The arts of japan the metropolitan museum of art bulletin v.45 #1 summer 1987 by alfonse K

m 6 I 4o,~ " N,

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ARTS

BARBARA

THE

METROPOLITAN

BRENNAN

FORD

MUSEUM

ART

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DIRECTOR'S

NOTE

InAprilthe MetropolitanMuseumproudlyopenedTheArtsof Japanin TheSackler GalleriesforAsianArt.Thenewgalleriespresentedspecialchallenges.InJapanthereis no artificialdivisionbetweenthe fineanddecorativearts,andan appropriate displayof artliesat the veryheartof theJapaneseaesthetic.Ourcommitmentto thistraditional elements approachcan be seenat oncein the skillfulblendingof Japanesearchitectural of a carefullycombined exhibitionspaceandin thepresentation into a contemporary scaledsurroundings. Visitorsmayviewthese selectionof objectsin appropriately thatis elegantandsometimesintricateobjectsin a sereneandcongenialenvironment designedto conveythe underlyingvaluesof Japaneseart.WhiletheMuseumhas collectedJapaneseartforovera hundredyears,it wasnotuntil1975,withthe acquisitionof the PackardCollectionof somefivehundredworksfromallperiods,that Thereareasyetsomeundeveloped ourholdingscouldbe consideredcomprehensive. Shintoart,earlyinkpaintings,nanga,andpre-Edolacquer. areas,suchas calligraphy, now ranksamongthebestin theworldoutsideof Japan,the our collection Although to seek out worksthatwillpresentatthehighestlevelof quality challengestillremains Japan'sfull artisticheritage. Thenewgalleriesrepresentremarkable cooperationbetweenthepeopleof two a from came Financial countries. fundraising campaign,which Japan-wide support initial$1million,presentedby raised$3 millionto augmenttheJapanesegovernment's effortby a netPrimeMinisterOhirain 1979.The campaignwasan extraordinary individual business workof government associations, officials, companies,private AdditionalfundscamefromNew York'sJapanese individuals,andevenschoolchildren. Japaneseexpertsandofficialsof Japan'sAgencyforCulturalAffairs, community. KakichiSuzuki,an eminentarchitectural andparticularly Nishikawa Kyotaro detailsintothegallery thetraditionalarchitectural historian,successfullyintegrated spacedesignedby CleoNicholsandthefirmof KevinRocheJohnDinkelooand of these Associates.Mr.Suzukicarefullysupervisedthedesignandconstruction of elements,builtandinstalledby craftsmenof the YasuiCompany Kyoto.Museum andtheirstudentsmadethe slidingdoorsof theshoinroom.The conservators of thesmallabstract THE METROPOLITANMUSEUMOF ART AmericansculptorIsamuNoguchicreatedtheboldcenterpiece BULLETIN Summer1987 garden,WaterStone. VolumeXLV,Number i (ISSN 0026-5I21) MajorindividualgrantswerereceivedfromAmericansources-from thecollector andfromtheMaryLivingstonGriggsandMaryGriggsBurkeFoundation. Price Joe ? 1987byTheMetropolitan Published quarterly Museumof Art, ifthAvenueand82ndStreet,New MaryBurke,a memberof the Museum'sBoard,hasbeena sourceof inspiration postagepaidatNew York,N.Y.Ioo08.Second-class who played throughouttheproject.Inadditionto DouglasDillonandHenryKissinger, MailingOffices.The York,N.Y.andAdditional as Museumof ArtBulletinis provided theunto like I would in and both here in roles Metropolitan acknowledge Japan, negotiations key andavailable a benefitto Museummembers by and Board of the member Mrs. Samuel other Reed, Americans, stintingeffortsof two Subscriptions $I8.ooa year.Single subscription. for Four notice weeks' Mansfield. to JapanMichaelJ. required change copies$4.75. of theAsianArtVisitingCommittee,andAmbassador Send addresschanges to of address.POSTMASTER: who workedlongandhardto members staff the a few of I mention can many TheMetropolitan only Membership Department, Museumof Art, ifthAvenueand8 ndStreet,New forAsianAffairs, Consultant Wen conclusion. its to thisproject Fong,Special on microfilm, bring York,N.Y.Ioo28.Backissuesavailable Brennan Barbara Ford,AssociateCurator actedas a skillednegotiatorandcoordinator. fromUniversity Microfilms, 313N. FirstStreet,Ann Volumes I-XXVIII (1905-I942) Arbor,Michigan. of AsianArt,selectedandarrangedtheobjects,withtheaidof YasukoBetchaku, asa dothboundreprintsetor asindividual available theywere The complexity, from Publishers, AssistantCurator.Insolvinglogisticalproblemsof exceptional AyerCompany, yearlyvolumes Inc.,99 MainStreet,Salem,N.H. 03079, or fromthe and and Curator Associate Alfreda Administrator, other Murck, ablysupportedby Museum,Box700,MiddleVillage,N.Y.II379. membersof the Departmentof AsianArt. GeneralManagerof Publications: JohnP.O'Neill. Editorin Chiefof theBulletin: JoanHolt.Editor: JoannaEkman.Design:AntonyDrobinski, Studios. Emsworth

Philippede Montebello Director

ON THE COVERS Frontandback:DetailsfromtheBatdesof Hogen andHeijinumber40. Insidefront:BatoKannon, detailof a shrine,number54. Insideback:Detail oneof a pairof screensbyKano fromSummer, number48. Chokichi, 2

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FOREWORD

Japan'sartisticheritageis one of astonishingrangeandlongevity.Fromitsearliest theJapaneseartisticspirithasbeenfocusedon theenvironsand manifestations, of implements dailylife;sinceneolithictimeseverydayobjectshavebeenfashionedwith keensensitivityto materialsandfunctionaleffect.Profoundemotionis frequently couchedin imagesof nature,observedwithan intimacyconditionedby lifein a landof andtyphoonmakenature's dramaticseasonalchange,whereperilsof earthquake and awesome beautiful. Thesedistinctivequalities and its processes bountyprecarious to outsideinfluencesand persistthroughouta historypatternedby cyclesof receptivity form. to transformation Japanese peculiarly subsequent The Museum'scollectionof painting,sculpture,ceramics,metalwork,lacquer, textiles,andwoodblockprintsspansoverfourthousandyears,fromthethird than millenniumB.C.to thepresent,andrepresents Japaneseartmorecomprehensively in in the West. it defies its collection the other Although generali7ation diversity, any selectionpresentedherewaschosento revealcertaindistinctiveaspectsof Japaneseart and,exceptforsomewell-knownobjectswhichcouldnot be excluded,to introduce worksthatappearforthefirsttimein thenewgalleries. I am gratefulto ChristineGuth,who wrotethetextfornumberz8, formany insightson the collection,andto YasukoBetchaku,whosekeeneyefordetailgreatly of theseobjectsin thenewgalleries. enhancedthepresentation Barbara BrennanFord AssociateCuratorof AsianArt

CHRONOLOGY OF JAPANESEART Jomon Yayoi

10,000

c. 250

B.C.-c.

B.C.-A.D.

250 B.C.

Late Heian (Fujiwara)

250

Kamakura

898-185

1185-1333

Kofun

c. A.D. 2z5-552

Nambokucho

Asuka

552-646

Muromachi

1392-1568

Momoyama

I568-I6I5

EarlyNara (Hakuho) Nara (Tempyo)

EarlyHeian

646-7o0

7o1-94

794-898

Edo Meiji

1333-92

I615-1867 I868-I912 3

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 速 www.jstor.org

JAPAN

BEFORE

BUDDHISM

Civilizationin theJapaneseislands,locatedat theeasternperipheryof Asia,developed in relativeisolationforsometenthousandyearsbeforeBuddhismwasembracedin the middleof the sixthcenturyA.D.BuddhismbroughtJapanintoChina'scultural sphere,whichextendedalongtraderouteswestwardto India,Persia,andevenRome. of continentalculture Threesuccessiveculturalstagespredatingtheintroduction in Japan'sarchaeological record.J6mon,theearliest,existedat leastas arerepresented farbackas Io,ooo B.C.andcontinueduntilabout300 B.C. At its height,in thethird millenniumB.C., thislong-livedneolithichuntingandfishingculturedevelopeda rich decorativevocabularyto embellishits utensils.Oftenexuberantly J6mon sculptural, vesselsandfigurinesevokethe elemental,untamednaturalforceson whichsurvival depended. of wet-rice Inthe subsequentYayoistage,whichbeganwiththeintroduction in about300 B.C., a morecomplexandstablesocietyevolved.Yayoi agriculture vesselsdiffermarkedlyfromJ6monwares,reflectingin theirlargely earthenware undecorated, society. spiritof an agricultural finelycontrolledformstheconservative Directcontactwith Chinaaffectedthisstageof Japaneseculture.Metaltoolsandritual to mirrorsweretransformed objectssuchas the bell-shapeddotakuandChinese-style fittheirchangedfunctioninJapan. withclosetiesto theKorean Duringthe thirdcenturyA.D. a militaryaristocracy andtheimperialinstitution stratified Yamato state of the laid the foundations peninsula thatcontinuesto thepresent.Membersof thisrulingclassof warriorsandshamans moundscalledkofun,fromwhichtheculture wereentombedin hugekeyhole-shaped takesits name.Theseearliestsacredemperorsruleda societythatis vividlyreflected in haniwafigures.Haniwa,originallysimpleclaycylindersset intothesidesof the newlymoundedtombto preventerosion,werelaterelaboratedin deftlyrealized sculpturaleffigiesmeantto attendthe deceasedruler.Placedatoptheburialmound, theydefineda sacredprecinctforthe ritesof successionessentialto thestate.Ever retainingtheirfunctionalcylindricalshape,thesesculpturesof warriorsandweapons, shamans,dancers,farmers,animals,andhousesrevealbotha nativefocuson the geniusin themediumof clay. quotidianas a subjectof artisticinterestandan expressive Otherentombedobjects-beautifullyfashionedstonetalismans,mirrors,jewels, swords,andarmor-reflectthe shamanisticritualsandanimisticreligionof Japan's earlymilitaryaristocracy.

Fromthe fifth to the first millennium B.C.,

fishingandhuntingin theJapaneseislands populationsthat supportedindependent producedceramicwaresin a widevariety of regionalstyles.ByMiddleJ6mon (3000-z000

B.C.)centuries of craftsmanship

in elaboratelydecoratedvessels culminated withsculpturalrimssuchas thisstoragejar, typicalof the Ent6culturein northeastern Honshu.Althoughthe makerwas restricted to primitivetechniquesof handbuildingand open-pitfiring,thevirtuositywithwhichhe refinedhis clayto withstandsucha large, thin-walled simple shapeandmanipulated sticksto produce toolslikecord-wrapped complexoverallpatternssuggeststhathis wasa relativelyspecializedcraft.Thisexceptionallylargecylindricaljar,coveredwith of twistedandknottedcordsin a impressions pattern,is carefullyappliedherringbone gracedby a quatrefoilrimmoldedandintricatelydecoratedin flowingpatternssuggestiveof reptilianforms.It standsat the outsetof one of theworld'smostsophisticatedceramictraditions,revealingan indigenousfocuson theaestheticsof utilitarian formsthatmarksJapanesecraftsto thisday.

2-4 In Late J6mon (zooo-Iooo

B.C.) sculptural

embellishment declinedin favorof lesselabdecorated vesselsshowingan increasorately in the integrationof form ingsophistication anddecoration.Thisspoutedpouringvessel fromTohokupossessesan elementalenergy createdby the abstractionof naturalformsin itsphallicspoutandits nipplesencircledby smoothandcord-impressed alternating bandsthatswirlaroundthenearlyspherical body. Similarvigormarksmanyof the figurines foundinJ6monsitesin northeastern Japan, especiallyin the latestageof theculture. Powerfulandevengrotesquein theirabstract, usuallyfemaleanatomy,theyarecommonly foundbroken,causingarchaeologists to conthat in were used jecture they magicalpracticesto invokethenaturalforceson which J6monlifedepended.A rareintactexampleis thestandingfigurewith smallpointedbreasts andincisedandimpresseddecorationthat mayrepresent tattooing.Withits thick tubularneckandtorso,stifflyoutstretched arms,andlargesliteyesset in sharplydefined ovalrims,thisfigurineis a variantof a type foundin northeastern Jomon'sitesin the latest stage (Iooo-z50

B.C.).

A morerefinedabstractionof anatomy a half-figure of reddishclay distinguishes fromanothersitein Tohoku,possibly AomoriPrefecture, whereJ6monculture persistedlongest.O'oid featuresreiteratethe shapeof theupturnedhead,anda precise the geopatternof incisedlinesaccentuates metricformsof thetriangular torsowithprotrudingconicalbreasts,whichareechoedin thepointsof theoutstretched truncatedarms.

5-11

Carefulworkmanship and attention to the beauty of the materialare evident in many of the tools, weapons, and ornaments found in Jomon sites. Stone tools, meticulously chipped and smoothly polished, and subtly craftedbone and ivory implements attest to the ancient roots of Japan'srenowned penchant for refineddesign and workmanship. The high quality of stonework of the second millenniumB.C. is seen in the spearhead from Hiraizumi, in Iwate Prefecture,and the beautifully fashioned basalt axe from a site in Saitama.The arrowhead, fishhooks, needle, and harpoon from the Obora Shell Mound at Ofunato Bay,in Iwate, revealno less skill in bone and ivory several centurieslater in this latest Jomon site (Ioo-2 50 B.C.).

ai\s

DuringthesecondcenturyB.C.an influxof peoplefromthe continentbroughtthe firstof severalwavesof foreigninfluencethathave shapedJapaneseculture,initiatinga more advancedculturalstageknownas Yayoi. Whenricecultivationandbronzeandiron metallurgywereintroduced,probably throughKorea,the isolatedandself-sufficient lifeof theJ6mongavewayto a communal societyorganizedto carryout thedemanding cycle.Architectural stylesand agricultural ornamentalmotifsreflectotherinfluences fromsouthernChinaandthe Pacificislands stretchingfromKyushuto Taiwan. Thesocialandaestheticcharacterof the cultureof Yayoiis vividly transformed reflectedin its ceramicvessels.The finely articulated shapeof thisstoragejarfromthe Nagoyaarea,withits bulbousformrising froma small,flatbaseto the flaringrimof its neckandmouth,is enhanced wheel-turned burnished surfaceof its warmred the by The body. irregular, vigorousshapesof vessels have been replacedby sturdier, J6mon morefunctionalonesin whichsymmetryis of paramountinterest.

Strictgeometry characterizesthe dramatic profileand decoration of this dotaku, a ceremonial form of the small clapperedbell found originally in China-and later in Japanand Korea-suspended from the necks of domesticatedanimals. When a dotaku was discoveredin A.D. 662 at a temple in Shiga Prefecture,its significancewas already unknown. Today,more than four hundred examples have been uncoveredat nearly two hundredsites in centralJapan. Found not in dwelling or gravesites, but buried in isolated hollows at the crestsof hills, they are thought to have servedsome ritual function in the agrariancommunity.By late Yayoi,the dotaku became a large, highly ornamented bell that, lacking a clapper and too elaborate for suspension, could neitherbe sounded or hung. Dotaku disappearedin the latterhalf of the third century,when their ritual importance was overshadowedby new forms sacredto the militaryaristocracythat came to dominate the communal agrariansociety of Yayoi. The Museum's example, among the finest known, is identical to one excavatedin Wakayamaand similarto others with spiral flangesand linear zones of decoration that have been found near Kyoto and Nara.

14-16 Vividwitnessesto theworldof Yamatoare thedeftlyexecutedhaniwaof warriors, shamans,andotherfigures.Bythe fifthcentury,groupsof figuralhaniwawereset atop theburialchamberto demarcatea sacred precinctwhereceremonieswereheld.Attendingtheinterredrulerandwitnessinghis successionwerehaniwasuchas thehelmeted warrior(right)andthehieraticfigurewith headdressandfacialstriations(left),who togetherrepresentthe two polesof power, militaryandreligious,in the Yamatostate. Otherhaniwain the collectiondemonin stratethevarietyof theparticipants Yamatoritesandthe rangeof expressionthat wasachievedin thisbasicmedium,where in thehollowclayanda simpleperforations fewmodeleddetailsachievea well-observed Strongtriangularstriations representation. accentuatethe geometricshapeof the

shaman'shead,conveyingan awesomeotherworldliness.A boldtriangularnoseandregularovalperforations foreyesandmouthin broadfaceevokean impassive thewarrior's resolve. Animalsarecharminglyrendered.Subtle observationis evidentin the poignantfigure of a deadinfantboarwithits largesnout, curledbody,andboundlimbs.

17,18 The origins of the earlyJapaneseemperors and the ritual importance of the craftsthat providedthe symbols and implements of their power are describedin Japanesemyth. Amaterasu,the sun goddess, and her unruly brother,the storm god Susano-o, in an uneasy truce that perhaps mythologizes the ascendancyof the Yamatorulersover the other clans, createda pantheon of deities who sprang from broken pieces of his sword and her jewels. Their grandson Ninigi became the firstJapaneseemperor and was sent from heavento the "land of bounteous autumns,"bearingas symbols of his divine authoritya mirror,sword, and jewel. He came with five other deities who became the ancestorsof hereditarycraft guilds, including jewel makers, swordsmiths, and mirror makers. Of the three sacredimperialregalia, the mirror,symbol of the sun, is supreme. Around A.D. z6o, when the Yamatochieftains came to power, it was enshrined at Isethe most important Shinto shrine, dedicated to Amaterasu,from whom the imperial line tracesits descent-and is reveredthere to this day.Bronze mirrorswere sent from China in Yayoitimes in exchange for tribute. Copies were made in Japan, where they were given

by the Yamatorulersto regionalchieftains andthustook on a symbolicfunctionas tokensof fealty.Thelargersizeof theJapaneseversions,as wellas the increasing of Hanmotifsthathadno meanabstraction in ing Japan-such as Chineseanimalsof the zodiac,whichin thisexample(left)havebeen into a swirlingpattern-demtransformed onstratethecharacteristic adaptationto sensibilities and use. Japanese Bythefifthcenturya peculiarlyJapanese variant,the bellmirror,developed.It was sometimesusedas an ornamentforhorse trappings,andits ritualfunctionwas enhancedby combiningthe luminoussurface of thediscwithsound.Inthesemirrorsthe animalmotifsof Chinesecosmologyhave beencompletelytransformed into a pattern of spiralsandwavylines.

19,20

Thejewelof mythrecallsthe manycommashapedbeads,or magatama,discoveredin kofunburials.Madeof stoneor jade,they arefoundin Koreaas wellas at earlierJapanesesites.Inthe Yamatostatetheyseemto havesymbolizedrankor ritualpower:one is represented as an earornamenton the haniwashaman(number14).Necklacesof magatamastrungwithbeadsareseenon maleandfemalehaniwa. Thatancientornamentheldspecial,perhapsmagicalqualitiesis suggestedby beautifullycarvedsteatiteobjectsthatderivetheir formfromshellbraceletswornin Japanfrom Yayoitimes.Foundin kofunof the fourthand fifthcenturies,theselarge,carefullyworked stonesof lovelygreenmayhaveservedas talismans.

SHINTO

AND

BUDDHIST

ART

Shinto-literally,the "Wayof the Gods"-is rootedin a Japanesesenseof intimacy forthedivineancestryof the withnature'sawesomepowersandthe ancientreverence a as its It came to be formalized landand rulers. religioussystemonlyin responseto Buddhism,introducedto Japanin the middleof thesixthcentury.Shintodeities,called kami,aremyriadspiritsanimatingthehumanandnaturalworld.Kamiareworshiped or in shrines,whereobjects in naturalformssuchas rocks,mountains,waterfalls, suchas mirrorsor iconsbasedon Buddhistimagesarebelievedto embodythese transcendent, amorphousforces.Certainmythicalandhistoricalfiguresarealso kami as ancientcourtnobility. as andarerepresented regarded Buddhism,bornin Indianearlya thousandyearsbeforeit cameto Japan,is based on the teachingthatlifeis sorrowfulbecauseall beingsareboundbypassionsandby attachmentto thephysicalworldto an endlesscycleof reincarnation. Toachieverelease fromthesebondsone mustattainspiritualenlightenment (Buddhahood) through meditationandhighmoralconduct.BuddhismspreadthroughoutAsiain two major of spiritualenlightenment traditions:Hinayana,stressingindividualachievement faithin Vehicle," throughmeditation,andMahayana,the "Greater emphasizing Buddhaandrelyingon thecompassionate intercession of Bodhisattvas, enlightened beingswho postponenirvanato helpothersachieveBuddhahood. Buddhism,whichhadbeenintroducedby wayof Korea,took rootinJapanduring thereignof EmpressSuiko(592-628) throughtheeffortsof hernephewtheregent of Buddhismfromearliesttimeswasits PrinceShotoku(573-621). A characteristic closeconnectionwithgovernment. Buddhistdominancein the capitalat Narawas brokenwhenthe imperialcourtwastransferred to Heian,present-day Kyoto. WhileNaraBuddhismwasintimatelyconnectedwiththecourt,newsects introducedin the Heianperiod(794-1185) broadeneditsrole.ThemonkKukai (774-835) broughtfromChinaa formof TantricBuddhismknownas theShingon, or "TrueWord"sect,in whichsecretformulasforworshipof the all-encompassing (Dainichi)werepracticedfortheprotectionof thenation.The divinityVairochana Tendaidoctrine,formulated in the monasteries on MountT'ien-taiin China,wasbased the of the Lotus Inaccessible to allbuttheinitiate,thesesectsare Sutra. upon teachings knownas the Esotericsects.Growingpoliticalupheavalcreatedtheneedfora teaching moreaccessibleto commonman.PureLandBuddhism,pioneeredby themonk Genshin (942-1017), taught that rebirthin Amida Buddha'sparadisecould be achieved

by merelyinvokingAmida'sname. of thenativeandforeignreligions Duringthe eleventhcenturyan assimilation took placein whichShintogodswereregardedas manifestations of specificBuddhist deities.Thisintegrationcharacterized until the midJapanesereligioushistory nineteenthcentury,whenShintowasformallyseparated fromBuddhismduringthe MeijiRestoration.

21-23

Sculptedimagesof the Buddhaarevenerated on platformsthatrepresentthemythicmountainat the centerof the universe,Mount Sumeru,whichis guardedby the Four GuardianKings.Twofromthe earlytwelfth centuryflanka life-sizesculptureof Dainichi Nyorai,the supremeBuddhaof the cosmos, on an altarplatformmodeledon a twelfthcenturyexamplein Fuki-ji,a templein Kyushu.Dainichi,in EsotericBuddhismthe sourceof allexistence,performsthemudraof withthe fivefingersof the right nonduality, handencirclingtheindexfingerof theleft, theunionof mananddivinity, symbolizing maleandfemale.Unlikestandardrepresentationsof theBuddhain the robeof a monk andwiththe shornhairof an ascetic,Esoteric imagessuchas thisone showthe supreme Buddhaas a prince,withhairpulledhighin a crownandgarbedin flowingstolesandjewels (inthiscasenow lost).The serenebeauty of thisimagereflectstheelegantaestheticof thelateHeiancourt.The faceandbodywere assembledin severalblocksof wood,which weredelicatelycarved,lacquered,andgilded. Tracesof theoriginalgildingaccentuatethe refinement andgraceof thisimage. ThesmallerGuardianKings,two of a set thatguardedthe fourdirections,retainthe massivestrengthof an earlierHeianstyle, withtheirstrongexpressionsandstockyfigures.Eachwascarvedfroma singleblockof wood,exceptforthe missingarms,which weremadeseparately. Twoothersculptures,the thirteenthcenturyseatedAmidaBuddhaandthe fourteenth-century standingEleven-headed dominate theirspacesin the Kannon, farcomersof theBuddhistroomin the newgalleries.

" fr ^s?

K .5

24 Centraltenetsof Buddhismareexplicitin

paintingsof theBuddha'snirvana,hispassing fromearthlylifeto the ultimategoalof an enlightenedbeing:releasefromexistence throughthe totalnegationof the desiresthat causelife'ssuffering.Displayedin the annual commemoration of thiseventon the fifteenth of February, thesedidacticpaintingspresent a compendiumof Buddhistthoughtand iconography.

) II

Here,Buddhalieson a platformfacing west.His goldenbodybearsthe marksof his His tightcurlsindicatethe enlightenment. shornheadof an ascetic,andelongatedearlobestellof his earlylifeas a princeadorned withheavyjewelry.(Hewas bornin Sakya,a northeastern Indiankingdom,andin Japan wascalledShakaforSakyamuni["Sageof theSakyas"].) Thecranialprotuberance and (ushnisha) the circleof lightbetweenhis

brows (urna) reflecthis penetratingwisdom.

of everykindwitnesshis passingin Creatures varyingdegreesof griefthatrevealtheirown imperfectlevelof enlightenment. Unlikethesecreatures,theBodhisattvas, areserene. who haveachievedenlightenment, in Theyaredressed princelyraiment-with jeweledcrowns,flowingscarves,andnecklaces-except forJizo (seenumberz8), who appearsnearthe bieras a monkholdinga

jewel.Shaven-headed disciplesin patched mendicants' robesweepbitterly,as do the grotesque,multilimbedHindudeitiesand guardianswho haveconvertedto Buddha's teaching.Eventhe salatreesburstinto bloom,as his mother,QueenMaya, descends,weeping,fromupperright.This charmingvignettemadethe conceptof nirvanamoreeasilyacceptablein the Confucian cultureof China,Korea,andJapan,where theasceticismandspiritualityof IndianBuddhismconflictedwithfilialpietyandhumanism.Thecompositionandiconographyof thisfineearlyworkwereformulatedin the Kamakuraperiod (1185-1333) and remained

standardin Japanfornirvanapaintings. 25

Inthemandalaof EsotericBuddhism, directlybelowthecentralimageof theBuddhaDainichiarethefiveGuardianKingsof theseprotecLight(Myo-o).Understandably, tiveavatars,or manifestations of theBuddha, provedto be moreaccessibleandappealing thanthe abstrusephilosophicalprinciple embodiedin Dainichi.Amongtheselesser deities,two cameto be the focusof liturgies thatconcentrated on moreimmediateconcernsthanthe attainmentof Buddhahood throughmeditationon themandala(see number 3 z).

Fud6My6-6,theImmovableOne,is amongthe mostbeloveddeitiesinJapan.In his ferociousmien,withbulgingeyesand froma tightlyclenched fangsprotruding mouth,Fud6is reveredas a powerfulguardian,an aspectmadeexplicitby thelassoand swordhe brandishes. Withone eyecast andtheothertowardtherock heavenward on whichhe staunchlystands,Fudois ever watchfulagainsttheenemiesof theBuddhist Law.His boyishfaceandbodyexpressthe benevolentaspectof his righteousferocity. Fudo'soriginas Acalanatha,one of the forms of theHindugod Shiva,is symbolizedby his hair,whichis tiedto one side.Knotsindicate thenumberof kalpasthroughwhichhe has voweddevotedserviceto Buddhism;his determination to upholdthe BuddhistLawis in the lotusblossomatophis head. expressed Fud6'sworshipwascenteredon the riteof burninggoma,or ritual purification This offerings. ceremonywasoftenperformedin specialhallsbeforeimagessuchas thisone,whichcamefromthe Kuhon-ji,a templenorthwestof Kyoto.Inpopularpractice,Fud6wasworshipedas thepatronof warriors,andhisimageoftendecorates samuraiarmorandswords.

26 Aizen Myo-o, the embodiment of both sacred and carnal passion, is symbolically colored red. (Fudo is blue.) This painted image retainsthe strong lines of the iconographic ink drawingsthat specifiedhis canonical image (see number 3 z). Brilliantmineral pigment and gold on the gorgeous robes and jewelrycreate an appropriateeffect of sensuous beauty.Fromthe Heian period on, Aizen's cult was devoted to prayersfor peace and success in love. His compassionate and generous nature is beautifullyexpressed here by the urn overflowingwith sacred jewels (Sanskrit:cintamani). With each of his six arms he wields weapons of Indian origin against lust and avarice.Two of these weapons, the bell with trident and the double trident, or thunderbolt (Sk: vajra),are important to the performanceof the mandala. The bell with its transitorysound symbolizes life's evanescenceand representsthe materialworld; the vajrarepresentsthe spiritual world.

In EsotericBuddhist rites ritual implements are placed on a three-footedtray on a platform before the devotee and taken up in sacredgestures (mudra)to the recitation of sacredformulas (mantra)prescribedfor the mandala. Because of the importance of these implements,they were createdwith the utmost care, and these examples represent the highest craftsmanshipof the Kamakura period. The bell's finial, the gorint6, is a pagoda of geometric forms that symbolizes the five elements: the square base (earth)is surmountedsuccessivelyby a sphere (water), a pyramid (fire),a hemisphere (wind), and a flamingjewel (air).In Esoteric Buddhism the gorinto representsthe all-encompassingcosmic principle,Dainichi Buddha. This form also symbolizes the human body, believed to be composed of these elements, and since the Heian period it has been used to mark Japanesegraves. I8

in theguiseof a Buddhistmonk, Represented devoidof thecrownandjewelscustomarily wornby Bodhisattvas, JizoBosatsuis among themostsympatheticandreadilyrecognizableof themanydeitiesin theBuddhistpan"EarthWomb,' theon.CalledKshitigarbha, in Sanskrit,he is the focusof a cultthatoriginatedin CentralAsia.It reachedJapanin theeighthcenturyandflourishedin the Kamakura periodin connectionwiththe PureLandsects(seenumberz9). Although Jizoassumedmanyroles,he wasespecially on behalfof veneratedforhis intervention thosesufferingin hell.Beliefin hell,which Buddhistsholdto be one of six realmsof wasthe negativecounterpart transmigration, of Amida'sPureLand. Thisserenelygracefulfigureexemplifies theidealisticsculpturalstylethatwasoften employedto conveythe specialreligious ethosof PureLandBuddhism.Jizo'swarm, youthfulfeaturesgivehima compassionate expressionthatinvitesfaith.His gentlyflowingrobewithits finelycraftedcut gold-leaf designsenhancesan impressionof elegant refinement.

C.G.

Beliefin thevowof Amida,Buddhaof the to saveall sentientbeings WesternParadise, influencedeveryJapaneseBuddhistsectduringtheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies,an age thoughtto be partof 500 yearsof degeneracy calculatedto havebegun (Japanese:mappo), in I05i. Theformulationof theTruePure Landsect(Jdo Shinshii)wasaccomplished by Honen (1133-1212), who taught that

traditionalpracticesof disciplineandmeritoriousworkwerenot efficaciousin sucha degenerate age.Salvationandrebirthin paradisecouldbe attainedonlythroughthe savinggraceof Amida,whosemercycouldbe invokedby simplycallingon his name Whilethisappealingpathto (nembutsu). salvationwon manylayconverts,Honen incurredthewrathof rivalclergy.Ultimately, nembutsucameto be the mostwidelypracticeddevotioninJapanandvisionsof paradiseone of the mostimportantsubjectsof Japanesereligiousart. Devotionto Amida'sPureLandinspired othercultssuchas thatof Kannonon his islandparadise,Potalaka,depictedin this hangingscroll.Kannon,in a goldenorb,is renderedin exquisitepatterns magnificently of cutgoldon delicatelycoloredrobes.His goldenbodyis madeluminousby the painstakingapplicationof colorandgoldto the undersideof thesilk.Thedeity'ssensuous imageandthe brushworkof the landscape reflecttheinfluenceof Sungpainting.These characteristics suggestthatthe scrollis the workof a thirteenth-century painterin Nara, wherethenewlypowerfulKamakura shogun, Yoritomo (1147-1199), sponsored

therenovationof theTodai-jiandK6fuku-ji temples,destroyedduringthe Gempeiwars of thelatetwelfthcentury.Overseeingthe project was Chogen (1121-1206), a disciple

of Honen,who fostereddevotionto Pure Landteachingsin theold Narasects.

30 A Shintoiconthatreflectsthemutualinfluencesin ShintoandBuddhistpracticeis the kakebotoke,a Buddhistimageseton a disc thathangson thecloseddoorsof a Shinto shrineto represent thekamiwithwhomthe Buddhistdeityis identified.Thisunusually largeexampledisplaysthe refinedtasteof the court(seenumber34) in thegilt Fujiwara Jizowith repousseimageof theBodhisattva its gracefulelongationandsubtlemodeling of faceandfigure.Thefigure,lotusthrone, anddoublehaloareall separatelymodeled andareattachedto the disc by hammering withsmallnails,a techniqueof thelateHeian

period period.Kakebotokeof the Kamakura areoftencastwithfiguresin fullrelief. Amongthefinestandearliestknown,this one mayhavebeenusedat theFujiwara shrineat Kasuga.There,the deityAme-noKoyama,mythicalancestorof theFujiwara, wasenshrinedandveneratedas theJapanese of Jizo. manifestation

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Thesyncreticnatureof Japanesereligiouslife is evidentin theiconsandpracticesassociatedwiththedeityZao Gongen,the abidingspiritof MountKimpu,in theYoshino Mountainssouthof Nara.Za6 wasthe protectivedeityof Shugendo,a ShintoBuddhistcultdevotedto asceticpracticesand mountainworship.Imagesof himarebased on thevajra-bearing guardiansof the Buddhistcosmos. Duringthe eleventhcentury,whenBuddhistthinkingcenteredon mappo,beliefin salvationin variousPureLandparadises mergedwith Shintoconceptsof the sanctity of theland.Zao Gongencameto be revered of boththehistorical as a manifestation Buddha,Shaka,andthefutureBuddha, Miroku.MountKimpuwasbelievedto be the siteof a Buddhistparadise.Shugendo beliefequatedthissacredmountainwiththe spiritualrealmof theDiamondMandala, andZao withits centralprinciple,Dainichi. A finelycastbronzeimageof Zao Gongen madeat thistimeexpressesthe fervorof this cultas wellas therefinedaestheticsenseof who wereits most aristocrats the Fujiwara powerfuladherents.Poisedon one leg,he brandishesa now-missing vajra;his might andferocityarerenderedin a sensitively modeledformembellishedwithdelicately chaseddesignson thewindsweptgarment. Thisiconwasprobablyplacedin a grotto similarto the one in whichit wasdiscovered in modemtimes,stillin worship,in a village on theJapanSeanorthof Kyoto.

theirgestures(mudra),andrecitingthe sacred Sanskritsyllables(mantra)associatedwith them,the devoteecouldexperienceBuddhahood.Thedrawingsin whichsuchpotent imageswerecarefullytransmittednot only wereessentialto Buddhistpractice,butalso profoundlyaffectedthe developmentof Japaneseartby preservingan iconographiccorpusandfosteringa strongtraditionof fluid line drawing. Onesuchscheme,the mandalaof the DiamondWorld(J:Kongo-kai), or the spiritual was to Saicho realm, imparted ( 767-8z2), founderof theTendaisect,by his Chinese masterin A.D. 805. It is preservedin a rare scroll done in o083, which belonged to the

A mandalais a sacreddiagramof thecosmos the myriadphenomenaof the representing materialandspiritualworlds.At the centerof theEsotericmandalais the supremeBuddha, Dainichi.Byconcentrating on thevarious deitiesdepictedin the mandala,enacting

Shoren-in,originallya sub-templeof the sect'sheadquarters at MountHieinorthof One of the finest worksof Heian Kyoto. this mandala drawing, displaysthethirtysevenprincipalBuddhasof the Kongo-kaias wellas figuresrepresenting the elementsand one of which in the detail (shown guardians, at theleft)is the ferocious,thunderboltbrandishing deitywhoseformwas adapted foriconsof Zao Gongen.

A bronzemirrorengravedwith an imageof of Zao Gongenrevealsthe closerelationship ShintoandBuddhistimages,as wellas their differences. Here,the fluidlineof the iconothevajragraphicdrawingsof Kongo-sattva, bearingBuddhistguardianon whoseimage Zao'sis based,is engravedin the bronzeby tinydashes.Calledshintai,or "god-body," engraved Japanesemirrorsexpressedthe ancientShintoconceptof the mirroras a sacredsymbolandabodeof thekami.Since Shintodeitieshaveno specificformbutare believedto be embodiedin objects,naturalor man-made,shintaiarenot displayedas icons butkeptwithinprecinctsmadesacredby theirpresence.Thisone was foundburied withhundredsof otherimagesandsutrason MountKimputo awaitthe comingof the FutureBuddha.Conceptually, suchShinto imagesdifferfromBuddhisticons,whichare, strictlyspeaking,not sacredin themselvesbut aidsto visualizingthe manifoldaspectsof enlightenment. Althoughprecedentsin ChineseBuddhistmirrorswithengravedimages wereknowninJapan,theydifferedfrom shintaiin theiruse.Duringmeditation,the Buddhistdeitywasreflectedin theirluminous orb,a practiceechoedin mandalasand drawingsin whichthe figures iconographic areenclosedin circles. TheradicaldistinctionbetweenShintoand Buddhistimagesbecameblurredin practice andaffectedthedevelopmentof Japanese Buddhism.As Shintokamitook the formsof Buddhistdeities,certainBuddhistimages wereconsideredto havea sacrednatureand weresometimesworshipedas iconstoo sacredto be viewed.

Fujiwara-no-Kamatari (614-699)

is one of

severalhistorical figuresdeified in Shinto. An important court minister,he was awardedthe surnameFujiwara,or "WisteriaField"He was the firstof this illustriousclan that dominatedJapanesecourt life from the tenth through the twelfth century.His deified image portrayshim in the garb of a court minister,attendedby his two sons, one a Buddhistpriest, the other his successor.Their divinity is symbolized by the golden mirrors that hang above the rolled bamboo curtain. The stylized figuretype with a delicate masklike face derivesfrom the Heian painting style known as yamato-e, as do the sophisticated juxtaposition of flat planes of brilliantmineral color and the disregardfor spatial volume in the figures,curtains, and rainbowborderedtatami mats.

Relatedto the Shinto notion of the mirroras an object of almost magic potency was the custom of dedicatingpersonal mirrorsto Shinto shrines.In the twelfth and thirteenth centurieshope for salvationin BuddhistPure Land paradisesmerged with Shinto concepts. Sutrasand both Shinto and Buddhistimages were buried at sacredsites believedto be these paradises.Associatedwith this practice was that of throwing mirrorsinto ponds. Hundredsof examples with bird and flower motifs, such as the lovely ferns and wildflowerson this one, have been recoveredfrom a pond atop Mount Haguro in Yamagataand are known as Haguro-kyo.Their delicate motifs are typical of the art of the Heian aristocracy.

NARRATIVE

PAINTING

IN JAPAN

After hundredsof yearsof receptivityto Chineseculturethroughthe institutionsof Buddhismadopted during the sevenththrough the ninth century,Japanturned inward during the Heian and Kamakuraperiods, from the tenth through the fourteenth century,assimilatingthe borrowingsof previousperiodsto createnew artisticforms. Narrativepainting developedduringthis time into one of Japan'smost original achievements.Although rooted in didacticillustrationsto Buddhistsutrasand to edifying folktales of the T'ang dynasty,a distinctivestyle of secularnarrativeillustration developedwithin the literarycultureof the Fujiwaracourt. Buddhistsutras,particularlythe Lotus Sutrawith a chapterdevotedto the miraculousmerciesof Kannon, providednarrativefrequentlyillustratedin the frontispiecesto sumptuously decoratedsutras.T'ang icons such as those of the Western Paradise,which portrayedthe rewardsof faith in Amida Buddha,includednarrative vignettes in their borders.Fromsuch importedmodels developeda traditionof narrativehandscrollscalled emaki. The secularnarrativetraditiongrew out of life and literatureat the Fujiwaracourt. Its subjectswere the pastimes and refinementsof court life, romantictales such as Murasaki Shikibu'sTaleof Genji, or the famous placeswhere poignant seasonal beauty was celebratedin an annual round of court observances.Often depictedon now-lost screensand sliding doors, earlyyamato-e, as this nativestyle was called, inspiredcourt poetry,which survivesto evoke images of the lost paintings.The style favoredfor illustrationsof court literaturesuch as Taleof Genji refrainedfrom explicit realismand developedrefinedconventions of composition and juxtapositionsof color to convey emotional mood. It persistedas the style consideredappropriatefor classicliterature and enjoyeda revivalin the nineteenthcenturyamong artistssuch as Ukita Ikkei (1795-1859) who were politically opposed to the decayingTokugawashogunate. A more dramaticand realisticmode was developedfor the other major genresof illustratednarrative,tales of saints and heroes, the foundingof shrinesand temples, and the epic battles that markedthe rise of the warriorclass at the end of the twelfth century.These scrolls, didactic and celebratoryin intent,exploited the long horizontal format to renderdramaticpassagesof time and space in a cinematicmanner.Linear definition of forms and insightfulcharacterizationgive scrollssuch as the Kitano Tenjin Engi and the Shuikotoku Den-e a charmingimmediacythat surpassescaricature. Although emaki was the prime formatfor illustratednarrative,certaindidacticor architecturaluses requiredother formats,and compositions that originatedas emaki were often transposedto hanging scrollsand screens.

36 Nowhere is the development of Japanese

narrativepainting from Chinese Buddhist illustrationsmore evident than in the Metropolitan's Kannon Sutra, a scroll with thirtyseven illustrationsto Chapter z5 of the Lotus Sutra.A litany in praise of the mercies of the BodhisattvaKannon, this scroll was worshiped and vividly illustratedat least as early as the T'ang dynasty (618-907). Sung printedversions of the illustratedKannon

SutrareachedJapanby thethirteenth century.Accordingto the inscriptionby thisscroll'scalligrapher, Sugawara-noMitsushige,it wasdonein the firstyearof Shoka (I257) and modeled on a Sung printed book of Izo8. Although none of the Chinese

modelssurvive,it is clearfromthe illustrationsthatwhilecompositionsandfiguraland architectural motifsreflectChinesepictorial the tradition, anonymousartistinventively

yamato-eelements,especiallyin incorporated thelandscapesandthe fantasticbeastsand demonsfromwhoseperilKannonwill rescue thebeliever.Inthesetwo sectionslandscapes andbeguilinglynaivevisionsof evilarein the yamato-estyle.Charmingly explicitis the sutra'sassurancethatthestormdemonswho threatenthe officialstoicallycrossinga bridgewill be instantlydispelledby a callto Kannon,whosepowerreinstatescalmin the

foreground landscape.Anotherscenemakes vividthesutra'sclaimthatif one werepushed fromthepeakof Sumeruor chasedby evil mendownthe DiamondMountain, Kannon'smercywouldassureprotection. Theblossomingcherrytreesthatarethe true focusof thisscenecouldonlyhavebeen inspiredby thevernallandscapeof Japan.

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37 Emakiartistsweremastersof dramaticsuspense.Thisscrolldepictsthe originof the KitanoShrineof theTenjincult,one of the mostimportantin Shinto.As it is unrolled (fromrightto left),a cloudliftsto reveal floodwatersragingagainsta windswept veranda,wheretwo courtierslie disheveled. Withanotherarm's-length openingof the scroll,the storm-demongod hurlshail,lightning,andbloodyvengeanceagainstthe haplessministerFujiwaraTokihira,who futilelybrandishesa swordagainstthe angry a rivalwho spiritof Sugawara-no-Michizane, contrivance. diedin exileat Tokihira's Jagged

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linesof cut-goldlightningunitethe scene's beginningwithits denouement,in whicha priestincantsEsotericBuddhistformulas againstthe disaster. illustrationsin Thisis one of thirty-seven versionof the Kitano the Metropolitan's TenjinEngi,paintedin thesecondhalfof the thirteenthcenturyforone of the manyShinto shrinesdedicatedto appeaseMichizane's spirit,believedto havecausedthe deathsof naturaldisashisenemiesandextraordinary ters.Thisversion,secondin ageonlyto the set in themainshrine earlythirteenth-century at Kitanoin Kyoto,is uniqueforits second

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sectiondescribingthe monkNichizo's Dantesquejourneyto hell.Nichizoencounterstherepentantspiritof EmperorDaigo, who hadwronglyorderedthe exileof his loyalministerMichizane.Thetormentsof hell,brilliantlyenvisaged,reflectcontemporarypaintingsof hellinspiredby PureLand teaching.

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ing the firstcentury A.D.,is believedto be the

at VulturePeak finalteachingof Sakyamuni in Rajgir.It waspartof Buddhistworship inJapanas earlyas the sixthcenturyand becamethebasicTendaitextduringthe Heianperiod.The mostpopularof the sutrasinJapan,it emphasizedtheultimate MahayanabeliefthatBuddha'scompassion of genderor wasopento all,regardless stationin life.InthelateHeianperiodlavishlyproducedcopiesof the LotusSutra accountedformostof thethousandsof such devotionalofferingscommissionedby the to gainmerittowardthepromaristocracy isedrewardof rebirthin Buddhistheaven. inspired Manyhaveillustratedfrontispieces of Budbythedramatictextualdescriptions dha'smercy.FollowingChineseprecedent, theywereoftenpaintedin goldandsilveron paperor silkdyeddeepindigoor purple. Thisfrontispiece combinesdepictions fromthreeepisodesfromChaptersI to 5

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of thetwenty-eight in the sutra.Itscompositionskillfullycombinesiconicimagesof the Buddhawithnarrative vignettes.Here,the of the daughter DragonKingof the Seaoffers theradiantjewelto Buddhapreachingon VulturePeak(charmingly depictedin the shapeof a bird'shead).Theepisodecontains theessenceof theLotusSutra:thegirl's offeringis acceptedandsheis immediately changedintoa man,withmanyfeaturesof a seatedon a jeweledlotus.Thus, Bodhisattva, thecompassionof theBuddhaofferedsalvationto women,whosebodieswereregarded as uncleanandpreclusive of attaining Buddhahood. Thisaspectof theLotusSutra madeit particularly belovedamongthe influentialwomenof theFujiwara era.Balancing thisis an illustration of an episodefromthe Buddha'sformerlife:as a king,Buddhaso desiredtrueknowledgethathe promisedall hiswealthandpowerandlifelongservitude to whoevercouldrevealit. Here,he is seen twice,a deviceusedforsecularnarrative

illustrations-oncekneelingbeforethe sage who taughthimandagainbearingfirewood in fulfillmentof hisvow. Thisexceptionallyfinesutrais closein styleto themorethanfivethousanddedicated at Chuson-jitemple in 1175 by

Hidehira,thenheadof the northern Honshubranchof the Fujiwara family.

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39 Pale,harmoniouscolorsenhancethe solemn happinessportrayedin thisfragmentfrom a fourteenth-century scrollillustrating the Land sect of the Pure through development theteachingsof Honenandhis disciple Shinran(1173-1263). Seen from above in the

absenceof a roof-a conventiontypicalof Japaneseemaki-is the momentof Honen's recognitionof Shinranas his truesuccessoras he inscribesa copyof hisportraitforthe youngdisciple.Theintenseemotionsof the two centralcharacters aretellinglyportrayed in Shinran's seriousexpressionandawedpostureandHonen'sbenevolentsmileand relaxedpose.Thisdepictionof the transmissionof leadershipfromHonento Shinran

throughtheprivilegedbequestof a portraitis crucialto the ShuikotokuDen-e(Pictorial Recordof the Continuationof Virtue), edited in 1301 by Shinran'sgreat grandson,

Kakunyu,who soughtto uniteShinran's fractiousfollowersinto one sect,theJodo Shinshu,todayamongJapan'slargestBuddhistsects.Thissceneis one of six fragments fromone of fourknownversionsdonewithin a fewdecadesof the lost original.Although hisnameis unrecorded, theperceptive was a of an atelier member painter probably connectedto Shinran's TruePureLandsect, whichreliedon pictorialtractssuchas thisto impressits teachingson an uneducatedfollowing.A rareglimpseof fourteenth-century

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yamato-e is given in the Japaneselandscapes on the room's sliding doors. Their motifs, such as geese flying over pine-studded sandbars, evoke a long tradition of poetic images and emotions.

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40 Theclamorof a surpriseattackis vividlypor-

trayedin thisdetailfromone of a pairof screensdepictingthe uprisingsof the Hogen andHeijierasin II56 andI159.Thepanels detailedscenes,which includepainstakingly hadbeendevelopedin earlierillustrated scrollsof thesefamousbattles.Amidwhizzingarrows,warriorsrushthroughthegateof the Rokuharamansionof Taira-no-Kiyomori (III8-II8I),

victor of these battles, which

broughthimandthe militaryclassto power. Kiyomoristandson theveranda,puttinghis helmeton backward,caughtin ignominious in the stirfright-an episodeimmortalized ballads of his with the rival ring struggles Minamotoclan,whichlaterclaimedthe ultimatevictoryin ii85. Bythetimethisscenewaspainted,around chieftainslooked 600o, newlyrisenwarrior

backwithproudnostalgiaon theheroic deedsof theirforebears.Here,a pictorialnarrativedevelopedin thirteenth-century emaki is transposedto thelargefolding-screen format.Inthisdetail,in thesamearchitectural setting,an incidentthattook placeafter Kiyomori's victoryis depictedas though Seatedin a room occurringsimultaneously. decoratedwithgold-leafedscreens,the ruthlessKiyomoriis seenin a fatalmoment of tenderness. Beforehim,pleadingforthe livesof herthreesons,is thewidowof his defeatedenemy,Yoshitomo.Sheddingtears at herplight,Kiyomoriacceptsheras concubineandsparesthebabeswho wouldrise threedecadeslaterto avengetheirfather, annihilatetheTaira,andestablishthe Kamakura shogunate.Sectionsof the screens thatcorrespond to scenesin the extantorig-

inalemakiattestto thelongevityof thepictorialtraditiondevelopedin the Kamakura period.

41 Duringthe firsthalfof the nineteenthcentury,a circleof yamato-epaintersin Kyoto turnedtheirartto opposethe decaying Tokugawashogunate.Perhapsthe most importantof theworksof thisyamato-e revivalis thepicturescrollTaleof a Strange Marriage,an incompleteworkof fiveepisodes.It climaxesin the fourthscene,wherea fox coupleexchangesvowsin theelaborate Shintoritualof the Heiancourt.Despitethe richbeautyof thebrilliantmineralpigments, traditionalforpaintingsof courtnobility,the unnaturalweddinghasan eerie,prurient visualreferencesto one aura.Unmistakable

of themosttreasuredemakiof the aristocratictradition-Miraclesof the Kasuga Shrine,completedin 1309 by the court painterTakashinaTakakane-and to a later traditionof goblintaleswouldhaveintensifiedthehorrificsatireforthe painter,Ukita Ikkei,andhis circle.Ikkei,who earlierhad copiedtheoriginalKasugascroll,took scenes fromthatworkas the settingforthisvision of sacrilegeinspiredby deeplyfeltopposition to theproposedmarriageof the shogun lemochiintothe imperialfamily.Supposedly intendedto inspirethe courtfactionto preventthemarriage,thisscroll'stextwasnever

completedbecauseof Ikkei'sarrest,presumablyfordefamation,andhis subsequent deathin I859. Thesameyeara treatyforcing Japanto openherportsto theWesttook the eventualcollapseof effect,precipitating theshogunateandrestorationof imperial ruleaftersevenhundredyearsof military government.

ART FOR ZEN MONKS AESTHETES SAMURAI

AND

The Minamoto clan under Yoritomo (II47-1199) emergedvictorious in the late

twelfth-century strugglesthatmarkedthe endof imperialpowerandtheriseof the militaryclass.Intheirhomeland,in easternJapan,thesespartanwarriorsestablisheda aestheticpreoccupation of the newcapitalat Kamakura,awayfromtheenervating ancientcapital.Therethe samuraiwelcomedemigreChinesemonksof theZen sect, who broughtChineselearningandartandbecamelavishpatronsof Kamakura's Zen Buddhistmonasteries. Thesecentersof meditationandlearninginitiatedthesecondgreatinfluxof ChinesecultureintoJapan.Duringtheearlystagesof thisassimilation, paintingwas closelyrelatedto Zen life.Zen imagesdifferfromiconsof otherBuddhistsects, the self-reliant humanisticnatureof Zen. reflectingin theirmoresecularportrayal Monksturnedto paintingandpoetryas spiritualpursuits,followingtheteachingof Chinesemasters.JapaneseZen inspiredthe artsof inkpainting,drylandscapegardens, andthe Noh drama. Paintingsdoneby professional paintersandinscribedby literatimonksalsoused Chinesethemesto evokea longingforthereclusivelifeof contemplation, an idealhard won in the increasingly bureaucratic templessponsoredby fifteenth-andsixteenthcenturyshoguns.Oftendepictinga scholar'shermitagein a landscape,thesepaintings celebrateda particular monk'sstudyandarecalledshosaiga("pictures forthestudy"). inscribedby literarycoteriesat Others,calledshigajiku("poem-painting scrolls"), importantduringthefirsthalfof thefifteenth poetrymeetings,wereparticularly century.Theyareusuallyattributedto JosetsuandShubun,professional paintersat the Shokoku-ji,officialtempleof theAshikagashoguns. The assimilation of Chineseartwascompletedas laypractitioners of Zen among the militaryleadersbeganto collectSungandYuanpaintings.Chinesemotifswere fromChinese adaptedforuseon Japanesescreensandslidingdoors,andillustrations handscrollswereremountedas hangingscrollsforusein thetokonoma,an alcove developedin thisperiodforthe displayof Chineseart.TheChineseworksprizedby the Ashikagaeliteformedtherootsof a longtraditionof inkpaintingin a purelyJapanese brushwork. mode,whichwascharacterized by moreintimateviewsandexpressive

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Kannon, one of the most important

in MahayanaBuddhism,was Bodhisattvas in Zen moreas a modelforspirvenerated ituallifethanfor hiscompassionate intercessionin timeof need.Thishumanistic approachis reflectedin the iconographic modemostfavoredin Zen,theWhite-robed Kannon,envisionedin a relaxedposeneara woodlandwaterfall.Theinclusionat lower rightof Sudhana,the archetypalpilgrim in his youthwho soughtthe Bodhisattva islandparadise,Potalaka,reflectstheassimilationof PureLandbeliefinJapaneseZen. Skillfulhandlingof the ink-in supple linesforthe figureandgradatedwashfor thelandscape-revealsthe rootsof Japanese inkpaintingin Chinesemodelsbroughtto Japanby Zen monks. A nearlyidenticalcompositioninscribed in 1352by TettoGiko,secondabbotof Daitoku-ji,is treasuredat Shinju-an,a subtempleof thatimportantZen centerin Kyoto.TheShinju-anpainting,whichdoes less not includeSudhanaanddemonstrates have been brushwork,may accomplished basedon thisone, or thetwo maysharea commonChinesemodel. Thepairof hangingscrollsof geesewould havebeenhungtogetheror as partof a triptychflankinga centralBuddhistimage.This practice,fosteredin Zen temples,reflected theideaof the underlyingunityof the natural andspiritualworlds,andinfluencedthedisplayof secularpaintingsas wellas thecompositionof laterworks. The artist,TesshuTokusai(d. 1366),was one of themostcultivated Japanesemonksof In Zen. he to Kamakura returned 1342 early fromChina,wherethe artsof paintingand poetrywerepartof monasticlife.As a spiritualdiscipline,he devotedhimselfto painting orchidsin the styleof the Yuanmaster Hsueh-ch'uang P'u-ming. A classicSungtheme,geesein reedsis not onlya superblyrenderedvisionof the natural worldbut alsoa metaphorical referenceto Zenlifein depictingthe geeseflying,crying, sleeping,andfeeding.Basedon a tenthcenturyconvention,theseattitudesbecame modesof identifiedwiththe fundamental meditativelife:walking,dwelling,sitting, andreclining.

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Bedeckedin garlands,the dancingpair combinestheirrivalfragrances. Onemustsip theirpreciousdew. Whocouldfashionanewthesedeepred tassels? of the Minister ... dashedoff in remembrance of Ch'u.

Withthe finalstrokeof GyokuenBompo's calsmoothlyinflectedbrush,the semicursive his is united of inscription visually ligraphy withtheexpansive,flowingrenderingof supple leavesandfragileblossoms.The imageof orchidsandrocks,cherishedin the literati as symbolicof the scholar'spurity repertoire of heart,his loyaltyandintegrity,is rootedin theloreof Ch'u unmistakably

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heredrawsnot onlyon the imageryand poeticdictionbutalsoon the characteristic meterof Ch'uYuan'sLi Sao,the elegiac poemlamentingtheworldin whichhis loyas the fragile,hidaltywas as unrecognized like denorchid,whileambitiousslanderers, allusion won favor. to gaudyweeds, Bompo's his modelis overlaidwith feeling;thetwo orchidsreferto his friendshipwith Gid6 Shushin,his mentorin Zen as wellas in the artsof poetryandpainting.The ideathat poetryandpaintingwerean integralpartof Zen lifealsopervadesthislyricalimage. The "dancingpair"of the poemarethe small-blossomed epidendrum,at the rightof therock,andthe larger,morecolorfulcymbidium,risingfromthe clumpat the center.

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Abovea quicklyrenderedimageof a lonely figurein a landscape,fivepoemsin Chinese inscribedby fiveZen monkscelebratethe Zenidealsreflectedin the lifeandpoetryof one of China'smostfamousscholar-officials, SuTung-p'o(1036-11oI). Theepisode recalledhereoccurredwhenSuwasin exile on theremoteislandof Hainan.His characin this teristicequanimityis immortalized a home after visit,Tung-p'o story.Returning wascaughtin a suddendownpourandforced to borrowa peasant'sstrawraincoatand clogs.Thesightof the famousscholar dressedso outlandishlyrousedthelaughter of womenandchildrenandthe barkingof dogs.Thefirstof thepoems,by Zuigan Ryusei (I384-1460),

recalls the moment:

he traveledto theedgeof White-haired, theworld. Caughtin therain,he staggersin the mud of a lonelyvillage. He mighthavepreferred the cap and of his rank, carriage Butfarsaferthanan officiallifeis thatof the outcast. Thefollowingfourpoemspickup the theme,addingZen sentiments.Unlike of thisepisodeby Chineseliterdescriptions ati,concernedwithSu'sheroismanduncorruptablespirit,thesepoemsreflectthe Zen ideaof theessentialonenessof all things, goodandbad:whetherin officeor in lonely exile,Suwascalmandself-possessed. Thefivemonksall heldmajorpostsin the andweremembers KyotoZenestablishment of a literarycoteriecenteredaroundK6zei Ryuha,who devotedhis lifeto a studyof the poetryof SuTung-p'o.ThisscrollreflectsSu's ownartisticpracticein whichpainting, weretreatedas one poetry,andcalligraphy act. personallyexpressive

to theunworldlylifeof the mind 47 Aspiration underliesthislandscapeinscribedwith a poemin Chineseby ZuisenT6gen (1430-1489), an eminent Zen scholar.

Inthisworld,who canescape? As old as theearthareits cares. Likea flockof egrets,watercascades thousandsof feet. Likefishscales,wavesrippletimelesslyon the river Treetopsandeavesreddenin an autumnsunset. Distantcliffstouchthe clouds. hishook,the fishermanhopes Sharpening to sharethe gull'sfeast. How I yearnforFu-chunandYen-ling. Ina linearbrushmoderelatedto the forKenkoSh6kei malshinstyleof calligraphy, a vista redolentof a rendered (fl.I478-I506) and solace nature's for inspiration. longing Suchpaintings,the mostdistinctivedevelopmentin Muromachiart, are attributed to Shubun.Thiscomposition,whichfollows theShubuntraditionbutassimilatesthe art of the ChinesepainterHsiaKuei,represents the formativestageof a regionalstylecenteredat theKencho-jiin Kamakura. Shokei,a monkthere,hadstudiedtheshogun'scollectionof Chinesepaintingsduringa three-year stayin Kyoto.Thismaybe hisearliestsurvivingworksinceit musthavebeeninscribed whenTogenwasin Kyotoin 1478or 1481. Thelastlineof T6gen'spoemalludesto himselfin the YenTzu-ling,who sequestered Fu-chunregionto avoidthe corruptionof politicallifewhenhis friendbecamethe first emperorof the Handynasty.Discovered,he finallyconsentedto attendcourt.Togenhimlefthis own mountainretreat selfreluctantly to attendhis old friendOsenKeisan,whenhe becameabbotof T6ji-ji,theclantempleof the shoguns.

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MOMOYAMA

RENAISSANCE

At the end of the sixteenth centuryJapancame underthe successivehegemony of three remarkablemen, ending over one hundredyearsof warfareamong provincialdaimyo, or samuraichieftains,against whom the Ashikagashogunatehad been increasingly powerless.The militarygenius and ruthlessambition of Oda Nobunaga (I534-I582) and ToyotomiHideyoshi (I536-1598) resultedin the country'sunification,which was effectively,if harshly,maintaineduntil the mid-nineteenthcenturyunderthe descendantsof Hideyoshi'ssuccessor,TokugawaIeyasu(1542-1616). The course of unificationstronglyaffectedthe arts. Newly powerfulleadersand wealthymerchants embracedan artisticlegacy formerlybeyondtheir reach.They cultivateda synthesisof past traditions,the aristocraticarts of court poetry and yamato-eas well as the Chineseinspiredarts that had been fosteredin Zen temples. The magnificentcastles of this age symbolize its spirit.In the huge dark interiorsof these multistoriedwhite-walledstructures,rooms were definedby bold paintings,often on gold-leafedbackgrounds.Although little remainsof these castles, their grandeur survivesin the name given to this epoch, Azuchi-Momoyama,afterthe splendidcastles of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi. In the service of these shoguns the Kano school flourished.During the firsthalf of the centurythis family of secularartists,led by Motonobu (1476-I559), had supplantedthe monk paintersof Shokoku-jias officialpaintersto the Ashikaga.Eitoku (I543-I590), Motonobu's grandson, developeda bold style well suitedto the many large commissions he executed for Nobunaga and Hideyoshi.His successorscontinued the Momoyama style in Kyotointo the earlydecades of the Tokugawaperiod after another branch of the family followed the shogunateto Edo in 1614. The Tosa school, largelypatronizedby the aristocracy,specializedin delicate,miniaturistworks inspired by court literatureand perpetuatedthe yamato-etradition. Applied arts flourishedunder lavishpatronage.Kodai-jimaki-e, lacquerware decoratedwith bold, usually autumnalmotifs in sprinkledgold on black, is named for the Kodai-jitemple, built in i606 in Hideyoshi'smemory by his widow. Ceramicsreacheda peak in this fertileage, when formalpresentationof tea was ardentlypursued by the parvenuleaders.Under Sen-no-Rikyu(1522-1591), a tea masterwho servedboth Nobunaga and Hideyoshi,the tea ceremonywas transformed.Formerlyenjoyedat large, often raucoustasting competitions,tea, as espoused by Rikyu'steacherTakenoJ6-6 (I502-I5 5 5) was the focus of a calm and meditativemingling of unburdenedhearts. Rikyu formulatedhis teacher'saestheticof wabi, a refinedsensitivityto the rustic,preferringtea rooms evocativeof peasants'huts to luxurious surroundings,and the naturalnessof Koreanand Japaneseceramicsto the controlledperfectionof Chineseporcelains.Under Rikyu'sinfluence,Japan'smedieval kilns began to produce tea-ceremonywares. Hideyoshi'sgenerals,invadingKoreain 1592 and I597, returnedwith Koreanceramicsand artisansto set up kilns. These potters introducednew techniquesof kiln buildingand laid the groundworkfor the developmentof Japaneseporcelainin the early seventeenthcentury.

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landBythesixteenthcenturycontemplative scapesbasedon visionsof the mountainsand riversof southernChinawerefullyassimilatedintoJapaneseinkpainting.Serenevistas suchas thevastpanoramadepictedin this pairof screenswereas familiarin palacesof thenobilityandmansionsof samuraichieftainsas in Zentemples,wheretheywerefirst Thiswork,with its lineardefiniappreciated. tionof naturalformsin sharpcontoursand rhythmically patternedtexturing,is one of thefinestearlyKanoschoolpaintingsand hasbeenattributedto KanoChokichi(active mid-sixteenth century),a masterin the atelier headedby Motonobu,consideredthe school'sfounder.Itperfectsthe formulafor horizontallandscapepaintings transposing in thestyleof thethirteenth-century SouthernSungpainterHsiaKueito the formatof theJapanesefoldingscreen.Duringthe fifteenthcenturyMotonobu'spredecessors as officialpaintersto the shogunatedeveloped thiscompositionalmode,whichframesa limitlessriverviewbetweentwo mountainousforeground scenes.Seasonalmotifs fromrightto leftindicatetheprogression fromspringto winter,theclassicsubjectfor roomdecorationin Japanas earlyas the eighthcentury.TheChinesesubjectandstyle hereevokedan augusttraditionsuitedto formal rooms.

ThegrandMomoyamaspiritis perpetuated in the formalreceptionroom,a classicexampleof whichawaitsthevisitorat theheartof the galleries.Modeledon theprincipalroom a guestresidencebuiltin at theKangaku-in, I600 at Onjo-jitemplenearLakeBiwa,outsideKyoto,thisshoinstyleroomwasbuiltin I985 byJapanesecraftsmenusingmaterials andtechniquesauthenticto the Momoyama period.Therefinedproportionsof the Museum'sroom,withits largealcove,flooringof grassmats,anddecoratedslidingdoors forwalls,markedtheculminationof two centuriesof evolutionin interiorarchitecture, andremainedthe basisforsubsequentdevelopmentsin the shoinstyle. Theshoin,literally"astudy,'wasoriginallya partof a roomfittedout with shelves andan alcoveneara windowforreading. Withtheincreasedappreciation andcollectionof Chinesepaintingsandutensilsduring the fourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,the shoinwasenlarged.An essentialelement,the tokonoma,a raisedalcovedevotedto the displayof selectedworksof art-a scrollanda or otherobjects-develflowerarrangement from the oped platformwhereBuddhist imageswereveneratedwith floralofferings. Onewallof thisroomis filledby one of the finestworksin the Museum'scollection,a painting by Kano Sansetsu (I599-I651)

of a

in its hugeandhoaryplum,resplendent annualrejuvenation. extended Dramatically acrossfourpanelsof gold-leafedsliding doors,the blossomingplumis partof a larger compositiondonefora roomin theTenshoin, theabbot'sresidenceat My6shin-ji,one of themajorZen complexesin Kyoto.Sansetsu probablypaintedthesepanelsin I647, nearly fourdecadesafterhis uncleMitsunobu (I56I-I60z) decoratedthe roomon which the Museum'sis based.

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On thiscapaciouscontainerforsake,freely drawnchrysanthemums alternatewith formaldesignsof thepaulowniaflower, Hideyoshi's personalemblem,in thebold decorativestyledevelopedby artisansof the Koamischoolto suithis flamboyant taste. K6dai-jilacquerhasnoneof the arcaneliteraryallusionsof earlierlacquerdesigns,andit wasproducedin quantitiesthatprecludedthe meticulouscraftsmanship of the subsequent Edoperiodto meetHideyoshi'sinsatiable appetiteforluxury.Thedecorationof this warereflectsthe inventivegeniusof Momoyamacraftsmen.Textilesandceramics of theperiodmakeuseof similardesigns.

in 51 Autumngrassesfigureprominently as in this Momoyamadesign, servingdish madeat a Minokilnforusein a teaceremony.Thefreelydrawndesignof goosefoot (anherb)fillingtheshallowinteriorof this dishwas gentlycontoured,rectangular incisedthrougha slipof ironoxideandcoveredwiththickfeldsparglaze.Whenthe piecewasfired,variationsin colorappeared throughtheunevenglaze,producingtherich graybodywithironredat the rim,an effect muchprizedby connoisseurs. Thisware, knownas a GrayShino,wasmadein the Minoareaat kilnsestablishedby craftsmen who fledthewar-tomSetoareain the sixteenthcentury.Protectedby generalswho, undertheinfluenceof Sen-no-Rikyfi, eagerly soughtpiecesof thissophisticated rusticity, Shinoceramicsflourishedat MinokilnsduringtheMomoyamaera.

THE CLOSED BEHIND RULE TOKUGAWA

DOORS

Intheharshlycontrolledfeudalsocietygovernedforover250 yearsby thedescendants of TokugawaIeyasu,creativitycamenot fromits leaders,a conservative militaryclass, the artisansandthe butfromthetwo lowerclassesin the Confuciansocialhierarchy, merchants.Althoughofficiallydenigrated, theywerefreeto reaptheeconomicand whichhadbeenadoptedby socialbenefitsof thisprosperousage.Theteaceremony, the medium in whichliteraryand the class every during Momoyamaperiod,provided andtransformed men artistictraditionsof thepastwereassimilated byhighlycultivated of boththe bourgeoisieandthe court.Bythe lateI63os contactwiththeoutsideworld wascutoff throughofficialprohibitionof foreigners, especiallytheSpanishand who wereperceivedas a threatto tradersandRomanCatholicmissionaries Portuguese In traditionsof thepastwere the shogunate's isolation, authority. Japan'sself-imposed in theflourishing revivedandrefined,andultimatelyparodiedandtransformed urban societiesof KyotoandEdo (modernTokyo),wherethecapitalwasestablishedin I615. tradewith ChineseandDutchmerchants waspermittedin Nagasaki,andit Restricted of and spurreddevelopment Japaneseporcelain providedanopeningforMingliterati cultureto filterintoartisticcirclesof Kyotoand,later,Edo. centurythreedistinctmodesof creativeexpression Bythe endof the seventeenth of Heiancultureaccomplished flourished.The renaissance andcultivated by aristocrats in the townsmen was and crafts of the school calledRimpa Kyoto painting perpetuated "schoolof [K6]rin") afterOgataK6rin(1658-1716),themostgiftedheirto the (literally, innovativeyamato-eperfectedin the earlyseventeenth centuryby Koetsu(I558-1637) andSotatsu(fl.1602-43). InurbanEdo,whichassumeda distinctivecharacter withits revivalaftera devastating firein I657, a witty,irreverent expressionsurfacedin the and visual rise to the kabuki and theater thewell-knownwoodblock arts, literary giving In of the or the prints "floatingworld,' ukiyo-e. eighteenthcenturya Japaneseresponse to the fewthreadsof Chineseliteraticulture,introducedby MingChinesemonksat Mampuki-jisouthof Kyoto,resultedin a newstyleknownas bunjin-ga("literati or nanga("painting of the southernschool")aftertheMingtermforliterati painting"), painting.

Throughoutthe eighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturiesthesevariousstyles wereembracedbyJapaneseartistsandartisansas distinctbutnonexclusive and modes of With the of complementary expression. opening Japanby Americantrade missionsat mid-century, the culturethathadevolveda deeplyrootednationalcharacter overtheprevioustwo anda halfcenturiescameintothepurviewof theWest,wherean initialfascinationwithJapan'sdecorativeartsandwoodblockprintshasbroadenedas knowledgeof its majortraditionshasexpanded.

52 A classicpoemhasbeeninscribedby Hon'amiKoetsuon thissquaresheetof paper Sotatsuin a gold decoratedby Tawaraya andsilverdesignof cloudsamidstcherry blossoms.Now mountedas a hangingscroll, thisis one of a set of similarpoempages probablyintendedto be pastedon a goldleafedscreen.Theunusualdatedsignature, "the11thdayof the 11thyearof the 11th monthof Keicho[I6o6],Koetsu,'makesthis one of theearliestverifiableworksby this andarbiterof taste. influentialcalligrapher Thepoemfromhis favoriteanthologyof Japanesecourtpoetry,the Shinkokinwakashu,

is by Kamo-no-Chomei (1I55-i2i6):

I sit staring, Assailedby thousandsof melancholythoughts. Isit forme alonethat the windin mountainpines comesagainthisautumn?

Althoughthe gorgeousspringdecoration hasno resonancein thepoem'snostalgicmelancholy,thereis visualharmonybetween Sotatsu'sbolddesignandKoetsu'spersonal versionof Heiancourtscript-a rhythmicallymodulatedblendingof thickdark

characters with smallfluidones,connected thin trails of his quicklymovingbrush. by Thecollaboration betweenK6etsuand Sotatsuproducedmanysimilarworkson individualsheetsas wellas on horizontal scrolls,andlaidthe foundationfora decorativeartistictradition,latercalledRimpa, whichgavefreshtreatmentto ancient yamato-ethemes.

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53 Nowhereis thesynthesisof diversetraditions in theearlyEdorenaissancemoreoriginally expressedthanin thisunusualscroll,Ten MitOxherdingPicturesby Karasumaro suhiro (I579-I638), a major figurein the cir-

cleof thepoliticallyenfeebledbutartistically influential EmperorGo-Mizuno-6(1596i680). In drawingsandpoemsunifiedby his fluidbrush,Mitsuhirorenderedthe classic Zenparable,whichlikensthe deepening stagesof spiritualenlightenment through meditationto thevicissitudesof a herdboy pursuingan elusiveox. Here,the confrontationof thewaryox andthetentativeoxherd depictstheearlystageof the spiritualquest when,afterblindsearching,the goalis perceived.Thenextstage,renderedas a tense

struggleto controltheox, symbolizesthe unrulypassionsto be overcomeduringthe quest. Commonin Zenteaching,whichuntilthe earlyseventeenth centuryhadbeenembraced mainlyby themilitary,thisthemeas treated by Mitsuhiroreflectsthe syncreticinfluence in the peaceof theteaceremony. Flourishing fulearlyTokugawa era,teabroughttogether thecreativityof Kyototownsmenandthe traditionsof its ancientcourt.Mitsuhiro's personalvisionof the Zen themeis rendered on sumptuouspaperdecoratedwithgold andsilvercloudsandstenciledchrysanthemumandpaulowniapatterns.Casting a Zen subjectin a courtlymodeis characteristicof Mitsuhiro's taste,whichfostereda

revivalof Heianaestheticsandwassharedby importantfiguressuchas K6etsuandSotatsu. AlthoughthisthemewasextremelyimportantinJapaneseZen,illustratedversionsare rare.Mitsuhirobasedhis poemsuponthose composedin the fifteenthcenturyby the Tofuki-ji monk Shotetsu (138I-I459), but

hissuccinctandwittydrawingsspringfrom hisownhighlyidiosyncratic of interpretation thetheme.

54 An exquisite reflectionof the florescenceof traditionalcrafts in the early yearsof the Tokugawaperiod (I615-1867), this lacquer shrineencasing a meticulously carved Bato Kannon,the horse-headedAvalokiteshvara, is thought to have been the personal devotional image of Tofukumon-in, daughterof the second Tokugawashogun. In 16zo she marriedEmperorGo-Mizuno-o, an event that markedthe full ascendancyof the shogunate.Probablymade at this time, the shrineand its icon reveala high level of craftsmanshipin the sensitivelymodeled fig-

ure and the refinedornamentation of the lacquercase, which is decoratedin lotus designs in a style reminiscentof Heian lacquer.Elaborate gilt-bronzefittings incorporatethe Tokugawahollyhock crest and accentuate the simple elegance of the naturalisticsprinkledgold lotus motif on the smooth black lacquer, now mellowed to a rich deep brown. The interiorof the shrine is completely covered

with a traditionalgeometric floral pattern

associatedwithhealthychildbearing, over which richly colored pink and white lotuses

arepaintedin heavymineralpigments.The enshrinedimage,one of the six manifestationsof Kannonaccordingto Tantric thought,wasprominentin EsotericBuddhismin the Heianperiodandreflectsthe Buddhistaffiliationof the imperialfamily.It combinesthe ferociouslyprotectiveaspectsof theHindudeitiesassimilatedintoBuddhism with the omnipotent compassion of the

Bodhisattva Kannon.

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5e At thebeginningof theseventeenth century, pottersof Koreandescentin the Aritaareaof northernKyushudiscovereddepositsof kaolin,fromwhichtheyproducedhardwhite porcelainssimilarto Koreanwares.At whenChinesekilnsweredismid-century, ruptedby thefallof theMingdynasty,Dutch tradersin Nagasakiturnedto Japanto supplyEuropeanandAsiandemand,spurring thedevelopment of waresknownas Imari, fromthenorthernKyushuportfromwhichit wasshippedelsewherein Japan.Imariis an imprecisetermthatcoversa widerangeof ceramicsmadein Arita,including"old Imari,'elaboratelydecoratedwareswithred andgoldenamelon Chinese-inspired designs in underglaze bluethatcontinueto enjoya greatvoguein theWest.Thetwo pieces shownhere,knownas "earlyImari," are of the earliest in examples porcelain Japanese taste.Thesturdyshapeof the waterjaris adaptedfromChinesevesselsandthedesign

hasprecedentin KoreanandChineseceramics,buttheboldsimplicityof thepinesand thefreelydrawnheartpatternof theborder decorationreflecttheJapaneseappreciation of rusticbeautycultivatedin thepracticeof tea,forwhichthispiecewasmadein the mid-seventeenth century.Thecharmof the younggirlon thehangingflowervaseis no lesssophisticated. Thedrawingcaptures thespiritof youthfulbeauty,andthepiece hasthegaietyandverveassociatedwith theurbanecultureof the Genrokuera (I688-1704)

in Osaka and Kyoto.

57 Theyoungmanstrollingwith an alluring courtesanplucksa whiskerin the stylish hedonismaffectedby bonvivantsof Edo.Inthispainting eighteenth-century Okumura Masanobu (I686-I764), one of

themostversatileartiststo portraythe theaterandbrothelsin woodblockprints,gives

an irreverent twistto a classicalthemein an urbaneparodyof a storyimmortalized by the poetandstatesmanAriwara-no-Yukihira (8I8-893). Twoof Yukihira's poemstellof hisloveforthe sistersMatsukaseand Murasame,who, likehim,werebroughtby misfortuneto the lonelyshoresof Suma.

TheirloveforYukihira,duringhis three-year exilethere,theirheartbreak at his departure, andhispartinggift of courtrobeandhat werewellknownthroughseveralpopular kabukiplays. Here,drapedon the fabledpineof Suma, is thestylishcoatandcapof an Edobourgeois-not Yukihira'scourthat,whichis seenin thecreston his sleeves.EroticHeian andEdomotifsdecoratethe couple'srobes: thesamisenon herssymbolizesthe accomplishedgeisha,whilethe latticeandbamboo blindson his evokethe secrecyof Heian romances.A paletteof primarycolorsand goldheightensthe contrastbetweentheir hedonisticworldandthatof theink-painted shoresof Suma.

Therefinedtasteof Japan'seighteenthcenturyliteratisurvivesin thiselegant Chinesesatinuchikake(outerrobe)decoratedwithink-paintedbambooanddelicate cloudsof goldleaf.Accordingto an accompanyingscrollof poetryby the statesmanand calligrapherRai Sanyo (1780-8z22),

it was

designedandpaintedby the Confucian scholar Gion Nankai (1676-1751) for the

mistressof his friendKarakaneKoryu,a wealthymerchant.Reflectingboththeinventivetransformation of Chineseartamong andthe seriousinterartists Japanesenanga of est in decorativeartscharacteristic this eighteenth-century Japan, gorgeous robeis one of the mostunusualvestigesof Tokugawaculture. In I697 Nankaisucceededhis fatheras headof the clanschoolin the provinceof Kii, himselfas a poetandteacher distinguishing Threeyearslaterhe was of Confucianism. andvillany"and exiledfor"debauchery spenttenyearsin disgrace.By I71I he was restoredto favorandservedas diplomatto a Koreandelegation,visitedEdo, wherehe studiedChinesepaintings,andresumedhis positionas clanscholar,pursuingpainting andcalligraphy. He hadas modelsthe few Chineseprintedpaintingmanualsthatcame throughtherestrictedtradeat Nagasaki. Bamboo,thesymbolof the scholarandan essentialthemein calligraphic paintingby Chineseliterati,wasa favoritesubjectin Nankai'spaintings,whichcloselyfollow Mingmodels.He laidthe foundationsforthe artof second-generation moreindividualistic who wouldreworkevenfurnangapainters, therthe importedmodelsin a Japanese idiom.

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valleysto a distantrivershoreis a prime exampleof the matureworkof IkenoTaiga

Taiga'swritingechoesthe idiosyncracies of thenaturalformsin his fluid,eccentric of a well-knownpoemby transcription

(1723-1776), who inventivelytransformed

Li Po (701-762):

59 Thisanimatedvistaacrossruggedpeaksand

Mingliteratipainting.Chinesepaintingmanualsservedas his teachers,andhis patterned brushworkexpressively exploitedthe flat formsof woodblock-printed images.Here of angularinterlockingplanes mountain peaksandunpaintedshapesof clouds,river, andcataractscreatea carefullyconstructed andkineticcomposition.Taigadelightsthe eyewithdrolltinyfiguresandplayfulgibbonsthat,likethe vinesentwiningthe trees, weredonewithhis fingernails,a Chineseinspiredeccentricity.

Earlymorning,we leavePai-ti,surrounded by tintedclouds. Thoughit is a thousandli to Chiang-ling, we arrivein a day. Gibbonscallingfromriversidecliffsfailto detainus. Oursmallboathas alreadypassed tenthousandpeaks. Thetranscription is signedSangaku (ThreePeaks),the sobriquetTaigatook in

ll" *".

1748aftera journeyto the threefamous mountainsof Japan.Thisscreen,recently wasoriginallya pairof sliding remounted, doorsdonein the I76os fora residencein Niwase,nearIzumoin westernJapan.

60 Thisimmediately expressiverenderingof a bean vine, inscribedby Tangai (I693-1763),

theeighthabbotof the ObakuZen sect, is oneof theearliestinkpaintingsby It6 Jakuchu(1716-I800),

a prolific and idio-

syncraticpainter.Oneof a set of six vegetable subjects,thispainting,now a hangingscroll, mayoriginallyhavebeenpastedon a folding screen.Tangai'spoemalludesto a poemby Ts'aoChih (A.D.

192-232),

brotherof the

firstemperorof theWeidynasty.Ts'ao's poeticprotestagainsthis mistreatment by his brotherwascouchedin an imageof a bean painfullyburnedby a firemadeof podsfrom

the samevine.Tangai'sphrase"Twoof the sameroot"alludesto thisstory,not onlygiving a literarydimensionto thepaintingbut alsoexpressingthe notionprevalentin Zenof the underlyingunityof all livingthings.Bean Vine was painted about 1763, while Jakuchu

a set of wascompletinghis masterwork, and animal of twenty-four paintings plant The in rich and detail. color subjects teeming latterformeda setwitha triptychdepicting theBuddhistdeitiesShaka,Monju,and

Fugen,which he donated to the Zen temple Shokoku-ji,and which is now in the imperial household. Here, in the more direct medium of ink, Jakuchuachieves a compelling vision of the naturalworld with the same sure grasp of descriptiveform evident in his colored paintings. It foreshadows his many works in the spontaneous ink mode done in his subsequent career.

A Chinese custom that took root in Edo Japanwas the wearing of inro, small tiered boxes originally used for medicine that were securedby a toggle and suspended from a waist sash. By the eighteenth century,these boxes, the focus of inventivedesign and elaborate technique, were the most carefully consideredaspect of a man's apparel.The fashion for things Chinese fostered by the presenceof Chinese monks at the Obaku Zen headquartersat Mampuku-ji is reflectedin inro by Ogawa Haritsu (1663-1741) and his followers such as Mochizuki Hanzan (fl. mid-i8th century),whose signature appearson this lacquer inro decorated with a humble bean pod and vine in rich inlay of ceramic,lead, mother-of-pearl,and wood. Jakuchurenderedthe same motif in the painting shown at the left.

62 Underlyingthe artistic attention given to the implementsfor writing with brush and ink is a sensitivityto fine calligraphythat has markedJapan'saestheticlife since the art was adopted from China during the eighth century.Carefullyfashioned boxes, usually of lacquer,stored the ink stone, on which a cake of carbonous ink was ground before water was added to createthe proper consistency. Other implements usually found in such boxes are animal-hairbrushes, a small paper knife, an awl used as a paper punch, and tongs or other holder for the ink stick. Larger boxes, often made to match the writing box, were used to store carefullyselected paper. This charmingbox, its natural wood grain chosen and finished to achieve an appearance of wear,is as meticulously craftedas examples gorgeously decorated in sprinkledgold lacquer.Its design reflectsthe reverencefor the processesof nature and time, decline and decay,that distinguishesJapaneseaesthetics

andis particularly importantin haikupoetry. Ina delightfulcodato the designon thelid, showingmicenibblinga faninscribedwitha haiku,thebox opensto revealthe rearview of themousewho hasapparentlygnawed throughthelid-a surpriseakinto the insightsprizedin haiku.Thisdeceptive shabbinessveilsthe sophisticated tasteof who honored literati, eighteenth-century OgawaHaritsu,alsoknownas Ritsuo,whose sealis inlaidon thelid, bothas a fellow poetandas an inventivelacquercraftsman. in coloredlacquersand His experiments the inlaysforged wayfortheingeniousartof laterlacquerartists,particularly Shibata Zeshin(seenumber63).

airandspringtimeindolenceper63 Fragrant vadethemomentcapturedin thedesignof thislacqueredbox forwritingimplements.A its gossamerwingsdelicatelyrenbutterfly, deredin coloredandsprinkledgoldlacquer, alightson theheavilybuilt-upsurfaceof a traveler's gourdset asidein a clumpof spring whilebarelydiscernibleseed wildflowers, tuftsarewaftedawaytowardtheupperleft corneron a sensuoussurfaceof brownish black,subtlymottledlacquer. ShibataZeshin (I807-I891)

was a painter

andlacquerartistwho inventively incorporatedvariousmaterialsintohislacquerwork

anddevelopedrichvariationsin colorand texture.He delightedin technicalvirtuosity, simulatingin lacquervariousmaterialssuch as the smoothskinof thegourdon this box. Becauseof hisprominenceat theinternationalexpositionsof thelatterpartof the nineteenthcentury,Zeshinwaswellknownin theWestduringhis lifetime. On theinsidescatteredgoldpetalsfloaton a blacklacquerstreamborderedby banks sprinkledwithgold.Abovetheinkstoneis a pewterwaterdropperin eggplantshape,and besidethe box area paperknifeandbrushes withlacqueredhandlesandcaps.

CREDITS All objectswith 1975.268as the firsttwo numbers of the accessionnumberareto be creditedas follows:The HarryG. C. PackardandPurchase, Fletcher,Rogers,HarrisBrisbaneDickandLouis V. BellFunds,JosephPulitzerBequestandThe AnnenbergFund,Inc.Gift, 1975

WhitneyPhoenix,RogersFund,andGiftsof HartwellJ. Staples,MajorGeneralR. B. Woodruff,andGermainLeaoVelloso,in memoryof her husband,AmbassadorPedroLeaoVelloso,by

i. StorageJar.MiddleJ6monperiod,3000-2500 B.C.EntoUpperB type,T6hokuregion.Unglazed

Handscroll:Iconographical scrollof deities. Heianperiod,dated o083. Originallyin T6-ji,

exchange, 1985 (1985.12)

31. Zao Gongen.Heianperiod,IIth century.

Bronze. H. I43/4in. (1975.268.155) 32.

earthenware.H. 27'/. in. (1975.268.182) 2. Spoutedvessel.LateJ6monperiod,c. 20001000 B.C.Tohoku region. Unglazed earthenware. H. 2'/4 in. (1975.268.185) 3, 4. Femalefigures.LatestJ6monperiod,c. 0ooo250 B.C. T6hoku region, possibly Aomori Prefecture. Unglazed earthenware.H. 9'/4, 6'/8 in. (1975.268.192,193) 5. Axe. LatestJ6mon period, c. 1000-250 B.C. SaitamaPrefecture. Basalt.H. 10 in. (I975.268.264)

34. Hangingscroll:Fujiwara-no-Kamatari. Nambokuch6period,after1350. Ink,gold,and mineralpigmentson silk. 34 x 15 in. Purchase, Bequestof EdwardC. MooreandBruceWebster, by exchange,andGiftsof Mrs.GeorgeA. CrockerandDavidMurray,by exchange,1985

B.C.

(1985.16) 35. Mirror,Haguro-ky6. Heian period, 12th cen-

6. Spearhead. LateJ6monperiod,c. 2000-1000 Naka Village,Hiraizumi-ch6, IwatePrefec-

ture. Stone. L. 3'/8 in. (1975.268.200) 7-II.

Needles,hooks,andharpoon.LatestJ6mon

period, c. 2500-1ooo

B.C. Obora Shell Mound,

OfunatoBay,IwatePrefecture. Bone.

(1975.268.327,345,341,343,337) 12. Storagejar.Yayoiperiod.Earthenware. H. 10 in. (1975.268.378) 13. Dotaku. Yayoiperiod, Ist-2nd century A.D. Bronze. H. 43'/ in. Rogers Fund, 1918 (i8.68) 14. Haniwaheadof malefigure.LateKofun period,5th-6th centuryA.D. IbaragiPrefecture. Earthenware.H. 127/s in. (1975.268.413)

Haniwabustof warrior.Kofunperiod,5th6th centuryA.D. Kant6region.Earthenware.

15.

H. I3'/8 in. (1975.268.414)

i6. Haniwaboar.Kofunperiod,5thcenturyA.D.

Earthenware.L. 47/8in. (1975.268.418)

17. Mirror,TLVtype.Kofunperiod,4th-5th cen-

tury A.D. Bronze. Diam. 73/4in. (1975.268.383)

I8. Mirrorwith jinglebells.Kofunperiod,early 6th centuryA.D. Aoyagi,Kamikawa Village, KodamaCounty,SaitamaPrefecture. Bronze.

Diam. 5 in. (1975.268.384) 19. Necklace. Kofun period, c. 7th century A.D.

Agateandchalcedony.L. iiI/ in. RogersFund, 1912 (12.37.84) 20. Bracelet. Kofun period, 4th century A.D.

Steatite.H. 8V/in. (1975.268.388) 21. DainichiNyorai.Heianperiod.Wood,covered with lacquerandgold leaf.H. 86 in. (withbase). Rogers Fund, 1926 (26.II8)

GuardianKings.Heianperiod,12th century.Wood,coveredwith lacquerandgold leaf. 22, 23.

H. 33, 337/8in. (1975.268.164,165) 24. Hangingscroll:Deathof Buddha.Kamakura

period,i4th century.Originallyin Daigo-ji,Kyoto Prefecture. Ink,gold, and mineralpigmentson silk. 79 x 74/4 in. Rogers Fund, 1912 (12.134.10) 25. Fudo My6-6. Heian period, 12th century.

PolyOriginallyin Kuhon-ji,KyotoPrefecture.

chromed wood. H. 633/4in. (1975.268.163)

26. Hangingscroll:AizenMy6-6.Nambokuch6 period,mid-14thcentury.Ink,gold,andmineral pigmentson silk. 88 x 393/sin. Purchase,Mary GriggsBurkeGift, 1966 (66.66.90) bell andtray.Kamakura 27. Ceremonial period, 13thcentury.Bronze.H. (bell)75/ in. (1975.268.170,171) 28. JizoBosatsu.Kamakura period,secondhalf

I3th century.Wood,coveredwith lacquerandcut gold foil. TotalH. 453/4in. (I975.268.i66a-d) 29. Hangingscroll:Kannonon Mt. Potalaka. Kamakura period,i3th century.Ink,gold,

and mineral pigments on silk. 423/4 x i6/4 in. (I975.z68.2o)

30. Kakebotoke. Heian period, i2th century.

Bronze.Diam.14 in. Purchase,Bequestof Stephen

Kyoto. Ink on paper. II4 x 2133/4in. (1975.268.3)

33. Zao Gongenplaque.Heianperiod,iith-Izth century.Excavatedat Mt. Kimpu,Yoshinoregion. Bronze. Diam. 8'/ in. (1975.268.156)

tury.Fromthe pondat HaguroShrine,Yamagata Prefecture.Bronze. Diam.

4I/

in. (I975.268.I6I)

Detailsinscribedby 36. Handscroll:Kannon-kyo. anddated1257.Inkand Sugawara-no-Mitsushige colorson paper.9'1/ x 384 in. Purchase,Louisa Eldridge McBurey Gift, 1953 (53.7.3)

37. Handscroll:KitanoTenjinEngi.Detail. Kamakura period,i3th century.Inkandcoloron paper.13/4x 3393/4in. FletcherFund,1925 (25.224b)

38. LotusSutra.Heianperiod,12thcentury.Gold on indigo-dyedpaper.I3/4 x 339/4 in. Seymour Fund, 1965 (65.216.1)

of illustratednar39. Hangingscroll:Fragment rativehandscroll.Kamakura period,earlyi4th

century.Ink and colors on paper. 23'/4 x 16/,6 in.

Purchase,Giftsof Mrs.RussellSage,Mrs.Peter Gerhard,Mr.andMrs.DonaldPercy,Charles StewartSmith,Mrs.V.EveritMacy,Mrs.Thomas VanBuren,Mrs.CharlesStewartSmith,Hartwell J. Staples,Mrs.GeorgeA. CrockerandMr.and Mrs.SamuelColman,by exchange;Bequestsof EdwardC. Moore,JamesAlexanderScrymserand StephenWhitneyPhoenixby exchange;Rogers Fundandfundsfromvariousdonors,

by exchange, 1985 (1985.7)

48. Pairof six-foldscreens:Landscapeof Four Seasons.KanoSchool.Muromachiperiod.

Ink, light color on paper. Each 59'/ x 140/8 in. (1975.268.42,43)

49. Slidingdoorpanels:AgedPlum.Attributed

to Kano Sansetsu (1599-1651). Edo period, mid-I7th century.Approx. W. all panels I9i/s in.

(1975.268.48A-D)

50. Wine container.Momoyama period, c. 1596-

decoration. 600o.Lacquerwith gold-sprinkled H. Io in. Purchase,Giftof Mrs.RussellSage,by exchange,1980 (1980.6) 51. Dish.Minoware,Shinotype.Momoyama

period, Keicho era (1596-I6I4). Possibly made at Ohira kiln. Stoneware.W. ioV/ in. (1975.268.436)

52. Poempagemountedas hangingscroll.PaintS6tatsu(activeearlyi7th cening by Tawaraya tury);calligraphy by Hon'AmiKoetsu(1558I637). Momoyamaperiod,datedi606. Inkon paperdecoratedwithgold andsilver.77/ x 7 in.

(1975.268.59)

53. Handscroll:TenOxherdingPictures.Detailby

KarasumaruMitsuhiro (1579-I638). Edo period, c. I634. Inkon dyedpaperdecoratedwith gold and silver designs. 13/4 x 107 in. Purchase,Friends of Asian Art Gifts, 1986 (1986.142) 54. Portableshrine.Edoperiod,c. 1620. Fruit-

woodimagein lacqueredcasewith gold-sprinkled designs.H. 73/4in. PurchaseFriendsof FarEastern Art Gifts, 1985 (1985.96)

55. Freshwaterjar.Imariware.Edoperiod,

c. I640. Porcelain.H. 9/8 in. (1975.268.465)

56. Hangingflowervase.Imariware,possibly Hyakkenkiln.Edoperiod,mid-I7thcentury.

Porcelain.H. 8'/4 in. (1975.268.473)

57. Hangingscroll:Yukihiraandthe SaltMaidens.By OkumuraMasanobu(I686-1764). Edoperiod,c. 1716-35. Inkandcoloron silk. in. (1975.268.126) 33'/8x 27/%

58. Outerrobe.Paintedby GionNankai(I676-

I75I). Edo period, i8th century.Ink and gold leaf on silk. L. 643/4in. (I975.268.88)

40. Screens:Battlesof H6genandHeiji.Detail. Momoyamaperiod.Mineralpigmentson gold

59. Two-panelscreen:LandscapeafterLi Po's pom. By Ike-no-Taiga (1723-1776).Inscribed y e artistandsigned"Sangaku." Originally two slidingdoorpanels.Inkon paper.Each 65V/ x 35'/4in. Purchase,The CharlesEngelhard Foundation Gift,1987 (I987.8ia,b) 60. Hangingscroll:BeanVine.By It6Jakuchu

4I. Handscroll:Taleof a StrangeMarriage.Detail.

Edoperiod.Inkon paper.483/4x 19 in. Purchase, TrustGift,1985 LitaAnnenberg HazenCharitable

1980 (1980.221)

leaf. Each 67'/2 x 147 in. Rogers Fund, 1957 (57.156.4,5)

By Ukita Ikkei (1795-I859). Edo period, c. 1858. Ink, mineral pigments on paper. ii'3 x 306 in. Rogers Fund, 1957 (57.I56.7) 42, 44. Hanging scrolls: Reeds and Geese.

ByTesshiTokusai(d. 1366).Nambokucho period.Inkon silk.Each43I/4x I73/ in. Left: (1975.268.37). Right: Purchase,Mrs. Jackson Burke Gift, 1977 (I977.172)

Kannon. 43. Hangingscroll:White-robed Nambokuchoperiod,firsthalfof i4th century. Ink on silk. 445/s x z0/

in. Purchase,Bequest of

(1716-1800).

Inscribedby Tangai (1693-1763).

(1985.97) 6i. Inr6withBeans.By MochizukiHanzan.Edo

period,i8th century.Goldlacquerinlaidwith andwood. H. greenfaience,lead,mother-of-pearl, 3 in. Rogers Fund, 1936 (36.100.188)

62. Writingbox with miceeatingfan.By Ogawa Haritsu (1663-1747). Tokugawaperiod, i7th-

wood with inlaid i8th century.Lacquered

ceramic. o10/ x /8 in. Bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer, 1929

(29.100.703)

63. Writingbox with gourdandspringflowers.By

DorothyGrahamBennett,HerbertJ. CoyneGift, SeymourFundandFletcherFund,by exchange,

withgold-sprinkled designs.8%x 75/sin. Rogers

1985

Fund, 1936 (36.o00o.42a-j)

(1985.120.2)

45. Hangingscroll:OrchidsandRock.By Gyokuen Bompo(1348-after1420). Muromachiperiod.

ShibataZeshin (1807- 1891). Lacqueredwood

Ink on paper. 39'/ x 13'/8 in. (I975.268.38)

46. Hangingscroll:Su Tung-p'oin StrawHat and WoodenShoes.Muromachiperiod,secondhalf of 15th century.Ink on paper. 423/4 x I3'/ in. (1975.268.39)

47. Hangingscroll:Landscape.Attributedto KenkoShokei(activeby I478-d. 1506).Inscribed by Togen Zuisen (1430-1489). Muromachi

period,15th century.Inkon paper.19 3/i6 x I3'36 in. Purchase, Bequestof StephenWhitneyPhoenix,

PHOTOGRAPHCREDITS SheldanCollins:covers,pp. 6 (bottom),7-11,12 (bottom), 14-15, i8, 20, 21, 6-32, 34-35, 42-43,

44, 46-49, 5I, 53 (bottom),54, 55 Lynton

Lee:p.19.Metropolitan Gardiner: p. 6. Schechter MuseumPhotograph Studio:titlepage,pp. 5, 6 (top), 12 (top), 17, 22-4,

36-38,40-41,

50, 52, 53 (top).

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