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THE EIGHTEENTH of this month The Metropolitan Museum of Art will open an exhibition that has nothing to do with art in the narrow sense- but everything to do with this Museum, its evolving role and purpose, what we hope is its emerging position as a positive, relevant, and regenerative force in modern society. The title of the exhibition is "Harlemon My Mind": The CulturalCapitalof Black America, I9oo-I968.

It is an exhibition that attempts, through photographs, films, television, documentary recordings of sounds and voices, music, and memorabilia, to convey that most difficult of things, a cultural and historical experience, a total environment - one particular world, in fact, which has been known intimately only to the Black people of New York City - Harlem. It doesn't interpret or explain. It sticks to the facts, Harlem's historical events over the past sixty-eight years, its literature, theater, politics, music, art, and business.Three Blacks and three whites conceived the show and put it on, in thirteen of the Metropolitan's Special Exhibition Galleries.The Henry Luce Foundation, Inc., acting with imagination and concern, generously underwrote the cost of the exhibition.

Why The Metropolitan Museum of Art? The question was asked of us right from the beginning, posed almost as a challenge, and it will, I am sure, continue to be asked.

Let me say first that our Charter, which is almost a hundred years old, enjoined the Museum to apply itself vigorously not only to the study of the fine arts but to relate them to "practicallife" as well. "Practical life" in this day can mean nothing less than involvement, an active and thoughtful participationin the events of our time. For too long museums have drifted passively away from the center of things, out to the periphery where they play an often brilliant but usually tangential role in the multiple lives of the nation.

ON

Contents The Black Artist in America: A Symposium ROMARE SAM

BEARDEN

GILLIAM,

RICHARD

JR.

HUNT

LAWRENCE JACOB TOM LLOYD WILLIAMS

WILLIAM HALE

WOODRUFF

245

The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Cultural Power in a Time of Crisis BARRY

N.

SCHWARTZ

262

Poor People's Plan TUCKER

PRISCILLA

265

Salvation Art FRANK

CONROY

270

An Interview WITH SCHWARZ, JANE WILSON BURCH

273

Harlem, A Cultural History: Selected Bibliography JEAN

BLACKWELL

HUTSON

280

The MetropolitanMuseumof Art Bulletin VOLUME

XXVII,

NUMBER

5

JANUARY

I969

Publishedmonthly from October to June and quarterlyfrom July to September.Copyright?i969

by The MetropolitanMuseumof Art, Fifth Avenueand 82nd Street, New York, N. Y. I0028. Second classpostagepaidat New York, N. Y. Subscriptions$5.00 a year. Singlecopiesfifty cents. Sent free to Museummembers.Four weeks'notice requiredfor changeof address.Back issuesavailableon microfilm fromUniversityMicrofilms,313 N. First Street, Ann Arbor,Michigan.VolumesI-xxxvII (19051942) availableas a clothbound reprint set or as individual yearly volumes from Arno Press, 330 MadisonAvenue,New York, N. Y. 10oI7, or from the Museum,Box 255, GracieStation,New York, N. Y. I0028. Editor of Publications:Leon Wilson.Editor-in-chiefof the Bulletin:KatharineH. B. Stoddert;Editors of the Bulletin:JoanK. Foley and Anne Preuss;Designer:Peter Oldenburg.Assistants on this issue:SusanCopelloand Ashton Hawkins.

243

Photographs: cover, frontispiece, p. 242, by George Frye; p. 24r, by Reginald McGhee

Speakingfor this Museum,we have by and large been unresponsiveto socialand politicalevents.Perhaps,given our own struggleto grow,it couldn'thave beenotherwise. But to continueto do so would be irresponsible."Harlemon My Mind"signals the turningpoint.

The exhibition,frankly,is an experimentalone, the firstmajorstep towardrethinking and expandingour conceptsof whatexhibitionsshoulddo. We want to explorethe essentialnatureof the Museum,of worksof art, and of our changingrelationshipto the visitingpublic, to scholars,to the educationalprocess,and to the urbanenvironment in whichwe find ourselves.

The MetropolitanMuseum'srole has alwaysbeen to make people see. Today we must ask them, and ourselves,to look as well: to look searchinglyat thingsthat have to be faced,suchasour communitiesandour environment.If we pretendto any maturity as an institutionwe have to begindirectingour resourcestowardlargerhumanist ends.

At one level the Museum'scollectionsareindividual,fragmentedstatements- great worksof art isolatedfrom their time and place.At a much more difficultlevel they interrelate;it would not be far-fetchedto suggestthat what the complexDNAstructure is to the mysteryand secretof life, worksof art are to the secretof the human condition,humanrelations,and what we reallymean by man'sculturalheritageand history.

"Harlemon My Mind"is this Museum'sattempt to plumb the secretof Harlem, of its uniqueachievementsand contributionsto Americanlife, its energy,genius,and spirit.I don't know of any institutionbetterqualified,by reasonof its basichumanist orientation,its acuteandintelligentsensitivityfor a disparaterangeof culturalexpressions,betterqualifiedthan this one to attemptsuchan exhibition.

Our hope for the exhibitionis that it communicatea senseof place and a way of of the tragediesandtriumphsof BlackHarlem. living.That it engenderan appreciation That it make us realizethat we must begin to look to the great Negro past for our of the Americanexperience,andlook to it as well forwhatevercommon understanding hope we have for the future.

THOMAS

244

P. F.

HOVING,

Director

The A

Black

Artist

Symposium

in

America: ROMARE SAM

BEARDEN,

HUNT

RICHARD

TOM

LAWRENCE LLOYD

WILLIAM HALE

WILLIAMS

WOODRUFF

We arehereto discusssomeof the problems of the Black artist in America.I think one of the most perplexingis the problemof makinga living. During the last two or threeyearsthisproblemhasbeenmet to somedegreeby moreteachingjobs beingmadeavailableto us, but it's stillhardfor the Blackartistto support himself. I'd like to hear some of the membersof the panelrespondto this question.

MR. LLOYD: Many Black artists can't support themselves throughtheir art- there may be one or two, but it's most difficult.First of all becausethe Black artist's very existencehas beendeniedso long that peopledon't know of him- even in the Blackcommunity.Therefore his struggleto reachthe top has been a greatone, and I envy three gentlemenwho are sitting here-Mr. Bearden, Mr. Lawrence,Mr. Woodruff-who have made it.

I know what kind of struggleany Black artist who's made it has gone through,and thereforeI beara great deal of respectfor you gentlemen.

MR. BEARDEN: Well, Tom, would you like to explore that a little further?You said that the Black artist is unknownin the Blackcommunity.What could be done to have him better known?Within his own community and within the mainstreamof Americanart?

MR. LLOYD: First, I think he has to be acceptedin the galleries;the museumshave to recognizethat he has somethingto contributeto his own culture,to the Black communities,and I think they have failedmiserablyto do this. Sure,within the last couple of yearsI've heard aboutexhibitionsdedicatedto showthe accomplishment

MR. BEARDEN:

JR.

GILLIAM,

JACOB

Moderator

of the Black artistand I've been in some,but what has happenedfor the two hundredyearsbeforethat?What has happenedwith some three hundred,four hundred art galleriesin greaterNew York?What has happened with the museums?

MR. BEARDEN: Maybe Hale Woodruffcan reply to thesequestions,becausehe has a greatknowledgeof art history and has lived throughsome of these problems.

MR.

WOODRUFF:

Well, I agree that it's very tough for

the Blackartistnot only to makea living but even, first, to makeanythingout of his art. I think this is also true of the whiteartist.I suspectthe economicproblemvaries for all artists,andeach mustcome to gripswith it, somehow, in his own way. Of coursethe idealsolutionwould be the ongoingsaleof his art product.This opportunity has come to a few artists and will doubtlesscome to and others,althoughslowly,in the future. Scholarships to a few Black been have awarded artists, but grants such grantsare usuallyof short durationand therefore do not meet the long-termneeds of artistsin general.

The majorityof artists,Blackandwhite, resortto teaching as a meansof meeting economicneeds,while some artistsengagein other types of employment.

Generallyspeaking,the Black artist has not had the sameopportunitiesto exhibit in the big nationalannuals and biennialsas otherartistshave. A numberof galleries exhibit the worksof a few leadingBlack artists,but by and large the Black artist has not come beforea very large public throughgallery shows, which could open up to him channelsof purchaseand public recognition.

245

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 速 www.jstor.org

Supportfrom the Blackcommunityfor the Blackartist is graduallydeveloping,but it seems that the real job still remainsin the handsof the art institutions- galleries and museums-to providethe Black artistwith that kind of professionaland prestigioussupporthe needsfor his continueddevelopmenton both the economicand aestheticlevels.

In writing about this once I said that MR. BEARDEN: the best-knownBlack artistsinceHenry O. Tannerwas certainlyJacobLawrence.Jacobhas been one of the artists who has been in showsand representedus through the years, and I'd like Jake to give us his thoughtson the economicproblemsof the Black artist.

I surely agree with Mr. Lloyd and MR. LAWRENCE: Mr. Woodruff,but I thinkit takeson anotherdimension than just the economic.I think it's a psychologicalone.

Mr. Lloyd asked what can be done, what can help. I think one thing we can do is just what we'redoingnow, and more of it. It's going to take education- educating the white communityto respectand to recognizethe intellectualcapacityof Blackartists.We've beenaccepted in the theater to a greaterdegree than we have in the fine arts.Why is this so? I think it's becausein this area we are recognizedto have a naturalability. But still, there's a psychologicalproblem.You take a man like Bill Robinson,who neverattainsthe samekind of recognition as a Gene Kelly. They say we're supposedto be good cooks, but we've never been made chefs in the we've neverbeenaskedto give cooking Waldorf-Astoria, lessonson television.Why?Becausethiscallsfor a certain recognitionon the partof the white communitythat you have an intellectualcapacitythat either they don't want to recognizeor areso brainwashed that they can'taccept.

On the other hand,none of us wants to be selectedas "the one and only" or "one of the few." Mr. Bearden andMr. WoodruffandI havebeenparticipatingin shows for a numberof years, and the rest of you have come along- I've seenyour names.But none of us appreciates the idea of "We'llacceptyou and this is it." It's going to take just what we'redoing now to educatethe white community.I thinktheymusthavea psychologicalblock becausethey refuseto see and refuseto recognizewhat we can do. The mere fact that we're here, having this discussion,indicatesthis. We're alwaysin Negroshows, not just shows.I don't know of any other ethnic group that has been given so much attention but ultimately forgotten.You take a man like HoracePippin,who I'm surewasa greater"primitive"thanGrandmaMoses.But comparetheamountof recognitionthe twohavereceived.

MR. WILLIAMS: It seems that one of the underlying 246

thingswe'retalkingaboutis that basicallywe comefrom a nonvisualcultureor people. There haven't been that many visual arts-paintings, sculpture-exposed to the Blackcommunityitself.I think that one of the mechanisms that helps a young persondecide to be an artist is what resourcesthere are for him to go to. One of the thingsI'm interestedin, one of the necessities,is to provide facilities. Provide a situation where these young peoplecancomeand be helpedin a constructivemanner, not just in the usualsuperficialart-schoolmethods.

Getting backto shows,oneof the thingsthat'shappening is that every showthat concernsBlackartistsis really a sociologicalshow.The "Harlemon My Mind"show is a pointingexampleof total rejectionon the part of the establishment,of saying"Well, you're really not doing art," or of not dealingwith the artiststhat may exist or do exist in Harlem.These showsdeal with the sociological aspectsof a community,a historicalthing. I think the natureof thispanelis just that again- anothersociologicalthing, insteadof dealingwith pressingissues.The questionis "You'rea Black artist;what are you doing, what do you want to do, where do you want to go?" insteadof saying"Youarein it, you'rean artistwho has been suppressed,how can we help you?" I'm somewhat irritatedby and somewhatopposedto the natureof this panel, especiallywhen you attach the "Black artist" thing to it, becauseI think we'reperpetuatingthe ideas that we'retryingto get awayfrom.Therearetwo different questionsaboutBlackidentity.BlackmenandBlack artists-they're different questions and somehow they seem to be throwntogetheras one that can be answered with somesimplestatement.There are as many answers to that questionas thereare peoplesitting here.

MR. BEARDEN: Bill, we'regoingto discusssomeof these questionsof identity later, so at this point I'd like you to develop some of the programsyou have in mind for the communityand, to use an old cliche, for the economic bettermentof the artist.

MR. WILLIAMS: One of the thingsthat we've thought and talkedaboutwasan artist-in-residence program.The natureof this programwould be that we askan artistor groupof artists,as professionalpeople, to serveas artists in residencein a particularcommunity.They would be totally supported;that is, their studio bills and living expenseswould be paid. We're not talking about the usualgrantlevel of two or three thousanddollars;we're talkingabout ten or fifteen thousanddollars.What they wouldbe askedto do in returnwouldbe to producetheir own work,produceit on a serious,aggressivelevel, and also to act as maleimages,symbolsof attainmentfor the

community.An aspiringartistcouldcometo them- they could be almost apprentices-and could be supported, that is, providedwith a studio and materialsor with minimumliving expenses.This is kind of an idealistic proposal,but I'm sure if we can have this panel, if we can have fifty Black shows,we can have this idealistic proposal.

MR. HUNT: There are things like that in operationin othercities,in St. Louis,for example.They havea grant fromthe RockefellerFoundationandfromthe Danforth Foundationto set up this kind of artist-in-residence program,with apprenticesand studiospace,and something like a ten-thousand-dollar-a-year stipend.I don't seewhy it couldn't be done in New York, becausethere are even more resourceshere, certainlyin terms of artists available.That sort of thing has been developedin Illinois, too; I've beeninvolvedwith the IllinoisArtsCouncil. They've startedan artist-in-residence programthat doesn't deal specificallywith Negro communities,but with a number of outlying communitiesthat for one reason or another don't have access to this culturalenrichmenttype of program.

MR. GILLIAM: A similarkind of artist-in-residence prois on gram going in Washington,in whichI'm a participant. The stipendis five thousanddollarsand studiofacilitiesareprovided.It's not specificallydirectedtoward the Blackcommunity,but the majorityof Washington's populationis Black.

SinceI'm fromWashingtonmy experienceshave been totallydifferent,and that leadsme to raiseanotherquestion in relationto the problemof economics,and this is aboutthe extent that the Blackartisthasbeenrecognized by the Black community.The answermight be what Mr. Williamshas suggested,a matter of sociologyor a matterof economicson a greaterscale.We've beenprevented from being visuallyminded becausewe've had to be so industriallyminded.This economicfactorwould probablyprevent someonelike myself from a southern communityfrom comingto schoolin New York, as opposed to staying in my own communityand going to school.How areyou going to thinkaboutthingslike art when it's all you can do to get any kind of job? These kindsof thingshave been prevalentissues.

MR. BEARDEN: Hale, perhapsyou could sum up some of theseeconomicproblemsin relationto the future.Do you think a young man like Williamswill have a better prospectof makinga living as an artistthan you had?

MR. WOODRUFF: First, I'd like to say thatI don'tagree entirelywith WilliamsandGilliamon the notionthatwe are not visuallyminded. I'm older than anybody here

and I've lived long enoughto see scoresof Blackartists, whoneverreallymadeit, comeandgo. They didn'tmake it for many of these economicreasons,but basicallyI think they didn't make it becausetherewas no kind of world for them, either in the Black communityor the white community.I don't want to sound chauvinistic, but I thinkevery Blackmanhascertainsensitivitiesand sensibilitiesthat come out in variousart forms.The fact thatmusicis one of ourstrengthsprobablyis no accident.

The fact that we don't have a visualhistoryor a history of creatingvisualworksin this country is a fact of circumstance,and doesn'tmean that the visualworldwas neveropen to us or that we neveropenedour eyes to it.

I thinkit's chieflyeconomic.In the twentiesand thirties there were many Black artists.Read some booksabout it: you'll see name after nameof artistswho have since fromthe scene.They simplycouldnot make disappeared it in the so-calledfine arts, but many of these fellows got into the non-fine-artsareas,like illustration,design, teaching.You rarely,if ever, hearabout them, but they are there.Whatwe'rediscussingnow is the so-calledfine arts area.When you ask me what'sgoing to come-we don't know. But here is a practicalpoint: I believe that in the visualartsthere'ssomethingmorethanjust painting for MadisonAvenueor a galleryshowor a museum show.I know of many young Blackartistswho are successfuldesigners- TV designers,industrialdesigners,and so on. This is a very realand practicalworld.

The Americanhasa notionthat fine artsarethe greatest thing that ever existed, and he may very well be right. I don't know that you've got to worry too much aboutthatyoungsterwho'sgoingto be an artist,whether he's in the ghetto or in Nob Hill or wherever.Circumstancesaregoingto leadhiminto it, andI thinkjustabout every man at this table has come into art in that way.

The establishmentof centersin the ghetto andelsewhere, availableto allpeopleaswellas the peoplewholive there, will be a way of not only discoveringtalent but also of encouragingit and helpingit to develop. But I'm very wary of urging these fourteen-and fifteen-year-oldsto go into art as a profession.Let them makeup their own minds. I think the whole world of art should be open to them and made availablefor them to become involved, either as active participantsor appreciator-consumersof art.

But is that worldopen to them?

MR. LLOYD: In termsof what it has been and is MR. WOODRUFF: now for a lot of people,I don't know. It's hardenough for the best to make it in the fine arts area.I see the future as being one where there are conduciveatmos247

pheres,facilities,and people to work with these youngsters.There might be no teachingin the senseof having classes,but simplyevery facility imaginable,and guides and teachersto workwith them. If a youngsterwantsto throwsome clay around,let him do it: if he gets sick of that and wants to carve some wood, that's fine. This is the kind of orientationI think would be helpful in developinginterest,activity, and participation.

I think there needs to be a giganticeffort MR. LLOYD: to bringart to young Blackkidsin an enormousproject.

I don't think they have anywherenearthe sameopportunity as anyoneelse. I think young white kids are exposed to art at a very early age; their mothersgo to museumsand dragthe kids alongand they get a look at art when they'rethreeor four.This doesn'thappenwith Blackkids.

When I said the visual world was MR. WOODRUFF: open to Blackkids, I meant thingsthat every man sees, even if it's an old backfence. I certainlyagreethat they need art broughtto them.

This is one of my pet things:it's very imMR. LLOYD: portant to bringart to Black people. Right now, we're not goingto museumsandto artgalleries.I've beengoing to them for somethinglike twenty-fiveyearsandI could count the Black peopleI've seen. We have to bring art to the Black communities.We should have things like the "wallof pride."We have to beautifythe Blackcommunities,with treesor whatever;we have to havemonuments to Black heroes, right on Seventh Avenue. It's importantfor Black people to have this identity. They have to feel this pride.It's our responsibilityto bringit to them.We canbeginby usingposters,by usingexisting billboards,and we have to get the money to do this. A group of Black artistsshouldget togetherand do these postersandput themup andlet peoplesee them.Perhaps a place like the Metropolitanshouldfinancesomething like that.

MR.

GILLIAM:

Up to now our major interest hasn't been

in promotingculture, in promotingawarenessof Black art and artists.We do have to begin to make the Black communitymore aware,more visuallyoriented.

MR.

BEARDEN:

It seems to me that a big problem con-

frontsthe Blackartistafterhe decidesto becomea professionalartist.He's twenty-five,or twenty-six,or twentyseven. He's married.He has one or two children.It's difficultgetting a foothold into the art world;trying to havehis workexposed;tryingto makea living,probably by having anotherjob - teachingor something.I'd like Mr. Hunt, Mr. Gilliam,Mr. Lloyd, and Mr. Williams to begin this discussionon professionalproblemsthey 248

themselvesare probably dealing with. How does the young Blackartistmakea living?What are someof the thingsthat arewrong?Whatwouldyou like to see done?

MR. LLOYD: There shouldbe manymoreopportunities open to the young Black artist. It's a peculiarthing: I teach painting and sculpturein a programcalled the Adult Creative Arts Workshop,sponsoredby the Departmentof Parks:a ceramicsclasswas introducedand I went aroundlooking for a potter, a Black potter. I searchedthe whole of New York and I found three.

There might be more, but I only found three and they were already employed. I really thought about that.

Here in New York, with millionsof people, how is it that there are only two or three Black potters?There's somethingwrong here; someonehas perpetratedsome kind of evil on the Black racethat'sunbelievable.

MR. GILLIAM: Why is the issuefindinga Black potter to teach a Black child as opposedto finding a potter?

MR. LLOYD: Oh, I think that's very important.We were talking about Black art: I think there'sgoing to be Blackart, I think there'sgoing to be a separateBlack community.If there is separateBlack art it might be a good thing, becausewhat's gone before hasn't been a good thing.

MR. WILLIAMS: How would this Blackart be different fromwhite art?

MR. LLOYD: Well, it would be differentinasmuchas one of our mainaimsshouldbe relatingto Blackpeople.

Black artistsshould be workingin Black communities.

MR. WILLIAMS: The questionI'm reallyposingis how does one make art relevantto its community?

MR. LLOYD: I think the artist is more than just someone who paintsor someonewho makessculpture.I think he hasa compact,a relationshipwith the peoplethat the ordinarypersondoesn'thave. I thinkhe can bringabout changes.

MR. BEARDEN: Well, let me ask you a question,Tom. You'regoing to have a show shortlyat the Studio Museum in Harlem.Tell us how you feel what you have done relatesto the Harlemcommunity.Do you wish to direct your art to the community?

MR. LLOYD: Yes. I hope my showwill makeBlackpeople awareof what's happeningin art today. A lot of Blackpeopleareinvolvedin helpingme formthat show, in helping me make my sculptures;that's part of the museumidea, and I don't think this has happenedbefore. But mainlyI think Black people can relateto my work-it's a visual thing. When I was working in my studio little Black kids would come up to my door and just look at my light sculptureand they'd like it and

somehowrelateto it.

MR.

WILLIAMS:

Yes, but would a white kid do the

samething, though?

MR.

LAWRENCE:

Yes.

But I'm interestedin a Blackkid.

MR. WILLIAMS: And if so, if a white kid woulddo the samething, what makesit Blackart then?Beyond that you did it?

MR. LLOYD: I don't know what makes it Black art except that it existsin the Blackcommunity.

MR.

LLOYD:

MR.

WILLIAMS:

Yes, but you could have made the

same formson Ioth Street as well, so it's not uniquely relatedto that particularcommunity.

MR. LLOYD: It's relatedbecauseI'm Black,andI know wheremy feelingslie.

MR.

WILLIAMS:

Yes, but see, what I'm trying to get

at is that we talk aboutmakingBlackart. And if we're reallytalkingaboutBlackart, we'retalkingaboutsomething in which the formsareuniquelyBlack.

MR. LLOYD: We're talking about communication.I don't even know that we're talkingaboutforms necessarily.It's like how you feel and what you're doing. I mean, with the kind of thing I do, most people don't even associateme with being Black, and when they see me they'rerathershockedand in somecasesratherhurt and I don't knowwhy.

MR. GILLIAM: IStherea specificformof art thata Black artistdoes that shouldbe immediatelyidentifiable?

MR. LLOYD: There has been in the past-Black artists were primarilyknownas socialpainters.But that's not what I mean:I know that it's very importantfor me to relateto Blackpeoplewith my work,and I have to tag myselfas beingBlackand beinginterestedin the Black man.This is partof my very existence.It's importantto somehowrelateto our own people.

MR. WOODRUFF: What you're supporting and asserting

then is the Black artist, not Black art.

Yeah,I'm supportingthe Blackartist,but by supportingthe Black artist, naturallyI'm also supporting the Black community.I think that this is so MR.

LLOYD:

important.

MR. WOODRUFF: MR.

WILLIAMS:

It is.

Maybe I'm dwelling on a point, but

"Blackart's"kind of a touchy thing with me ...

MR. LLOYD: No, don't you see? Black art can be any kind of art, it can be anything.It can be a paintingof a little Black child or a laserbeam runningaroundthe room.We have to projectthat the artistis Black.

MR. WILLIAMS: My point is that it canbe a laserbeam or a de Kooningdrawingor a numberof other things.

Photograph: George Frye

It seems to me that we're belaboring the label of Black art for nothing. What you're saying is that you should have a commitment to the Black community, to educate them to the visual world. We're not talking about Black art per se.

MR. LLOYD: Not in that sense, no. But only in the sense that the Black artist hasn't ever been publicized.

He doesn't exist. I'm with a group called Black Visual Environments, and we're a group of professional artists who hope to bring a big, big change about in New York through various means - putting pressureon people if we have to, but mainly by working in the Black communities. We're not going to teach art, we're going to get involved in the whole political structure.

MR. WILLIAMS: It seems to me that you couldn't really make art as we know it now welcome or relevant to the Black community.

MR. LLOYD: Why not? You mean to say if there was a statue of Martin Luther King on Seventh Avenue ...

MR. WILLIAMS: We're not talking about statues.

There's a difference.

MR. LLOYD: But we're talking about art.

MR. WILLIAMS: Yeah, but statues aren't necessarily art. What I'm trying to say is that if you took your light pieces and put them on I25th Street there would be a certain amount of exposure to your community, but would that exposure make the pieces relevantto the community-the total Black community and not just the kids you're working with?

MR. LLOYD: It's relevant to the Black community if they can identify with it. If I put up a statue of Stokely Carmichael, like, people are going to identify with that.

MR. WILLIAMS: But then by the same token I can take a newspaper clipping of Martin Luther King and blow it up and everyone will identify, but I can't necessarily call that art.

MR.

LLOYD:

MR.

WILLIAMS:

No, I wouldn'tcall that art either.

It's a higheraestheticthat we're talk-

ing about.

LLOYD: Of courseit is-I'm a professionalartist, you know.I'm talkingabouta certainformof art that's meaningful.

MR. BEARDEN: Tom, in otherwords,you'resayingthat you want to direct your effortstowardthe Black community,and the merefact thatyou arethereandmaking your work accessibleand in a certainsensedirectingit to them wouldclassifythe workas Blackart. This work could take any form?

MR. LLOYD: Yes. It could be kineticor light sculpture, it could be painting,it could be anything,if the person who does it has these thingsin mind.

MR. LAWRENCE: We're involved in many problems here. I agreewith Mr. Beardenthat economicproblems lead into the professionalones. Somehowwe've missed one very importantthing- governmentinvolvementin art. If we go backabout thirty yearswe'llfind that some of the greatestprogress,economic,professional,and so on, was made then, by the greatestnumberof artistsnot only Negro artistsbut white onesas well. The greatest exposurefor the greatestnumberof peoplecameduring this periodof governmentinvolvementin the arts.

That is what manyprofessionalorganizations like Artists the theater and so have been on, groups, Equity, trying to do. The governmenthasmadestabsat it - you've got variouscommitteesandthey'vegivenstipends,but nothing massivelike the thing thirty yearsago. I thinkwhat we need is a massivegovernmentinvolvementin the arts - by municipalgroupsor by the state or by privateorganizationsor by museumslike the Metropolitan.What we need is moreconcernwith the philosophyof socialism - that's the only way we'regoing to achievethis sort of progress,and we, the Negro artists,are going to benefit by this.

That leadsme into anotherthing. I think we must be very carefulnot to isolateourselves,becausemanyof the thingswe'retalkingaboutnot only pertainto the Negro artist but pertainto the artist generally.If they're accomplishedwe will all benefitby them.

I also think that many of these problemswe're mentioning have to be solved individually.You may feel, Mr. Lloyd, and I may feel that we have to work in a community that's predominatelyNegro, like Harlem.

Othersmay feel that we will benefitto a greaterdegree by workingoutsideof the communityand being (this is an unfortunateterm) "integratedinto the mainstream" of the overallnationalcommunity.

MR.

250

LLOYD: Yeah, but haven'twe been integratedfor so long? I mean, where are we now? We're here, you know, talkingabout the bad situationwe're in because we've been integrated.

MR. LAWRENCE: Who's been integrated?We've never been integrated.

MR. LLOYD: There's never beenany realunity amongst the Black artists.

MR.

MR. LAWRENCE:

Oh sure there's been, man, you don't

know your history. I think Black artistshad a greater degreeof unity when I was a youngsterthan they have now. ProbablyMr. Woodruffcan give you a better account of this sincehe's olderthanI am, but at any rate, right after the Reconstructionand maybe before,you had variousart communitiesamongyour Negro artists.

You had your Walkergroup, your Darktowersgroup, whichwasa very tight you hadyourNegro Renaissance, There were cultural organization. groups- maybetoo isobut did have them, even more than you do lated, you now. I'm not saying this was a totally good thing, but it had its good aspects.

What were some of the good aspects and MR. LLOYD: what were some of the bad?

One of the good things was that there MR. LAWR ENCE: was a community of artists who had a spiritual relationship, I guess you'd call it. And there were a few paternal organizations like the Harmon Foundation that would help the Negro artist. One of the bad aspects was that maybe we never attained the top degree of professional status because of the economic aspects of the situation.

There was no way for artists to make a living except for a few people who were teaching in Negro colleges, and artists could never get into the economic mainstream.

But aside from that, this community relationship was very good, and it existed then more than it does now.

MR. LLOYD: Well, I haven't heard about it. I never read about it in school or anywhere. think the young people today don't MR. LAWRENCE:I know these things because there isn't that kind of interest.

MR. LLOYD: It's not there isn't an interest - the material's not available to them. How could one hear about this group you're talking about? How could one learn about it? Certainly not by coming in this museum and buying a book.

MR. HUNT: I've seen this material in the Schomburg Collection [the branch of the New York Public Library on I35th Street].

Even that collection is not that publicized.

MR. LLOYD: MR. HUNT: Well, I must say you sort of want everybody to bring it and put it in your lap.

I want it to be whereI'm at.

The kind of thing JakeLawrenceis talking about was going on in Chicagoduring the WPA days.

There was the South Side CommunityArt Center, for instance.

It's interestingto seehow thingshavegoneoneway at one point and anotherway at anotherpoint. After the wara fewNegroartistsweremoreintegratedin the larger scene,and now thingsare sort of going backward- Tom Lloydisgettingmoreandmoreidentifiedwith theNegro community,he's sort of going backinto it. The kind of historythat JakeLawrenceis outlininggives you a kind of perspective,somethingthat you can startfrom- like maybenot makingthe mistakesof the past and helping you developthis ideaof makingyour art relevantto the Negro community.

I must say I think you're talkingabout two different things.Okay, you'rea Blackartistand living in a Black community.That's fine. Whetheryour art is Black or not doesn'tmakeany difference.I think you needlessly confuse the issues by insisting that there's something aboutliving in a Blackcommunitythat makesyour art Black.That'sjust not true.

I'm not just talkingabout me. The white MR. LLOYD: hasn't acceptedBlack artistsfor years and community not even readyto now, really.And so years,and they're I'm not just an artist. ThereforeI'm a Black artist. If whitesocietyis not going to acceptmy work,I'm a Black artist.I'm not a white artist.

MR.

LLOYD:

MR.

HUNT:

MR.

LAWRENCE:

I've seen a couple of your pieces and

I would put it this way: I think you are an artistwho happensto be Black, but you'renot a Blackartist.See, that'sthe difference.

MR. LLOYD: No, I'm a Blackartistwho has refusedto be conditioned...

Wait a minute.From what I've seen MR. LAWRENCE: of your work-although you may be a terrificartistthere'sno possibleway thatI canseeanyonein the Black communityrelatingto your work.They may respondto it aesthetically,they may feel that it's a terrificpiecebut I can'tsee how anyonewouldrelateto it, andI don't see why they should.

MR. LLOYD: They would relateto it if they knew that I am Black.That'svery important.

That'snot importantin a workof art.

MR. LAWRENCE: It's importantto Blackpeople,you know.

MR. LLOYD: I'm not only concernedwith art. With me art is a secondarything.

I think you're beggingthe question MR. LAWRENCE: here and you're makingan excusethat you don't have

to make.You can be a very fine artistandI thinkyou'll be contributing.There'sno reasonwhy you haveto paint or work in a certainway, and have the imageof Blacknesswrittenon your work to be a fine artist.

MR. LLOYD: It doesn'thave to be writtenon. But don't tell me that Blackpeoplecan'trelateto my work.When they seeme andthey seemy work,I knowwhatthey say.

They say, "Dig it, a Blackcat did that."And that means somethingto them, I know it does.

MR. WILLIAMS: But what happens when you're not

there?

LLOYD: I'm talkingabout my work being meaningful to Blackpeople,and that'svery important.

MR. BEARDEN: Supposethe Black communitydidn't acceptyourworkandthe whitecommunitydid. Suppose you had been acceptedby the white community,fully accepted.Wouldyou havegone to the Blackcommunity to showyour work if you had that kind of acceptance?

Think aboutit.

MR. LLOYD: I've thoughtabout that before.I've made it - I'm makinga living off my art, a pretty good living.

I can just keep my mouth shut and go aheadand make niceconstructionsfor peopleto buy. But I'm not talking about me. I'm talkingabout Black artists.I'm talking aboutBlackartistsin the past,Blackartistsin the future.

Simplybecausethey'reBlack,therearemillionsof roadblocksin front of them.

MR. GILLIAM: I think I worrymoreabout the quality of the experiencecomingto the Blackcommunity.And I think there is a need to raisethe visualorientationof the Black community.During the riotsin Washington, whenthe whitesdidn'tcomein fromthe suburbs,gallery attendancefellwayoff.If Washingtonhasa sixtypercent majorityof Blackpeople,why doesmuseumattendance fall down when somethinghappensso the whites don't go? It's easy to see that we could easily hustle up to Harlemor over to i4th Streetand put up a lot of structuresthatwouldbe meaningful.But instead,isn'tit that museumsas suchhave not servedthe total community?

Why can't museumsreallyemphasizethe kind of programsthat will bringa personfromwherehe is to where the betterfacilityis?Andwhenhe'stherewhy can'tyou make him actuallywelcome?This is the kind of point we shouldpursue,not dwellon "artmeaningfulto Black people."Whatwe shouldbe talkingaboutis the quality of aestheticexperiencesavailableto personswithin the Black community,and raisingthe level of this quality.

But let's not forgetaboutwhathasgone before,let's not forget about Black history.In fact, let's emphasizethis more.

MR.

25I

I think that's very true. And I think BEARDEN: what Jakewas sayingabout the communityspiritof the HarlemArtistsGuildwastrue.This is what it did forme: I went to the firstmeeting:I wassurprisedto see fifty or sixty peoplethere.I hadn'tknowntherewerethat many Negro artistsin New York!

When they did the newsreleaseon Tom for his show, it wasstatedthat the HarlemStudioMuseumis the first museumin Harlem.That's not true! There was one on I25th Street and LenoxAvenueall duringthe thirtiesJakeand I showedat it. It wasn'tonly a museum,but they had teaching there, workshops,textile weaving, lithography.

That'swhat we need now.

MR. LLOYD: I can appreciatewhat you say, but I MR. LAWRENCE: thinkyou'regoing to fall into a trapif you pursuethis to the degreeto whichyou are pursuingit. Becauseyou're going to havepeoplefromdowntownsaying,"Well,let's give these peopleuptowna little somethingand we can forget about them for a coupleof years."

We aremore involvednow- it may not be to the degree that we think ideal, but we aremore involvednow in the total communitystructurethan we've ever been.

I think all of us will agreewith that. But I think the thing for us to pursue- and I repeatthis- is not only to get massiveaid and help within the Negro community, but not to tear us awayfrom the main community,not allowingpeopledowntownto say,asI saidbefore,"Well, let'sgive thema little somethingandwe canforgetabout them."

I'm not interestedin what they think.No, MR. LLOYD: done haven't anythingup to this point. And you they I don't think we are involved. involved. we're that say I think therearea lot of Blackartiststhat aren'tmaking a living and that arenot communicatingwith the people in the ghetto. I mean like nothing'shappening.So if someformof separatismis going to makethingshappen, I'm all for it. And I think it will.

I like the things you were sayingabout the various programsin the thirties,Blacksbeing together.I don't know what came of it, but I'm sure some good things came of it. And I'm all for that again.

What cameof it was ...

MR. BEARDEN: MR. LAWRENCE: People were involved. It broughta camaraderie...

It broughta greaterdegree of proMR. WOODRUFF: fessionalism.

MR. BEARDEN: Jakewas about the first artistwho got out of the Harlemcommunity,who got a one-manshow downtown.But beforethat, our mindsdidn't thinkpast

MR.

252

oth Street. This waslike a customsbarrierback then.

LLOYD: What I'm after is havingmy little Black to girlexposed art.Andif shewantsto be a potterI don't want her to be in that one-to-threeratio.Theremay be just three Black potters here in New York. I want to improveon that. Like a whole lot.

I

MR.

MR.

WILLIAMS:

It seems to me that you haven't really

touchedon one of the pointsMr. Gilliambroughtup the quality of that pottery or the quality of that sculpture or the quality ...

MR. LLOYD: Whatdo you mean,"quality"!They have to be exposed.What makesyou think that the quality is going to be any less becausethey'reBlack?

MR.

WILLIAMS:

I don't think I'm implying that. I

think what I'm trying to say is that the nationalism you're talkingabout is a very dangerousthing.

MR.

GILLIAM:I

would say that before I looked all over

New Yorkfor Blackpottersand couldfind only threeand beforeI kept somebodyfrommakingpots and being turnedon by it - is that I'd findme a potter first.I don't think I'd worryabouthis color;I think I'd worrymore about the qualityof the experience.

LLOYD: Look, I'm worried about the quality too, but I am worried about the fact that there's only three Black potters here in New York. That has a lot of implications, and I don't think you're facing up to them.

MR. HUNT: Well, you know, you could do something else. You could hire a white potter while you looked for another Black potter, and then fire the white potter and hire the Black. Then you would show your people something about you.

MR. LLOYD: Perhaps it would, and perhaps that might have been like an idea I had. But I'm more interested in young Black kids having an opportunity just to be a potter.

What you may be running into is the MR. GILLIAM: same difficulty they had in one of the summer programs in Washington, looking for a Black sculptor. You can name a number of them, but they'd already be doing something beside practicing sculpture. I think whenever you look for Black potters, Black painters, Black artists, they'll already be doing something else.

At the same time there are a lot of proMR. LLOYD: in New York, and even if you're a profeshere grams sional, capable Black artist you can't even get a job in the program. Because, number one, most of the cultural programsaren't run by Black people. I think that's very important. I think Black people and Black communities should control Black programs. They're the only people that can really, really relate to Black people.

MR.

WILLIAMS: We're getting involved in sociology again,aren'twe?

MR. LLOYD: Well, so what?

I think it's pretty hard to keep the MR. GILLIAM: wholequestionawayfromsociology.

MR. BEARDEN: Let me sumup. Tom feels that a lot of the professionalproblemsof the Blackartisthave to do with his relationto the community.And he feels that his, and a numberof Black artists',work shouldbe directed to makingthe Black communitymore art-conscious.He feels,also,by the merefact of his beinga Black artistworkingin the Blackcommunity,he couldreferto his work- or workdone by anyoneof a similarmind- as Black art. Now Mr. Williamshas challengedthat. He feels that the Black artistshouldn'tlimit his horizonto just one particularcommunity,but shouldtry to expose his workto a greateraudience.I thinkwe all have come to the conclusion,however,that therearedire economic and professionalproblemshinderingthe Black artist in the full expressionof his potential.Theseproblemsstem fromsocialconditions,fromthe fact that the Blackartist is not completelyinvolvedin the mainstream.

He doesn't go to East Hampton,and he'snot aroundthe restof the artists.It was broughtout that the few peoplewho buy don't alwaysconsiderhim, and he has not been able to get his workup to highermonetarylevels.

Unlesssomeonehasanythingto add to this discussion of economicand professionalquestions,I think we can go on to our thirdpoint- the aestheticproblem.I think some of the things that you were talkingabout, Tom, also involved questionsof craft and identity. I throw the discussionopen.

MR. WOODRUFF: This is one of the mostimportantand probablyone of the most difficultto solve. I think we shouldclarifywhat we meanby aestheticproblems,and problemsof self-imageor identity in termsof the topic we areworkingwith - "Blackart."We'vebeentold that a recognizablyBlackuniquenessin the art productis not necessarilyessential.There is such a thing as a "Black Anglo-Saxon,"and then there are those who champion the notion of the Black heritage-who think that the Negroes' aesthetic image should come from his Black Africanancestry.I don't think there'sanythingwrong with this, becausewe who are taking the traditional formsof Westernart as a startingpoint are doing the same thing-we are beginningwith a form from which we may createa form.There is also the idea of substantially good art-and this is what Sam has been talking about-coming from the soil. But the soil of the Black communitymust not only be productiveand rich in its MR.

resources,but those who till that soil and try to raisea harvest- and that is the artist- mustcomein therewith some realartisticinsights.I don't believe that the subject matter,the hot-headedart of the moment,is of any consequence:the fact that the artistsget a kind of frustrationor angeroff their chest is fine. But the creation of artis somethingelseagain.Andwe may be quiteprone to acceptanythingthat is enjoyed,in any kind of sense, regardlessof its qualities,as Blackart. But it is not. As I see it, you startwith a concept,a thematicidea.And out of that you've got to createa form. And I believe the formmust embodyandconvey that ideavisually,physically.Aboveall, the sensibilityof the artist,hisbeliefsand his convictionsand his aspirations,must come through and control it. This is how any art is produced,be it black,white, green,or blue. If thereis to be a Blackart - not just somethingmadeby a Blackartist- theremust be certainoutermanifestationsso it can be identified,as you can identify Orientalart or pre-Columbianart or Eskimoart. (But I don't meanin any sensea primitive art: righthereI rejectthe term "primitive"in referring to Africanart or any such ethnic form.)

More importantto the work of art are the energies, the efforts,and the deep insightsthat comefromthe artist as he worksthroughwhat he has experiencedin life.

In the musicalworld there is Leontyne Price, who sings like a bird. And this has nothing to do with her color. There are others, like MahaliaJackson-whose singingyou wouldcall Blacksinging.I do think thereis a somethingfound in the worksof the Black artist that is absentin the artof otherpeople.LangstonHughesused to definethisas comingfromthe folkways,fromthe special quality that we as Black people have. But I think that, in the finalanalysis,you've got to createart- art of the highestpossibleaestheticlevel, in whichyour means are what your goalsare. They are very highly personal.

We have a young man here, RichardHunt, who I think is a great sculptor.This man is an artist. It has nothingto do with race;it is that realspark,unfathomable, and unidentifiable,that is deeply felt. The power of his sculptureis unassailable.Is this Negro art? Is it done by a Negro?It may very well be. Who knows?It's powerful,convincing,compellingart. And this is what I mean. It isn't black, white, green, or blue, but it's greatart.

I think the Black artist is facedwith the problemof almostworkingfrom scratch.If he doesn'tresortto the traditionalsourcesthat are available,he's got to start fromscratch.And this is tough. If he wants to produce a uniqueartform,he'sgot to ignoreeveryotherartform 253

that has been used as a springboardfor other art forms.

This is a tough job.

I haven't answeredany questions.My question has never beensolvedthroughoutmy life and neverwill be.

It's a continuousandongoingsearch.But the searchmust be qualifiedby this constantand ongoingemphasison quality,of the highestpossiblelevel thatyou canachieve.

MR. BEARDEN: They say that abstractexpressionismaction painting-is the first indigenousAmericanart exported,and imitated by artistsall aroundthe world.

No critic that I have read has ever aligned this spark with jazz music.But that's the feelingyou get from it: involvement,personality,improvisation,rhythm,color.

What I'm trying to point out is that Black culture is involvedfarmoreinto the wholefabricof Americanlife thanwe realize.But it is up to us to find out the contribution that we have made to the whole culturalfabric of Americanlife. No one else is going to do it. I look at baseballa lot; I see a man hit a home run- he comesin and slapsthe hand of the other fellow who'swaitingat the plate.Thisstartedwith Negro ballplayers,andeverybody does it now.

MR.

WOO D RUF F:

I've had lots of arguments on the par-

allel aestheticsof music and of art. I asked one of my friends,"Justwhat is so Negroid about this Black, socalledNegro music?"And he saidthat it's the little dissonant note at the end of each piece that makes the uniquenessof Negro music. When a band winds up a piece, they alwayswind up on a minor note, even if they're playing in a majorkey. They leave you there.

That sustained,suspendedmomentis in the musicalstyle, in the literarystyle, it's in the dramacertainly- their timingin dramaticactionis just terrific.This is a quality that is almostunexplainable,but it's alwaysidentifiable.

It's not somethingthat a critic can point out-"That's it, right there." It's the total- the total sensationthat you get.

MR. LLOYD: The thing that worriesme, Mr. Woodruff, is that you seemto singleout individuals.You talkabout a few Black artistswho have made it and so I get the ideathat they'resomesortof AbrahamLincolns.Perhaps they are.But I don't think that'sanythingto point with any great pride about. I still maintainthat Black art shouldbe separate.I feel like this is the only way for us to make it.

We were talkingbeforeabout institutions,and someone mentioned this institution.I feel that the Metropolitanis an institutionfor white people, not for Black people.So therefore,if we'regoing to be equalwith the white artist, where are we going to show?Where have 254

we shown?What kind of facilitiesare open to us? What gallerieswill accept us? There are none that will and none that have. Don't mentionone or two people- I'm not interestedin one or two people.I'm interestedin the millionsof Black peoplewho want to be artists.Therefore I maintainthat therehas to be a Black art. This is what we need, if it wouldpull us out of this thing here.

We haven'tgot it from the white culturalpowerstructure. They haven'tgiven it to us.

MR. WOODRUFF: Well, when I mention a man like RichardHunt it's not to put him on a pedestal...

MR. LLOYD: We don't want a pedestal.He's one man.

MR. WOODRUFF: I'm a visualman,not a verbalperson, andwhenI mentionedHunt'ssculptureI wantedto suggest a visualimage,to makemy taska little easierbecause I cannotexplainin wordsthat which I alwayssee.

MR. LLOYD: What I want to know is if there are two hundredRichardHunts, whereare they going to show theirwork?

MR.

LAWRENCE:

Well, I'll go halfway with you, Tom.

I will say that I'd like to have the opportunityfor a personwith talentto makehimselfinto an artistassuccessful as RichardHunt. But I don't thinkyou'll ever have two hundredRichardHuntsor two hundredThomasLloyds, becauseeveryoneis just not that talented.

MR. LLOYD: No, I mean to equate them with the two hundredwhite artistswho have the opportunity.

MR. WOODRUFF: That I'll buy.

MR. GILLIAM: We're necessarilyspeakingof a job for the future.We've been few in number;the injusticeof the whole socialsituationhasmadeit so that we arefew in number.

We need not only to develop Black craftsmen,but alsoBlackhistorians,Blackcritics.We needmoreBlackownedart galleries:let's talkaboutmovinginto business -art is a business.This is a thing that concernsus. If we'relookingfor ways art-or Blackart-can be developed within a community,then let's talk about all the things that are reallynecessaryto develop it. Why is it that therearen'tBlackhistoriansor Blackaestheticians, asidefrom people like Hale who have had to double to do the job? Why aren't these professionsbeing encouragedat Blackcolleges?Why can't placeslike that make their specialresponsibilitytakingcareof the Black heritage?They shouldinvestigateexactlywhat the factsare: what we have accomplished,and whetheror not we're going forwardfromwherewe are now.

MR. LLOYD:I thinkthat sortof programwouldbe very important.I mentionedan organizationcalledBlackVisual Environments,and part of the thing we want to do

is to bring Black art-and I mean Blackart-into the publicschools,for theseyoung Blackkids to talk to the Blackartists,to try to formsomesortof dialogue,to be thereand be seen,to showthat he'sBlack.This is important to the youngBlackkids.It's neverhappenedbefore andI thinkthat it's importantthat it doeshappen.These Black artistsshould be paid for it. I'd also like to see Blackart showstravelingto the South, to Blackcolleges, to makethesepeopleawareof what'shappeningin Black art today- okay, I'll say art today.

I'd equallylike to seesomeof thoseBlack MR. GI LLIAM: program.This kind collegeshavingan artist-in-residence of programwouldbe terrificallyimportant,becauseoften a personsuffersbecausehis experiencesand information arelockedinto his regionalenvironment.

We'rereallytalkingaboutan uplifting,aboutproviding uswith a baseof freedomin general.We can takecare of business.The impactof ourtimesmakesit individually importantthat we don't go backan inch, a centimeter, but that we move on. Theseare the kindsof thingsthat shouldbe part of our experiences,and that shouldindicate the pathswe should take.

MR. BEARDEN: I understandthere'sgoing to be a big showof Blackartistsopeningin Minneapolis.William,if you went to this show, could you look at the paintings and the sculptureand find somethingthat identifiedthe artistsas Black?

I've neverseena piecethat I couldsay MR. WILLIAMS: that about positively. I've seen a great many pieces I think are commendableby Black artists,but I didn't attachthat specialtitle or specialcategoryto them, and I don't think I ever will.

It seemsto me that it would be fine if an art form or a thingcouldbe createdthat wasso uniquelyBlackthat it wasn'tnecessaryto have Tom's picturein front of it.

But it hasn'tbeen done. You talk about the need for a Black male image:what you're really talkingabout is thissociologicalthing.The Blackmaleimageis one thing, but I wonderwhat happensto his work- or any workten, fifteen,yearsfromnow when the Blackmaleimages aren'tstandingin frontof it andgivinga wholerundown about what it's about, why I'm doing it, why I'm participatingin the community.If we're going to build a culturalbasisthat is relevantto the Black community, it shouldbe a culturalbasisthat'srelevantwhen Tom is gone,whenwe'reall gone, somethingthat'sso embedded in quality that it not only standsin Harlembut stands anyplace.That'sa goal to shoot for.

One of the thingsthat Tom's addressinghimselfto is the necessity,in termsof the socialstrife that we're in

now, to asserta lot of Blackthings.I canagreewith that on one level, but on anotherI must talk about quality as Mr. Gilliamhas,and what the level of the experience of "Blackart" will be, and what exposureto it will do ten or fifteenyearsfrom now. If I exposefive hundred or sixhundredkidsto Blackart now,my hopeis that the Black art will be of such a level that I will be instilling some type of aestheticor valueswithin those kids that they can drawon yearsfrom now.

MR. LLOYD: That's good, but you see it hasn't happened. If we're going to acceleratethat kind of thing we have to do it now.

Being separateand makingBlackart might possibly be the answer.I'm not sayingfor sureit is, but I believe it is. All I know is that nothing has happenedin the past. It's a changethat hasgot to happen.

MR. BEARDEN: I can't agreewith your argumentthat has nothing happenedin the past, Tom. Two yearsago I went to the Grand Central GalleriesbecauseI had heardso much about the worksof this man Henry O. Tanner.I lookedat his picturesand I must concludehe is one of the threeor fourgreatpaintersof America,the only religiouspainter who in my judgment compares with Rouault.This museumhad two of his pictures,but they sold them.

The reasonyou can havea placelike the Metropolitan is that you can bringart into this countryduty free. It was a Blackwoman,EdmoniaLewis,who went to Congresswith W. W. Story and a few other artists,to have the lawchangedso artworkscouldcomein withoutduty.

I couldgo on and tell you the thingsthat Blackartists have done; so don't say nothing'shappened- it's just been obscured.

The fact about this Black womanis fine, MR. LLOYD: but this is still a white museum,Blackpeople still don't come here. Don't mention individuals,like Tanner.I'd like to know more about him, but I haven't had the opportunityto learnabout him. I'm not alone in this.

Don't tell me progresshasbeenmadebecauseof Tanner.

Sure, therehas been someprogress,but I want to know about twenty Tanners.We're a whole race of people, andyou know,whenyou talk aboutone, I know there's somethingwrong.

MR. WOODRUFF: Tom, why don't Black people come to this museum?

MR. LLOYD: They haven't been exposedto art. That's the numberone thing:they haven'tbeenexposedto art.

They don't knowaboutBlack art, and if they did know about it, people in the streetswould know that Black artistsareshowinghere or at any othermuseum.That's 255

our fault, and part of society'sfault.

LAWRENCE: You know, there'ssomethingI can't understandhere, and it keeps botheringme. It's a term that'sbeenusedoverandoveragain,"Blackart."I don't understandthat. I thinkwe may aswell cut out the sentimental slush. "Blackart" meansmaybe somethinglike "Blackart of Africa"or somethingproducedin some of the earlierdays of America,in some of the ironworks throughoutthe Southor thingslike that,whichcameout of the experienceof a culturalgroupof peoplewho happen to havebeenAfricans.Hereit wouldbe morecorrect for us to say "artby Blackpeople,"but not "Blackart."

When I say "Blackart" I mean the Black MR. LLOYD: experienceon a total scale: being Black, our heritage, Africa,living in the Blackcommunity.

It is a total experience. We've been talkMR. GILLIAM: the visual artsbecausewe'repaintersandsculpabout ing tors, but we must realizethat there are other formsof art- theaterand music- that are much more capableof havinga definite"Black"personality.We have to recognize that it's his total experiencethat influenceswhat a persondoes. And it may not affectonly him, but some other personregardlessof skin color: think of the influence of Africanart on Picasso,for instance,or on Modigliani.

We artistsshoulddiscussart, and not leave it to the civil rightsworkersor politicians.We have a feelingfor it, and we don't belittle it.

MR.

MR.

LLOYD:

Well, being Black...

Is great.

I can't imaginean artist-a Black artistfunctioningwithout knowinghe's Black,without being concernedaboutwhat'shappeningto us, without being concernedaboutour very lives.We'reBlack.No matter what kind of workyou do, you'reinfluencedby all these things.

MR. LAWRENCE: Is this alwaysevident looking at the work? person's MR. LLOYD: Maybe not. I never saidit's evident lookwork. I'm just sayingit's Black art. someone's at ing I can't agreewith that.

MR. WOODRUFF: He's calling"Blackart"anythingdone MR. BEARDEN:

by Black artists.

I just can't see how something is MR. LAWRENCE: "Black art." What you find are shows that deal with some philosophyof art-minimal art or this art or that art-and the artistsin each of those showswill belong to many ethnic groups,Black artistsamongthem.

MR. GILLIAM: By giving a show a kind of sociological title, you know, or a political theme, you can make it MR.

GILLIAM:

MR.

LLOYD:

a communityexpression.Look at the Sixty-sixSignsof Neon, a show broughtfrom Watts, done by people in Watts. Even there the reigninginfluencewas someone like Ed Kienholz, becausethis is somethingthat's part of the Los Angelesscene. I think that in certainareas you cansay that art cancoexistwith the socialproblems.

MR. LLOYD: Has it? I mean, what's happenedin the past?

MR. GILLIAM: I think the past is perhapsmuch more importantthan what is going on now. Number one is the fact that every Black artist that painted has been involvedwith my situationin America-me and what's happeningandconcernfor the Negro.Thiswasthe overwhat the artistwasconcernedwith, ridingconsideration: and what I looked for as a kid, and what I dealt with when I was paintingfiguratively.But later on, you're a matureartist,maybea greatone, if you can personalize yourself,move from identificationwith somethingoutside yourselfto your own thing.

MR. BEARDEN: A lot of this experienceis knit with isn't it?

For instance,you were saying in the identity, for prospectus your show that the artist that turnsyou on is Agostini.Every artist that you mentionedwas a white artist.Now if you are this concerned,why didn't you say that JakeLawrenceturnedyou on?

MR. LLOYD: But JakeLawrencedidn't turnme on ... he didn't turn me off either.

MR. BEARDEN: No, I'm not sayingthat. I wouldexpect that when the young kid who workedwith you has an exhibit, say four or five yearsfrom now, if you've done your work right, he's going to say that the thing that turnedhim on was the experiencehe had workingwith Tom Lloyd. This is differentfrom the stand you take now, becauseeveryoneyou studiedwith, the peoplewho turnedyou on, are all white.

MR. LLOYD: Yes, that's just the point - that's the thing

that bothersme: that thereweren'tany BlackAgostinis around.Part of my function is concernfor my people, not just getting in a little cornerand painting a little picture.

MR. BEARDEN: That's what we are saying, but we've moved back into the questionof identity. It all has to do with the artist.

MR. LLOYD: Yes, Blackidentity, Blackart. That'swhy I say "Blackart."

MR. GILLIAM: The FrederickDouglassArt Institutein Washington,whichstartedout as the Museumof African Art, puts Africansculptureside by side with German expressionist paintings,printsby ModiglianiandPicasso, and thingslike that, and bringsout a senseof identity

256 Photograph: Reginald McGhee

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very strongly.I want to knowhow Tom feelsabout this kind of thing.

MR. LLOYD: That'sfine with me.

You know,so muchneedsto be done.Therehas to be sucha tremendousefforton the part of the Blackartist, on the part of the culturalpowerstructure.I'm not too sure,Mr. Lawrence,that the governmentis going to get involvedwith the Blackartist;the governmentisn't going to give you somethingwhen you're going to turn aroundand hurt them with what we create. think the real thing that's bugging MR. WOODRUFF:I Tom is very evident. We want thesedoorsopen so that the Negro, the Black man, can move in and shareand sharealike.But the topicwe'rediscussingis the aesthetic problemsthat the Blackartistfaces.

I think we need a definitionof aesMR. LAWRENCE: thetics.Are we talkingabout space,line, form,or something much more broadand abstract-"experience"or somethinglike that?

MR. WOODRUFF: Well, I used the term becausethe seems to suggestsomethingthat is "Black art" phrase differentin its structureand its formalmanifestation. in termsof economWe've beenmakingdifferentiations ics, socialimpact,galleryfacilities,museumsbeingclosed to Black art, and so forth, and I think this should be consideredin termsof whetherthe art reallydoes have someparticular,specialform.

MR.

HUNT:

Well, "the aesthetics of Black art" is a prob-

lem I reallydon't addressmyself to, in either my work or my thinking.The problemof the Negro in termsof the contemporarysituationin art- showingin museums and galleriesand all those things-seems to be more or lesstied up with the prevailingcurrentsin art itself.For instance,an artistwho'sworkingwith kinetic, light, or minimalthingsmight have a better chanceof breaking into the scenethansomebodywho'spaintingfiguratively.

All these things don't really seem that much different from the problemsthat white artistsor any other kinds of artistshave. Therearecertainkindsof socialbiaseson the part of some of the establishmentpeople that you mentionedthat might influencethings, but you know, I reallydon't think those thingsare all that important.

I don't reallylike to go into definitions,but in termsof my feelingaboutmy relationshipto my art I sortof separateit frommy life as a Blackman in America.Given I'm a Blackman in America,I live fromday to day and take thingsas they come. In termsof my work,I have a certainkind of ideal that I want to attainand I findmyself beingable to do that as a Blackman in Americaand living in a Black community.

258

As Hale was talking about things that characterize Blackart, and art growingout of the soil, it cameto my mind that I'm kind of regionalist.I come from Chicago and I like living there. Listeningto Tom's description of life here, I feel lucky that I was bornin Chicagoand haven't had to contend with the sort of problemsthat exist here. I come froma ruralbackground:my father's from the ruralSouth, my mother'sfrom the ruralMidwest. I rememberthe thing that impressedme about visitingmy father'srelativesin Georgia,one timewhenI wasa kid, wasthat they hadsomelandthat they cleared, and they took the logs to the sawmilland built their houseout of them. It's kind of nice thinkingabout how my unclecoulddo all that stuff;I thinkaboutthingslike that- andmaybethisis whatTom is talkingabout,being able to identify with positivemale images.It's like the things you read about pioneersdoing. Of course they were living in Georgia,segregatedand all, but at the sametime they couldexercisethisabilityto makethings.

I seemyselfasa sculptoras beinga personmakingthings.

I may not make as good a sculptureas I want to make, but those are my limitations,nothing ever comes out exactlythe way you want it. At the sametime I feel like I cando anythingI want to do. That has to do with family experiencesand schoolexperiences.I had Negro art teachers-Mr. Johnson,Mrs. Currin-who encouraged me and urgedme to go on to the ChicagoArt Institute.

Then I had other instructorswho were white and they encouragedme too.

It's a combinationof things.I don't see how a Negro in America,even with segregatedsituations,can escape having influencesthat come from his family, from his backgroundin the ghetto or whereverhe happensto be, fromhis formaleducation,fromhis exposureto the arts.

The thing gets pretty much mixed up, and the idea of separatingout these experiences,good or bad, Black or not, seemssometimesratheruselessandsometimesrather tiresome.

Well, I don't think so. You know what I Mr. think, Hunt, is that you are a conditionedBlack man. I think you are obliviousto what'shappening.

MR.

LLOYD:

MR.

GILLIAM:

Tom, I think you're acting more for the

conditions...

MR.

LLOYD:

That may be so, but I've got to say what

I think.

MR.

HUNT:

MR.

LLOYD:

That's perfectlyall right.

To me you don't seem like a man con-

cernedwith Black people,with Black kids, with Black culture.I don't think that entersinto yourfeelings.And that bothersme, that bothersthe hell out of me. You

know,whenI thinkof an artist,I thinkof a Blackartist, not a Blackwhite artistor someonewho hasgiven in to this kind of conditioningthat the white peoplehaveput us in. I have childrenand I want the best for them, and if they want to be artists,I want them to have the same kind of exposureany other kid has. They don't have it now, so I'm going to make suremine do. I care,I care about my people and I think this is what every Black artisthas got to do.

It's erroneousto presupposethat a perMR. GILLIAM: son who doesn'tfollowa certainphilosophyall the way doesn'tcareabouthis raceor his kids.We'reall badgered by these things...

MR. LLOYD: But this is the time for us to jump in and bring changesabout, make things happen. And have someidentity with our own doggonepeople.

It's also the time to distinguishrhetMR. WILLIAMS: oric from realfacts.

I knowwhat realfacts are, I know what's MR. LLOYD: in hundredyears. two happened MR. WILLIAMS: I think that we'reall too sophisticated to accept easilyeverythingyou're saying,but I assume thosefaultsareyour own, your own way of goingabout what you'redoing.

I assumethat's the way he-Mr. Hunt-should go about it, and that it's workedvery well- he's createda thing that is uniquelybeautiful.But in my own case,I find it very hardindeed to think of myself in termsof doing Blackart, becauseit becomessuchan anonymous thing. I find that I'm morehung up in my own frustrations and my own ego than anything else. When I'm doing my own thing, I kind of go aboutdoingwhat I'm doing,andhopefullyI can separatemy dailyfrustrations on the surfacelevel from what I'm doing. Obviously you're doing it, Tom, or else you wouldn'tbe working with lights.WhatI'm tryingto say is that thereare two levels that any man thinkson, whetherblack,green,or otherwise.If an artist- a sculptor,musician,orwhatever - if an artistgets so hung up in socialconditionsand in what's happeningto him, he winds up in somethingI call rhetoric.

MR. LLOYD: That'snonsense.

MR. WILLIAMS: Rhetoric to me is a point where one so involved that he's not going forward,he's standgets still.

I'm not ing condemningwhat you're doing; I'm that we're at a very dangerouspoint. It seemsto saying me that the work of the artistat this point is to distinguishwhat'srhetoricandwhat'sprogressandwhat'sfact.

Art by natureis an aristocraticthing ...

MR. LLOYD: What?

MR. WILLIAMS: Art has been historically-historically in the Westernsense- aristocratic.

MR. LLOYD: That's been the troublewith our culture.

MR.

WILLIAMS:

If you're talking about bringing in an

Easternkind of philosophyof art, then it does become kindof an anonymousthing.But I don't thinkany of us are willing to do that. We're still dealingwith art in a Westernsense;we'renot willingto give it up andgo into a specialthing.So I thinkyou have to keep that in mind when you condemnsomeone.

MR.

LLO Y D:

I'm condemning a whole lot of people.

I want to sum this up. Tom, what I think you'resayingis that you feel the entire tradition of Westernart is kindof empty now;you thinkwe must developa certainculturalphilosophyfor the Blackartist.

Things,as they exist now,must be attackedon different levels- economic,social,perhapseven political.Now, in thisstruggle,in the civil rightsmovement,very little attentionhasbeengiven to the culturalneedsof the people.

So now let's considerhow the Blackartistrelatesto the civil rightsmovement.How doeshe, or his work,or his philosophy,relateto thesepressingproblemsof the Black peoplein this country?

MR. LAWRENCE: Well, I think you can relatein any numberof ways,and the individualartisthas to solve it in his own way. He may participatethroughthe content of his work, or by donatinga piece that has no specifically relevantcontent. I know that we all relate to the civil rightsmovement,and we all make contributions.

We give becausewe want to give. It's an obviousway of helping,not a spiritualone, but it's a way that has an immediate,definitebenefit.

MR. WOODRUFF: Let me say that I've alwaysfelt that one of the thingsthat we lack in the Blackworldgenerally, not only in the visual arts, is criticalscholarship.

That could do so much for the situationTom is talking about.ClementGreenberg,forinstance,just aboutmade JacksonPollock,andtherearemanyothersuchinstances.

We need a writer to make us known.We have no one who can use the written word except yourself,Romie, and you'rea painterbasically.Scholarshipfromour college men and othershas gone into the socialmovement and civil rights.Look at your jazz critics,they'rewhite, and most of your dramacritics are white. Even your writers,like Baldwinand so on, aren'tconcernedwith us. Someyearsago theseBlackwriterswerein Parisand the Parispresswent to them and said, "Now, we know aboutyourwriters;whatis the Negroartistdoing?"And thosefellowscouldn'tsay anything- "I don't knowany Negro artists"-and they couldn'tanswerthe question.

MR.

BEARDEN:

259

I believe that we need someoneto criticallyand knowledgeablyassessour combinedartisticefforts.There are few Negroeswho do this, but that scholarshipis what we need.

And I do think there should be a communalfeeling amongthe Blackartists,whetheror not we paintor think alike,or whetherwe sit down and beef like we'redoing today. Whetherwe meet regularlyor whetherwe just bumpinto each other in a bar,I think this is necessary, in order to presentwhat I would call a kind of united front. When we try to fight this battle singlehandedly we'relost, we'renot even up to bat.You know,you need a team to win a ball game;you can't do it with sandlot techniques.

This hasto do in a very obliqueway with the so-called culturalmovement,becauseuntil the Negro in Harlem finallygets a decent place to live and food in his belly, maybehe'll have no time to go look at our pictures.So thereforethe whole revolutionis intertwined.

But what I sense is the great need is to have a man who pointsout to galleriesand museumsthat this artist is a good one and you shouldhave his work.

MR. WILLIAMS:

After that, I don't know if there's any-

thing I can say. I totally agreewith the idea of uniting effortswith otherartists,whichis really,reallynecessary.

I don't knowabout othercities, but in New York I feel an enormousseparationbetweenthe writersand the poets and the painters- peoplearekind of isolatedin their own corners.

As for the civil rightsstruggle,it's very hard to distinguishwhatyou, on a personallevel,cando. My feeling is "differentstrokesfor differentfolks."I kind of take it as it comesand hope that I'm doing the properthing at the propertime.

Of course there are "different strokes for

MR. GILLIAM:

differentfolks"- someare revolutionists,someare social changers,somearepoliticians.I wouldsay that what we of historyanda broad shouldhelpdevelopis an awareness culturalexchange,andset up the kindof institutionsthat would providethe kind of educationalexperiencesthat would visuallyorient people and make us awareof our total role.

MR. HUNT:

I can only second that.

MR. WILLIAMS:

Can we add, also, that there should

be some intercitycommunicationas well.

MR.

LLOYD:

I'm just a little shocked because I think

our role as Black artistsis right up there in the front line and we haven't been there, we haven't even been heardof.

MR. LAWRENCE:

Now, you speak for yourself, not for

me- I've been there thirty years,you know.

MR. LLOYD: I'm talkingabout unity, I'm not talking about one artistgoing that way and doing his thing. I thinkwe shouldbe marching,I thinkwe shoulddo anything. This is part of our life; this civil rightsthing is a strugglethat hasa lot to do with us, andwe haven'tparticipatedin it at all. I think that'sshameful.We'renot interestedin the politicallife in the city, the civil rights struggle.We'rejustdeadandyou knowwe'renot moving.

MR.

LAWRENCE:

MR. LLOYD:

Maybe you're not moving.

Well, I'm glad you're moving.

MR. BEARDEN: I feel that the artist hasto serve a movement the best way he can do it. Now we have a man here, oldest among us; I don't think anyone has done more than he and he's done it with his work. I'm not sayingthis is the only way you can do it, but his works inspiredme as a kid. This was a contribution,and all of us aroundthis tablehope we aremakinga contribution.

Maybe we can't all go out and make posters, but we can developour talentsin the best way we can.

MR. LLOYD: I just say get out and be concerned,and we're not concerned.If we are, we haven'tlet our concern be known.

MR. BEARDEN: Let's sum this up. Jacob indicatedthat in the civil rightsmovementthe artistshoulddo all he could, in his way, to assistthe developmentand liberation of the people.Hale indicatedcriticismand scholarship, to furtherwhat the Black artistwas trying to do, wassomethingwhichhad beenlacking.I thinkboth Sam and Williamfelt that each artist had a commitmentto the struggle,but this wassomethinghe had to do in the best way he could. I think Richardagreedto that too.

Tom felt that the strugglefor Black liberationwas allembracingand that we all had to get in thereand pitch, do whateverwas necessaryto advancethe struggle.

In the discussionwe'vehad todaywe've coveredmany problems.We'veposedproblems.Only time andhistory will offer a solution.I think we have made a valuable contributionhere.It's somethingthat moreartistseverywhereneed to do.

260 Photograph: Reginald McGhee

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The Cultural

MetropolitanMuseum Power

in

B A R R Y N. S C H WA R T Z

a

Time

of of

Art: Crisis

Mr. Schwartzis a memberof thefaculty of the Schoolof Humanitiesand SocialScienceat PrattInstitute,andhas servedfortwoyearsas the Director College, of EducationalPlanningof the CentralBrooklynNeighborhood His essayofers some a free schoolfor Bedford-Stuyvesant residents. betweentheMuseum as oneapproachtowardnewrelationships suggestions andthecommunities it serves

IT IS ESTIMATEDthat by I975, six years from now,

have the participation of the community if these needs

half of the entire populationof New York City will be non-white.Presentlyhalf of the childrenattendingNew York City's public schoolsare Puerto Rican or AfroAmerican.Yet only recentlyhasThe MetropolitanMuseumof Art begunto appraiseits relationship,or lack of one, with the surroundingcommunitiesit says it hopes to serve.

If The MetropolitanMuseumof Art is to prove relecitizensit must alter vant to Blackand Spanish-speaking its traditionalconceptionsof itself in responseto the culturalneedsof ghetto residents.(i) Continuingand viable relationshipsbetweenthe Museumand Blackand Spanish communitieswill have to be established.(2) The Museumwill have to enlargeits conceptsof how to exhibit. (3) New criteriawill have to be applied in the judgmentof what to exhibit. (4) The Museumwill have to expandits servicesinto many new areas.

are to be satisfied.

To this end the Museumshould set up community advisory boardsin ghetto areas,composedof genuine communityleaders,practicingartistsand craftsmenwho residewithin the area,andmembersof variousneighborhood organizations.It would be their job to articulate waysthe Museumcanservecitizenswhodo not normally derive benefitfrom the Museum'sefforts,to work with the Museumin creatingideasfor neededandmeaningful programs,and to serveas a feedbackmechanismfor the evaluationof programsconductedwithin the community. The advisoryboardsshouldbe involvedin all Museum activitiesin their communitiesfrom inceptionto completionasplannerswho suggestthe contentandform of Museumfunctions,and not as consultantsto help insure the successof what the Museumwants to do. The Museum, throughits advisoryboards,could becomea communityinstitution.

Involvement in the Community, or Community Involvement?

To Exhibit Is a Verb

The typicalinvolvementof institutionsin the ghetto is characterizedby an enthusiasm-frustration-hostility syndrome,and the MetropolitanMuseumwoulddo well to avoid the mistakesof others.One cannotwork successfully in a ghetto by implementinga preconceivedprogram whose justificationis only the best of intentions, The responseto this approachis unvarying:one is met with resentmentbasedon what the communityinterprets as imposition,and is ultimately driven away by overt hostility. If the MetropolitanMuseumwishes to extend its public impact to all the citizensof the city it must approachcommunitiesby askingwhat they want and by putting the Museum'sresources,enthusiasm,and expertiseat the disposalof the community.The community best knowswhat it needs, and the Museummust

The MetropolitanMuseumof Art must begin to think of itself as an activity, not only as a structure.Ghetto residentstravel less than those in middle- and upperand what happensfor a ghetto resiclassneighborhoods, dent tendsto be limited to the activitiesthat take place within his community.Since this is the case,if the Museum believesin communityinvolvementit must travel into the community.

An identifyingfeatureof every ghetto is the vacant lot. They arenumerous,filthy, rat-infestedspaceswhere childrenand garbageinteract.The communitycan do nothing about them, as they are private property;the city respondswith futile "no dumping"signs.

The Museumcouldturntheseneighborhoodscarsinto micro-museums.Temporaryuse of these lots for Mu-

262

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 速 www.jstor.org

seum exhibitionscould be arranged,and perhapsthe Departmentof Sanitationwould cooperatein clearing the land. Here residentswould have access to exhibitions displayingindigenousart, exhibitionsspecifically designedfor this audience,educationalprogramsreinforcingpositiveself-images,exhibitsshowingthe accomplishmentof Black and Spanishartists,and partsof exhibitscurrentlyofferedat the Museum'smainbuilding.

The meritsof such an undertakingare many:micromuseumswould physicallyenhancethe neighborhoods, provide culturaland educationalenrichment,dramatically informresidentsof the activitiesand servicesof the Museum,stimulatean appreciationof art within the community,bringartistswho residewithin the community to its attention,andmakeconcretethe discrepancy betweenenvironmentaluglinessand beauty.

The mechanicsof such an activity need not be complex. For example,the Museumcould-as the Brooklyn PublicLibrarySystemhasdone- utilizea fleetof mobile units, walk-throughmuseums,that might parkin these units lots. Domes, Quonsethuts, or simpleprefabricated could be used. On the other hand, not all Museuminvolvementneedsstructures.An artshowcanbe presented on a wallsurfacethroughthe useof a slideprojector;but to be reallyeffectivesucha showmust be conductedby a man who knowshis subjectand can sustaindiscussion with the audience.Mobile slide shows in the ghetto wouldbe an especiallysimpleway of reachinglargenumbersof people.

However successfultemporaryor travelingexhibits are,it is the permanentandcontinuingculturalactivities in ghetto communitiesthatwill have lastingimpact.The Museumshouldbeginthinkingin termsof annexes,and should supportor cooperatewith culturalinstitutions that have naturallyarisenin the communities.If the Museumfeels that the constructionof buildingsor their maintenanceis outside its domain becauseof financial considerations,there are still many ways it can support the effortsof others.

One importantway wouldbe to expandits loan service to makemoreof its storedobjectsavailableto cultural centersthroughoutthe city. For example,in BedfordStuyvesantthereare at least two housesthat have been convertedinto centersfor the expressionof Blackculture.

Thesehave no institutionalaffiliationyet, and they representonly the effortsof committedindividualswho reside in the community.Accessto travelingexhibits,art objects,and partsof specialexhibitsfrom the Museum woulddo muchto encourage,support,andmaintainculturalactivitiesarisingin the communityitself.

A point to be rememberedis that the people in a

ghetto do not experiencetheir art passively:they want objectsthat they can touchandplaywith - an argument forusingartreplicas(anathemato manymuseumpeople) in exhibits,or giving or lending them to culturalinstitutionswithin the ghetto.

The Content of Exhibitions Perhapsthe communityadvisoryboards'majorcontributionswouldbe to help the Museumperceivethe kinds of art to which ghetto residentsrespond.If the MetropolitanMuseumcan enlargeits ideasof what constitutes a valuableoffering,it will be able to serve many more people.For instance,an exhibitionabout drumswould have immediateappealfor ghetto residents.The drum is of greathistoricalimportancein Africancultures,and a show depictingthe variationof the drum aroundthe worldwould be very exciting. Also pertinentwould be an exhibitof the artsof the Caribbean;anotheron the many gods of man, stressingthe diverse depictionsof deity; an exhibit of costumesof variouscultures;and perhapssomethingas specializedas the influenceof Africanarton twentieth-centuryWesternartmight be more germaneto the interestsof the peoplein the ghetto than many of the Museum'spresentofferings.Ideally, communicationis a two-waystreet,and the Museummight bring into its main galleriesart created by practicing artistsin the ghetto, for the benefitof its visitingpublic.

The culturaloriginsof the BlackandSpanish-speaking citizensof New York City are not in the West, and this is a fact that shouldbe appreciatedby the Museumand all of its visitors.There is no reasonwhy the mobile units mentionedabovecould not, when they featureart or Puerto pertainingparticularlyto the Afro-American entire the travel Rican, city. Certainlyour throughout awareof the posimore has to become white population of its non-white tive contributions neighbors.

To this end the Museummight alsoconductas a regular program an ethnically varying "festival of the streets." A Spanish festival, a Caribbean carnival, an African ceremony could be presented within ghetto areas, and in the Museum's main building as well. Indeed, at the time of the Chinese New Year, for example, the Museum might mount a complementary exhibit in its halls and equip its mobile units to present this festival to other segments of the population. These shows would have the value of involving all of New York in the cultural celebrations of some of our "other-cultured" citizens. The festival would be specifically designed to highlight ethnic diversity as a positive contribution to the cultural enrichment of all New Yorkers.

263

New Services One of the most important ways the Museum can prove practically relevant to the ghetto resident is through the expansion and increased availability of existing services.

The Museum should create the position of cultural field worker, a person who would act as a cultural agitator.

Through discussions with residents, block associations, local community organizations, and artisan cooperatives he would seek to initiate ways to enhance culturally the community in which he lives and works. He would implement ideas offered by the advisory boards, make known to all interested parties the resources of the Museum, initiate and carry out projects such as community block improvement, mural painting, local art shows, the creation of community cultural centers, and coordination of art events among the various neighborhood schools. He would help artists' groups in their searchfor financial support. He might be able to encourage the Sanitation Department to clean up vacant lots, and the Buildings Department to remove abandoned buildings, and he might organize "paint-ins" to render those deserted buildings still privately owned (and therefore unremovable) more aesthetically pleasing. The Museum might make application to VISTAfor VISTAworkers to assume the strenuous and demanding responsibilitiesof cultural field workers at no extra cost to the Museum. The cultural field worker would represent the Museum through creative action and serve the community by assisting in its projects.

The Museum is about to create a Department of Architecture, a department that could play a vital role in easing the plight of those who live in ghettos. The ghetto resident is more often the victim than the beneficiary of architectural planning because there is no one to represent the great numbers of people who are built around, moved out, and manipulated in neighborhoods with the worst living conditions in the city. The Department of Architecture might function as an educational and consulting arm of the Museum by informing people of their rights, by acting in their behalf as sponsor for community-initiated redesign of ghetto areas, by offering architectural assistance to local groups involved in renovation, by developing plans alternative to those requiring extensive dislocation of residents, by serving as an information center for people seeking community housing improvement, and possibly by using whatever influence it may have to persuade city agencies to act in the community's interests.

The Museum has an excellent Exhibition Design De-

264

partment, and its services should be extended to advising and assisting community organizations that are trying to create cultural centers, art shows, and exhibition techniques. Since in most cases economics determine the nature of an exhibition, the Design Department could prepare a manual describing the latest sophisticated techniques at the lowest price.

The Personnel Office of the Museum is a vast clearing house for talent, although at present its only concern is finding qualified individuals to fill positions on the Museum's staff. This department could expand its function by directing applicants to community employment opportunities as they are made known to the Personnel Office. Community organizations might thus be able to find many talented people to work in the ghetto, people whom they may otherwise have no contact with. The Museum should also continue its apprentice training programs of actively seeking Black and Puerto Rican apprentices, thus opening up numerous career opportunities for many young people. The Personnel Office might also do well to search out qualified Puerto Rican and Black professionals to fill employment openings at the Museum.

Exhibition space should be made available to worthy groups who need space for specialized shows. Although Museum space is at a premium, the Metropolitan should have some system for assisting in finding other locations.

Surely there are many organizations in the city that would be glad to exhibit art: think of the space available in banks, or in office reception rooms and lobbies, or in church parish halls. The Museum could act as a central point for pairing requests with offers of space.

All these ideas are not meant to replace what The Metropolitan Museum of Art has traditionally done, but to indicate a redirection of some of its effort toward the areas of greatest need today. The obligations of the Metropolitan Museum transcend allegiance to any particular cultural history or artistic bias, but as one major institution in a divided community it must help promote social equity and cohesion. The Museum operates in the area of values, helping people to form what are considered informed and intelligent judgments about the worth of art in their lives and ultimately about each other. The appreciation of and involvement with art has a fundamentally moral function, standing on the side of creation in a world fraught with conflict and tension. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, by affirming the value of all cultures and ethnic groups in this city, could do much to create mutual respect, without which there will be only chaos.

Poor

Peoples'

PRI S CILLA

Plan

TUCK E R Freelancewriter

We are concernedwith changingthe architect'srole. We envisiona changefrom the architectrepresentingthe richpatronto the architectrepresentingthe poor, representingthem as individualsand as an interestgroup.This implies,we feel, studyingcities from a differentpoint of view. Not whetheror not the architect dislikescars,but whetheror not people actuallyuse carsand want cars;finding out whatideaspeoplehaveaboutmoderntechnology,abouta goodkitchen,about a good street,abouta desirableway to live, about the use of a window- whether it's just for ventilationand light, as Le Corbusiersaid, or whetherit's in fact a placewherepeoplemakecontactwith the street. A bridgeto the community.

So what we are trying to captureis not Brasiliabut that shantytownnext to Brasilia;not Tema (Ghana'snew city), but Ashiaman,the shantytownnext to it.

They are shantytownsonly becausethey do not have the public servicesand facilities that Brasiliaor Tema have, but they do possessthe spirit and life of an urbanplace that Brasiliaor Tema lack. They are in fact the people'screation, full of the vibrancyand color that go with life.

Architects' RenewalCommittee in Harlem,1968

the Architects' Renewal Committee in Harlem, is working toward in its plans for the future of Harlem is not city building but city living. Soul architecture.

And what they expect to produce is not a revolutionary master plan but a city village, reflecting a different balance between local, neighborhood needs and metropolitan priorities. "The real issue," says Max Bond, executive director of ARCH, "is not taste or technology. The real issue is the intent of the society. If you have the will, technology will follow. We have good design, good architects, but we do not have good cities because our goals are not good."

What is revolutionary about Black city planning today is its goals. First, that there should be more important functions for preciouscity land than making money. Second, that the ghetto architect should be a representative of the poor people, responding to their wishes, rather than an advocate of the white middle class imposing its compartmentalizing values and gridiron street plan upon Black and Spanish-speakingpeople who have quite other social ideals. And third, that it's worth seeing whether they might be able to come up with a better environment for city living than traditional city planners have been able to achieve.

WHAT

ARCH,

265

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"In consideringwhat a 'people-planned' city would be," Bond writes,"I think we have to relateto the currentfadamongarchitectsfor studyingGreektowns,anything built by the people.In every casewe find not only a coherentexpression,but one full of individualvariety,full of richness,full of life. Architectsseek this and writemonographsaboutit but neverdo it. And we'retrying to find a way to do it."

ARCH, a small,nonprofitgroup of young Black architects,city planners,and lawyers, fundedpartlyby the Officeof EconomicOpportunity,partlyby privategrants, and partly by commissions,was founded in I964 to provide planningand urban design servicesto low-incomecommunitiesthat otherwisewould lack them. ARCH fosters community involvement, helps obtain federal funds for low-cost housing, urbanrenewal interpretsrent and housinglaws,helpsdevelopcommunity-supervised Black people. plans,and triesto save land for This last has turnedout to be crucial.For with the soaringland valuesand severe apartmentclutch, one group that definitelyhas Harlemon its mind is New York's realestatemen.As the centerof New Yorkmovesuptown,visionsdancethroughtheir headsof lucrativeapartmenttowerslookingdown the length of CentralPark from IIoth Street to their high-rentcounterpartson CentralPark South. And of I25th Street made over into Sixth Avenue stoneland.Down with the Apollo and Daddy officeblockbusters.

Grace;up with maximum-land-utilization The line is being held by communitybrushfiresof resentmentand resistancein a the piers,I ioth numberof areas:the EastHarlemtriangle,WestHarlem/Morningside, Street, I25th Street, the St. Nicholasarea,and that most famousbrushfireto date, scene by Columbiastudentsover putting the university'sgym the world-publicized in MorningsidePark.

Agitationdoespay off. "Sincethe riots,white realestatedevelopershave beenmore willingto negotiateand therehave beenmoregroupswithinthe communitywillingto sponsorprotest."

Unfairas manyof the developers'projectssound,they comeinto focuswhenlooked at from the angle of the stereotypedwhite picture of Harlem:filthy, falling-down hallwayscompletewith tatteredchildrenand rats. Needed: white money and white knowhowto reclaimthe hideousslum.

In fact, Black people live in some of the best real estate in the city. "Physically, Harlemis terrific,"is the way Max Bond puts it.

While emphasizingthe need to eliminatethe rotting tenements,he points to Harlem's humanscale, to the fact that Harlemwas well and spaciouslylaid out for the middleclass(unlikethe LowerEast Side, which was built crampedfor immigrants).

Insteadof harpingon seedy alleys that breedcrime,he talksabout Harlem'sgreat hillsidesand slopes,about its broadboulevardsand potentiallywell-definedstreets.

Insteadof focusingon the honky-tonkfacadeof I25th Street, he notes its superior location,quicklyaccessibleto both Kennedyand La Guardiaairports,an expressstop on every majorsubwayline.

And while recognizingthat dilapidated,overcrowdedhousingdoes force many of Harlem'sactivitiesto take placein the streets,he praisesthe spiritand entertainment 266

of that street life. "The elements in the Black community that we would like to maintain as good, that we feel are good, have their origins in the street organization. You can send your children out to play and the neighborhood will take care of them, because the street is the living room. The streets are informal, they're real. They're the place where your friends are, but where the enemy (the police) is, too. Black people enjoy the streets; they like to go for walks. Everyone is at home outdoors. Many cornersare symbolic places- I25th Street and Seventh Avenue where Malcolm X used to speak, Michaud's bookshop used to be- in the struggle for equality, for liberation."

So while real estate men would like to get tall office buildings lined up shoulder to shoulder and turn I25th Street into yet another traffic tunnel, ARCHaims at preserving

I25th Street's "main street quality." "All the other crosstown streets are anonymous.

What has happened to 8th Street is a good example of what we don't want."

Drawing:

ARCH

Their planhasa lot of charm.A tree-linedmall,sidewalkcafes,stands,two kindsof buses- expressesfor thoseintent on theirdestination,localsfor thosewho ride the bus for fun. And the tall officebuildingsarescatteredto the side or backof the block,and are servicedby low, garage-likeunloadingand parkingbuildings,to keep cars and trucksfromtakingover the street.The goalis not just charm:ARCH wantsto demonstrate that Black people can plan for themselves,and wish to create their own environment.

Any Harlemstreet is a communityplace,a placefor meetingand chatting.By the sametoken Blackpeopleare morepublicabout their houses.They do a lot of entertaining. One ARCH suggestion for innovative Black housing is "rooms that float between

apartmentsand couldbe usedby a womanwho wantsto takein sewing,by the family who wantsto take in a boarder,or by the familythat has a relativecomingup from the South."

When ARCH planners talk about parks, they don't stress a return to nature: they talk about maximum use. Their plan for Morningside Park does not send the Columbia playing field back to grass; it appropriatesit for Harlem's use. It does not fill in the blasted gym site; it turns it into a natural amphitheater for Motown rock groups, the "Last Poets," the New Heritage Repertory Theater, and local performers.And it puts in a swimming pool/skating rink, a soul-food garden, play areas,a seating wall, meeting steps, sand pits, a fort, an outdoor exhibition area. And, they say, why not have bars?

"People might come into the park and bring a part of their lives."

In sum, Bond says: "I imagine that the Black city would be like a very rich fabric.

It would not be a fabric with a superimposedpattern but one with multicolor threads running through it. A great mix of housing, social facilities, and working places, rather than a series of distinct zones, each separate, each pure, each Puritanical. A Lincoln Center, pompous and dull and completely aloof from the surrounding blocks, simply could not happen in a Black city. Art for art's sake is not part of the Black world.

Black art is always concerned with defining the Black experience."

What would the ideal Black city look like? It is impossible to say, because "so far Black people have not had the chance to express their culture in built things."

What would be such a Black city's effect on the rest of America?At best the Black man's spirit, outgoing life style, and demand for human scale and urban meeting places could have a vital, invigorating effect on cities, much as jazz and soul and slang have had on American music and language.

To those who are appalled by the idea of the poor having a say in an area traditionally the province of those with extensive professionaltraining, Max Bond suggests: "There is no great danger in seeing whether other ways of determining architecture might work. The people cannot do a worse job than architects have done. How could the people possibly be more parochialand less sensitive to real human needs and concerns?"

268

Salvation Art FRANK

CONROY

WHEN I WAS S IXTEEN,

Author of "Stop Time"

going to summer school to make up for certain failed courses,

I met a kid named Duke who lived uptown. He was an easy-going boy, strong for his age, with light brown skin and enormous dark eyes. He played jazz guitar and fooled around on the piano - our friendship had started at the keyboard, in fact, both of us cutting class to play illicit four-hand blues on the Washington Irving High School grand. He lived in a housing project on upper Lexington Avenue, and I used to go up on those hot summer nights and hang out. I met his family, of course- his father who worked at the Post Office, elderly grandmother who talked about the old days in North Carolina, sister who went out with a sailor and kept trying to lose weight, and his mother who cooked, in her tiny kitchen, some of the best food I'd ever eaten - but most of the time Duke and I were out of the apartment, on the street. There were dances in the basement of the project, some fantastic stickball games in the dark, an occasionalcrap game, and once in a while a little drinking of wine, but the main activity was talk. We talked and talked the nights away, sitting up on the black iron rail of the project fence jiving the girls and shooting the breeze with the neighborhood studs.

Duke was an utterly straightforwardkid. Very calm, gentle, and a good companion.

I didn't realize at the time how rare his situation was- the family intact, father working, mother working half a day, the whole group, including Duke, up for church on Sunday mornings. He was well liked in the neighborhood, and the fact that I was his pal was all the cachet I needed. We shared a delight in the spoken word, and perhaps that was why, when the great jive artists came by, the master talkers, the magicians, they always stopped to say hello.

At first I didn't understand them, that is to say I didn't understand many of the words they used, nor the exact meaning of many of the idioms, but I got the drift.

It seemed not to be necessary to know all the words, so much of the message was in the delivery itself, in the rhythms, silences, and dynamics of a language that is half words, half music. They were beautiful cats, each with his own voice, his own instrument, grooving themselves and everyone around them. Language was a feast.

As the summer passed I learned the words and the idioms. I talked myself the way I had always talked, but my ears missed nothing. I missed nothing Duke did not miss.

And at precisely that point I began, without knowing why, to feel uncomfortable. The initial technical mysteries of the uptown vernacular had been cleared away only to reveal a deeper mystery. What were they talking about? I knew the words, I knew 270

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the music,I relishedevery subtlechangeof dialectfor comicor dramaticeffect, and yet the essentialsubjectmatterof most of the talk was beyondmy grasp.There was somethingstrangeabout talk uptown. Rumors,hints, unspokenframesof reference, allusionsand exaggerationsfilledevery speech,as if the speakerwereunablethrough somepreviousbondof honorto speakdirectly.Therewasa senseof urgency,as if each artist, in looking over his shoulder in the midst of an important phrase, expressed the fact that the roots of conversation were elsewhere. All of Harlem seemed to be covered by an immense oral network, a spider web of talk in which each strand trembled sympathetically to the movement at the center-a placeless, timeless center that no one had ever actually seen, and of which I would remain, ipso facto, forever ignorant.

When it began to get cold the street life ended and Duke and I went our separate ways. It wasn't until a year later, under entirely different circumstances,that I began to understandsome of the mystery.

I was working at a hot-dog stand in the Union Square subway station, a three-week stint until I got something better, with two Puerto Rican kids who spoke no English.

Not that communication would have been possible even if they had, since we worked in the midst of a continuous blast of noise sufficiently loud to drown out everything but a scream.The noise of the crowd, the roar of the trains,and the never-ending crash of the turnstiles were in themselves enough to overload the ears- additional explosions from the air hammersof two workmen tearing out an undergroundentrance to a bank no more than ten yards away seemed comically unnecessary.(They were still at it when I quit.) With so much noise the experience was more like silence than anything else.

Deaf-mutes, the customers pointed to what they wanted and paid without speaking.

I worked, making the simple robot moves it was my duty to perform, with only my eyes alive. The Puerto Rican kids filled me with sadness. Eager, alert, and dedicated in their shit jobs, they rushed back and forth on our narrow slatted runway for no reasonat all, as if they were somehow getting points for snappiness,as if someone were watching, when in fact had they died where they stood the crowd would not have noticed, would not have paused, but gone on, oblivious, intent on its brute impetus.

Almost without being aware of it, I began watching the two old Negroes who ran a shoeshinestand in a sort of cul-de-sac behind some girdersnext to us. Their movements hypnotized me. Eventually, I spent every day watching their dance.

They had few customers. One or two an hour. Someone passing by would glimpse them through the girders, detach himself from the crowd, and go and climb on the stand. His shoes would be shined by a man who seemed not to notice the tools of his own trade or even the color of the leather. Whichever of the two old Negroes administered the shine, he seemed truly not to be there while he was doing it. If the customer broke the spell by moving his feet on the brasssaddles, speaking, or in any other way forcing a response, old shoulders would move under the cheap gray jacket in such a way as to express irritation- as some diplomat waiting for the imminent arrival of an important personagemight shrug away an annoying underling.

When they were not shining shoes they were moving, drifting, wandering around the two or three hundred square feet behind the girders. They did not rush, and yet 271

their moves were purposeful,they held the purposefulness of people waiting for an importantmessageor contact.The crowd,awesomein numbersand weight, unquestionablystrong,moved by - but the two old men seemedalwaysto be lookingpast the crowd,above the crowdinto the distance.(Of coursein the subwaytherewasno distance.Nor, sinceboth of them wereshort,couldthey have been trulylookingover the crowd.They wereassumingthe posturesof menlookingoverandbeyondit.) Their individualmovementsand theircollectivetwo-manmovementswerea danceexpressing the fact that they werenot simplyshoeshinemen, they werenot in any waydefined by the circumstancesimmediatelysurroundingthem, but were men whose deepest interestslay elsewhere,beyondthe visible.

And I believedthem.Therewasnot the slightestfraudulencein theirdance.It was their life they danced.I believedutterly in them as two importantmen disguisedas shoeshineboys. (To besure,I alsobelievedin myselfas an importantboy disguisedas a hot-dogman.) They had the auraof powerfulmen, and without thinkingabout it I acceptedthem as such. I enteredtheirdrama,findingmyselffollowingtheir eyes out over the crowd, findingmyself waiting,anticipatingsome mysteriousoccurrence.I existed behindthem as their powerful,moreknowledgeablespiritsradiatedoutward, calling,contacting,exchangingmessageswith other powerfulspiritsbeyondmy ken.

And then one day I sawsomethingin the faceof one of them,a subtle,indescribable and I knew that althoughthere expressionof stoicismtiring, of death approaching, had been no fraud,ratheronly a philosophyto sustainthemselves,therewasno basis for their danceof hope, no one they werewaitingfor, no intereststhey held beyond the visible,and no more to them than what I couldplainlysee. It was a tremendous shock.SimultaneouslyI understoodabout the summer.The mysteriousreferences,rumors,and allusionshad been withoutfoundation.What I had heardon the streetsof Harlem,andwhatthe two old mendancedin the roaringsubwaywasstyle- sheerstyle.

Fantasyweavesin and out throughBlack culturelike gold thread in a tapestry.

An entire people have respondedto miseryby creatingfantasiesas powerfulas the pain they have endured.

272

An

Interview grewup on rI5th Street in Harlem.He went to George School and by the time he was sixteenwas addictedto WashingtonHigh kick He able to the habit about five yearsago, and since then was drugs. in Air Force been the and held a variety of jobs. Now, at twentyhe has four, he finds himselfa freshmanat Harvard.The followingexcerptsare from an interviewheld in Cambridgeone autumnday with JaneSchwarz, a freelancewriter.

WILSON

BURCH

How old wereyou whenyou graduated from highschool?

Sixteenand a half.

How didyou likethe Air Force?

I didn't. But I begandoing my own thing there.

And on dope?

Whatdoyou mean?

Well, in the Air Force I learnednot to be ashamedto knowmyself.And I got an insightinto how peoplereact to everydaythings,to see humanreciprocity- how one guy dependson anotherguy. This leadsto understanding the whole psychologyof crowdsand how they can be manipulated.

Right.

Andthenyou did what?

Hustled.

Do you regretit?

No. Why shouldI? I was doing exactly what I wanted to do.

Whendidyou decidethatway of life wasn'tso good?

I didn't exactly decide it wasn't good-I just realized that I wantedother things.

Whatmadeyou realizethat?

EssentiallyI realizedit all the time. I lived a pretty fast life. Since early childhoodI've been exposedto rough, gut, Black reality.I just decidedit was time for me to do somethingabout it.

Whatdidyou do?

I saw that the only way to get some of the things I wanted was to give up dope. And I decided the only way to accomplishthat was to removemyself from the whole scene, to go awaywhereI could see other things, become interestedin other things. So I went into the Air Force-I used the serviceto get rid of the habit.

To get awayfromdrugs?

To get awayfrom the environment.DrugsI can handle.

But the idea of being subjected to the whole Black ghetto scene, to the very subtle humility, to counting yourselfasa second-bestentity, wassomethingI couldn't tolerate.

Did you everfeel thatyou couldn'tmakeit?

Sure, at certain times I've felt that life's been insurmountable,but it's not a thing I've adheredto as a philosophyor elseI wouldbe dead.I just wouldn'thave been able to make it this far, becausethere have been any numberof dead ends in my life that I've had to cope with just in orderto live.

My earlylife wasvery muddledbecauseI didn'tknow what I wantedto do. I was reallytrying not to identify with myself.But now the bag'sdifferent.I'm doingmy thing.

Whathas becomeof yourfriends?

Mostly all dope addicts.

Whydidyou cometo Harvard?

I had decided to go to school and I was influencedby someonewho was a Harvardgraduate,who broughtme to talk to someof the admissionspeople.

Haveyou givenany thoughtto whatyou mightmajorin?

At this point I'm undecided.For all practicalpurposes my intendedfield of concentrationis economics.

Whataboutphilosophy?

All the directionwe have now is basedon a bunch of 273

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attitudes of the young up to where they should be in order to cope with the future.

Do you thinkpeople in Harlem will resentyour coming up hereto Harvard?

Why should they? I don't have any problem relating to them. When I go back I won't be a "boojie"-a bourgeois nigger-I'll still be the same guy; I'll be able to talk to the drug addicts, to the hustlers, to the people.

You really feel this experienceat Harvard isn't going to changeyou?

It can't. My characteristics are pretty definite at this point. If I had come to Harvard when I was first out of high school, I would have changed.

If you had to describeHarlem, how would you do it?

First of all, it's home to me. It's a Negro ghetto, in New York City where all the Negroes who come from the rural areasin the South have settled. And it's a happy place.

At the same time it is a very sad place, where drugs are very, very prevalent.

What helpedyou most duringyour childhood in Harlem?

I have to give a great deal of credit to my parents. I was really pushed by my father and mother; I don't think they really understood in what direction they were pushing me, but they did try to do what they could for me.

It's the same attempt all parents make. That, added to the fact that I've always placed a lot of strength in my own convictions and what I thought I could do.

To some extent I was lucky, because there are many things that could have happened that didn't happen.

I've taken a lot of chances, I've been confronted with death several times, and just the fact that I'm still here indicates to me that I have something to do.

old, archaicprinciples-you know, Greek, Romanphilosophy,hundredsand hundredsof yearsold. It doesn't approximatethe realitiesof right now. There'sno such thing as a modern-dayphilosophyand it's desperately needed.

Areyou doinganythingin the Cambridge community?

I'd like to use the manpowerhere- the studentsfrom Harvardand Radcliffethat want to teach- to develop a schoolsystemthat wouldbringsomeof the benefitsof the Harvardtype of educationto the poorkids of Cambridgeand Roxbury,both Blackand white. I think it's a necessity.The schoolsystemsaredeplorable.I want to directsomeof the militantenergiesof the universityand communityinto education,to bringingthe minds and 274

Do you know what this somethingis?

Well, I sway people. When I talk with Black people it's a very spontaneous thing - ears open, eyes open, and they believe. I feel obligated to tell them what they need to know, to be very definite about what I believe in, to cause them to question my beliefs and the beliefs of others, and not to accept anything as truth without question. I feel as though it's my job to teach, it's my job to demonstrate, it's my job to love, and eventually it will be my job to die.

I've taken the wrong road a couple of times, but somehow I've always known that a great man lives his life knowing that he's responsible for the plight of other people and that he has the ability to do something.

Do you expectto go backto HarlemafterHarvard?Do to Harlemand otherghettos? you feel a responsibility I feel a responsibilityto myself.I'm definitelygoingback to Harlem;to all the otherghettos all over the world.

Youfeel thatyour life'sworklies in helpingthepeopleof theghettos?

Wait a minute.I'm not an idealistor anything.It's just that becauseof my past I realizethat the only way to help myselfis throughhelpingBlackpeople.It's as simple as that. I don't care how it sounds.Every man has in mind and everythingelse is secondself-preservation It's the self identifiedwith a problem,but always ary. first the self. I'm not saying that to try to play down the fact that I sincerelywant to help peopleand Black people. BasicallyI believe in humanbeings.To hate is wrongbut it's a very necessarything.A manwho knows that he has a job to do has to understandthe human emotionsthat causepeople to act in certainways. Hate is very useful- if you canget peopleto hate blindly,you can get them to forget about some of the things that reallybotherthem.So leadersresortto it. Knowingthat somedayI'll lead people, I would hope to establisha precedentof not havingto resortto it. AlthoughI don't know.

Whatdo you feel thatyou yourselfcan do in Harlem?

I'd like to get rid of the existingdope problem.

How wouldyou go aboutit?

If you want to rid Harlemof dope, you need a total annihilationof the city's narcoticslaws. You see, the city lawsdiffertremendouslyfrom the state lawsand aredesigned to keep dope containedwithin Harlem.In New York City, for havinga certainamountof drugsyou'd probablyget a suspendedsentence.For the sameamount of drugsin New YorkState you wouldprobablybe confined to jail for a year.

Beyond changingthe laws, what else should be done about the narcoticsproblem?

You're going to have to deal with the junkie himself.

It's been proven by statistics, if statistics prove anything, that the recidivism rate-the rate of return-is about eighty-five per cent. So you have two possibilities: either the institutions that rehabilitate drug addicts are wrong, or you have to accept the idea that you can't cure a drug addict. Okay, start off with the institutions. There are a lot of very, very bad things that are wrong with them.

They act as if they don't realize that narcotic drug addiction is about eighty-five per cent psychological, about fifteen per cent physical. To rehabilitate a drug addict you have to analyze the reason why this man resorted to drugs. First of all, because they were available. Secondly, because there is some deep psychological problem that he's trying to run away from. In order for an institution to be effective it has to handle this problem; it has to reorient this man, it has to give the man a sense of values.

In other words when he's cured he has to be able to come back into reality; cope with it as it is. They don't do that. You have to give him a means to earn a living.

They don't do that. They give him some really bull job that he doesn't want to do, that he feels is beneath him.

In order to rectify all this you have to set up an institution that will consider dope a psychological problem, and attack it from that direction. You then have to accept the fact that you can't cure all dope addicts. So what do you do for the ones you can't cure? Either the

Youhonestly feel there'sa consciouseffortto containdrugs withinHarlem?

It has to be conscious.First of all, no Blackman brings dopeinto the country- he justdoesn'thavethe facilities.

It's broughtin by the white man. Now, secondly,the marketsfor narcoticsare all in certainplaces.All right, then if you look at the lawsthey are all designedto contain it within a certainarea.It's reasonableto sell dope in New York City, because,numberone, the laws are suchthat you arenot going to get the maximumamount of time, and numbertwo, it's profitable.

Photograph: Virginia C. Myers

federalgovernmenthas to recognizedope as a sickness and handleit as a medicalproblem,or they must make it very unattractivefor anyoneto sell dope by giving it away free. Or stop letting it in the country.

Is thisfeasible?

Well, dope'sgoing to get out of hand. It's going to tap the lily-whitechildrenin Scarsdaleandall the othersuburbanareas.It's no longer a thing that's just going to contaminatethe Black folks. It's going to take over everybodyif they don't watchit. They realizethis now.

It's too bad they didn't realizeit long before.

Whatelsedo you wantto do in Harlem?

I'd like to teachfor a while.I'd like to see the Blackman educated,actuallyhave him know what directionsociety's going in and why it is going that way. In other wordshave him know somethingabout the basic psychologyof the forcesthat controlhim. Teachinga really thorough course in Black history in school would be good.The Blackmanshouldlearnthe simplefactsabout things like slavery and religioussuppression.If he can understandthat these are things he createdhimself, it wouldrenderhimfree to do otherthingswith his energy, to use untappedmental potential towardpreservation of humanityand not spendall his time hating.

I'd like to see the Blackman becomemore interested in his own identity and stop thinkingabout the white man. But don't get me wrong, I don't hate anybody becausethey'rewhite. It's a dreary,drab,sick thing to hate. There'sa lot of it in Harlemnow and it is what is needed.There'sno other way that people can begin to manifest their own sense of pride, their own sense of being. Hate is a tool that they're using right now. It's only when hate is carriedto an extremethat it becomes really harmful.In small doses it can cause people to changeand can be a usefultool.

Wherewouldyou beginmakingthesechanges?

With the children.Simply try to reorientthe children; give them the self-pride,the identity that they need.

That'show it worksfromgenerationto generation.You educate the children.Give them the properimagesto emulateand then they themselveswill rectify the existing chaoticconditions.

Whataretheseimages?

A Black man who's sufficientlystrong, who can cope with reality;who's not going to run out and leave his family, who's going to be there; who's a fighter,who's not a quitter, becausequitters never win. Just a man, period.

276

How shouldthe Blackman go about changinghis selfimage?

He must starteducatinghis own childrenin an environment that they arecomfortablein. Give them backtheir media identity. Use the advertisingand communications to projectto the peoplea senseof pride,a senseof being important.Essentially,beingimportantlies within each individual,every humanbeing on this planet is important.

Isn'tit difficultto convinceyourselfthatyou areimportant if you don'thavea job andyourkidsarehungry?

If we just analyze the thing from a logical standpoint we'd find that the reasonwhy people in Harlemdon't have jobs, and why there is poorhousing,is society.Society has really made it very hard for the Black man.

He is not allowedthe opportunityto educate himself, and knowledgeis power.They say the whole system is based on educationbut it's not. The system is based on knowing,knowinghow to take the things that you know and make them useful.The traditionalsystemhas made it impossiblefor the Negro to get anywhere.Not only doesn't he have the knowledgeto acquirecertain jobs, but therehave been occasionswhereNegroeshave had the knowledgeand beendenied the job for one reason or another. will self-knowledge How, specifically, helpthe Blackman?

It will showhim that he hasno problemin society.That he's a man. That he can compete.Take my father:he's mademoney, but he's not a happyman. He hasn'tbeen able to see that in this society the fact that he was able to acquireit means that he's able to compete. All the timehe'ssortof beensufferingfromthispsychosis,thinking that he wasn't as good as he is. He's not a quitter, so in a sensehe's won.

Thisself-pridewill haveto comefromwithintherace?

Right. There'snothing that the powerstructurecan do for the Blackman except just leave him alone.

So there'snothingthatoutsiderscan do for Harlem?

Well, there are a lot of whites in Harlemnow who are doing a good job. Their intentions are sincere, but I think their job is to handlethe white folks.

In Harlem?

Not in Harlem,justhandlethe whitefolks,period.White society is educatedin the rudimentsbut not in the realities and that'swherethesepeoplecan help.The average white man comesinto a ghetto like Harlem.He experiencesfor the first time in his life the gut feelingof what

prejudiceactuallyis: the personal,spontaneousemotion that comes from within when you know the people aroundyou don't like you. They don't know whether you'reevil or good, they dislikeyou simplybecauseyou representsomethingthat'sforeign.Now the white man findshe'safraid,becausenowhe'sgot to dealwith people he knows nothing about-people that know all about him just by readingbooksthat reflecthis image.So how does he handle these people?He has to do one of two things: he has to give them somethingto cope with, somethingto fear,somethingto not understand.But he realizeseven now that is very difficultto do becausethe sleepingtiger has woken up. So, if this won't work ... in comes the UrbanLeague,the AmericanChristianin Africa.

Well-intentioned groups,you mean?

Well-intentioned,but here'sthe thing:someof my best friends,peoplelike you, are in Harlem,and they have a place.But they don't control;they don't pay the piper so they don't call the tune. They can be used; their effortsaremisrepresented.

How so?

Well, the Urban Leagueand groupslike that come in and educate the Black man and give him money. But he doesn'tmake the money. He still is placedwithin a society that he has absolutelyno controlover. So what good is it? You're telling people that the only way to get ahead is to get money, "becomeeducatedso you can get more of this, so that you can get the money that I have."

Giving themmoneyis not the answer.Makingmoney availableso that schoolscan be built, so that we'll have the properrecreationfacilitiesso Blackpeoplecandivert some of the energiesand intentionsthat they have towarduseful,meaningfulthings- that'sa good thing.But just the money?What good is it?

This is somethingthat reallybugsme. The idea that a certainamountof moneycando somethingis not going to work. There are alreadyenough institutions.There hasbeen this grossapproachto the problem.How do we in fact help a millionpeopleat one time? You can't do it. What has to happennow is to begin to deal with the individualneeds of Mr. So-and-So.That doesn't apply only to Harlembut all over the world.

The Black man has been in slaveryfor six thousand years:he's not going to suddenlyevolve one afternoon and be a freemanand be able to do whathe wantsto do any placehe goes. It will take time for him to get what he thinkshe wants,for him to get any sortof power,for

him to beginto createa destinyforhimself.It's not going to happenall of a sudden.

Whataboutthesuburban groupsthatrecentlycamein and paintedhousesin Harlem?

I don't see anythingwrongwith that. Essentiallyit's not the fact that they come in and paint, it's the fact that they realizethat therehas been injusticeperpetratedon the partof thosein control.These peoplethat represent the middleclass,they'renot the ones that count. Their position is really no differentthan the position of the people in Harlem.The only thing they have is a little moresecurity,but they don't have free will, they don't controlthe government.The powerin the government is controlledby about ten per cent of the populationof this country. They sit back entombedin their houses someplaceon some mountainand they own the media, they determine.

Thesegroupswho come to HarlemfromWhite Plains are just humanbeingsreactingto a very humansituation. They see somethingwrong and they react as any other humanbeingswould or should.

Thereis nothingwrongwith them tryingto help.The fact that they help will for a lot of them relieve their consciencesabout differentbeliefsthat they have. You don't thinkeveryonewho comesis a do-gooder,do you?

It's certainlynot the truth.They aren'tall therebecause they arein love with Blackpeople.Some of them come to Harlemto help Blackpeoplebecausethey hate Black people;they come becausethey feel that somehowtheir hatescan either be justifiedor disproven.

WhataboutthepeoplewithinHarlem,whatcan theydo?

Essentiallywhatyou'resayingis whatcan the Blackman do for himself.What he can do is changeas the times change. In his heart he knows that things are getting better. But I don't think that just becauseof this he's going to becomecomplacent.He knowsthat in orderto changeanythinghe's going to have to actively partake.

The answerto the Black man'sproblemdoes not lie in Harlem,it lies in the Blackman. It lies in his awareness that he's not in this world by himself,that he's in thisworldwith millionsand millionsof otherBlackpeople who are being controlledby a very smallminority.

The answerto his problemwill come throughintensified communication, throughbecomingautonomous,through economicmanipulation.The Black man must somehow learn to use the economicpotentialfor power that he has. He must createhis own economicsystem.

Whatsortof economicsystem?

A systembasedon me and every otherBlackman.Now 277

we have a subsistencelevel-we do in fact acquiresome of the grossnationalproduct.But we could combineall our individualincomesinto a force that would be very effective in a capitalistsociety, like boycott. We comprisesucha percentageof the blue-collarlaborforcethat if we all stoppedworkingall throughthe countryat one time, it would have quite an effect. These are workable mechanicsthat the powerstructureusesitself.Theseare workablemechanicsthat the Blackman hasin his grasp. be doingmore?Is the government Shouldthegovernment awareof thesituation?

Don't ask me that. You know the government'saware.

They study laborstatistics,they have economicprojections, they know what being poor is about, they create the conditionsthat exist in this country. createdtheproblem?

Youfeel thegovernment Not the problem,the problems,all over the country. I mean,do you thinkfor one minute that the government doesn'tknow?I admit that there are people there who have altruisticmotives, who really don't know what's goingon andwouldreallylike to do something.But there are a lot of people there that reallyknow. They know.

Whataboutpoliticsin Harlem?

Well, politics is the game in this economy.In a democratic society, the power is in the political structure.

Yearsago it used to be - well, at one point it was force, then wealth. Now it's changeda bit. You don't necessarilyhave to be wealthyto be powerfulin this country, all you have to do is havepoliticalstrength.Andpolitical strengthis essentiallypeople- it's peoplehavingcontrol of people. Hitler wasn'ta rich man, he just could sway people. He was a dynamicpersonalityand that's what the real power is. That's what television is all about: sellingand indoctrinationand exploitation.

Whatcould someonelike me do to changeexistingconditions?

Believe and care and be sincere. If you believe that what's going on is wrong, then let your beliefs guide you to do whateveryou think is necessaryin order to change the wrong.If your beliefsare strongenough to keep you from falteringor being misled,you are going to changethe conditionsthat you do not believein.

There'sno one thing you can do: it's a very complex problem.You do your little thing and I'll do mine and throughall these little changesyou're going to have a very big change.It's possiblethat all these little things 278

will make a revolution necessary. Becoming frustrated because you can't do your little thing because the system won't allow it, might make it obvious to people that it's necessary to have another system to do their thing in.

There is going to be power politics between the Black man. There are two different mentalities existing right now: the so-called Black mentality and the so-called Negro mentality. Both factions are going to acquire some power and some wealth. The ideologies are not going to be the same and you are going to have war.

Then how can you say that Harlem'sgetting better?

Out of this upheaval something will evolve, something that is going to be good. Harlem and the Black people have to go through a whole series of changes.

What changes?

Well, first of all, after they find their identity, after they know who they are, then they've got to decide what to do and how to do it. They've got to start thinking about the Black man's position in fifty or sixty years, how he relates to humanity.

In fifty years there will definitely be political turmoil.

You can see it happening now with the death of Malcolm X. I think that was the first cleavage in the whole cycle; it's definitely a thing that you're going to see happening more and more. As people acquire power, along come the necessary evils that one acquires with power.

It's not going to be a happy time. That's why I don't like to think of it in fifty years' time; I'd rather think of it in a hundred years' time.

What would you hope for the future of Harlem?

In the future Harlem will be a community handled by Black men who will be a new breed of men with a new social awareness. The Negro in this country will still be in the minority as far as numbers go, but there will be a different situation. Harlem will be the melting pot, or stopping-off place, for a huge symposium of Black people from all over the world, because of the intensified communications now going on between the African factions and some of the factions within Harlem. So the people who are in power in Harlem will become very significant Black people throughout the world. You'll have internal struggles with some sort of underground type of thing finding its roots in Harlem. It will probably be the place -and I'm sure everyone knows it -where the revolution starts in this country, if one starts. The brainpower will come from a place like Harlem and so will the money.

What steps would you take to insure a betterchildhoodfor your own child than you had yourself?

Well, when I have a child - this is going to sound sort of conceited-all he's got to do is just be like his dad and he's going to make it because his dad's a winner. Never been a quitter all his life.

I'd instill in him a sense of pride and free will. I'd also like to give him a set of values that he can live by and pass on.

But you are an exceptionto the rule.

Not exactly an exception because there are a lot of exceptions. There are a lot of people in Harlem that have got what it takes to make it but they have the wrong values. That's what had me really in bad for a while: trying to understand what's worth having and what isn't.

This society is based on money and what money can do for an individual, not on the abstract sort of things that mean more than money: ideas, desires, ambition.

For a long time I was a cheat. I used the power I had to persuade people to do what I wanted them to do for my own benefit. I've had money, but I wasn't happy, and that really made me begin to see that it wasn't in money. I found out that my values were nowhere; that they weren't going to get me what I wanted. They weren't even going to get me what I thought I wanted.

I didn't want the same things then that I want now.

At this point I'm glad my life was the way it has been.

Primarily becauseI understand life a lot better than most people and I'm not stymied by reality. If I had had some of the things I wanted - what I thought Iwanted: the best of everything - I don't think I would be the type of person that I am today and I don't think the possibilities that I have now would be open to me. I've never been as happy as I am right now.

Photograph: Gordon Parks, LIFE Magazine

HARLEM

Cultural

A

SELECTED JEAN

History

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BLACKWELL

HUTSON

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Robeson, Paul. Here I Stand. N.Y., I958.

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The Metropolitan Museum of Art is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 速 www.jstor.org

Seton, Marie. Paul Robeson.London, 1958.

Miller, Kelly. Roosevelt and the Negro.

Washington, D.C., 1907.

Dean, Elmer Wendell. An ElephantLives n Harlem(CharlesChristopherSiefert).

N.Y., 1945.

BIOGRAPHIES

Lee, Hannah Farnham. Memoir of Pierre Toussaint.Boston, I854.

Sheehan,ArthurandElizabeth.PierreToussaint, A Citizenof Old New York.N.Y.,

1953.

Rogers, Joel Augustus. World'sGreatMen Alexis, Stephen. Black Liberator:The Life Color.

N.Y., I946-I947. of of ToussaintL'Ouverture.N.Y., 1949.

Thomas,Will. The Seeking.N.Y., 1953.

CitizenToussaint.Boston, Hawkins, Hugh (ed.). BookerT. Washing- Korngold,Ralph.

I944. ton and His Critics.Boston, I962.

Waxmon, Percy. The BlackNapoleon: The Marshall, Edward. Booker T. Washington, Story of Toussaint L'Ouverture.N.Y., The World'sMost ExtraordinaryNegro.

I93I.

N.Y., I9Io.

Fauset, Arthur Huff. SojournerTruth....

Matthews, Basil Joseph. Booker T. WashChapel Hill, 1938. ington.... Cambridge,Mass., 1948.

Pauli, Hertha Ernestine. Her Name Was Scott, Emmett Jay. BookerT. Washington.

Truth.N.Y., 1962.

Garden City, N.Y., 19I6.

Earl.HarrietTubman.Washington, Conrad, Spencer, Samuel R. BookerT. Washington D.C., I943. and the Negro's Place in AmericanLife.

Walker, David. A Brief Sketchof the Life Boston, I955. and Characterof David Walker.N.Y., Washington, Booker T. Up from Slavery.

1848.

N.Y., I19I. Ward, Samuel Ringgold. Autobiographyol Chew, Abraham. A Biographyof Colonel a FugitiveNegro.... London, i885.

CharlesYoung.Washington,D.C., 1923.

Who's Who in Harlem: The Biographical Registerof a Groupof DistinguishedPerand Charitable sonsof New York'sHarlem.Vol. I - 1949- Religious 1950. N.Y., 1950.

Institutions

De Costa, Benjamin Franklin. ThreeScore and Ten: The Storyof St. Philip'sChurch.

N.Y., 1889.

Historical and Social Fauset, Arthur Huff. Black Gods of the Background Metropolis:Negro ReligiousCults of the UrbanNorth.Philadelphia,1944.

DuBois, William Burghardt. Black ReconGreaterNew York Federationof Churches. structionin America.N.Y., I935.

The Negro Churchesof Manhattan.N.Y., . The Gift of Black Folk. Boston, I930.

I924.

Franklin,John Hope. FromSlaveryto Freedom. N.Y., 1967.

Kennedy, Louise V., and Ross, Frank. Bibliographyof NegroMigration.N.Y., 1930.

Litwack, Leon F. North of Slavery: The Negro in the FreeStates, 1790-I860. Chicago, 1961.

Meier, August. Negro Racial Thought in America 1880-I9I5, Racial Ideologiesin the Age of Booker T. Washington.Ann Arbor, I963.

Meier, August, and Rudwick, Elliot. From HisPlantationto Ghetto:An Interpretative tory of AmericanNegroes.N.Y., 1966.

Moon, Bucklin. Primerfor White Folks.

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Negro Year Book. Tuskegee, Ala., I9121947; N.Y., 1952.

Schoell, FranckLouis.... U.S.A. Du Cote des Blancset des Noirs. Paris, 1929.

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Hodges, George W. Touchstonesof Methodism.N.Y., 1947.

Huggins, Willis Nathaniel. Contributionof the CatholicChurchto the Progressof the Negroin the UnitedStates.N.Y., 1932.

Johnson,John Howard. The Warand Other Addresses.N.Y., 1942.

Kenrick, Bruce. Come Out of the Wilderness: The Storyof East HarlemProtestant Parish.N.Y., 1962.

Mays, BenjaminE., and Nicholson, Joseph W. The Negro'sChurch.N.Y., I933.

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King, Martin Luther, Jr. The GreatMarch to Freedom(Phonodisc). Detroit, I963. . A Martin Luther King Treasury.

Yonkers, I964. . We Shall Overcome:The Marchon Washington,1963 (Phonodisc). Council for Civil Rights Leadership, n.p., n.d. . Why We Can't Wait. N.Y., I964.

Bennett, Lerone. What Manner of Man: A Biographyof Martin LutherKing, Jr. Chicago, 1964.

Reddick, LawrenceDunbar ... Crusader WithoutViolence:A Biographyof Martin LutherKing,Jr. N.Y., 1959.

Martin, CharlesDouglas. "He Is Worthy": Sermon delivered by Rev. Charles D. Martin at Bath-Tphillah Moravian Church, 126 W. I36th St., N.Y N.Y., I9I9.

Georges, Norbert. Meet Brother Martin (Martin de Porres).N.Y., 1935.

Jordan, John P. ... Dark Man of God: Life of Martin de Porres.Dublin, 1952.

Tarry, Ellen. Martinde Porres:Saint of the New World.N.Y., 1963.

The Torch (periodical).. . . Articlesfrom The Torch: 1945-1950, 5oth Anniversary of the BlessedMartinGuild. N.Y., 1950.

Merton, Thomas. The Seven-StoreyMountain. N.Y., 1948.

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Powell, AdamClayton, Sr. Againstthe Tide.

N.Y., 1938. . Palestine and Saints in Caesar's Household.N.Y., 1939. . Patriotismand the Negro. N.Y., 1918.

. Riotsand Ruins.N.Y., I945.

Sketchof the Life of Rev. CharlesB. Ray. N.Y., 1887.

Robinson, James Herman. Road Without Turning: The Story of Rev. James H. Robinson.N.Y., I950.

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Political and Economic Changes

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1937.

BIOGRAPHIES

28I

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Cunard, Nancy. Negro Anthology: I931New York (City) Mayor's Commissionto I933. London, 1934.

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Harlem.N.Y., 1935.

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How the N.A.A.C.P. Began.N.Y., I947. . The Negro in the United States. Record, Wilson. The Negro and the CommunistParty.Chapel Hill, I941.

N.Y., I949, I957. . The Negro Family in the United Reid, Ira De A. The NegroImmigrant:His States.N.Y., 1939, 1948. andSocialAdBackground,Characteristics Frost, Olivia (Pleasants).Some Sociological justment,I899-1937. N.Y., 1939.

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Bullock, Ralph W. In Spite of Handicaps: Kiser, Clyde V. Sea Islandto City:A Study BriefBiographicalSketchesof Outstanding of St. Helena Islandersin Harlem and LivingNegroes.N.Y. 1927.

Other Urban Centers. N.Y., 1932.

Kugelmass,JosephAlvin. RalphJ. Bunche, Lait, Jack.New YorkConfidential.Chicago, Fighterfor Peace. N.Y., I952, I962.

Jones, Claudia.Ben Davis, FighterforFree1948.

Lewis,EdwardS. TheMobilityof theNegro: dom, with an Introduction by Eslanda A Study in the AmericanLabor Supply.

Goode Robeson. Brooklyn, N.Y., 1954.

N.Y., I93I. DuBois, W.E.B. DuskofDawn. N.Y., I940.

Locke, Alain Leroy. TheNew Negro.N.Y., Broderick,FrancisL. W.E.B.DuBois. Stanford, Calif., I959.

1925.

Lovejoy, Owen R. The Negro Childrenof Rudwick, Francis L. W.E.B. DuBois....

New York.N.Y., I932.

Philadelphia,1960.

DuBois, W.E.B. A RecordedAutobiography (Phonodisc).New York, n.d.

Herndon,Angelo. Let Me Live.N.Y., 1937.

Hunton, Addie D. William AlpheusHunton ...

N.Y., 1938.

Johnson, JamesWeldon. Along This Way. N.Y., 1933.

Copeland, George Edward. James Weldon Johnson, A Bibliography. N.Y., I951.

Phelps-Stokes Fund. EducationFor Life: Phelps-StokesFund and Thomas Jesse - 1913Jones. A Twenty-fifthAnniversary 1937. N.Y., I937.

Lee, Reba (pseud.). I PassedFor White....

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Hubert, JamesHenry. TheLife of Abraham Lincoln: The Significanceto Negroesand Jews. N.Y., 1939.

Pickens, William. AbrahamLincoln, Man and Statesman. N.Y., 1930.

Quarles, Benjamin. Lincolnand the Negro.

N.Y., 1962.

Lotz, Philip Henry. Rising Above Color.

N.Y., 1943.

Ovington, Mary White. Portraitsin Color.

N.Y., 1927.

Powell, AdamClayton, Jr.MarchingBlacks.

N.Y., I965.

Lewis,Claude.AdamClaytonPowell.Greenwich, Conn., 1963.

Hickey, Neil. Adam ClaytonPowell ...

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Terrell, Mrs. Mary Church. A Colored Womanin a White World.Washington, D.C., 1940.

White, Walter Francis. A Man Called White. N.Y., I948.

Cannon,Poppy. A GentleKnight,My Husband, Walter White. N.Y., I956.

ESSAYS

Adams, Julius. The Challenge:A Study in Negro Leadership. N.Y., I949.

Baldwin, James.The FireNext Time. N.Y., I963.

. Nobody Knows My Name. N.Y., I96I.

. Notesofa NativeSon. Boston, I955.

DuBois, W.E.B. Souls of BlackFolk.N.Y., I903,

I905,

I907,

I920,

I953,

I961.

Ellison,Ralph.ShadowandAct. N.Y., I964.

Locke, Alain. The New Negro. N.Y., I925.

Wish, Harvey. The Negro Since Emancipation. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1964.

Contemporary Harlem Ashmore,HarryS. TheOtherSideof ordan.

N.Y., 1960.

Baldwin, James. "Fifth Avenue Uptown: A Letter from Harlem,"and "East River Downtown, Postscript to a Letter from Harlem," in Gold, Herbert, FirstPerson Singular,EssaysfortheSixties.N.Y., I963.

282

Photograph:GeorgeFrye

Behan,Brendan.BrendanBehan'sNew York.

N.Y., 1964.

Bontemps, Arna, and Conroy, Jack. Anyplace but Here. N.Y., 1966.

Botkin, B.A. New YorkCityFolklore.N.Y., 1956.

Broderick,Francis L., and Meier, August (eds.). NegroProtestThoughtin the Twentieth Century. Indianapolis, 1966.

Brown, Claude. Manchildin the Promised Land. N.Y., I965.

Clark, Kenneth Bancroft. Dark Ghetto.

N.Y., I965. . Negro Protest. Boston, I963.

Clarke,JohnHenrik (ed.). Harlem,A Community in Transition. N.Y., I964.

. Harlem, U.S.A. - The Story of a

City Within a City. Berlin, 1964.

ColumbiaUniversityBureauof AppliedSocial Research.A HarlemAlmanac.N.Y., I964.

Cruse, Harold. Crisisof the Negro Intellectual. N.Y., I967.

De Carava, Roy, and Hughes, Langston.

The Sweet Flypaperof Life. N.Y., 1955.

Dissent (periodical). The Radical Imagination: An Anthologyfrom Dissent Magazine. N.Y., I967.

DuBois, W.E.B. An ABC of Color....

Berlin, I963.

Garfinkel, Herbert. When Negroes March: The March on Washington Movement in the Organizational Policiesfor the F.E.P.C. Glencoe, Ill., 1959.

Harlem Freedom School. Africa, Lost and Found (Phonodisc). N.Y., I964.

Harlem Neighborhoods Association. New York Youth Services Committee Directory of Social Welfare and Health Services Available to Central Harlem. N.Y., 1966.

Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited, New York. Youth in the Ghetto. N.Y., 1964.

Harrington, N.Y.,

Oliver.

Bootsie and Others.

I958.

Harris, Richard E. Delinquency in Our Democracy. Los Angeles, 1954.

Hentoff, Nat. Our ChildrenAre Dying (public schools). N.Y., 1966.

Hughes, Langston. The Book of Negro Folklore. N.Y., 1958. . The Book of Negro Humor. N.Y., I966.

Krosney, Herbert. Beyond Welfare: Poverty in the Supercity. N.Y., 1966.

Levitt, Helen. A Way of Seeing: Photographs of New York. N.Y., 1965.

McDarrah, Fred W. New York, N. Y.: A Photographic Tour of Manhattan Island.

N.Y., I964.

Meeting of Harlem Community Representatives with Mayor Wagner and City Officials at City Hall. N.Y., I959.

Klein, Woody. Let in the Sun. N.Y., 1964.

Lomax, Louis. The Negro Revolt. N.Y., 1962.

- . When the Word Is Given. Cleveland, 1963.

Millstein, Gilbert. New York: True North.

N.Y., I964.

Polner, Murray. Where Shall We Take the Kids? Garden City, N.Y., 1961.

Powell, Adam Clayton, Jr. Keep the Faith, Baby. N.Y., I967.

Ray, Archibald. All Shook Up. N.Y., 1958.

Rustin, Bayard. "The Harlem Riot and in Lynd, Staughton, Non-Violence," Non-Violence in America. Indianapolis, I966.

Sexton, Patricia Cayo. Spanish Harlem.

N.Y., I965.

Shapiro, Fred C. Race Riots .... N.Y., I964.

Stringfellow, William. My People Is the Enemy: An Autobiographical Polemic. N.Y., 1964.

Wakin, Edward. At the Edge of Harlem.

N.Y., 1965.

Zinkoff, Dave. Around the World with the Harlem Globetrotters. Philadelphia, I953.

BIOGRAPHIES

BIOGRAPHIES

Hedgeman, Anna Arnold. The Trumpet Sounds:A Memoir of Negro Leadership.

N.Y., 1964.

Kayira, Legson. I Will Try. Garden City, N.Y., I965.

Modisane, Bloke. Blame Me on History.

N.Y., 1963.

Mulsac, Hugh Nathaniel. A Star to Steer By. N.Y., 1963.

Schuyler, George Samuel. Black and Conservative.New Rochelle, 1966.

X, Malcolm. The Autobiographyof Malcolm X. N.Y., 1965.

-. MalcolmX Speaks.N.Y., I965.

Breitman, George. The Last Yearof Malcolm X. N.Y., 1967.

Eckman, Fern Marja. The FuriousPassage of JamesBaldwin.N.Y., I966.

Hughes,Langston.The Big Sea. N.Y., London, I940. . I Wonderas I Wander.N.Y., 1956.

Johnson,RalphGlasgow.ThePoetryof Dunbar and McKay. Pittsburgh, 1950.

Kerlin, Robert Thomas. Negro Poets and TheirPoems.Washington,D.C., 1935.

Locke, Alain LeRoy. Four Negro Poets.

N.Y., I927.

McKay, Claude. A Long Wayfrom Home.

N.Y., I937. . My GreenHills of amaica.Unpublished MS, 1946. . Right Turnto Catholicism.Unpublished MS, 1946.

Marin, Ocete Antonio. El NegroJuan Latino, CusagoBiograficoy Critico.Granada,

Literature Bone, Robert A. The Negro Novel. New Haven, 1958, 1965.

Brawley, Benjamin Griffith. Early Negro AmericanWriters.Chapel Hill, I935. . The Negro Genius.N.Y., I937. . The Negro in Literatureand Art in the UnitedStates.N.Y., 19Io, 1918, 1929, I937.

Brown,Sterling,Davis, ArthurP., and Lee, Ulysses (eds.). The Negro Caravan.N.Y., I94I.

.The Negro in American Fiction.

Washington,D.C., I937. . Negro Poetry and Drama. Washington, D.C., I937.

Conferenceof Negro Writers. The American Negro Writerand His Roots. N.Y., 1960.

Daedulus(periodical).TheNegroAmerican.

Boston, 1965, 1966.

Dunbar, Paul L. The Sport of the Gods.

N.Y., 1902.

Ford, Nick Aaron. The Contemporary Negro Novel. Boston, 1936.

Gloster, Hugh Morris. Negro Voices in AmericanFiction.Chapel Hill, 1948.

Green, Mrs. Elizabeth Atkinson. The NeAmericanLiterature. gro in Contemporary Chapel Hill, 1928.

Gross, SeymourL. (ed.). Imagesof the Negro in AmericanLiterature.Chicago,1966.

Hill, Herbert. Anger and Beyond. N.Y., I966. . Soon One Morning: New Writing

by AmericanNegroes, 1940-1962. N.Y., 1963.

Hughes, Langston. The Langston Hughes Reader.N.Y., 1958.

Loggins, Vernon. The NegroAuthor.N.Y., 1931.

New York Public Library.The Negro in the UnitedStates,A List of SignificantBooks.

N.Y., I965, I968.

Books about Negro Life for Children.N.Y., 1957.

284

1925.

Spratlin, Valaurez Burwell. Juan Latino, Slave and Humanist.N.Y., I938.

Tarry, Ellen. The ThirdDoor. N.Y., I955.

Wright, Richard. Black Boy. N.Y., I945.

Himes, Chester. All Shot Up. N.Y., 1960.

The Big, Gold Dream. N.Y., ....

960. . CottonComesto Harlem.N.Y., 1965. . Couchedansle Pain. Paris, 1959. . The CrazyKill. N.Y., I959. . Dare-Dare.Paris, 1959. . The Heat's On. N.Y., 1966. . Mamie Mason. Paris, 1962. .Pinktoes, A Novel. N.Y., I965. . des CoupsDurs. Paris, 1958.

- llPleut . The Real Cool Killers.N.Y., I959. . La Reinedes Pommes.N.Y., 1958. . Run, Man, Run. N.Y., 1966.

- . Tout pour Plaire.Paris, 1959. . Third Generation.Cleveland, 1964.

Horwitz, Julius.TheInhabitants.Cleveland, 1960. . The W.A.S.P. N.Y., I967.

Hughes,Langston.TheBestof Simple.N.Y., 1961. (Also Phonodisc,N.Y., 1961.) . Simple Takes a Wife. N.Y., I953. .Simple's UncleSam. N.Y., 1965. (ed.). Best Short Stories by Negro Writers.Boston, 1967.

- . Laughingto KeepfromCrying.N.Y., 1952.

. Not withoutLaughter.N.Y., I930. .SimpleSpeaksHisMind.N.Y., 1950.

- . SimpleStakesa Claim.N.Y., 1957.

-- . Tambourinesto Glory.N.Y., I958. . "Why, You Reckon," in McCullough,EstherM. As I Pass, 0 Manhattan.

N.Y., 1956.

Johnson,JamesWeldon. The Autobiography of an Ex-ColoredMan. N.Y., I912-I927, 1948, 1951, I960.

Joseph,Arthur.... Volcanoin Our Midst.

N.Y., 1952.

Kaufman, Bel. Up the Down Staircase.Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1964.

Klass, Sheila Solomon. ComeBackon Monday. N.Y., 1960.

Mayfield, Julian. The Hit. N.Y., 1957. . The Long Night. N.Y., 1958.

Maurique, Manuel. Island in Harlem: A Novel. N.Y., I966.

McKay, Claude.... CocktailNegro. Madrid, 1931. . Hometo Harlem.N.Y., 1928, I951. . QuartierNoir. Paris, 1932. . Quasi Blanca. Barcelona,I938. . Ritornoad Harlem.Milan, 1930.

Miller, Warren. The Cool World. Boston, I959. . The Siege of Harlem. N.Y., 1964.

Offord, Carl Ruthven. The White Face.

N.Y., I943.

Ornstein, William. Deep Currents.Dallas, -

Fiction Appel, Benjamin.... TheDarkStain.N.Y., I943.

Baldwin, James. Another Country.N.Y., 1962.

.Go Tell It on the Mountain.N.Y., I953.

. Goingto Meetthe Man. N.Y., I965. . Giovanni'sRoom. N.Y., I956.

Bontemps, Anna W. Sad-FacedBoy. Boston, 1937.

Conlay, Elizabeth G. The HarlemGo-Getters.N.Y., 1963.

Conrad, Earl. Rock Bottom. Garden City, N.Y., 1952.

Cullen,Countee. OneWayto Heaven.N.Y., 1932.

DuBois, W.E.B. Black Flame, A Trilogy: The Ordealof Mansart,MansartBuildsa School, and Worldsof Color.N.Y., I957, I959, I96I. . Dark Princess. N.Y., 1928.

. Questof the SilverFleece.Chicago, 1911.

Dunbar, Paul Laurence. Best Stories...

N.Y., I938.

Ellison, Ralph. InvisibleMan. N.Y., 1952.

Ellson, Hal.... I'll Fix You. N.Y., I956. . Rock.N.Y., I955. . This Is It. N.Y., 1956.

Fisher, Rudolph. The ConjureMan Dies: A MysteryTaleofDark Harlem.N.Y., 1932.

- . The Walls of Jericho.N.Y., 1928.

Guy, Rosa. Bird at My Window.Philadelphia, 1966.

Hewlett, John Henry. HarlemStory.N.Y., I948.

1953.

Parks, Gordon. The LearningTree. N.Y., 1963.

Petry, Ann (Lane). La Rue. Paris, 1948.

- . The Street.Boston, 1946.

Powell, Adam Clayton, Sr. PicketingHell.

N.Y., 1942.

Robinson, John Terry. White House in Harlem. N.Y., 1956.

Thomas, Piri. Down These Mean Streets.

N.Y., 1967.

Van Vechten, Carl. Nigger Heaven. N.Y., I926,

-

1927, 1951.

. II Paradiso dei Negri. Milan, I930.

Parties. N.Y., 1930.

Wallant, Edward Lewis. The Pawnbroker.

N.Y., 1961.

Wright, Richard. Native Son. N.Y., I939.

Newspapers and Periodicals The Arts Quarterly. 2 vols. New Orleans, I937-I939.

Brownies Book. N.Y.,

1920-1921.

The Changemakers. Vol. I, No. I. N.Y., I965.

The Colored American. N.Y., 1837-1842.

The Colored American Magazine. N.Y., I900-I909.

Crisis. N.Y.,

91I-.

Freedomways. N.Y., 196 -.

Harlem Digest. Vol. I, No. I. June I937I939.

Harlem Friendship House News (later Catholic Interracialist). Chicago, 1941-1955.

Harlem Herald, Vol. I. Published by and for the studentsof HarlemEvening High

School, New York. N.Y., I94I-I947.

Harlem Hospital Bulletin. N.Y., I948/49I96I.

Harlem Quarterly, Vol. I, No.

I. N.Y.,

1949-I950.

The Home and Housing Journal. Vol. i.

Published by the Harlem Mortgageand Improvement Council. N.Y., I957.

Interracial Review. N.Y., I928-I966.

The Journal of Negro Education. Washington, D.C., I932 -.

The Journal of Negro History. Washington, D.C., I916-.

The Messenger. N.Y., I917-I928.

New York Age. N.Y., I883-I957.

New York Amsterdam News. N.Y., 1922 -.

New York Courier (sometimes called the

New York Edition of the PittsburghCou-

rier). N.Y., I957-.

Opportunity Journal of Negro Life. N.Y., I923-1949.

Poetry Benet, William Rose. Harlem and Other Poems. London, I935.

Bontemps, Arna Wendell. AmericanNegro Poetry. N.Y., I963.

Braithwaite,William Stanley. SelectedPoems. N.Y., 1948.

Brooks, Gwendolyn. SelectedPoems.N.Y., 1963.

Brown,SterlingAllen. SouthernRoad.N.Y., I932.

Clarke, John Henrik. Rebellion in Rhyme.

Prairie City, Ill., 1948.

James Baldwin,.

Photograph: Steve Schapiro,from Black Star

Cullen, Countee. Ballad of the BrownGirl.

N.Y., 1927. . On TheseI Stand.N.Y., 1947. . CarolingDusk. N.Y., 1927.

Dismond, Henry Binga. We Who Would Die. N.Y., 1943.

Dunbar, Paul Laurence. CompletePoems.

N.Y., 1895-I913.

Hayden, Robert Earl. SelectedPoems.N.Y., 1966.

Hughes, Langston.Ask YourMama. N.Y., I961.

- . Dream Keeper and Other Poems.

N.Y., I932.

---.

Fieldsof Wonder.N.Y., 1947.

. Fine Clothesto theJew. N.Y., 1927. . Montageof a DreamDeferred.N.Y., 1951.

NegroMother.N.Y., I931. . New Negro Poets. U.S.A. Bloomington, Ind., 1964.

---.

One-WayTicket.N.Y., I949.

--. Pantherand the Lash. N.Y., 1967.

---.

Poetry of the Negro, 1746-I949.

N.Y., 1949. . SelectedPoems.N.Y., 1959.

---. in Harlem.N.Y., 1942.

Shakespeare . WearyBlues.N.Y., 1926.

Johnson,Georgia Douglas. Bronze.Boston, 1922.

Johnson,JamesWeldon. Book of American Negro Poetry. N.Y., I922, I93I, 1958.

--

. Fifty Yearsand OtherPoems. Boston, 1917. . God'sTrombones.

N.Y., 1927. (Also Phonodisc, N.Y., 1942.)

. SaintPeterRelatesan Incident.N.Y., I930, 1935Jones,LeRoi. BlackArt.Newark,N.J., I966.

--. Dead Lecturer.N.Y., 1964. . Prefaceto a TwentyVolumeSuicide Note. N.Y., 1961.

PoKerlin, Robert Thomas. Contemporary etryof the Negro.Hampton, Va., 1921.

Latimer,Lewis Howard.Poemsof Loveand Hate. N.Y., 1925.

McKay, Claude. Harlem Shadows. N.Y.,

--

1922.

Parks, Gordon. A Poet and His Camera.

N.Y., 1968.

Tolson, Melvin Beaunorus.Rendezvouswith America.N.Y., I944.

Tomas,Bonito Luciano.HarlemittaDreams.

N.Y., I934.

Voices, A Quarterlyof Poetry.... Negro PoetsIssue.Brattleboro,Vt., 1950.

Walker, Margaret. For My People. New Haven, 1942.

BIOGRAPHIES

Dinger, Helen Josephine.A Studyof Countee Cullen.N.Y., I953.

Ferguson, Blanche. CounteeCullenand the NegroRenaissance.N.Y., 1926.

286

- . The House of Connelly ... N.Y., Brawley, BenjaminGriffith. Paul Laurence Dunbar.Chapel Hill, I936.

I931.

- . LonesomeRoad. N.Y., I926.

Cunningham,Virginia.Paul LaurenceDunbar. N.Y., 1947.

Hansberry,Lorraine.A Raisin in the Sun. N.Y., I959.

Heyward, Dorothy and DuBose. Porgy.

Theater Garden City, N.Y., 1928.

DuBose. BrassAnkle.N.Y., 1931.

Heyward, The ApolloTheatre. TheApolloStory.N.Y., Hughes, Langston. The Barrier.N.p., n.d.

I967.

Bond, Frederick Weldon. The Negro and ---194-?)..

Black Nativity (Phonodisc). N.p., the Drama. Washington,D.C., I940. n.d.

Fletcher, Tom. soo Yearsof the Negro in . Don't You Wantto Be Free?N.Y., Show Business.N.Y., 1954.

I938, I963.

Hughes,Langston.BlackMagic.Englewood . Emperorof Haiti. N.Y., 1963.

Cliffs, N.J., I967. . FivePlays.Bloomington,Ind., I963.

Isaacs,Edith Juliet. The Negroin the Amer- ---. Jubilee.N.p., n.d. ican Theatre.N.Y., 1947.

--. TheLangstonHughesReader.N.Y., Mitchell, Lofton. BlackDrama.N.Y., 1967.

1958.

New World A-Coming (a series of weekly . Mulatto.N.p., 1949. radio programs from WMCA). N.Y., . 7 originaltypescriptsof plays.N.Y., 1944-1946.

I959.

Patterson, Lindsay (ed.). Anthologyof the . 2 originaltypescriptsof plays.N.Y., AmericanNegrointheTheatre.N.Y., 1967.

I963. . SimpleTakesa Wife: A NegroFolk Comedy(typescript). N.Y., n.d. (195-?).

Plays . Simply Heavenly:A Comedywith Published and Unpublished Music. N.Y., I957. . Soul GoneHome. N.Y., I937.

Baldwin, James. Bluesfor Mister Charlie. . TroubledIsland.N.Y., 1949.

N.Y., I964.

Bradford, Roark.John Henry.N.Y., 1939. Hunter, Eddie. TheLady.N.p., n.d. (I94-?).

Branch, William Blackwell. "In Splendid Johnson,Georgia. Plumes.N.Y., 1927.

Jones,LeRoi. DutchmanandtheSlave.N.Y., Error."N.Y., I954.

I964. . A Medal For Willie. N.Y., 1951.

Burgie,Irving,and Mitchell,Lofton. Ballad Locke, Alain LeRoy. Plays of Negro Life.

N.Y., I927. for Bimshire(Phonodisc). London, 1963.

Connelly, MarcusCook. TheGreenPastures. Meyer, Mrs. Annie Nathan. Black Souls.

New Bedford, Mass., 1932.

N.Y., 1929, I930.

Cooper, Lew. Run Little Chillun.N.p., n.d. Mitchell, Lofton. A Land beyondthe River.

Cody, Wyo., 1963.

(I94-?).

Cotter, JosephSeamon. Caleb, The Degen- Norford, George. Joy ExceedingGlory: A erate.N.Y., I940.

Play in Three Acts (typescript). N.Y., n.d. (I93-?).

Culbertson,Ernest Howard. Colorin Court.

O'Neill, Eugene Gladstone.... The EmN.Y., I933. perorJones.N.Y., I934.

Cullen, Countee, and Bontemps, Anna. St. Louis Woman.N.p., n.d. (1945?).

Ovington, Mary White. The Awakening.

N.Y., 1923.

Davis, Ossie. Purlie Victorious.N.Y., 1961.

Dodson, Owen. New World A-Coming. Peters, Paul. Stevedore.N.Y., 1934.

Peterson, Louis Stamford. Take a Giant N.Y.(?), n.d. (194-?).

Step.N.Y., I954.

Duberman, Martin D. In White America.

Rapp, William Jourdan, and Thurman, Boston, 1964.

Wallace.Jeremiahthe Magnificent(typeEdmonds, Randolph. Shadesand Shadows.

Boston, I930. script). N.p., n.d. (1930?). . Land of Cotton ... Washington, Richardson,Willis. Bold Lover. N.p., n.d. . BrokenBanjo. N.p., n.d.

D.C., 1942. . Curseof theShellRoad Witch.N.p., Fast, Howard.TheHill. GardenCity, N.Y., n.d.

I964. . The Dark Haven.N.p., n.d.

Fisher, Rudolph. The ConjureMan Dies, A . Imp of the Devil. N.p., n.d.

Playin ThreeActs (typescript).N.Y., n.d. .The Man Who Marrieda Young (I93-?).

Genet, Jean. The Blacks.... N.Y., I960.

Wife. N.p., n.d. . The Peacock'sFeather.N.p., n.d.

Grainger, Porter. De Board Meeting....

Pillar of the Church.N.p., n.d.

N.p., n.d. (ca. 1925). . "We'sRisin'."N.p., n.d. (ca. 1927). . Roomsfor Rent.N.p., n.d.

Green, Paul. The Field God, and In Abra- Sheldon, Edward Brewster."The Nigger." ham'sBosom.N.Y., 1927.

N.Y., 9Io0.

Silvera, Frank Alvin. Unto the Least. Boston, 1938.

Spence, Eulalie. Fool's Errand.N.Y., 1927.

Torrence,FredericRidgely.GrannyMaume, The Riderof Dreams,Simonthe Cyrenian (Plays for a Negro Theatre). N.Y., 1917.

Tutt, J. Homer. De GospelTrain.N.p., n.d. (ca. I940).

Ward,Theodore.Big WhiteFog.N.Y., 1937. . Our Land. N.Y., I941.

-Wexley, John. They Shall Not Die. N.Y., I934.

Wright, Richard.Native Son (play). N.Y., I94I.

Yordan,Philip. Anna Lucasta.N.Y., 1945.

BIOGRAPHIES

Davis, Sammy, Jr., and Boyar, Jane and Burt. Yes I Can: The Story of Sammy Davis, Jr. N.Y., 1965.

Dunham, Katherine.A Touchof Innocence.

N.Y., I959.

Durham, Frank. DuBose Heyward, The Man Who WrotePorgy.Columbia,S.C., I954.

Gregory, Dick. Nigger.N.Y., I964.

Hammond,John Hays. Autobiography...

N.Y., I935.

Home, Lena, as told to Helen Arnsteinand Carlton Moss. In Person, Lena Home.

N.Y., I950.

Home, Lena. Lena.... GardenCity, N.Y., I965.

Kitt, Eartha. Thursday'sChild.N.Y., 1956; London, 1957.

Lesser, Allen. EnchantingRebel(The Secret of Adah IsaacsMenken).N.Y., I947.

Lewis, Paul. Queenof the Plaza: A Biography of Adah IsaacsMenken.N.Y., I964.

2 vols. N.Y., McClendon,Rose. Scrapbooks.

I923-I934Meyer, Annie (Nathan). It's Been Fun. N.Y., 1951.

Waters, Ethel. His Eye Is on the Sparrow.

Garden City, N.Y., 9I 1.

Rowland, Mabel. Bert Williams.... N.Y., 1923.

Music Assland,Benny H. (comp.). TheWax Works of Duke Ellington. Stockholm, Sweden, 1954.

Brooks, Shelton. Five Songs. N.Y., I9101919.

Burleigh, Harry Thacker. Negro Spirituals ArrangedforSolo Voice.N.Y., 1917-1927.

Burleigh, Harry Thacker, and Johnson, JamesWeldon.... 0 Southland!N.Y., 1904. .Passionale: YourEyesSo Deep, and Your Lips Are Wine. N.Y., I9I5.

Burlin, Natalie (Curtis). The Negro'sContributionto the Music of America.N.Y., 1913.

. Negro Music at Birth. N.Y., I919.

Calloway, Cab. Cab Calloway's Jive Jubilee of Songs. N.Y., 1942.

Charters,Samuel B., and Kunstadt, Leonard. Jazz: A History of the New York Scene. N.Y., 1962.

Clark,Edgar Rogie. NegroArtSongs.N.Y., I940.

Courlander, Harold. Negro Folk Music, U.S.A. N.Y., i963.

Dawson, William Levi. Negro Folk Symphony(Phonodisc). N.p., n.d.

Dennison, Tim. The AmericanNegro and His Amazing Music. N.Y., I963.

De Toledano,Ralph.Frontiers ofJazz. N.Y., 1947.

Handy, WilliamChristopher.Blues,An An-

Vehanen, Kosti. Marian Anderson,A Portrait.N.Y., 1941.

Armstrong, Louis. Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans.N.Y., 1954, 1955.

--- Swing That Music. London, 1936.

Goffin, Robert. Stormof Plenty: The Story of Louis Armstrong.N.Y., 1947.

Bechet, Sidney. TreatIt Gentle.N.Y., 1960.

Shaw, Arnold. Belafonte:An Unauthorized Biography.Philadelphia,i960.

Steirman, Hy (ed.). Harry Belafonte:His CompleteLife Story.N.Y., I957.

Bradford,Perry. Bornwiththe Blues.N.Y., I965.

Gammond, Peter. Duke Ellington. N.Y., 1958.

IrvingMills PresentsDuke Ellingtonand His FamousOrchestra.New York, 1933. thology. N.Y., 1926. . NegroAuthorsandComposers.

N.Y., Lambert,George Edmund. Duke Ellington.

N.Y., 1959, I961.

I938. . Negro Spiritualsfor Mixed Voices. Ulanov, Barry.Duke Ellington.N.Y., 1946.

N.Y., 1925-1937.

Trazegnies, Jean de. . . . Duke Ellington . A Treasuryof theBlues.N.Y., 1949.

(Harlem Aristocrat of Jazz). Brussels, . Unsung Americans Sung. N.Y., 1944.

1946. . Works,Selections(Phonodisc).N.Y., Armitage,Merle.... GeorgeGershwin... n.d. (194-?), i953, I954.

N.Y., 1958.

Jazz....

N.Y., 1959.

Ewen, David.... A Journeyinto Greatness.

Hentoff, Nat....

N.Y., 1956.

Johnson, James Weldon, and Johnson, J. Rosamond.Booksof AmericanNegroSpir- Goldberg,Isaac.GeorgeGershwin.... N.Y., ituals. N.Y., 1940.

I958. . Lift Every Voice and Sing. N.Y., Jablonski, Edward. The Gershwin Years.

N.Y., 1958.

I921, I943.

I929, 1932, . Second Book of Negro Spirituals. James Michael. Dizzy Gillespie. London, N.Y., 1926.

I959.

Goodman, Benny. The Kingdomof Swing.

Jones,LeRoi. BlackMusic. N.Y., 1967. . Blues People....

-N.Y., 1963.

N.Y., 1939.

Keil, Charles. UrbanBlues. Chicago, I966. Handy, William Christopher.Fatherof the to FolkMusic Blues. N.Y., I941.

Nettl, Bruno.An Introduction in the United States. Detroit, 1960, 1962.

Harris,CharlesJacob.Reminiscences of My Oliver, Paul. BluesFell This Morning:The Days with Roland Hayes. Orangeburg, S.C., I944.

Meaning of the Blues. London, 1960.

- . Conversation with the Blues. N.Y., Holiday, Billie .... Lady Sings the Blues.

GardenCity, N.Y., 1956.

I965.

Panassie, Hugues. Guide to Jazz. Boston, Jones, Max (ed.).... A Tributeto Huddie Ledbetter.London, 1946.

I956. . Hot Jazz. N.Y., 1936.

Lovingood,Penman.A Sentimental Journey.

Patterson,Lindsay(ed.). TheNegroin MuCompton, Calif., 1964. sic and Art. N.Y., 1967.

Mezzrow, Milton. . . . Really the Blues.

N.Y., 1946.

Ramsey, Frederic. Been Here and Gone.

New Brunswick,N.J., 1960.

Lomax, Alan. MisterJelly Roll: Fortunesof Jelly Roll Morton.N.Y., I950.

Shapiro,Nat (ed.). TheJazz Makers.N.Y., Williams,MerlinT. JellyRoll Morton.N.Y., I957.

Shelton, Robert. Josh White Song Book.

1962, 1963.

Allen, WalterC. KingJoe Oliver.Belleville, Chicago, I963.

N.J., 1955.

Shirley, Kay (ed.). The Book of the Blues.

Williams,MartinT. KingOliver.N.Y., 1961.

N.Y., 1963.

Harrison,Max. CharlieParker.N.Y., I960, Spellman, A. B. Four Lives in the Bebop Business. N.Y., I966.

1961.

Still, William Grant. Fifty Years of Progress Reisner, Robert George. Bird: The Legend in Music. Pittsburgh, 1950. of Charlie Parker. N.Y., 1962.

Terkel, Louis.... Giants ofJazz. N.Y., 1957.

Schuyler, Phillippa Duke. Adventuresm Blackand White.N.Y., I960.

Williams,Martin T. (ed.). The Art of Jazz.

Oliver, Paul. BessieSmith.N.Y., 1959.

N.Y., I959.

Smith, William. Music on My Mind: The BIOGRAPHIES Memoirs of an AmericanPianist. Foreword by Duke Ellington. Garden City, Anderson, Marian. My Lord, What a MornN.Y., I964. ing: An Autobiography. N.Y., 1956.

287

Fox, Charles.... Fats Waller.N.Y., 1960,

Porter, James Amos. Modern Negro Art. N.Y., I943.

- . Progress of the Negro in Art during the Past Fifty Years. Pittsburgh, 1950.

1961.

Kirkeby, W.T. (ed.). Ain't Misbehavin': The Story of Fats Waller. N.Y., 1966.

Art and Artists Albany Institute of History and Art. The NegroArtistComesof Age. Albany, N.Y., 1945.

State University of New York, The Art Gallery. RomareBearden.Albany, 1968.

White, Charles. . . . Six Drawings.N.Y.,

Negro Art. Baltimore, 1939.

N.Y., 1964.

Henderson,Edwin Bancroft. The Negro in Sports.Washington,D.C., 1939, 1949.

Sport Magazine. The Negro in American Sport (specialissue, March I960). N.Y., 1960.

1952.

Whiting, Helen. Negro Art, Music and Rhyme....

Baltimore Museum of Art. Contemporary Bowdoin College Museum of Fine Arts.

Portrayalof the Negro in AmericanPaint-

Bontemps, Arna. Famous Negro Athletes.

Washington, D.C., 1938.

BIOGRAPHIES

Armstrong,Henry. Gloves,Gloryand God. BIOGRAPHIES

Westwood, N.J., 1956.

Miller, Henry. The Amazingand Invariable Aaron, Henry, as told to Furman Bisher.

Aaron, rf. N.Y., 1968.

Brunswick, Me., ing.

1964.

BeaufordDeLaney.Yonkers, 1945.

Butcher, Margaret. The Negroin American AmericanFederationof Artists.JacobLaw- Shapiro, Milton J. The Hank Aaron Story.

Culture. N.Y., 1956.

rence. N.Y., 1960.

ChicagoAmericanNegro Exposition. Exhibition of the Art of the AmericanNegro. ...

1966.

Chicago, 191 .

Chicago Public Library Omnibus Project. . . . SubjectIndexto Literatureon Negro Art....

Chicago, 1941.

The City University of New York. Evolution of the Afro-AmericanArtist. N.Y., 1967.

Covarrubias,Miguel.NegroDrawings.N.Y., 1927.

Cultural Exchange Center. Printsby American NegroArtists.Los Angeles, 1965.

Douglas, Aaron. "The Negro in American Culture," in AmericanArtists'Congress, First American Artists' Congress.N.Y., I936.

Dover, Cedric. AmericanNegroArt. Greenwich, Conn., 1960.

Graphic Workshop.... Negro: U.S.A., A GraphicHistory of the Negro People in America....

N.Y., 1949.

Harmon Foundation Inc. Exhibit of Fine Arts by American Negro Artists. N.Y., 1928,

1929,

1930,

1931, 1933. (These

ex-

hibitions were held in New York and Atlanta, Ga.). . Negro Artists. N.Y., 1935.

Hirschfeld,Albert.Harlemas SeenbyHirschfeld (drawings). N.Y., I941.

Locke, Alain LeRoy....

Negro Art, Past and Present.Washington,D.C., 1963.

- . The Negro in Art. Washington, D.C., 1940. . The New Negro. N.Y., 1925.

The Minneapolis Institute of Arts. 30 Black Artists.Minneapolis, Contemporary I968.

National Conferenceof Artists.... A Print Portfolioby Negro Artists.... Chicago, 1963.

Negro LibraryAssociation.ExhibitionCatatlog: First Annual Exhibitionof Books, Manuscripts,Paintings,Engravings,Sculpture, etc....

N.Y., 1916.

New York Public Library- I35th Street Branch. Annual Exhibition of Negro Artists. N.Y., 1924.

Patterson,Lindsay (ed.). The Negroin Music and Art. N.Y., 1967.

288

Parks,Gordon. A Choiceof Weapons.N.Y.,

Science and Invention Baker,Henry Edwin. The ColoredInventor.

N.p., 1913.

Cobb, William Montague. Fifty Years of Progress in Health. Pittsburgh, 1950.

.... Integrationof theNegroin American Society.Washington,D.C., I95I. Corwin, Edward Henry Livingstone. Opportunitiesfor the Medical Educationof

--

Negroes. N.Y., 1936.

Hastie, William H. On ClippedWings:The Storyof Jim Crowin the ArmyAir Corps.

N.Y., I943.

Hurston, ZoraNeale. Mulesand Men. Philadelphia, 1935.

Johnson, Edward Austin. Negro Almanac and Statistics. Raleigh, N.C., 1903.

ElecLatimer, Lewis Howard. Incandescent tric Lighting. N.Y., 1890.

MorganState College, Baltimore,Md. The Negro in Science. Baltimore, I955.

Morais, Herbert Moutfort. The Historyof the Negroin Medicine.N.Y., 1967.

Reitzes, Dietrich C. Negroesand Medicine.

Cambridge, Mass., 1958.

N.Y., 1961.

Brown, Jimmy, with Myron Cope. Off My Chest. N.Y., I964.

Campanella, Roy. It's Good to Be Alive.

Boston, 1959.

Schoor, Gene. Roy Campanella,Man of Courage. N.Y., I959.

N.Y., Sullivan,GeorgeE. WiltChamberlain.

1966.

Olsen, Jack. Black Is Best: The Riddle of Cassius Clay. N.Y., 1967.

Lewis,Claude.CassiusClay.... N.Y., 1965.

Sullivan,George Edward. The CassiusClay Story. N.Y., 1964.

Gibson, Althea. I Always Wantedto Be Somebody. N.Y., 1958.

Johnson,Jack.JackJohnsonin the Ring and Out. Chicago, 1927.

Batchelor, Denzil. Jack Johnson and His Times. London, 1956.

Farr, Finis. Black Champion:The Life and Times of Jack Johnson. N.Y., 1964.

Van den Berg, Tony. The ]ack Johnson Story. London, 1956.

Louis, Joe. My Life Story. N.Y., 1947.

Mays, Willie. My Life in andout of Baseball.

N.Y., I966.

Moore, Archie. The Archie Moore Story.

N.Y., 1960.

Paige, Leroy Satchel. MaybeI'll PitchForSpencer,GeraldArthur.MedicalSymphony, ever. Garden City, N.Y., I962.

A Studyof the Contributions of the Negro Newcombe, Jack. Floyd Patterson,Heavyto Medical Progressin New York. N.Y., weight King. N.Y., I96I. 1947.

Patterson,Floyd. VictoryoverMyself.N.Y., 1962.

BIOGRAPHIES

Hardwick,Richland. CharlesRichardDrew: Pioneerin Blood Research.N.Y., 1967.

Miller, Floyd. Ahdoolo! The Biographyof MatthewA. Henson.N.Y., 1963.

Robinson,Bradley.Dark Companion(Henson). N.Y., I947.

Hurston, Zora Neale. Dust Tracks on a Road. Philadelphia,London, 1942.

Peyton, Thomas Roy. Questfor Dignity.

Los Angeles, 1950.

Sports Baltimore Museum of Art. Man in Sport.

Baltimore, 1968.

Robinson,John Roosevelt.JackieRobinson: My Own Story. N.Y., 1948.

Robinson, John Roosevelt, and Duckett, Alfred. Breakthroughto the Big League.

N.Y., 1965.

Robinson,Frank (with Al Silverman). My Life Is Baseball. N.Y., 1968.

Hirshberg, Al. Bill Russell of the Boston Celtics. N.Y., 1963.

Russell,Bill, as told to WilliamMcSweeny.

Go Up for Glory. N.Y., 1966.

Tunnell, Emlen (with Bill Gleason). Footsteps of a Giant. N.Y., I966.

Wills, Maury, as told to Steve Gardner.

It Pays to Steal. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1963.

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