.Mesopotamiaor Iran,EarlyDynastic 1/I11 period,2750-2334 B.C.H.91/4in. (23.5 cm.). Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917 (17.190.106) 40. Beaker.Silver.LowerDanuberegion,Thracian, ca. 4thcenturyB.C.H. 73/8in.(18.7 cm.). Rogers Fund,1947 (47.100.88) 41. Griffindress ornaments.Gold.NorthernBlack Sea region,reportedlyfromMaikop,Scythian,ca. 5thcenturyB.C.H. 1 in. (2.5 cm.). FletcherFund, 1924 (24.97.50, 51) 42. Boarclasp. Goldon bone core withsilverbacking. Scythian,ca. 500 B.C. L.23/4in. (7 cm.), H. 13/8in. (3.5 cm.). Giftof ChristosG. Bastis, 1979 (1979.352.1) 43. Beltclasp. Bronze.Caucasus, ca. A.D.1st-3rd centuryL.6 in.(15.2 cm.), H.53/4in.(14.6 cm.). RogersFund,1921 (21.166.7) 44. Deep soundinginthe InannaTempleat Nippur showingthe workmenuncoveringUrukperiodlevels. Thisviewwas takenduringthe 1960-61 season of the JointExpeditionto Nippurof the OrientalInstitute and the AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch, Baghdad.(Photograph:OrientalInstitute, Universityof Chicago) 45. Foundationfigurine.Copper.SouthernMesopotamia,Nippur,InannaTemple,Neo-Sumerianperiod, UrIIIdynasty,reignof Shulgi(2094-2047 B.C.).H. in. (31.3 cm.). RogersFund,1959 (59.41.1) 125/1A6 46. Stand.Bronze.Iran,Qasr-iAbuNasr,Sasanian period,ca. A.D.6th-7th centuryH. 161/2in. (41.9 cm.). RogersFund,1934 (34.107.1) 47. Femalehead. IvoryNorthernMesopotamia, Nimrud,BurntPalace, Neo-Assyrianperiod,ca. 8th centuryB.C.H.2 in. (5 cm.). RogersFund,1952 (52.23.3) 48. Figureof a tributebearer.IvoryNorthernMesopotamia,Nimrud,FortShalmaneser,Neo-Assyrian period,ca. 8thcenturyB.C.H. 55/16 in. (13.5 cm.), in. (7.2 cm.). RogersFund,1960 (60.145.11) W.213/16 of thecentralmoundof Hasanlu 49. Aerialphotograph innorthwestern Iranas seen fromthe southwesttaken duringthe 1962 season. (Photograph:University Museum,Universityof Pennsylvania) 50. Lion-shapedpin.Bronze,iron.Northwestern Iran,Hasanlu,Citadel,BurnedBuildingII, Gatewayarea, LevelIV,9th centuryB.C.L.5 in. (12.7 cm.), H. 11/2in. (3.8 cm.). Mrs.Constantine Sidamon-Eristoff Gift,1961 (61.100.10) 51. Viewof TepeNush-iJan inwesternIrantaken duringthe firstseason of excavations(1967).(Photograph:BritishInstituteof PersianStudies) 52. Doublespiral.Silver.WesternIran,Nush-iJan, Medianperiod,7thcenturyB.C.L.2 in. (5.1 cm.), W. 11/8in.(2.9 cm.). H. DunscombeColtGift,1969 (69.24.1) 53. Finial.Bronze.Iran,Luristan,ca. 8thcenturyB.C. H.33/8in.(8.5 cm.), W.13/4in.(4.4 cm.). Giftof George D. Pratt,1932 (32.161.20) 54. Pin.Bronze.Iran,Luristan,SurkhDum,ca. 8th centuryB.C.L.55/8in.(14.3 cm.). RogersFund, 1943 (43.102.1) 55. Quiverplaque.Bronze.Iran,Luristan, ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.L.21 in.(53.3 cm.), W.6 in. (15.3 cm.). RogersFund,1941 (41.156) 56. Bitand cheekpieces fora horse. Bronze.Iran, Luristan,ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C. a. H.41/2in.(11.5 cm.), W.51/8in. (13 cm.)

H. 1511/16 in. (40 cm.). Rogers Fund, 1974 (1974.190)

62. Vase. Bronze.Northwestern Iran,ca. 10th-9th centuryB.C.H. 1311/16 in. (34.8 cm.), Diam.of rim 4 in. (10.2 cm.). Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest, 1964 (64.257.la) 63. PlatewithPerozor KavadI huntingrams.Silver giltwithniello.Iran,Sasanianperiod,A.D.late5thearly6thcenturyH. 11/16 in.(4.3 cm.), Diam.85/8 in.(21.9 cm.). FletcherFund,1934 (34.33) 64. Plaquewithfriezes.Gold.Northwestern Iran, reportedlyfromZiwiye,ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.H. 83/8in.(21.2 cm.), Max. w.105/8in. (27 cm.). Top fragment:Annand GeorgeBlumenthalFund,1954 (54.3.5). Bottomfragment:RogersFund,1962 (62.78.1a,b) 65. NecklacewithBes head and figuredplaques. Gold Iran,Achaemenidperiod,ca. 5th-4th centuryB.C.H. 19/16in.(4 cm.), L.141/8in. (35.9 cm.). Dodge Fund,1965 (65.169) 66. Headdressornament.Gold,carnelian,and lapis lazuli.SouthernMesopotamia,Ur,RoyalCemetery, Grave789, Sumerian,EarlyDynastic Ilaperiod, in.(38.5 cm.). Excoll.: 2600-2500 B.C.L.153/16 The UniversityMuseum,Universityof Pennsylvania. Dodge Fund,1933 (33.35.3) 67. Dressornamentsinshape of lionheads. Gold. Iran,Achaemenidperiod,ca. 5th-4th centuryB.C. H. 17/8in.(4.7 cm.), W.21/4in.(5.7 cm.) and H. 2 in.(4.9 cm.), W.23/8in.(6 cm.) respectively Giftof KhalilRabenou,1956 (56.154.1,2) 68. Reliefwithservantscarryingfood. Limestone. SouthernIran,Persepolis,Achaemenidperiod,ca. 4th centuryB.C.H.341/16in.(86.5 cm.), W.251/2 in. (64.8 cm.). HarrisBrisbaneDickFund,1934 (34.158) Chlorite.SouthernMeso69. Statueof Ur-Ningirsu. potamia,probablyTello,Neo-Sumerianperiod,ca. 2123-2119 B.C.H.215/8in. (55 cm.). Head:Rogers Fund,1947 (47.100.86).Body:Lentby Museedu Louvre,Departementdes AntiquitesOrientales(inv. A. 0. 9504) (L.1984.1) 70. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Lapis lazuli.Mesopotamia,Kish,EarlyAkkadianperiod, ca. 2334-2278 B.C.H. 11/6 in.(2.8 cm.), Diam.5/8 in. (1.6 cm.). Collectionof Mrs.WilliamH. Moore, Lentby Rt.Rev.PaulMoore,Jr.(L.55.49.17) 71. Stele of Ushumgal.Alabaster.SouthernMesopotamia,Sumerian,EarlyDynasticI period,2900in.(22.4 cm.). Fundsfromvarious 2750 B.C.H.813/16 donors,1958 (58.29) 72. Inscribedbowl.Gold.Iran,Achaemenidperiod, ca. 6th-5th centuryB.C.H.41/2in.(11.4 cm.), Diam.73/4in. (19.6 cm.). HarrisBrisbaneDick Fund,1954 (54.3.1) 73. Envelopefortablet.Ceramic.Anatolia,Kultepe, OldAssyrianperiod,ca. 1900 B.C.Gr.h. 71/2in. (19 cm.), D. 11/8in. (2.8 cm.). Giftof Mr.and Mrs. J. J. Klejman,1966 (66.245.5b) ca. 74. Inscribedbell.Bronze.Anatolia,Urartian, 8thcenturyB.C.H.37/16in.(8.7 cm.). Giftof Mr.and Mrs.NathanielSpear,Jr.,1977 (1977.186) 75. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Pink limestone.Mesopotamia,Nippur,InannaTemple, Nasrperiod,ca. LevelXVB,LateUruk-Jemdet 3200-2900 B.C.H. 3/4in.(2cm.), Diam.13/16in. (2.1 cm.). RogersFund,1962 (62.70.74) 76. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Lapis lazuli.Mesopotamia,EarlyAkkadianperiod,ca. 2334-2279 B.C.H. 11/2in. (3.8 cm.), Diam.7/8in. (2.2 cm.). Collectionof Mrs.WilliamH. Moore,Lent by Rt.Rev.PaulMoore,Jr.(L.55.49.178) 77. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Amethyst. Mesopotamia,Isin-Larsaperiod,reignof Rimsin (1822-1763 B.C.). H. 15/16in. (3.3 cm.), Diam. 1/16in.

(1.7 cm.). Bequestof WalterC. Baker,1971 (1972.118.20) 78. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Carnelian. Mesopotamia,MiddleAssyrianperiod,14th-13th centuryB.C.H. 11/4in. (3.2 cm.), Diam.5/8 in. (1.1 cm.). Collectionof Mrs.WilliamH.Moore,Lent by Rt.Rev.PaulMoore,Jr.(L.55.49.90) 79. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Steatite. Mesopotamia,Nimrud,NabuTemple,Neo-Assyrian period,ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.H. 13/8 in.(3.5 cm.). Seal h. 15/16in.(2.4 cm.). RogersFund,1958 (57.27.8) 80. Stampseal and modernimpression.Graychalcedony Mesopotamia,Neo-Babylonianperiod,ca. 6th century B.C.L. 7/8 in. (2.2 cm.), W.3/4in. (1.8

cm.). Fundsfromvariousdonors,1893 (93.17.100)

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