The metropolitan museum of art bulletin v.28 #6 february 1970 by alfonse K

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Year

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This Bulletznis devotedto objectsin the collectionof the Museum's MedievalDe- ConDenEs partment andTheCloisters, in honorof theexhibition thatwillopenon February I2: TheYearI200. Theshowwillpresentoverthreehundred worksof artmadeby metal- IheYear1200 workers,sculptors, illuminators, scribes,ivorycarvers,goldsmiths, andstained-glass- FLORENS DEUCHLER windowmakersduringthe twodecadeson eithersideof theyearI200, thegeneration Documents in Gold working"betweenRomanesque and Gothic."This is the firstexhibitionto bring KATHARINE R. BROWN togetherso manypiecesfromthiscomplexperiod,whichhasalwayspresented diffi- Ihe DjumatiEnamels cultiesto arthistorians. Wehaveusuallytriedto categorize its innovations as a stage M A R GA R E T E N GL I S H FRAZER in "lateRomanesque" or in "earlyGothic,"but we actuallyknowverylittleabout howtheseinnovations relateto the art thatcamebeforeandafter,or the influences Madonnasof the thatshapedthem.Wehopethe exhibition willencourage scholars to unravelsomeof Rhone-Meuse Valleys the mysteries surrounding thisperiod,butit is morethanan exercisein arthistorical WILLIAM H. FORSYTH documentation. Aroundthe yearI200 wereproduced someof themostextraordinaryNeedlework by Nuns worksof artin Westernhistory,andourexhibition is dedicated to them,to presenting BONNIE YOUNG theircraftsmanship, theirvitality,andtheirbeauty.

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A Beautiful Madonnain the CloistersCollection

Infroducing

Nicholas

Verdun

TIMOTHY

HUSBAND

278

MedievalStainedGlass

the exhibitionthereare outstanding worksby two artistswe knowby name: fromSt.Leonhard in LavantEal BenedettoAntelamiandNicholasof Verdun.Asstrong,individual personalities they at TheCloisEers standout fromamongtheircountless 29I anonymous contemporaries. But no relationship JANE HAYWARD canbe established betweenthem.Thoughthey belongto the samegeneration, each hasa different approach to art.BenedettoAntelami, theleadingnorthItalianarchitect andsculptor,designedthe baptistery at Parmaandsculptedits threeportalsbetween I I96 and I2I4. Nicholasof Verdun,the greatestof Mosancraftsmen, is bestknown fortwomajor,influential works:theenameled amboof Klosterneuburg (I I8I) andthe ON THE COVER repousse Shrineof theVirginat Tournai(I205; Frontispiece). Althoughthenorthern Gideon'sfleece and theflowering NicholasandthesouthernBenedettoworkedin thequitedifferentstylistictraditions of A!aron'srod(bac4)pairea7 withthe Ainnunciation. Detailof of theircountries, theyhaveonethingin common: anawareness of classical art. a medieral embroidery discussed Throughout the twelfthcenturythereis evidenceof a spasmodic interestin antique onpages262 to 277 art,butnothingto equalNicholasof Verdun's passionate absorption of it. He didnot simplypickup a convenient motifor stylistictrick:he seemsto haveunderstood the F R O N T I S P I E C E classical artists'interestin representing manasa living,beautifulbeing,not a symbol ThePresentation of Christin the or pattern.He shapedhumanfiguresthatare vivid,substantial, with draperythat Temple.Detailof theShrineof emphasizes formandcontourratherthandenyingthem;his facesarepersonalized- the Virgin,byNicholasof Verdun, the onesshownin FigureI, forinstance,arelikeportraitstudiesof humanemotion. Hosan.I205. Cathedralof Tournai.In theMetropolitan Wedo not knowwhatpromptedthis"proto-Renaissance," or whatkindof antique .XVuseum's exhibitionThe Year modelshe could11ave studied.Theartmostlikelyto havebeenavailable to him,so far I200 In

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world,wouldhavebeenthewidelycircuMediterranean fromtheorbitof theclassical statuettes,carvedgems,andcoinsandmedals. latedHellenistic stylesprangfromlocalnorthItalian sculptural In contrast,BenedetttoAntelami's thatcanbe tracedbackto lateantiquity.In Italy,the formerheartof the traditions details,draperymotifs, alwaysexisted,in decorative survivals Romanempire,classical the handlingof textures,facialtypes.But intentionalcopiesof antiqueworkswere, enough,lessfrequentin Italyduringthetwelfthcenturythannorthof the surprisingly sculptedin thetwoheadsin thelowerpartof Figure3, whichAntelami Alps.Compare style,to the headof Luna,themoon,above:in its Romanesque hissevere,patterned frameit harksdirectlybackto Roman plasticityandits ornamental three-dimensional betweenthe treatmentof thesefaces,however,sugThe difference funeralportraits. motifthroughsympathywithits style, geststhatAntelamididnot adopttheclassical asan Italianartist. butsimplybecausesuchan imagewaspartof hisbasicvocabulary itsspirit,soclearly of antiqueart,in thesenseof recreating investigation Thedeliberate by Nicholasof VerdunaroundI200, wouldnot turnup in Italyuntila manifested centurylater. Indeed,the greatinnovatorof the yearI200 wasthe Mosangoldsmith.His natudraperystyle of thehumanfaceandfigureandhishighlydeveloped ralistictreatment Europe,andcameto haveimportantramifinorthwestern wereimitatedthroughout in England.and andalongthe Meuse,in the Rhineland, cationsin the Ile-de-France forthenewtrendsto reachSpainandItaly. It tookanothergeneration in Scandinavia. hadtakenplacesomewhere thatanartisticrevolution couldnothaverealized Antelami as canbe seenin ourexhibition,thatwe know in the north.It is onlyin retrospect, manytimes,and with,reshaped thataroundI200 a newstylewasborn,experimented enoughto surviveforcenturies. finallystrengthened DEUCHLER FLORENS of MedzevalArt and The Clozsters Chazrman, Department I.

from the Shrineof the ThreeKzngs,by Nicholasof Verdun.Begunbetween Decoratireborder of Cologne.Photograph: by his wortshoparoundI 230. Cathedral I I 8I and I I 9I, Jinzshed Bildarchr Rheinzsches

Metropolitan

VOLUME

XXVIII,

NUMBER

Museum 6

ArE

BulleDin FEBRUARY

I 970

Publishedmonthly from October to Juneand quarterlyfrom July to September.Copyright(Â˘) Ig70 by The MetropolitanMuseumof Art, Fifth Avenueand 82nd Street, New York, N. Y. Io028. Second classpostagepaid at New York,N. Y. Subscriptions$7.50 a year. Singlecopiesseventy-fivecents. Sent free to Museummembers.Four weeks'notice requiredfor changeof address.Back issuesavailableon microfilmfrom University Microfilms,3I3 N. First Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan.VolumesI-XXXVII (Igos-Ig42) availableas a clothboundreprint set or as individual yearly volumes fromArno Press, 330 MadisonAvenue, New York, N. Y. IOOI7,or from the Museum,Box 255, Gracie Station, New Katharine York, N. Y. Io028. Editor of Publications:Leon Wilson. Editor-in-chiefof the Bulletin: H. B. Stoddert;AssistantEditor: SusanGoldsmith;Designer:Peter Oldenburg.

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2. TheprophetDaniel.Detailof the Shrineof the Three Kings,by Nicholasof Verdun.Photograph: Rheinisches Bildarchir

3. Headsof two onlookersand Luna. Detail of a reliefof the Deposition,by BenedettoAntelami(z z50-about z 233), northItalian.Baptistery of the Cathedral of Parma.Photograph: Foto Marburg

Documents in K AT H A R IN E R . B R O WN

Gold Reseclrch ASssistclnt, Depclrtment of MediercllARrt

For devotees of Byzantinehistory, the fa miliar quotation "Rome was not built in a s. Solidus of Flavius Valens(364-378), re- day" appliesalso to the long, laboriousemerverse.Weight4.5 grams;diepositiont2,; mint gence of"New Rome" (Constantinople)as mart A N T I (Antioch); legend:R E S T I T V T 0 R the Christiancapital.An examinationof the REIPVBLICAE (Restorerof the State). H11 coinage,one of the principalvehiclesby which coinsarereproduced actualsize. Giftof Darius the rulersproclaimedand disseminatedthe essentialideasand events of their reignsand OgdenMills, o4.3s.2s hence among the key documentsof the pe1 he soliduswas a gold coin, whichConstan- riod, will show the persistenceof the pagan tineI introduced as a successor to theaureus.It traditionand illuminatethe steps taken by weighedapproximately 4.5 grams. the Christianemperorsto fashionnew impeThe dieposition,or axis, is the relativeposi- rialimagesand a new iconographyworthyof tionof thereverse to theobverse,or "fixed,"die. the secondRome. This may be determined byplacingthe obverse Among the possible explanationsfor the of the coin rightside up in the palm of your slowshapingof the easternCaputMundifrom hand and turningthe coin overfrom rightto its foundingby ConstantineI in 324 was the left as you wouldthepage of a book. Because desireof the Byzantineemperorsto maintain diepositionsvariedfromonemintto anotherin politicalunity with the morepaganWest an the Early Christian-Byzantine period,it is im- aim that wasnot completelyabandoneduntil portantto notethem.The relativearrangement about a century after the Ostrogothickingof thepair of dies usedto mint UnitedStates dom establisheditself on Italian soil in 476. coinstodayis the sameas it wasfor this coin. A coin whose image and legend exemplify The mint markconsists of Latin letters this aspirationfor unity is shownin Figure I. designatingthe name of the city in whichthe The equivalentsignificancegiven to pagan coin was struct. It aIwaysappearson the re- and Christiansymbolson this coin issuedby verseof the coinin theexergue(thesegmentbe- a Christianemperoris testimonyto whatmust nenIth thebaselineof theimagerepresented). have beena tryingcoexistenceof Christianity In this coin the emperorValens,in military and paganismthat resultedin part from the attire,holdsthe labarumin his righthandand emperors'desire for political unity. Thus it supportsVictoryon a globein his left hand.In was that despite their officialpersecutionof thefieldto theleftis a Christogram. pagansand their advocacyof the new faith, the Christianemperorscontinuedto do homage to the symbolsand ritualsof paganism, 2. Sureus of MarcusAJurelius (I6I-I80), rewhich for centurieshad been a deeply rooted verse.Gold,weight7.3grams.Bequestof Joseph religion. It should be remembered,in this H. Durtee,99.35.204 regard,that even though paganismreceived 1 his coin, mintedin Rome,is an exampleof its strongestendorsementfrom the traditionthetraditional RomanVotaPublicatype,which bound,wealthyRomanaristocracyandChristianityits greatestsupportfromthe Christian was stillfoundas late as thesixthcentury. 232

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emperors,paganismwas not confinedto the West nor Christianityto the East but both religionswere widespreadall over the Mediterraneanworld. In addition, Romans had long been tolerantof "alien"religiousideas and symbols,and were thus accustomedto differenticonographiesexisting side by side or even beingcombined. One of the paganritualsthat the Christian emperorscontinuedto performwas the Vota Publica(publicvows)(Figures2-4).Likemany social and religiousideas and practices,the periodicofferingof publicvows for the prosperity of the empireand for the health and good fortuneof the rulerhad come to Rome fromPtolemaicEgypt, and it wasone of the mostpopularof thepaganfestivalsthroughout the empire.It had beeninauguratedin Rome by Augustus (27 B.C.-A.D. I 4), who linked it with his acceptanceof the imperialrulefor a ten-yearperiodonly, deeminghimselfunworthy to accept such power for life as had beenproposedby the Senate.Thereafterthe vowswerecelebratedeverytenyearsthroughout theImperialperiodon thekalends(thefirst day of the ancientRomanmonth)of January. We knowthat in Rome,as earlyas the second century,when the cult of Isiswasat its height, the VotaPublicahadactuallybeenfusedwith one of the greatfestivalsof Isis, the Navigum Isidus(the launchingof the sacredship).Perhapsthis fusionreinforcedboth cults, but in any caseboth the worshipof Isisin Romeand the Vota Publicacelebrationsthroughoutthe empirewere still alive in the earlysixth century. At the time of Constantinethe Great certainpagan elementswere abolishedfrom the ceremony,but the traditionalgamesand chariotracescontinuedto accompanythe offeringof the vows. The coin in Figure 3 iS a solidusof ConThe figuresof Roma stantiusII (337-36I). supportbetweenthem a and Constantinopolis shield whose legend indicatesthat the coin wasissuedin celebrationof Constantius'sTricennalia (thirtieth year of rule). The vota or vows accomplishedduring the first thirty yearsof the emperor'sreignand thosepromised for the forthcomingten years are recorded.Constantiushasbrokenwith the past

3. Solidus of ConstantiusII (337-36Z), remintmartrsMP (Rome);legend:GLORIA REI (Glory of the State), and on the (Vot[a] M VL T /XXXX shzeld: lnoT /XXX xxx/Mult[iplicatis] xxxx). Gift of Darius OgdenMills, 04.35.l 8

PVBLICAE

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4. Solidusof Gratian(367-383),reverse.Weight 4.5 grams;4zeposztzon ; mzntmart ANOB (A>ntioch), followed by r (ofgicinamart); and on the legend:VICTORIAAVGVSTORVM, shield:vo T / V /M VL /X. Gift of Darius Ogden &Iills,o4.3s.20 t.

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In the mint mart, the AN standsfor A>ntioch andtheOB for obryzato(of ref Ofgicinas,or individualwortshops,wereinSaleElts: X -

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ned gold). 41 2 t t ffi

r (gamma)on our coin revealsthat it came

In thisperiod fromthethirdofgicinain A>ntioch. placed,as here, ogicinamartswerecustomarily afterthe mintmart on the reversedie.

of the vows:thiscoincomin hisscheduling hisTricennalia wasissuedin 3)3, memorating beforehis thirtiethyearof rule considerably andshow(according to theRomancalendar), theAuing,thereby,thathe hadabandoned gustantraditionof acceptingthe supreme powerof ruleonlyfora ten-yearperiod.Other Christianemperorslikewiseabbreviated and the the intervalsbetweencelebrations, occasions on whichthe vowswerecelebrated weregreatlyin excessof the numberof tenyearperiodsin the reign.This generaltendencyof the timeto increasethe frequency of festivalswasmotivatednotonlyby thedesireof the emperor,underwhoseaegisthey theygainedfor weregiven,forthepopularity needfor the him,but alsoby the treasury's

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oEerl1lgs. formof obligatornj showedthe suedby the Christianemperors of theimperial 5. Sestertiusof Vespasian(69-79), wingedVictoryastherecorder vosvs(Figure4). At firstit maystrikeoneas rererse.Bronze,weight26.7 grams. sanctioned RogersFund,08. I 70. I I5 emperors curious thattheChristian 233

the wingedVictory as the recorderof their vows,especiallysincethis type is foundas late 6. Solidusof Leo I (457-474),reverse.Weight as the sixth centurywhen the Christianfaith 4.47 grams;diepositionT J,; mintmnrtTHSOB was alreadyfirmly established.The explana(Thessnlonikn);legend:v ICTORI AAVGGG. tion is one of the most interestingstoriesof Bequestof GwynneM. Andrews,3z.33.247, the period. on inde;fnite lonnto the AmericanNumismntic In the Imperialera, Victory had been retoczety gardedas a virtue representingthe victorious quality of both the Romanemperorand the 1 he threeGs in thelegendindicntethreeruling state.This femaledeity, Victoria,symbolized collengues.Theirpresenceennblesus to dntethe the triumphantprogressof Romein the world coin nt the end of 473, nfterthe emperorLeo and was frequentlydepicted on the coinage hnd nppointedhis grnndsonLeo to be his suc- (see Figure 5). The Roman people clung so aessornndJulius Nepos to be emperorin the tenaciouslyto this popularcult that it was West. regardedby the Christiansas one of the maThemenningof thestnrin thefield on either jor impedimentsagainstthe disseminationof sideof Victoryhnsnotyet beendefinitely estnb- Christianity.So it was that one of the longlished. est and most desperatestrugglesbetweenthe forcesof Christianityandpaganismwasfought over thiscult and consequentlyover the pres7. Solidusof MnuriceTiberius(583-602), re- ence of the great statue of Victory in the senate house in Rome. Even after Gratian verse.Die position f J,; mint mnrk CONOB; legendv I C T OR I A V GGH . Gift of J. Pierpont succeededin having the statue removed in 382, his successors foundit impossibleto eradMorgcln,I7.I90.I47 icate the worshipof this goddess.The coins This is one of eightcoins atndfour consulatr bear witness to the fact that the Christian medatllions of this emperormountedtogether emperorsactuallymadeuse of her popularity withfour coinsfrom eatrlier reigns,toform the by adaptingher representationto Christian goldgirdlefrom the Cyprustreatsure, whichwats or imperialusage.Consideringthe reluctance uneatrthed in sg02. of the people to abandonthe worshipof VicThereis no doubt thattCONOB originatlly tory, it is understandablethat on Gratian's stoodfor moneyof refinedgold of Constatnti- Vota Publicaissue(Figure4) Victoryrecords nople,but latterthe mark catmeto be usedfor the vows while the Chi-Rho monogram,or Catrthatge, probathly for Thessaloni&,atndpos- Christogram(the firsttwolettersof the Greek siblyfor Antioch.On the batsisof compatrison word for Christ), appearsalmost apologetiwithsimilatr coinsin the Dumbatrton Â°tS col- cally in the field. lection,this coin, atswell atsthe othersin the Gradually,however,ChristiansymbolsbeCyprusgirdle,is considered to be Constatntino-came more directly or personallyassociated politatn. with the figure of Victory (for example, a The coinsin thegirdlewererecentlyconvin- coin of Aelia Flaccilla,wife of TheodosiusI cinglyatttributed by PhilipGriersonto thefirst [379-395],in the BritishMuseumshowsVicratther thatnto thesecondconsulshipof Maturice tory inscribingthe crosson a shield),and in Tiberius-thattis to 583 insteatdof 602. Since 422, under the patronageof TheodosiusII his son, who lattershatred his rule,watsnot born (408-450),the old pagangoddessfirstbecame until584, the secondG of AVGG in the legend truly Christianized.The goddess was porprobathlystatnds JÂ˘orMaturiceTiberius'swife, trayedstandingto the left andholdinga long Constatntinat, the Augusta. cross with a legend readingVICTORIA AUG. The H following the surrounding legendis This design,illustratedby a solidusof Leo I the officinatmart, now atndhereatfter in this (457-474) in the Museum'scollection (Figlocattion ratther thatnwith the mintmark in the ure 6), maintainedits popularityuntil the exergue. end of the fifth century. ,

234

The crossthat the goddesssupportshas little beadedborders,which recall the jeweled bordersof the great crossthat TheodosiusII hadhaderectedon the summitof MountCalvary in 420. Furthermore,sincethe firstissue of the coin type in 422 coincidedso closely withTheodosius's erectionof the famousmonument, many scholarshave identified this beadedcrossheld by Victory with the great jewe]edcrosson Golgotha. In a recentlydiscoveredcontemporarypassage, the ChristianauthorSt. Prosperassociated the initialissueof this coin with the imperialvictory over the Persiansin 42I. Thus on the coin Christianity,symbolizedby the cross, was supportedby Victory, who was viewed as the protectressof the crossin the presenceof the Persianthreat.It wouldseem that in the mindsof the ChristiansVictoria hadbeen transformed: shehadcometo represent only the abstractconceptof the empire and wasno longerdeified. This ChristianizedVictory remainedthe preferredreverse type until the end of the fifth century,at which time Anastasius(49I5I8) substituteda scepter with a Chi-Rho monogramfor the long cross.Finally, in the succeedingreign, Justin I (5I8-527) substituted the facing figure of an angel wearing male attire for the female profile figure of Victory (Figure7). But this angel,for all his Christianattributes- the long cross in his righthandand the globuscruciger(globesurmountedby a cross)in his left-was still accompaniedby the old legend:VICTORIA AVG. Even though the cross on graduatedsteps, introducedby TiberiusII (578-582) in 578, hadslowlybegunto claimits placeas the preferredreversetype, this angel was the most commonreversedesignuntil the end of the sixth century. By the seventhcentury,the crosson graduated steps frequently displacedthe angel, and,fromthe reignof Heraclius(6IO-64I) on, it became the usual reverse representation on all denominationsof gold (Figure 8). (It shouldbe noted that althoughwe have been examiningthe most prevalentreversetypes, there had been isolated occurrencesof the Chi-Rhomonogramaloneand the crossalone from as early as about 350). But this image

of the crosswas not merely meant to be a generalallusionto the Christianfaith; it was still another referenceto the great jeweled crosserectedon Mount Calvaryby TheodosiusII. The detailof beadedbordershad been abandoned,but it had been replacedby the representation of the graduatedstepssignifying Golgotha.Whereasin the fifth century this cross had been depicted supportedby Victory7nowonly the memoryof herlingered on in the surroundinglegend:VICTORIA AVG. After two hundredyearsthe symbolof Christianitycouldat laststandindependentlywithout the help of Victory. It was especiallyfitting that the coins of Heracliusshoulddisplaythe crossof Golgotha as their salientfeature,for shortlyafter this emperorcameto power,the Persiansinvaded Syriaand Palestineand, in 6I4, stormedthe sacredcity of Jerusalem,looting the treasures anddestroyingtheChristiansanctuaries. Even the crossof Golgothawas not spared.It was primarilyto recoverthis crossthat Heraclius launchedhis greatcampaigns,whichassumed the proportionsof a crusade.After six years of strugglethe emperorreturnedto Constantinoplevictorious.He hadconqueredthe Persians, regained the Byzantine provinces of Syria, Palestine,and Egypt, and recovered the Holy Crossfor the Christians.After his triumphalentryinto the capitalof the Byzantine empire,he set off for Jerusalemwherehe restoredthe Holy Crossto its properplace. 8. Nomisma(solidus)of Heraclius(6so-64z), reverse.Weight4.5 grams; die position t J,; mint mart CONOB (probablyConstantinople); legend: v I C T OR I A A V g Y S . Gift of Darius OgdenMills, o4.2.820 rom the time of Heracliuson, the solidus was usuallyreferredto as the nomisma(voVucaVux). Thecoin shownheregives an excellent exampleof a mixedinscription: withthe Latin v andtheGreetY for theletteru. The Sfollowing the legendis the officinamark. The letterI in theJield may referto a numericalsequence, aIthoughits meaninghas notyet beenJirmlyestablished.Afsfar as we tnow, it is a veryrare occurrence on coinslikethis onefrom the early partof Heraclius' s reign. 235

While the reversesidesof the coinsof Heracliusall bear this same image, the obverses vary and show that in the seventh century, 9. Solidusof Constantius II, obverse.Weight and largelyunder the auspicesof this emper4.4 grams;diepositiont t; mintmark on the or, severaldeeplyrootedtraditionsin coinage reverseSMA N (S4ntioch);legend: FLI VL came to an end. CONSTAN TI VSPERPAVG (Flavius Julius Throughout the fourth century the emConstantiusPerpetuus24ugustus).Glft of C. perors had, with few exceptions,fashioned RuxtonLove,67.265.20 their coinsfollowingthe traditionallate Roman formatof the profileportraitto the right In the earlyfourth centuryone essentialchange (occasionally in military attire) (Figure 9). from the traditionallate Romanportraitwas One exception, however- the frontal milimade: the laurel wreath(garlandof victory) tary portrait-deserves specialmention (Fighad beenreplacedby an ornamental headband, ures IO, II). It was slow to gain favor after orJillet,the diadem,wornby easternmonarchs its inception by Constantius II (337-36I),but as an emblemof royalty. a variationof it-what numismatistscall the three-quartermilitary portrait- was popular from the reignof TheodosiusII throughso. Solidusof Constantius II, obverseof Figure out the fifth and sixth centuries.The coins 3. Legend: FLI VL CONST ANTI VSPF A TrG mountedin a pectoralin the Museum(Figure (FlaviusJuliusConstantius PiusFelixSugustus) I3) give an excellentillustrationof both the immensepopularityof the frontaland threequartermilitaryportraitsand the endurance of the profileportrait.Here the centralme1l. Solidusof Leo I, obverseof Figure6. Leg- dallion is flanked by solidi- most of them bearinga three-quarter militaryportrait.The end: D NLEOPE RP E TAVC (Dominus>AToster following emperors are represented:TheodoLeo Perpetuus Sugustus) sius I (379-395),Anthemius(emperorin the West 467-472), Basiliscus(emperor in the East 476-477), and Justinian I (527-565). :\4ountedat the bottom of the piece are two examplesof the profiletype: they are tremisses (one-third the weight of a solidus) of JustinianI. The third profileportrait,on the I2. Detail of Figurews, enlargedeighttisnes solidusin the upperleft corner,is as yet unidentified. The central medallion not only demonstratesthe persistencebut also the influence of this design, for it is a barbarian copy of a Romanmedallion-perhaps of the emperorAnthemius. Constantius'sissueof the militaryportrait wasvery appropriatesinceit promulgatedthe assimilationof the great militarytraditionof Rome. The Byzantine emperors,like their Romanpredecessors,preservedin their concept of the title "Emperor"the meaningof "Imperator,"whichhad designatedthe commanderin chief of the army during the RomanRepublic.Almostwithoutexception,the Byzantinerulershad beenaccomplishedmilitary leadersand were, more often than not,

chosenby the willof the soldiersandrecog- oblong mantle fastenedwith a fibulaat the nizedby theSenate.Fromthelivelyaccounts shoulder),whichremainedthe preferreddress of AmmianusMarcellinus, writingin the until the eleventh century. On the earliest fourthcentury,we knowthatJulian,Valen- coinsfrom Heraclius'sreign the beardedemtinian,andGratianwereallacclaimed in the peroris portrayedfacingfront,wearinga helfieldsby the troops.Andevenaslateas565, met and chlamysand carryinga crossin his whenJustinII succeeded Justinian, he "was right hand (Figure I 4). That the emperor investedwiththeimperial garments . . . [and] holds a cross reflects the associationof the a fortunatesoldier. . . encircled hisneckwith Christianreligionwith the imperialofficea militarycollar[and]fourrobustyouthsex- signifyingthe very essenceof the Byzantine altedhimon a shield." splrltanc motlvatlon. It has beenpointedout that pagangods On coinsdatingfromthe end of Heraclius's hadfrecluently beenrepresented in military reign,showingHeracliusand his sons Heracattireorwithmilitaryattributes, probably as lius Constantineand Heraclonas(Figure I5), an indicationof theirvirZus (the clualities of the traditionalobverse legends, Roman imexcellenceandvalor).The fact that Byzan- perial titles, are conspicuouslyabsent. This tlneemperors arerepresentec ln mlltaryat- wasthe firststepin the changetowardplacing tire signifiesthe survivalby transference of the imperialimageon the reverseof the coins this conceptfrom pagananticluityto the and Christ or the Virgin on the obverse-a Christian era.Theimagealsohasa triumphal change that was to be accomplishedby the significance: it represents the emperor as the last cluarterof the seventh century (Figure victoriouschiefof the army-a furthersur- I6). vival frompagananticluity.The Byzantine It wasalsounderthe inspiration of Heracemperors stressed thistriumphal aspectby the liusthatthefirstinstance ofa reverse legendin imageportrayed on theirshields(FigureI2), showingtheemperor mountedona horseand tramplingan unfortunate barbarian underfoot. Religioussignificance was assignedto this imageby manyChristianwriters.For example,accordingto Eusebius'sinterpretationof the Greektheoryof mimesis (imitation)thegovernment of the Christian empirewasto bea terrestrial copyof therulein heaven.Thesewritersbelievedthatthe wars againstthebarbarians werewagedwithGod's helpto achievethisheavenlyruleon earth. Or,asEusebius hadsaidof Constantine I, .

Thustheemperor in allhisactionshonored Godwthe controller of all things. . . and Godrequitedhimby subduing all thebarbarousnationsunderhis feet . . . andhe proclaimed himas a conqueror to all mankindandmadehima terrorto his adversaries.

Whilethetradition of themilitaryportrait had begunto breakdownduringthe sixth century(forexamples Justinian I hadsubstituted the globus crucigerfor the spear),it wasHeraclius whoformally replaced themilitarydressby civilattire,the chlamys(short

s3. Pectoral.Byzclntine, 1=lcentus}. Gold, height9S inches.Gift of J. PierpontMorgan,I 7.I 90. I 655 Flantingthe centralmedallionand belowits centeraretwo smalldecorativegold and niellodisks.

Comparedwith coinsfromearlierin the Imperialperiod,the solidiof the fourthcentury s4. Nomismaof Heraclius,obverseof Figure8. revealonly slightmodifications.For instance, Legend:[D N HERACLIUS P P A VG] (Domi- althoughConstantiusII introducedthe facing militaryportrait,for the most part the emnusNosterHeracliusPerpetuus Augustus) perors continued to favor the profile porl his coin can be datedfrom October6so to trait to the right, only replacingthe laurel January6z3, while Heracliusruledalone. In wreathwith the diadem.The most common conjunction withthe associationof Christianity reverse types were variationson the wellwith the imperialofMice specificallyillustrated known themeof the Vota Publica.The origon thiscoin,it is interesting to notethatfollow- inal meaningof the Vota seemsto have been ingtheprecedent setby Phocasin 602 Byzantine obscured,but the practiceof offeringthem emperorswere now crownedin churchrather flourishedas an essentialvehicle of imperial thanin theatriumof thepalaceorin theHippo- propaganda.Throughout the century, the drome. omnipotenceof Victory, the inherentvirtue of the Romanstate,was slow to wanedespite I5. Nomismaof Heraclius, showingHeraclius, the efforts of the Christiansto curtail her Heraclius Constantine,and Heraclonas,ob- power. No notablechangeoccurreduntil the reign verse.Weight4.5 grams;diepositionf l . Gift of TheodosiusII early in the fifth century, of DariusOgdenMills, 04.2.822 when Victory was modified- Christianized. 1 his coindatesJromtheperiodbetween July4, By her union with the cross the coexistence 638 (when Heraclonaswas made A>ugustus), of the symbolsof Christianityand paganism and February64s, whenHeracliusdied. The had been definitely establishedon the coinimpressive growthof whiskersand beardthat age. TheodosiusII also revived and populardistinguishHeraclius(in the center)are char- ized the imperialmilitaryportrait.The assoacteristicof the emperorin his old age (com- ciation of militaryvirtues with the imperial pare this with Figures4, representing the em- personagewas a carry-over,slightly altered, perorat the beginningof his reign).The coins of a paganideal.It also showsa continuation of Heracliusalso illustratechangesin hispoli- of the secularRomanmilitarytradition. ticalstatus:thefull-lengthrepresentation of the These modified images ruled Byzantine emperor andof hiscolleaguesis hisinnovation- coinageuntil about the middle of the sixth a verydramaticone whenthe coinis compared century.Then,as the dreamof restoringunity to that of Leo I (Figure6), in whichthe col- with the westernhalf of the Roman empire leagueshad beenindicatedonlyby thethreeGs faded more and more into the background, of thereverseinscription. the Byzantineemperorsfocused their attentions with increasedzeal on the ChristianasGreekoccurred in Byzantinecoinage.Greek pect of their rule: the ChristianizedVictory legendsdid not entirelyreplaceLatinones was redesignedinto an angel under JustinI, on the obversesof coinsuntilthe endof the and JustinianI createda new imagein which eighth,andmixedlegendson bothsidesstill the emperorwasportrayedholdingthe cross. remainedpopularin the eleventhcentury. The secondquarterof the sixth century was ThisinitialmodiScation is noteworthy, how- the turningpoint in every phase of Byzanever,becauseit is a tangiblesignof the By- tine life and thought:the coinagereflectsthe zantineemperors' shiftof focusfromWestto firm Christianorientation,which gradually East,and thusfromLatin,the language of replacedthe Roman military tradition.The theWest,to Greek,thepredominant tongue naturalconsequencewas the rapiddeclineof of theEast. paganelements.

238

Dewing

(London

and

New

York,

I9I4).

It remained for Heraclius, in the seventh SelectedStudies(Locust Valley, N.Y., I 965), pp. century,to formallysubstitutecivildressfor 7-24. militaryattire,to abolishtheRomanimperial J. P. Kent, "AureamMonetam. . . cum Signo Crucis"in TheNumismaticChronicle20 6th series . titlesfromcoinsissuedtowardthe endof his reign,andto abandon eventheChristianized Procopius,Historyof the Wars,trans by H. B. VictoryfortheHolyCross,symbolparexcel8; lenceof Christianity. But in spiteof all these J. M. C. Toynbee,"RomaandConstantinopolis D accomplishments thememoryof thegreatRo- in Late AntiqueArt from 3I2 to 365" in Journal of RomanStudies37 ( I 947). manheritagelingeredon; the legendaccomI6. Solidus of JustinianII (685panyingthe crossstillread:VICTORIA AVG. 695), obverse.The reverseof this Observations on theMuseums Pectoral coin displaysthe standingfigure of NOTES

AND

REFERENCES

I wishto expressmy thanksto JoanM. Fagerlie of theAmerican Numismatic Societyforherhelp on numerous occasions andto Professor AlfredR. Bellingerforhispainstaking assistance on related problems. I wishalsoto extendmy gratitudeto Professor AndrasAlfoldifor his clarification of severaldetailsconcerning theVotaPublica. AndrasAlfoldi,"AFestivalof Isisin Romeunderthe Christian Emperors of the IV Century." Lecturebeforethe International Congress of the Numismatists (London,I 936, I 937). AmmianusMarcellinus, [Writings],trans.by JohnC. Rolfe(Cambridge, Mass.,and London, I 935)NormanH. Baynes,"Eusebius andthe ChristianEmpire"in Annuairede l'Institutde Philologie et d'HistoireOrientales 2 (I 934). AlfredR. Bellinger andMarjorie AlkinsBerlincourt,"Victoryas a CoinType"in Numismatic Notesand MonographsI 49 (I 962). F. E. Brightman, "ByzantineImperialCoronations"in Journalof TheologicalStudies(I90I), pp.359-392Catalogueof the ByzantineCoinsin the DumbartonOats Collectionand in the Whittemore Collection, ed. by AlfredR. Bellingerand Philip

Grierson, vol. 2, partI (Washington, D.C.,I968). WalterDennison,A Gold Treasureof the Late RomanPeriod(NewYorkandLondon,I9I8). EusebiusPamphilos,Life of Constantine("A SelectLibrary of NiceneandPost-Nicene Fathers of the ChristianChurch,"vol. I, 2nd series), trans.andannotatedundersupervision of Philip SchaffandHenryWace(Michigan,I 952). EdwardGibbon,The Decline and Fall of the RomanEmpire,ed. by RobertMaynard Hutchins (Chicago, London,Toronto,I952). AndreGrabar,L'Empereurdans l'art Byzantin (Paris,I936). IsidoriHispalensis Episcopi,Etymologiarum silve Originum(Oxford5 I9II). ErnstH. Kantorowicz, "Godsin Uniform"in

Isidoreof Seville,in the sixth century,described EmperorJustinianholding a long torqueswornin his time by men and women cross. Whittemore Collection,Fogg

alikeas circuliaureia colload pectususquepen- AfrtMuseum,HarvardUniversity. dentes(goldcircletshangingfrom the neckdown to the chest).Thisdescription couldreferto pectoralssuchas the Museumpiece,especially when werecallthatourpieceis completedby thependantmedallion of Theodosius I (379-395) nowin the FreerGalleryof Art.BoththeMuseum'storque, or neck-ring, itself,and the coinsprobablywere previouslyusedindependently andonly put togetherin thesixthcentury,whenthecentralmedallion,undoubtedly of barbarian execution,was received.Thetorqueandcoinsshowconsiderable wear,but the medallion is in pristinecondition. Themilitarytorqueoftenplayedanimportant rolein imperialcoronations. WeknowthatJulian the Apostateand some of his successors were crownedwithmilitarytorques.Andevenif from Corippus's accountof the coronation of JustinII it is not clearwhetherthisemperorwasactually crownedwitha torqueor simplyhadone placed aroundhisneckwhilea diademencircled hishead, it is quite possiblethat our torquecouldhave servedfor a crowningbeforebeingmadeinto a pectoral. Whilethe torquemayhavebeenwornby an officerof the imperialbodyguard, it seemsjustas likelythatit wasa rewardto a soldierfor excellencein battle.Accordingto Procopius's History of theWars,writtenin the secondquarterof the sixthcentury,Justinian's greatgeneralBelisarius "usedto console[the soldiers]by largepresents of moneyforthe woundstheyhadreceived,and to thosewhohaddistinguished themselves he presentedbracelets andnecklaces to wearasprizes." It ispossible, then,thatsomeof thecoinsmounted on the torquewere receivedby a soldierfor woundssuffered in battle,whilesomeothersmay havebeenreceivedin connection witha coronationceremony of oneof theemperors represented on them.The earlyonescouldhavebeeninherited and only latermountedon the torqueby theirowner.

239

The A

D jumati

Enamels:

Lifany Twelffh-Cenfury

Sainfs

Asszstant, TheClozsters MA R G A R E T E N G L I S H F R A Z E R Research

r s .

ninebeautiful goldandcloisonne enamel lhe Metropolitan Museumof Artpossesses medallions, whichportraybustsof Christ,theVirgin,andSt.JohntheBaptist,forming by portraits of Sts.George, a composition knownastheDeesis.Theyareaccompanied Johnthe Evangelist, Luke,Matthew,Paul,andPeter.It is thepurposeof thisarticle anda new date for their to proposea reconstruction of theiroriginalarrangement manufacture. Formanycenturiestheseenamelswereattachedto the frameof a silverrepousse of Djumatiin Georgia(FigureI), iconof the archangel Gabrielin the monastery laterin datethanthe enamels.Rondels which,in viewof its style,maybe somewhat of Sts. DemetriusandTheodorefromthe sameiconarepresentlyin the Museede of FineArtsin Tiflis,Georgia(Figures 2, 3). Clunyin ParisandtheNationalMuseum intotheiconat Djumatisometime aftertheir If theelevenenamels wereincorporated decorated theframeof a similaricon.Medallions manufacture, theyprobably originally of as wellas in of saintswereoftenusedto decorateborders iconsin EarlyChristian meTheyoccurin different Byzantineart,andtheyderivefromRomanprototypes. dia, suchas a sixth-century textile(Figure4), a MiddleByzantinepaintediconat silver-gilticonframein the Dumbarton Oaks MountSinai,andan eleventh-century collection(Figure5). to thedecorative effectof Therhythmicrepetition of rondelsnot onlycontributed a work,but theirsubjectsenrichedthe work'smeaning.The enamelson the DumbartonOaksframerepresent a Deesisof Christ,the Virgin,andSt. Johnthe Baptist at the top, the archangels MichaelandGabrielon the sides,andSts.PeterandPaul and the prophetElijahon the bottom.This Deesis,as well as the one amongour Traditionally, theVirginandSt. John enamels, providesthekey to theiriconography. in the Deesisintercedewith Christfor the salvationof men'ssouls.Theirprayeris apostles, andsaintsarranged in hieratic oftenstrengthened by ranksof angels,prophets, ivorytriptychin the Vatiorder,forminga "litanyof saints."On the tenth-century by twoangelswhostandbehind can(Figure6), MaryandJohn'sprayeris supported 24I

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2. St. Demetrius.Byzantine.Enamel,diameter3S inches.Muse'ede Cluny,Paris

3. St. Theodore.Byzantine.Enamel,diameter334 inches.NationalMuseumof FineAfrts, Tiglis,Georgia

Iconof the archangelGabrielwithenamelsof Christ,the Virgin,and St. Johnthe Baptist,and Sts. George,JohntheEvangelist,Luke, Matthew,Paul,andPeter.Byzantine(Georgiaand Constantinople?), enamelsfirsthalf of the XII century,iconsomewhatlater.Silverin N. P. from a woodengraving gilt andenamel.Illustration Emails undDentmalerdesByzantinischen Kondatov,Geschichte Enamelsgift of J. P. Morgan,I 7.I90.670-678 (I 889-I 892).

4. Lowersectionof a tapestry iconof the Virgin. Egyptian,IV century.TFool,70S x 43S inches.The ClevelandMuseumof Srt, LeonardC. Hanna,Jr., Bequest

5. Iconframe withenamelsof Christ,the Virgin,St. John the Baptist,the archangels Michaeland Gabriel,Sts. Peterand Paul, andtheprophetElzjah.Byzantine,mid-xI century.Enameland silver-gilt,8%6 X 71S6 inches.DumbartonOats Collection, Washington, D.C.

OPPOSITE

6. Triptych with Christenthroned, two archangels, the Virgin,St. JohntheBaptist, apostles,saints,and bishops.By2rantine, x century.Ivory widthopenapproximately s3h inches.MuseoCristiano,Vatican. Photograph: Slinari- A>rt Reference Bureau

Christ'sthrone,by theapostlesrangedin the registers below,andby militarysaints,martyrs,and churchfatherson the wings.The liturgyof the Greekchurchsuppliesthe basisfor the stratification of the saintlyorders unitedin prayerfor man'ssalvation.In the riteof thepreparation of theAmnos,orHost, the partstampedwith the bustof Christis separated fromtheeucharistic breadin honor of theVirgin.Then,eachsuccessive piecethat is brokenfromtheAmnosis dedicatedto the followingsaints:the archangels Michaeland Gabrieland the otherangels;St. Johnthe Baptistandtheprophets; Sts.PeterandPaul

andtheapostles; thechurchfathers;theholy martyrs,amongwhomDemetrius,George, andTheodorearespecifically mentioned; the monks;hermits;andfinallyall maleandfemalesaints. The Museum'srondelsmust have conformedto thishighlypopularformula aswell. The Deesiswouldhaveappearedalongthe topof theframeasit didon theiconat Djumati(FigureI): Sts.PeterandPaul,Johnthe Evangelistand Matthew,Markand Luke wouldhavebeenplacedoppositeeachother on thesides,withSts.Demetrius, George,and Theodorefindingtheirplacesalongthe bot-

of St. JohnChrysostom tom (Figure7). St. Markhasbeenincluded scriptof theHomilies sinceit is likelythathe completedthegroup in Paris,datedaboutI078 (FigureIO), in the of the fourevangelists. In the reconstructionenamelof St. Simonon the lowerportionof here proposed,the figuresarrangedon the the Palad'Oroin Venice,II05 (FigureII), left sidelook to the rightand thoseon the andin ourenamelof Christ(Figure8). arrangement of St. Sirightlookleft, in otherwordstowardChrist The symmetrical to whomtheyaddresstheirsupplication. mon'sfeatures(FigureII) iS similarto that Theenamels havebeenattributed toa Con- of ourenamelChrist(Figure8), but, unlike stantinopolitan artistworkingat the end of ours-withits patterningrefinedby a stark of line andform-the outlines the eleventhcenturyeitherin the capitalor simplification of St. Simon's neckandfaceareelaborated in Georgia.His consummate skill- the deliby spirals and a seriesof curls.The cloison cacyandassurance withwhichhe handledhis that describes a crease andthe Adam'sapple materialandlaidout his cloisons-indicates of St. Simon's neck is purelydecorative, but thathe hadreceivedthebesttrainingByzanof its simplicity of tiumcouldoffer.Certaincharacteristics of his thatof ourChrist,because moreto actualanatstyle,however,suchas his conception of the line,not onlyconforms facesandhis patterning of the cloisons,con- omy thanSt. Simon's,it alsoenhancesthe formmoreto the tasteprevailing duringthe designof thewholeheadby echoingtheoval reignof the twelfth-century Comnenian em- shapeof hisface.TheAdam'sapple,furtherperorJohnII (I I I8-I I43) andhiswifeIrene more,repeatsthe simpleshapeof the beard to thearcof Christ's thanto eleventh-century style.It is during andformsa counterpart the reignof thisemperorthatI believeour mouth. As important as the styleof the facialfeaenamelsweremade. The tightorganization of Christ'sfeatures, turesin datingtheseenamelsin the twelfth of layinghis for example,characterized by thick,evenly centuryis theartist'stechnique the goldsurcurvedeyebrows set symmetrically on either cloisons.Althoughhe prepared in the traditional fashside of an exceptionally long, slendernose faceof hismedallions (Figure8), iS strikingly like thatof the faces ion (Figure9), he restrictedthe useof each - repeatedparallel of John,Irene,and,especially,Maryin the specificpatternof cloisons mosaicpanelof the southgalleryof Hagia lines,curves,or herringbone designs-to one of drapery insteadof arranging SophiaofaboutI I I 8 (FigureI2). Theabstract compartment downward curveof Christ's mouthisalsoseen themin theearliertypeofoverallpatternseen in themosaicof IreneandJohn'ssonAlexius, in theenamelof St. Simon(FigureI4). Comerectedbesidethat of his parentsin about pare the gamma-shaped foldsover Christ's I I22 whenhe wasmadeco-emperor de(Figure rightforearm,the separateherringbone I3). signof theupperarm,andthesmoothcurves Christ'sfeatureson the mid-eleventh-cen-of the himation,or outergarment,overthe turyiconframefromDumbarton Oaks(Fig- rightshoulder(Figure8), with the repeated ure5), on theotherhand,aremoreirregular. triangular and teardroppatternsof St. SiThe mouth,eyes,andeyebrowsarebroader mon'schiton,or tunic,andhimation,which androunderandthe outlineof the faceand uniteall thedraperyfoldsintoan integrated hairmoreuneven.Frommid-century, how- design.Furthermore, ourartistoftenlaidhis ever,andthroughtheendof theeleventhand cloisonsin distinctively long, narrowstrips, into the beginningof the twelfthcentury, eithercurvedor rectilinear, openat oneend. patterning of facialfeaturesbecameincreas- Whilesimilarcloison"strips"had occasioninglyconventionalized andsimplified, andby ally been used in such earlierenamelsas OPPOSITE the timeof our medallions this formalpor- thefiguresof Humilityon thecrownof Con- 7. Reconstruction of the Museum's trayalof faceswaswellestablished. Thispro- stantineIX Monomachos (FigureI5) andSt. enamelson theframeof an icon. gressioncanbe seenin the facesin a manu- Simonfromthe Palad'Oro,they received Photograph:TaylorS Dull 245

8. Detail of theMuseum'senamelof Christ 9. Christ,rererseof Figure8. Theartistirst hammered into shallowrelieftheareasof thegoldto befilled withenamel for theigure andinscription. He thendrewin dotsthe outlines for theface andfeatures,thecross-inscribed halo, the boot, andthefolds of thedrapery.Noticetheway he changedthepositionof the handwhilehe drewit andthe designof thebookwhenhe laid theenamels

St. ure enamels I9 The and I6 John style, but 2I) Withappears, the and FigUreS moreover, Evangelist's in although such I7, figures I8). was less not right frequently, Finally, of the confined arm Pala the itare -SIaatreattosimilar t eF X;2vi! s-<---0¢ >12 2|X --9--l

i@2s-P!lX'

(FigureI 8), andthe in Leningrad Hermitage reliquaryof the Cathedralof Esztergom, 2X

theirwidestuse and developmentin twelfthcenturyworks,suchas the fragmentaryfeast cycle from the upper portion of the Pala d'Oro(FigureI7). (ThePalad'Orois divided into two sectionswithin its fourteenth-century frame.St. Simon [Figure I4] iS in the lower portion, which containsmany enamels andan inscriptionthatgivesa dateof I I os for them. The upperpart, with seven scenes from the life of Christ and a figure of St. Michael,wasaddedto the earlierPalain I 209. The scenes from the feast cycle, with one exception,are thought to have been taken fromaniconostasis[thescreenthatdividesthe chancelfromthe navein a Greekchurch]from the monasteryof the Pantocratorin Constantinopleduringthe Latinoccupationof the imperialcity, when this monasterywas the seat of the Venetianpodesta.These plaquesmay be datedin the secondquarterof the twelfth century because the three churchesin the monasterywere built by EmpressIrene and appearin EmperorJohnII.) Similar"strips" an Anastasisfrom the KremlinArmory,also dated in the second quarterof the twelfth century;St. Jacobon a compositeicon in the

&§ ; 0 4

v9tg@

fZ \/orkSof X the secondhalfof th)' otlhfP0ssiblY 6 Museum's enamelsbear 3 The Metropolitan iX to this twelfth-cenimportantresemblances turygroup.The repetitivecurvedlinesover <-n ^

*'C

,k,-w

to thoseoverChrist'srightthighin boththe frornthe Palad'Oroand the one Anastasis

j0:0000 ;:E;8> 00000ji

w w

tif of the foldsof his himationoverhis left Fig(compare hip of St Jacobin Lenlngrad overherleftforearm w mentof :\Iary'sdrapery dentilpatternis encountered >@! in a continuous Figures t;z (compare reliquarv in theEsztergom d'Orofeastcycleas Maryin the Ascension. worksin othermedia.Sepin twelfth-century sectionsof drapery,typical aratetriangular of ourenamels,werecreatedby the artistof of Chr1stof aboutII50 a miniaturemosa1c

ABOVE

IO.

| t

LEFT

I2,

* X

li i

ss-2i'

r°=ffi-

$X -= Bszl-

w m9#

,,@

9NK ,

Detailof FigureI4

II.

Michael,detailfroma page of the Homilies Thearchangel Byzc/ntine, aboutso78. Parchment, of St. JohnChrysostom. Nationale,M S Coislin inches.Paris,Bibliotheque I6 X I2 Munich HirmerFotoarchiv, 79,fol. 2V. Photograph:

;

-E<Zq

Virginand Child,EmpressIrene,and EmperorJohnII 8-II43) (oppositepage); andAlexius,son of Irene andJohnand co-emperor.Byzantine,aboutzzz8 and 8feet. II22. Mosaic,originalheightof eachapproximately SouthGallery,Hagia Sophia,Istanbul.Photographs: Inc. Munich,andthe ByzantineInstitute> HirmerFotoarchiv, I3.

(III

throughthe useof repeatedparallellines(Figure 20). In the mosaicsof the cupolaof the PalatineChapelin Palermoof about I I 43, the folds of the angels'chitonsover the legs are articulatedonly by a seriesof repeatedhorizontallines(Figure22). This techniqueclosely resemblesthatof the cloisonsover the right upperarmof St. Johnthe Evangelist(Figure I6) and the right leg of Christ on the Pala d'Oro Anastasis(Figure I7), as pointed out above. In attemptingto establisha new date for the enamelrondelsin the Museum,we have comparedthem with eleventh-and twelfthcenturyByzantineworksof art.We haveseen that the style of ourfigures'draperiesis closer to that of the fragmentaryfeast cycle of the

w4.St. Simonfrom the Pala d'Oro. Byzantine,IIos. Fnamel, II546 X 4% inches.St. Mart's, Venice.Photograph: Osraldo Bohm . Humility,detailfromthecrown of theemperorConstantine IX Monomachos (Io42-Ioss) Byzantine,Io42-Ioso. Enamel,33h8 x s5S inches. NationalMuseum,Budapest. Photograph: Giraudon

Pala d'Oro, probablyof the second quarter of the twelfthcentury,than to the earlierSt. Simon on the Pala of about II05. The patterningof the cloisonsand draperieson our enamels,however,is still not as emphaticas those of the feast scenes,the Esztergomreliquary, or St. Jacob.In addition to their affinities to these twelfth-centuryworks, the similaritiesin the treatment of faces that our enamelsbear to the imperialportraitsof John II, Irene, and Alexiusin Hagia Sophia of about I I I 8 and I I 22 and their noticeable diSerencesfrom earlierfaces, such as those seenon the DumbartonOaksiconframe,lead me to concludethat they wereprobablymade at the end of the firstquarteror beginningof the secondquarterof the twelfth century.

s 6.

Detail of the Museum'senamel of St. Johnthe Evangelist.24 literaltranslation of the inscription is "St.Johnthe Theologian"

B ELOW Z7.

(Harrowingof Hell), detailfrom theupperportion AMnastasis of the Pala d'Oro.Byzantine,secondquarterof the XII century.Enamel,I 2X6 X I I 1S6 inches.St. Mart's, Venice. OsraldoBohm Photograph:

RIGHT

s8. St. Jacob(St. James),detailfroma compositeicon. Byzantine,secondhalf of theXII century.Enamel.Hermitage from H. Banct StateMuseum,Leningrad.Illustration of the U.S.S.R. ByzantineAfrtin the Collections

111!1

E _

! |

-sE _8-N _S

__-____! -

| 11_

|-I I

_-_g_

liil_1|_

_E _DN

sg. Detail of the Museum'senamel of the Virgin.Inscription: "The Motherof God" 20.

NOTES

Christ.Byzantine,about ll50. Alosaic 2IX X I 6S6inches. NationalMuseum,Florence. Photograph: HirmerFotoarchi?v, Munich

AND REFERENCES

The paintediconat MountSinaiis illustrated in sions of the Museum's enamels: F. Bock, Die G. andM. Sotiriou, Iconesdu MontSinai(Athens, Byzantinischen7ellenschmelzeder Sammlungen (Aachen, I896); O. M. I956), figure64; theAnastasis fromtheKremlin Alex. von Swenigorodskoi Armoryis plateI85 in A. V. Banck,ByzantineArt Dalton, "Byzantine Enamels in Mr. Pierpont in the Collectionsof fAe U.S.S.R. (Leningrad, Morgan'sCollection"in TheBurlingtonMagazine N. P. Kondakov, I966); and the portionsof the Palad'Oronot 2I (I9I2), pp. 65-73, I27-I28; illustrated here,suchastheAscension in thefeast Geschichteund Dentmaler des Byzantinischen K. OPPOSITE cycle,canbe seenin H. R. Hahnloser et al., La Emails (Frankforton the Main, I889-I892); Wessel, Die ByzantinischeEmailtunstvom 5 bis Pala d'Oro(Florence, I965). 2I. Reliquary of the TrueCross, The Museum'senamelshave been discussed w3 Jahrhundert(Recklinghausen,I 967), no. 40. angels,Sts. Constantine and For additionalinformationabout the litany of andillustrated beforein TheMetropolitan Museum Helena,Roadto Caltoary, of Art Bulletin.See J. J. Rorimer,"A Twelfth- saints,see E. Kantorowicz,"Ivoriesand Litanies" in Journalof the Warburgand CourtauldInstitutes CenturyByzantineEnamel,"33 (I938), pp. 245Deposition.Byzantine,second 246; W. H. Forsyth,"MedievalEnamelsin a 5 (I942), pp. 56-8I. half of theXII century.Enamel, For further referenceto the Pala d'Oro, see New Installation," n.s. 4 (I946), p. 232; andno. s3h x 9S inches.Cathedral Les Emauxbyzantinsde la I5 in V.K. Ostoia's section,"Byzantium," of 26 J. de Luigi-Pomorivsac, Treasury,Eszzergom, Hungary. Pala d'Oro de l'e'glise de Saint-Marc a Venise (Zur(I 968), p. 203. Photograph: Giraudon The followingworksincludeextensivediscus- ich, I966), 2 vols. 22.

Two angels,detailfromthe cupolaof thePalatineChapel, Palermo,Sicily.Byzantine, abouts s43. Mosaic.Photograph:Anderson - AJrt Referensc Bureau

Madonnas of the Rhone-Meuse Valleys

WILLIAM H. FORSYTH of MedierczlJrt Curnltor

Virginand Child,from Saint-Denis.French .340. Marble,height65 (Ile-de-France), inches.Parishchurchof Magny-en-Vexin. Photographiques A>rchives Photograph: Virginand Child,from Cernay-le's-Reims. French,about .350 Alabaster,height34h2 28.76 inches.Giftof GeorgeBlumenthal, VirginandChild.French(lowerRhonevalheight35 inches. ley),about.350. Allabaster, s7.sg0.7s7 Morgan Pierpont Giftof J.

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was sculpture subjectof Frenchfourteenth-century andappealing The mostpopular of theselovelystatues,it variations the VirginandChild.Thoughtherearecountless thatthe greatmajorityof themcanbe tracedultiapparent increasingly is becoming in a fugue,the familiar matelyto a fewkey figures.Likemusicalthemesinterwoven and combining sometimes constantlyappearandreappear, formsof thesearchetypes newvarisometimes developing witheachotherto createnewvariations, recombining of anylargefamily,each Likemembers of thesamearchetype. ationsfromeelaborations Virgindiffersfromthe othersto a greateror lesserdegree.Usuallythesedifferences by style and havea regionalflavorandcanbe usedto helpto groupthe sculptures not onlyof stylebut of posture,of canbe spottedin variations province.DiSerences of faces,andevenof costumedetails. of draperyarrangements, figureproportions, coming (FiguresI, 6), originally TheroyalVirginin thechurchof Magny-en-Vexin is one of the mostimportantof these fromthe greatabbeychurchof Saint-Denis, in I340 by Jeanned'Evreux,the widowed It wasgivento Saint-Denis archetypes. gueenof CharlesIV, who,like manyotherwealthywidowssinceher time,madea careerof beinga greatpatronof the arts.One partof the familyof statuesof the dependuponthe MagnyVirginis scatteredalong VirginandChildthatapparently the rivervalleysof the Meuseandthe Rhone,whichtogetherformonelong,almost Madonnas waterwaybetweenthe NorthSeaand the Mediterranean. uninterrupted variation in theirstyles,which showconsiderable axissometimes alongthisnorth-south of theirdraperyis similar but the arrangement usuallyshowregionalcharacteristics, a primarysource. enoughto suggestthatthe MagnyVirginwasprobably The mantleof the MagnyVirginfallssoftlyacrossher body,is caughtup underneaththe Christchild,andthenhangsdownthe sidein ripplingfolds;in the Rhoneso that MeuseVirginsthe sweepof the mantleacrossthe fronthasbeenexaggerated, a largerpocketof draperyis formed,andthe fallbeneaththe Childtendsto be more betweenthedraperypocketandtheverticalfoldsof the fall The transition elaborate. abruptby the greaterstiffnessof the foldsandtheir sharper is madesurprisingly proSles,whichcontrastto themoresupple,pliablefoldsof the MagnyVirgin. axis Museumthatcamefromthe Rhone-Meuse Threestatuesin the Metropolitan betweenthe prototypeandworksderivedfrom wellillustratethesubtlerelationships 4. Virginand Child,from Diest. 4) comesfromDiest,nearthe Meusevalleyin eastern example (Figure A northern it. Mosan,s345. Marble,height carvedbya sculptor of Diest,it wasprobably Madein I345 forthebeguinage 46 inches.FletcherFund,24.2s5 Belgium. in themiddleMeusevalleyaroundLiege,whofollowedthetypeof theMagny working Virginbutworkedin his localidiom.The statuebelongsto a groupfromthisregion - large, draperypocketandthesamefacialfeatures thatallhavethesameexaggerated noses,andthinlips. wide-seteyes,prominent with A secondsculptureof the Magnytype (Figures2, 7) that can be associated areacameto the Museumin I924 as a gift fromGeorge thoseof the Rhone-Meuse donor.The figof the Museumandformanyyearsa generous President Blumenthal, a shortdistanceawayfromthegreat urewassaidto havecomefromCernay-les-Reims, OPPOS ITE atcity andonlythirtymilesfromthe Meuse.A "said-to-have-come-from" cathedral 5. Detailof Figure2 254

6, 7, 8. The Magny,Cernay,and tributionshouldalwaysbe treatedwith caution;it may representan honestoral tradiMorganstatuesof the Virgin tion, but it often has no more basisthan wishfulthinkingor, less honestly,the desire and Child

to 1ncreasethe 1mportance of an obJectby attach1nglt to a well-knownschool. Lastyear,however,all doubtsaboutthe sourceof this Virginwere happilyremoved when Rene Gandilhon,the alertarchivistat Chalons-sur-Marne, kindly producedfor us a noticein a localarchaeological surveyofI900 that describedthe statuewhen it was still in the churchat Cernay-les-Reims and publisheda contemporaryphotographof it. A visit to the churchrevealedthat a castof the statuewasinstalledthere,and later anotherreproductionwas found housedin a wall niche of a house at Thillois,only a few milesfromCernay.In WorldWarI the churchat Cernaysuffereddamagewhen the Germanscapturedthe townduringtheirdriveon Reims.It wasapparentlyat this time that the statuedisappearedfrom the church,to turn up someyearslater on the internationalart market. Thereis evidenceto suggestthat ourstatueoriginallymay havedecoratedthe main doorwayto the church.The doorwayhas been rebuilttwice in moderntimes,once in the nineteenthcenturyand againafterWorldWarI, but the I900 surveyreportsthat 256

meaningthetrumeauor centralpier,nowmiss- 9, so, ss. Threestatuesof the themontant,or doorpost(presumably VirginandChild:from the thata hada corbelwitha Gothiccanopyoverit. Rightlyrecognizing ing),originally in Lyons, Comtat-Venaissin, thatthemissingfigurewasthatof a statuemusthavestoodhere,theauthorssurmised and in the Mortimercollection. wasbaseduponthe fact that the Virginwasthe VirginandChild.Theirreasoning H11French,aboutI350. and that the chapterin turnwasthe patronsaintof the chapterof Reimscathedral, Marble,height43 inches; of thechurchat Cernay,helpingto provideforits upkeep alabaster,height3s inches; chiefpatronandtithe-owner thanfor marble,height29 inches.Muse'e itspriest.Whatcouldhavebeenmorenatural,therefore, andevenappointing Toulouse; des A>ugustins, thegoodcanonsof the chapterto haveerecteda statueof the Virginat the mainenfromp. 22 of illustration Therewasoncea coatof armspaintedbelowthecorbelonwhich tranceto thechurch? Rachou,Le Muse'ede Toulouse, the missingstatuehadstood,andthe writersof the I900 surveysuggestedthat the SculptureII. Muse'ede Lyon; armswerethoseof the chapter.The surveyalsostatedthatin I900 ourstatuewas photograph:Syl?vestre. Collection of StanleyMortimer housedwithinthe churchon a consoleoverthesacristydoor(whichhadbeenbuiltin else,either the nineteenthcentury),but that it musthavecomefromsomewhere againsta wallor insidea niche,becauseof twoholeson eithersideof the baseof the musthavepassed. neck,throughwhichtwoattachments It is strangethat,havinggoneso far,thesewritersdidnot go onestepfurtherand 257

associate theVirginthenin thechurchwiththemissingstatuefromthemaindoorway. Bothmusthavebeenof thesamegeneralsize.TheexistingVirginis shallowandfairly flaton the back,indicating thatshewouldnot haveprojected veryfarforward when set ona corbel.Themaindoorwayof thechurchwas,andstillis, completely sheltered by a porch,andthussucha delicatelycarvedstatuewouldnot havesuffered fromthe weather. It canbeassumed thateitherin thenineteenth century,whenthemainportal wasreconstructed, orpossibly at anearlierdate,thestatuewasbrought intothechurch. By coincidence the Museumalsopossesses anotherstatueof the VirginandChild (Figures3, 8) givenin I9I7 by J. PierpontMorgan,whichis so similarto thatfrom Cernaythatonehastheimpression thatthesculptors couldhaveusedthesamemodel. The twostatuescloselyresemble eachothernot onlyin sizebut alsoin theirstance, includingtheirslightlyflexedrightlegsandthe tilt of theirheads,whichareset on long,columnar necks.Thedrapery of theirmantles,moreover, is quiteclose:asit falls overtheirrightforearms andacrossthefrontof theirbodies,it formsa similarpattern of foldsthatclingto the bodyasif theywerewet,andthedraperyfoldson the backs of the twofiguresareassimilarason thefront(FiguresI3, I4). Eventheirbeltshave thesamesquarequatrefoil ornaments. TheChildin bothhasthesamepostureandthe sameelongated headwithparallel verticalcurlson theback.Yetin spiteof thesestrikingsimilarities thereareintriguing differencesthesomewhat moreprecisecontours of thedrapery of theMorgan Virginandespecially themoresharply carvedfeatures of her face(Figures5, I2). Indeed,facialdifferences andresemblances area veryimportant factorin distinguishing betweenvariousregionalgroupsof fourteenth-century sculpture.Therefore onecanconclude thatthesestatuesarecousins, notsisters:thatis to say, thattheycomefromdifferentregionsbuthavethesame"grandparent" archetype. Thefaceof theMorganVirgin,especially theprofileof theeyesandthehigh,arched eyebrows,hassimilarities to somefaceson sculpture of the Rhonevalley,especially aroundAvignon,suchasa VirginandChild(Figureg) fromthepapalterritory known as the Comtat-Venaissin, justeastof Avignon,the residence of thepopesin the fourteenthcentury.The MorganVirgin,therefore, couldalsohavecomefromthe lower Rhonevalley,perhaps nearAvignon. Both the Morganand Comtat-Venaissin Virginswearan ornatebroochholding theirmantlestogether,whichis distinctiveof otherVirginsin thisarea- oneof them nowin theLyonsMuseum,up the RhonefromAvignon(FigureIO). Thedraperyof theLyonsVirgin,however,is donein a moresupplestyle,closerto thatof theMagny statue.Althoughit hasbeencalledBurgundian because of its rathersquat,heavyproportions, thestatuein Lyonscanprobably beconsidered a productof theRhonevalley, whereBurgundian influence wasstrong. A statueof the VirginandChildin the StanleyMortimer Collection(FigureI I), exhibitedat TheCloisters in I968-I969, combines characteristics of bothnorthern and OPPO S ITE southernvariations of thistheme.Theexaggerated pocketfoldof themantleandthe I2. Detailof Figure3. The Virgin'srighthandandcrown, otherdeepfoldscurlingaroundthe rightleg arelike thoseof the statuefromthe the bird,and the Child's Comtat-Venaissin. Thefacesof thetwoVirgins,however, arequitediSerent,theMorrightfoot andforearmshare timeroneresembling sculpture madenorthof Avignon,suchastheVirginin theLyons beenrestored 259

museum. TheLyonsandMortimer statuesaresimilarin otherrespects: thedressof the Christchildin bothhasa slightslitat thenecklineand,moreimportant, bothVirgins carrya shortflowering stalk- asdoestheVirginfromCernay-les-Reims. InmostFrench fourteenth-century statuesof the VirginandChild,the Virgin,as Queenof Heaven, bearsa scepterthatusuallyendsin a fleur-de-lis, theroyalflowerof France.Sometimes, asin theseexamples, thesceptertakestheformof a rosebranch - therosebeinga constantsymbolof the Virginas the rosa mystzca of divinelove,the roseof Jerichomentionedin Ecclesiasticus 24:I8. Statuesbearingsucha stalkcan be foundscattered throughout France:thereis a famousoneat Coutances, forinstance,anda fewothers fromNormandy(andalsoa VirginfromMaisoncelles nowin theLouvre,anda statue at Angers),butmostarefoundin theeasternpartof thecountry,especially in Champagne,Burgundy, andLorraine. It is significant, however,thatalmostall the RhoneMeuseVirginsof the Magnytypeseemto havecarriedthe stalk.The MagnyVirgin herselfholdsa knobbystalk;a holein itsupperendprobably indicates thatit originally borea rosebranchas floweringsceptermadeof metal,like the statue'scrownand brooch.A similarknobbystalkcanbe seenin the handof the DiestVirgin;the right handof the Morganstatueis a laterrestoration - originally it couldhavelookedlike thehandof theCernayfigure;therightarmof theComtat-Venaissin Virginhasbeen brokenoff,butit is a safeguessthatit, too,oncecarrieda flowering stalk. The birdthatthe Childoftenholds,in thesesculptures (excepttheMortimer one) andin manyothers,lookslike a household pet, but theremaybe a deeperimplied meaning, sincea dovewasalwaysa Christian symbolnotonlyof peaceandpuritybut alsoof theHolySpirit.In addition,therewastheJewishcustomassociated withpurificationrites,whichJosephandMaryfollowed,of offeringtwo turtledoves whenone broughta first-born childto the temple.Thereis eventhe apocryphal storythatthe Christchildcreatedlivingbirdsout of clay. TheCernayandthe Morgansculptures canprobablybe datedaroundI350, or ten yearslaterthanthe MagnyVirgin.Theotherworksmentioned in thisarticlealldate fromthe samegeneralperiod,andrepresent onlya partof thoseevolvingfromthe Magnyarchetypeor fromsculptures derivedfromit. Therearemanyothertypesof Virginsin the Rhone-Meuse valleys,but the onesgatheredheregive an ideaof the complexinterrelationships thatsuchMadonnas possess. NOTES

AND

REFERENCES

The CernayVirgin,of alabaster, is 34H2inches highand5H2inchesdeep.Moderngilding,probably replacingthe old, is on the bordersof the garments,the hair,the belt, the bird,and the scepter.The restof the statueappearsneverto havebeenpainted.Anoriginal,verydelicatevine patternin low reliefon the borderof the cloak is still visiblein one placeon the back.Remains of the foliateopenworkcrownshowit hadleafy Seuronsalternating with smallerterminals. The twoholesforattachments at the baseof theneck havenowbeenpluggedup. 260

The MorganVirgin,fromthe Mannheim Collection(I898), alsoof alabaster, is 35 incheshigh and5H2inchesdeep.The base,the Virgin'sfeet, righthand,crown,somesectionsof herdrapery, the Child'sleft foot,his forearms, and the bird arenew.Tracesof redandbluepainton theVirgin'sgarments arenotoriginal;herheadhasbeen skillfullyreset. The MorganVirginresemblesseveralother sculpturesof the Rhonearea:its facialtype is similarto thatof a beardedheadin the Avignon museum,the headof a Virginon thedoorwayof

the churchof St. Agricolin Avignon,and the I I6-I I8 (churchof Cernay). headof a statueof St. Johnthe Baptistin the Carmen Gomez-Moreno, Medieval Art from Lyonsmuseum.(Thedraperyof thisfigure-par- PrivateCollections:A Special Exhibitionat The ticularlythe exaggerated pocketformedby the Cloisters,October30, s968, throughJanuary5, mantleandthe foldscurlingaroundthe rightleg Z969 (New York, MetropolitanMuseum, I 968), -is very close to that of the Comtat-Venaissinno. 39 (MortimerVirgin). Virgin.)The sametype of broochappearson a Rene Jullian,Cataloguedu Muse'ede Lyon. 111, et de la Renaissance Virginon a calvarycrossin theAvignonmuseum La Sculpturedu Moyen-aAge andona groupof Virginsfoundwestof theRhone (Lyons, I 945), pp- 65-67; 53-55 plS. XII, XITI in southernLanguedoc: at Narbonne(two), at (Lyons Virginand St. John the Baptist). Portal,andat Pepieux. Henri Rachou, Le Muse'ede Toulouse.SculpWilliamH. Forsyth,"AGroupof Fourteenth- ture 11,descriptiondes Viergeset Pietas(Toulouse, CenturyMosanSculptures" in MetropolitanMu- I908), pp. 2I, 22, with illustration(Comtat-VenseumJournalI (NewYork,Metropolitan Muse- aissinVirgin). Claude Schaefer,La Sculptureen ronde-bosse um, I968), pp. 4I-59 (DiestVirgin). C. Givelet,H. Jadart,andL. Demaison, Re'per- au XlVe siecledansle duche'de Bourgogne(Paris, toire arche'ologique de l'arrondissement de Reims I954) pp. (Cantonde Beine), fasc. I O (Reims, I 900), pp. Virgin).

I04

I05s

I8I,

no. 94,

plS.

3I,

(Lyons

s3, s4. Bact viewsof Figures2 and 3

26I

"NunswiththeirneedleswrotehistoriesaIso, that of Christhis passionfor theiraItarcloths,. . . Storiesto adorntheirhouses." as otherScripture

Needlework by Nuns: A

Medieval

Religious

Embroidery

B O N N I E Y O U N G SeniorLecturer,TAteCloisters

The quotationon the oppositepage- wordsof a seventeenth-century churchhisto- OPPOS ITE German(Lower rian-mighteasilyreferto a rareembroidered hanging(FigureI) recentlygivento I. Embroidery. Saxont),late XIV century.Linen TheCloisters by Mrs.W.MurrayCraneandherdaughter, LouiseCrane,andbelieved embroidered withsilt,faces and to be fromoneof themanymedievalreligious housesin LowerSaxony.Thatwriter's inscriptions painted;605 X association of needlework andnunneries mayderivefromthe acceptance of needle- 6I 6 inches.Giftof Mrs. W. workasa properc)ccupation forladiesof gentlebirth,andfromthepreponderance MurrayCraneandLottiseCrane, of 69. I06 well-born womenamongmedievalnuns.Althoughtherewerecertainlynunswhohad a truevocationfor the religiouslife, the conventwasa refugeformanygirlsof the higherclassesforwhoma suitablehusband couldnot be found.Anagricultural laborer or a tradesman couldalwaysfindworkforhissuperfluous daughters, but for the unmarried daughters of the upperclassesonly the conventprovidedan honorable profession.Consequently, the atmosphere in conventswasapt to be less "cloistered" duringthe MiddleAgesthanwhatwe expecttoday. Muchembroidery of theMiddleAgeswastheworkof trainedcraftsmen, sometimes referred to as "needle-painters." In England,forinstance,the bulkof thefamousembroideries of the thirteenthandfourteenthcenturieswascarriedout in professional workshops whereartisans, bothmenandwomen,wereexpectedto serveanapprenticeshipof sevenyears.FromGermany, however,thereis considerable evidence,including inscriptions, thatimportantembroideries weremadein convents.The Metropolitan Museumhasa fourteenth-century inscribed embroidery (Figure2) fromAltenberg, on theLahnRiver;anotherembroidery fromthatsameconvent,nowin theCleveland Museum,wasmadeduringthe thirteenthcenturywhileGertrude,the daughterof St. Elizabethof Hungary, wasabbess.Twoconvents,Wienhausen andLune,stillpossessa numberof embroideries madeearlyin theirhistory:at Luneis a seriesfromthe latefifteenthandearlysixteenthcenturies whoseinscriptions indicatetheyweremade by thenunsunderthedirectionof SophiavonBodendike, prioress andlaterabbessof theconvent. Thefresh,almostchildlikecharmof theCloisters embroidery suggeststhatit might havebeenmadeundersimilarcircumstances, with the abbessdirectingthe workof youngernuns.The Virginin the Nativityscenelooksas thoughshewerea dollin a Christmas stocking,suggesting the youthfulness of the needleworkers (seeFigure9), and the elegantlydressedyoungladieswhoacclaimDavidandpresenthim with a 263

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withlinen,I56 X 47H 2. Embroidery. German(Altenberg),earlyXIV century.Linenembroidered againstlight.Inscription: "Sophia,Hadewigis,Lucardis inches.Thispiecewasphotographed to thee."FletcherFund,29.87 mademe. O gentleJesus,may ourwort be acceptable

LEFT

with wool, s4M2x 3. Embroidery. German(LowerSaxony),XIV century.Cottonembroidered I I h inches.Bequestof Charles I4le',64.27.2s

earlyXI V century.Linenembroidered with wool, goS x 4. Embroidery. German( Wienhausen), sS79/6inches.KlosterWienhausen

chapletof flowersindicatethat the embroi- looserstitch, are in solid colors.The stitches derersstill had an interestin the secular in the white faces and scrollswere smooth costumesand pastimesof girls fromnoble enoughto allow the featuresand inscriptions families(seeFigureIO). to be paintedon. The embroideries fromAltenberg,like a It is, above all, these very patterns that numberof otherGermanreligiousembroi- unite our embroiderywith a groupof others deries,areexecutedcompletely in white(see fromthe southernpartof LowerSaxony.The Figure2). In whatappearsto be an effortto groupseemsmorecloselyrelatedby the geoproducean 1nterestlng vartanon1n texture, metricpatterns,the zigzagdesigns,the stylmany differentpatternsand stitcheswere ized leaf, acorn, and flower motifs, and the used.Thesepatterns in theall-whitehangings animalsand birds,such as the pelicanin the may haveservedas the inspiration for the border,than by story content or overallapmostdistinctivefeatureof the Cloistersem- pearance,a fact that causes speculationas broidery - the depictionof figuresand dra- to whether there may have been a medieval pery withoutany attemptsto makethem equivalentof stitch or pattern books in the three-dimensional ortoshowshading. Instead, nunneriesof the region. The Cloistersemtheyaretreatedasa flatcombination of geo- broidery,however,differsfrom many of the metricshapes,suchas crosses,s figures,and Lower Saxon ones in that it is solidly emswastikas. In contrastto the colorfulpatch- broidered;in the others the figuresare set work-quilt effectcreatedby thesepatterns, against the plain background(Figures3, 6.) the backgrounds, embroidered in a uniform Whenthe embroiderycameto thiscountry .

withsilt andgold, 5. Cope.German(Hildesheim?),earlyXIV century.Linenembroidered gfeet 434 inchesx 4 feet 934 inches.VictoriaandAlbertMuseum,London

6. Embroidery.German(Lower Saxony),late with silk Linenembroidered XIV century. and linen 501X6x 33S inches.Stadtisches Museum,Brunswict

in I930, it was attributedto the convent of Wienhausen,andat leastone otherpiece there is close in style and employsthe samestitching technique.Most of the embroideriesfrom Wienhausen,however,suchas the well-known Tristan hanging (Figure 4), show the same sort of decorativeelementsand architectural structuresbut are differentin style (for example,the draperyis treatedin a morenaturalistic way) and are embroideredin wool ratherthan silk. Accordingto an I 874 catalogueof the Hohcollection where the enzollern-Sigmaringen Cloistershangingwasdescribed,it camefrom Hildesheim,and it has recently been comparedwith a cope in the Victoriaand Albert Museumpurchasedfromthe estateof a bishop of Hildesheim(Figure 5) and an embroidery in the StadtischesMuseumin Brunswick,near Hildesheim(Figure6). The presenceof three little-knownsaintsEpiphanius,Bernward,andGodehard- in the lower border of the Cloistershanging (see Figure 27) also points stronglyto the region of Hildesheimas a placeof origin,as all three arecloselyassociatedwith that city andinfrequentlyportrayedelsewhere.The body of St. Epiphaniussa fifth-centurybishopof Pavia, was broughtto Hildesheimin 962 by Bishop Othwin,who had stolenit from Paviafor his relic-poorcity while on a trip to Italy; a churchwas then built in honor of the saint. St. Bernward,bishopof Hildesheimfrom993 to I022 and famousfor the bronzedoorsand other works of art made during his tenure, holds a model of the Churchof St. Michael for whichhe laid the cornerstonein IOOI; he consecratedit just beforehis death in I022. He was succeededas bishopby St. Godehard whowasalsoan importantbuild(I022-I038), er of churches.Bernward'sempty tombis still in the crypt of St. Michael's,and medieval reliquariesof all threesaintsarein the Cathedralof Hildesheim. Whetherthe embroiderywasoriginallydesignedfor a churchor convent in the city of Hildesheimitself would be impossibleto say without documentaryproof, but it was almost certainlymade in one of the religious

for orhouseswithin the jurisdictionof that impor- evidentlybecomingtoo complicated The earlyfourteenthdinaryconsumption. tant medievaldiocese. Because embroidery technique seems to centuryauthorof the SpeculumHumanae have remainedmuch the same during the Salvationisopenedwitha partialquotefrom whoteachmanyto justice fourteenthcentury, the dating of the Clois- Daniel:" '[Those] eternity,'so ters hangingis basedon the costumes,which willshineasthestarsin perpetual of many indicatea dateat the end of the century.The I writethisbookfortheinstruction dressesand coiffuresof the ladieswho acclaim . . . butI reciteonlya littleof thetotalhistory to me. . . forfearI would David (Figure I0), and the helmet, armor, whichwasavailable to my readers." Thisworkand andlow-slungswordbeltof St. George(Cover, giveboredom Figure 26), for instance,are similarto ones a similarbook the Biblia Pauperum,areesseen in the CloistersNine Heroes tapestries sentiallypicturebookswithshorttexts.The for each (aboutI385); the figureof St. Georgehasalso Speculumhas threeprefigurations sceneandalsoincludesapocbeen comparedto a sculptureof that saintin NewTestament an altarpieceof around I400 in Hildesheim. ryphalmaterial. of thesetwo books Althoughthe executionof the embroidery Afterthe appearance theheightof itspopularity mayseemnaive,the contentandarrangement thethemereached are sophisticated:scenes from the Old and in art.Whilethe newhangingrelatesto the New Testamentsare paired,each in a sepa- Speculumand the Biblia Pauperum,it does rate compartmentenclosedwithin a zigzag not followeitherliterally,as did someother borderfromwhichemergestylizedleafforms. worksof art of the late MiddleAges.Some fromthoseliterary Whoever planned the decorativescheme of of the markeddeviations in the captionsaccomthe hangingwas obviouslywell versedin the worksare discussed many symbolicinterpretationsof the Bible panyingthe picturesof detailsfromthe emcurrentin the MiddleAges.From the earliest broidery thatfollowthisarticle. days of Christianity theologianshad written at one Anothersectionof thisembroidery, commentarieson it and interpretedit in an timein the parishchurchof Brakelin Westorderedallegoricalsystem, one of the main phalia,disappeared in I945 duringWorld featuresof whichwas the relationof the Old WarII, but a photograph of it exists(Figof the and the New Testaments.Indicationsof this ure 7). Obviouslythe continuation themeof relatednessarefoundin the Gospels Cloistershanging it containssix paired in suchpassagesas "Foreven as Jonahwasin scenes,includingfourmorefromthe life of the bellyof the fish [for]threedaysand three Christ.Neitherour outsidebordernor our nights, so will the Son of Man be threedays coatsof armsarerepeated. In the middleof and three nights in the heart of the earth" the top border,moreoverwith saintson ei(seeFigures22, 23). St. Augustineput it more therside,Christis enthroned withthebanner generally:"The Old Testamentis the New of the Resurrection and censingangels.As of an exhiveiled, and the New is the Old unveiled." waspointedout in the catalogue This type of thinking had irresistibleap- bitionat Corveyin I966, the sceneof Christ peal to the medievalmind: the wordsof the enthroned wouldlogicallyhavebeenthecenProphetsforetoldevents in the Gospels and terof a composition thatoriginally hadthirtyOld Testamentstoriesbecameprefigurations sixscenes.Theexistence of a thirdportionof for thosein the New. In the twelfthand thir- theembroidery scenes withtwelveadditional teenth centuriesworkslike the vast compi- wouldexplainthe absenceof suchimportant lation of biblical commentaries,the Glossa episodes in thelifeof ChristastheFlightinto Ordinaria, Honoriusof Autun'sSpeculumEc- Egypt, the Baptism,and the Resurrection. clesiae-probablythe most popularhandbook scenein theBrakel Thechurchconsecration of sermonsin the MiddleAges- and the Mor- embroidery (Figure25) leadsone to surmise alizedBible expandedthe theme until it was that the hangingmay have been madeto 267

commemorate thededication of a newchurch whereit wasto be used.Althoughthe embroiderywasoncebelievedto be partof an altarhanging,its extrapolated originallength of aboutsixteenfeet seemstoo longfor this purposeso it is morelikelythatit hadsome otheruse- possiblyasoneof a seriesdesigned to hangoverchoirstalls.Considering theper-

ishablenatureof textiles,thebeautifulcondition- therehasbeenlittle if any restoration andthecolorsarestillremarkably bright- of theCloisters embroidery showsthatit hasalwaysbeentreasured andwell caredfor. We are indeedfortunateto have todayeven a part of what must have originallybeen a mostambitious needlework project.

7. Embroidery. German(LowerSaxony),late-xIv century.SeeFiguresZ8-2Sfor detailsof eightof thesepanels.A>nna presenting Samuelto Eli andthePresentation of Christin the Temple(thesecondpairin thetop row), andA>hasuerus crowningEstherandthe Coronation of the Virgin(thetwo left-handsceneson the bottom)arenot separately illustrated. Thelowerborderof thissectionis missing.Photograph: Landesdentmalamt Westfalen-Lippe, Munster

NOTES

AND

REFERENCES

Since it is diMcultto translateaccuratelythe Germantermsforthestitchesin theembroidery, of the drawings afterthosein the t964 catalogue KestnerMuseumare shownhere.The stitches illustrated in drawings A andD wereusedforthe the redand outlines;in B, for the backgrounds, whiteborders,andsomepartsof the costumes; A andin D, forthe in C, forthegeometric patterns; facesandscrolls. Whilethe embroidery wasnot madeall in one to bea single, piece,eachof thethreerowsappears completeunit. The differencesin background color (see Cover) were probablyintentional ratherthancausedby fadingandthe paintingof an expedientto facialfeaturesand inscriptions simplifythe workon the embroidery. Althoughthe spellingof biblicalnamesfollows theKingJamesversion,thequotesfromtheBible are takenfromthe Douaiversion(New York, fromthe Biblia I950). The Englishtranslations Pauperumare fromAdolpheDidron'sChristian B Iconography (London,I886), andthoseof Durandus of MendefromJohnNeale and Benjamin Webb'seditionof TheSymbolismof Churchesand ChurchOrnaments(Leeds,I843). The transcriptions of the scrollsin the embroiderycan be KunstandKultur. foundin theCorveycatalogue, The armswereidentifiedby R. T. Nichol,a theembroidery member of theMuseum staffwhen firstcameto thiscountry,as thoseof the ancient Landgrave of Hesseandthe Houseof l ichtfuss, but althoughthe charges seemcorrect,the colors differfromthoseindicatedin heraldrybooks. I wish to expressmy thanksto Dr. Renate Kroos,whosentmea copyof thetexton ourembookNiedersachbroideryfromherforthcoming C sischeBildstickereien (II50-I450). H. Cornell,Biblia Pauperum. . . (Stockholm, 1

rrTl

925)-

D Emile Male, The Gothic Image (New York,

I 958)

LouisdeFarcy,La Broderiedu Xle sieclejusqu'2 F. A. Lehner, VerzeichnissderTextilarbeiten, Museum(Sigmaringen,I874). Hohenzollernisches nosjours (Angers,I 890). J. P. Migne, ed., PatrologiaLatina, vol. I72, Medieral Art from CarmenGomez-Moreno, Honoriusof Autun (Paris, I854). Eileen Power, Medieral English Nunneries (Cambridge,I922). Museum,I968). I969 (NewYork,Metropolitan KestnerMuseum,Textilien: Webereienund Bildteppicheund Marie Schuette, Gestickte no. 7, Deckendes Mittelalters(Leipzig, I 927- I g30). Stickereien desMittelalters, picturecatalogue SpeculumHumanaeSalvationis,ed. by J. Lutz compiledby Ruth Gronwoldt(Hanover,I964). trans. by Jean 800- I 600 (Cor- and P. Perdrizet from the I448 KunstundKulturim Weserraum vey, I 966) . Mielot (Mulhouso,I909).

PrivateCollections:X Special Exhibitionat The Cloisters,October30, I968, throughJanuary5,

8, 9. Twoprefigurations insteadof theusualonearecontained in thescenesbeforethe Annunciation andtheNativityin thetoprowof theCloisters hanging.Scrollsreading of Aaron'srod) rellusIedonis(Gideon's fleece)andrirgaAaronJYoruit(theflowering identifytwoprefigurations fortheAnnunciation (Cover).In thescenesshownhere,the closedgateof EzekielandMosesin the burningbushprefigure the Nativity.These ortheSpeculum, images donotcoincide exactlywiththoseineithertheBibliaPauperum but all of themwereusedby rnedieval writersas examples of the virginityof Avlary. 270

He wrote Honorius of Autunmentioned all fourin hissermonfor theAnnunciation. thatthe sterilerodof Aaron,whichgavefruit,is theVirginMarywhobroughtJesus Christ--atoncebothGodandMan-into the world,andthat the fleeceof Gideon, whichmiraculously receivedthe dewfromheaven,is the Virginwhobecamefertile, hervirginity.He appliedsimilar whiletheairaround,whichremained dry,symbolizes logicto theotherpairof scenes. 27I

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F==

;

10-13. In the second row of the Museum'shanging,David, acclaimedafter his victory over Goliath,is shownnext to the Entry into Jerusalem.As the BzblzaPauperumexplains,"Wereadin the firstbookof Kings. . . the womencamerejoicing,and receivedhim into Jerusalemwith great glory. David thus typifiesChrist,whom the childrenof the Hebrewsreceivedinto Jerusalem, shoutingwith loudvoiceanduttering blessingson Him who camein the nameof the Lord."In the next scene Isaaccarries the wood and Abrahamthe firefor the Sacrificeof Isaac.The Speculumtells us, "The carryingand bearingof the crossby JesusChristwasprefiguredin Isaac,son of Abraham.Isaaccarriedon his own shouldersthe wood by which his fatherintendedto sacrificehim to Our Lord."The Sacrificeitselfprefiguresthe Crucifixion(Figures20, 2I).

t}E211

16ge17

14-17. In thebottomrowMosesreceivingthe tabletsof thelawis pairedwiththe Pentecost.Thenextscene,fromExodus,showsMosesstrikingtherockforwaterand fromheaven.This is the the manna,in the formof eucharistic wafers,descending by two deacons,holds prefiguration of the Massscenewherea bishop,accompanied up the consecrated Hostin whichthereis a figureof the Christchild.Thisratherunof theChristchildin the Hostprobably usualbut by no meansuniqueappearance symbolizes therealpresence of thebodyof Christ,forthescrollreads:"Hereis Christ givento thefaithful."

273

18-2 3. Thepictureof a femalefigurewhopointsto a starabovea topplingedifice (FigureI8) iS a puzzlingprefiguration fortheAdoration of theMagi(FigureI9). The inscription doeslittleto clarifyit, asit hasonlybeenpartially read:"stella[?] . . . stabit . . . templum"(it suggeststhatsomething willstandor remainoverthe temple),and neitherthe Speculumnorthe BibliaPauperumassociates sucha scenewiththe Magi.

22 Thefemalefigurehasbeencalleda sibyl,andthe scenemightrelateto thevisionof Augustus, a the VirginandChildthat the TiburtineSibylrevealedto the emperor themeoftenassociated withtheNativity.Alternatively, it couldsimplyshowthedownfallof the Romantemplesandidolsfollowingthe birthof Christ,or it couldsignify theoverthrow of Synagogue. In supportof the last suggestion, two otherpanelspresenta similaridea.In the SynaCrucifixion scene(Figure2I), Christis flankedby Churchandby blindfolded gogue,withscrollsinscribed Ecclesiasacra(holychurch) andJudaeacaeca(blindJudea). Thissymbolicassociation oftenappeared in medievalart:it wasbelievedthatthemomentof Christ'sdeath,whenthe veil of the templewasrent,markedthe endof the ruleof Synagogue andthe beginning of the ruleof Christ'sChurch.Therecouldalso fortheCoronation of be anallusionto thedownfall of Synagogue in theprefiguration the Virgin,in whichAhasuerus not onlycrownsEstherbutpushesasidehisoldwife, Xlashti, whowasequatedwithSynagogue in medievalwriting(seeFigure7). 275

Jacob,whilesleep28 :I0-22), ladder(Genesis 24, 2 5. In thebiblicalstoryof Jacob's ingin the fieldwitha rockfora pillow,sawa ladderon whichangelsof theLorddescendedto himandreturnedto heaven.Whenhe arosehe erectedthestoneon which it withoil,andcalledtheplaceBethel("thehouse hehadsleptasanaltar,consecrating oftenpairedthisstorywitha bishopconsecrating of theLord").Medievaltheologians of treatiseon the symbolism of Mende'sthirteenth-century a church.In Durandus of thealtarduringtheconsechurches, he notedthatat themomentof thededication crationof a church,"[The]bishoppourethoverit oil andchrism,andchanteth'Jacob andpouredoil uponit.' " set up thestonefora memorial scenes mayrelateto theconcluding Althoughthelasttwoscenesin theembroidery ladder, amongothertexts,thatof Jacob's of the BibliaPauperum,whichincorporate, earlier,becausetheembroidery it seemsmorelikelythatit wasincluded,assuggested And since theword"temple"is used dedicated church. for use in a newly wasintended readsDedicatioTempli)andthe falling to describeboththischurch(theinscription it maybepossibleto relatethat theEpiphany, scenepreceding buildingin theunusual wouldprobideatoo.Indeed,sucha connection enigmatic picturewiththededication of the of the beginning mind, because to the medieval quite acceptable ablyhavebeen beO Jerusalem, Epistleforthe Epiphany(Isaiah60:I-6): "Ariseandbe enlightened of causeyourlightwillcome,andthegloryof theLordwillriseuponthee."Honorius "holychurch." in thissentencesymbolized Autunsaidthat"Jerusalem" in thefirstcolumnon thepagein theMoralized thefourilluminations Furthermore, (verseI), Isaiah60 showIsaiahpointingabovethe city of Jerusalem Bibleillustrating connected witha bishopin frontof a church;anda groupof peopleoncamels(verse6), of theMagi. linkedwiththeAdoration 24

276

26-27. In thetopandbottomborders of theMuseum's portionof theembroidery arecoatsof armsandfiguresof saintsin pairs,manyof themfromthe groupof the fourteen "Helpers inNeed,"sopopular inGermany (seealsoCover,FigureI). Inthetop rowSt. Georgewithhis armorandshieldstandsout. In the bottomrowwe see Sts. FrancisandDominicin theirhabits,andSts.BenedictandAnthony(FigureI); Sts. Epiphanius andGileswitha redanimal,probablythehartthatSt. Gilessaved,accordingto hislegend;St. Bernward holdinga church;and St. Godehard.In both bordersarestylizedtreesand pelicansstrikingthe breastfor bloodto revivetheir young.Thepelicans alternate witha birdthatis eithera phoenixoraneagle.Allthree birdswereusedsymbolicallythe pelicanandphoenixwith the PassionandResurrectionof Christ,and the eaglewiththeAscension (seealsothebirdsin Figure6). 26

Beautiful

the

Madonna

Cloisters

Collection

The Clotsters AMsststant, T I M O T H Y H U S B A N D AMdmtntstrattre

style,a particular International Around theyearI400, asanoffshootof theso-called the artsof centralEurope:it sought, stylistictypeevolvedandeventuallydominated throughits soft flowinglinesandfull color,to achievean idealizedrealism,andhas in manyiconobecomeknownas the Beautifulstyle.Thisstyle,thoughmanifested thanthefigureof graphical types,seemsto havefoundno bettervehicleof expression of the Virginbecameso portrayal the standingMadonnaandChild.Thisparticular widespread withinthestylisticmovementthatit virtuallybecameanidiomof its own, knownas the SchoneMadonnenor BeautifulMadonnas. collection wasrecentlyaddedto the Cloisters An exampleof a BeautifulMadonna and fully polychromed, (FigureI). The standingMadonna,carvedin lindenwood or s-curvestanceandholdsthe nakedChrist hanchement assumesthe characteristic position.Shewearsa heavy childin herarmsagainstherleft hip in a near-diagonal by taperedpoints,the largerof whichprobablyendedin gilt crownsurmounted beenbrokenoff.Fromunderthe backof the crown, fleuronsthathaveunfortunately a longwhiteveilwithredflutedborderfallsin softfoldsto restlightlyonhershoulders. to thefloorin smoothfolds,oneof Herredrobehasa whiterosettepattern;it reaches theendof a goldshoe.A whitemantlewith whichbreaksoverherrightfootrevealing spillsoverboth armsin a widegoldborder,drawntogetherwitha goldquatrelobe, scoopfoldsof a bluelining.In front,theprominent cascades of pipelikefolds,exposing roll fold. Her hair,carved the floor in a large, bent in a v and end at themantledescend in concentric arcinglines,is brownandhereyes,lips,brows,andcheeksarecarefully paintedin (seeFigureI7). Althoughthe frontalviewdominates,the pieceis fully carvedandmusthavebeendesignedto be freestanding. withinthe Beautifulstyle,represented of the BeautifulMadonnas, The emergence in theregionsof Bohemia, at its clearest thatappeared anorganicstylisticdevelopment center andAustria;Praguewasmostlikelytheprincipal Silesia,WestPoland,Bavaria, aswell.Duringthe second seemto havebeenimportant thoughViennaandSalzburg of thearts enjoyeda revitalization century,Praguein particular halfof thefourteenth with patronage, coinciding chieflyasa resultof a newsurgeof courtlyandaristocratic the accession of Charlesof Bohemiato the thronein I346 asCharlesIV. 278

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 速 www.jstor.org

s. Stclnding Virginc/ndChild.South Germanor A!ustrian, I420I430. Polychromed lindenwood, height36 inches.The Cloisters Collection,65.2I5.2

The riseof Pragueas a majorartisticcenter one place to another their monumentsand of Europewas stimulatedby a varietyof in- influence necessarily become increasingly StandingMadonnaand Child, fluences.CharlesIV's father was French by diffused. calledthe KrumauMadonn. The diffusionof stylistic types, together culture and Charleshimselfwas broughtup Bohemian(Ces4ft SoutAl a dearthof documentaryevidence,has with in Paris, received a multilingualeducation Krumlor),aboutI390. Limedeterminingthe origins of individual made stone,height43 1S6 inches.Kunst- from renownedscholars,was first marriedto of the BeautifulMadonnasa thorny examples Blancheof Valois,and sojournedin Avignon Museum,Vienna histori..ches style itself,with little question, The problem. during the time of the "Babyloniancaporiginatedin Bohemia,centerto have seems in tivity." It was during the papal stay the Luxembourgcourtat Prague. ing around Avignon that this city became an artistic as early as the I360S, protoprobably Here, center of great importance,attractingmajor MadonnaswereemergBeautiful of the types artists from Italy and the North with the incentive.By ecclesiastical under chiefly ing, hand in lucrativecommissionsthat go hand cenfourteenth the of decades last two the court. and grand lavish with the creationof a exmore fell production sculptural tury, Charles time, the first for Here, probably the and partonage, courtly under clusively an international arts on was exposed to the scale.ShortlyafterCharles'sreturnto Prague Beautiful Madonnas,reachingtheir apex of the FrenchmanMatthew of Arras was in- artistic innovation and expressiveness,bethe Museum's statue vited to the court. The inspirationhe had cameobjectsof a moreintenselypersonaldereceived from the Cathedralof Narbonne votionalnature.Most representativeof their wasappliedto the rebuildingof the Cathedral stylisticperfectionin Bohemiais the Krumau of Prague. Later Charlesbrought in Peter Madonna from Cesky Krumlov in South Parler, the most celebratedof the talented Bohemia (Figure 2), which can be dated to German family of architectsand sculptors, the last decade of the fourteenth century. to complete the task. It was under his in- This figure,gracefullycarved in the typical fluence that the Parler lodges became one s-curvestance,her fingersdelicatelypressing of the most important artistic guilds in into the fleshof the robustchild, who is held Europe,and becauseof his fame stonemasons fully diagonally in counterbalanceto her and sculptorsof German backgroundwere stance, has a spiritualharmonyimpartedby favoredin the guilds,not only in Praguebut the sculptural relationshipof mother and also in a number of other artistic centers child and invokesa senseof serenityand sublime and intensely personal beauty- even throughouteasternEurope. There developed, then, around the year sensuousness-which must have been the culnot only in Prague, but throughout minationof allpreviouseffortsand the pivotal I400, Europe, a certain internationalism,which point of inspirationfor all ensuingones. Although evidence seems to indicate that accountsin partfor the widelyspreadstylistic affinitiesin the art of the period. Both the the style of the BeautifulMadonnasreached and "affinities"are, its peakin Bohemia,one mustnot assumethat terms"internationalism" however, best de-emphasized,for to assume this region was either the sole center from that they imply an artisticuniformityamong which the finest examplesof the style emparticularhomogeneousstateswould be mis- anated, directly or indircctly, or that the leadingat best. By the end of the fourteenth Madonnasoriginatingin the Bohemian recentury, the medieval states were breaking gions were the result of purely Bohemian up into political, religious,and cultural re- artlstlcconcephonor manutacture. Indeed,it is apparentfromsurvivingBeaugions without true boundaries,and the relative stability of the Renaissancewas still tiful Madonnasthat thereexistedat least two many decadesaway. In turbulenttimes it is distinct stylistic divisions,which cannot be not unusualfor artists to migratefrom city readilyidentifiedwith any particularregion to city or country to country in searchof or school but rather appear intermingled dependablepatronage;as they move from throughout the entire geographicscope of

OPPOSITE, 2.

LEFT

280

StandingMadonnaandChild.24ustrian, aboutI395. Limestone,height33 inches.Despitesuch rariationsas thedrapery falling ofJfflthe left arm insteadof theright,thisMadonnafrom the Pfarrkirche St. Mariain 241tenmarkt, Sustria, belongsto thef rststylisticdivisionof Beautiful Madonnas.In add*ionto theKrumauMadonna, otherMadonnaswithinthisgrouparefrom the Pfarrtirche of MariaHimmelfahrt in Grossgmain, A!ustria; in the Stadtkzrche of Pilsen;in theMusee du Lourre,Paris;andfromthecitiesof Vimpert, Trebon,and ChulmS?J. Ma'rz.Photograph: Foto Marburg

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the style.The firstdivision(illustratedby the tersMadonnais morerelatedto the firststy- OPPOSITE, LEFT KrumauMadonna,Figure 2, and the Ma- listic division than to the second (compare 4. StandingMadonnaand Child. South Bohemian(Cathedralof donna in the parishchurchof St. Mariain FiguresI-3 with 4 and 5). The Virginstands St. John,Torun,now lost [?]), on the left sideand Altenmarkt, Austria, Figure 3) is charac- with a markedhanchement 1390-1400.Limestone,height terizedby a highlyrefinedcontrappostocom- the Child is held in her left arm againstthe inches.Thissculptureand 44S positionbasedon carefullyconstructedpro- protrudinghip in a near-diagonalposition one in Figure5 arefrom the portionsand a seriesof delicatelyintersecting (thoughlesspronouncedthan examples,such stylisticdivisionof second the diagonalsarounda sinuousaxis. By employ- as Figure 3, more typicalof the group) thus PhotoMadonnas. Beautiful ing draperyand physiologicalfeaturesto de- balancingthe torsoof the Virgin,whichleans Marburg Foto graph: velop a balanceof line and proportionrather towardthe right. As it is the Madonna'ship than a counterbalanceof mass and volume, and left arm that principally supportthe theseMadonnasachievea gentlebeauty,crisp Child,her righthandholdingthe Child'sleft OPPOSITE, RIGHT StandingMadonna and Child. in executionand serene,almost withdrawn, foot is morea decorativegesturethana funcSouthBohemian(Churchof St. in nature. Generally,the Madonnasof this tionalone. Herfaceis roundandfull, as is the Breslau),about1400. Elizabeth, on the Child's, though he seems stiff and doll-like grouphave a pronouncedhanchement partiallypolyLimestone, left side, though occasionallymirrorimages comparedto the Madonna. height 46S inches. chromed, The identificationof any particularexamof the compositionarefound.The Child,norin thisgroup Madonnas Other mallyof largescale,reposesin a diagonalposi- ple of the Beautiful Madonnaswith one of museums municipal in the are tion on the protrudinghip. Often the Child the two principalstylistic divisionsis, howthe Danzig, and Dusseldorf of is turnedtowardthe viewer;in other exam- ever, not necessarilya clearindicationof the Bonn in the Madonna Thewalt ples only the trunkand headare turnedout- geographicpointof origin.Aswe havealready andthe Landesmuseum, ward.The Madonna,to compensatefor the noted, the entire movementwas so diffused Veniceand from Madonnas weight of the child, leans slightly back and throughout Europe that stylistic affinities Museum, National Sternbert. to her right and gazesat him with maternal couldexist betweenwidelyseparatedregions; Foto Photograph: Warsaw. be tenderness.Althoughthere are a numberof thus an examplein the Rhinelandcould Marburg variations,the draperygenerallyfallsin brisk closely related to another example in Sileverticalfolds off her right arm and in a de- siaor westernPolandwithoutindicatinga discending cascadeof full, bowl-shapedfolds rect connectionbetweenthe artists.Likewise, TheMuseum'sstatue down the front of the mantle. worksmost likely by the samehand can ap(Schusselfalte) The seconddivision is distinguishedby a pear in many locations.A strong argument manneristiccontrappostowith a hanchement has been made, for instance, that the same on the rightandthe Childon the oppositeside masterwho was responsiblefor the Krumau bracedagainstthe free leg (see Figures4, 5). MadonnafromSouthBohemia(Figure2) was The Child generallyhas his left leg crossed also responsiblefor the cast-stoneseatedViragainstthe right and is supportedprincipally gin fromthe tympanumof the maindoorway by the Madonna'sleft hand, aroundwhich of the BenedictineAbbey of Marienburgin archesa flowingfold of materiallendinga rich the Vintschgauof the southernTyrol region. profileto the composition.As if to counter- To determinewhether this artist was South balancethis movement, the draperyon the Bohemianor Austrian,if, indeed,either, is a rightsweepsacrossthe frontof the Madonna's knotty problem,whichonly lengthy research torsoin a generousarchingfold formingthe could hope to unravel. These obscurities,which are inherent not so-calledfalsesleeve,as in Figure5, while the only to the BeautifulMadonnasbut to the rest of the draperyassumesa tubularpattern entire Internationalstyle as well, are in part of this group figures of largefolds,giving the to the fact that the Beautiful attributable the a greaterfullnessthan exists in those of an outgrowthof the fundamentally style was the and drapery billowing The first group. as faras the Beautiwhich, workshops, Parler of a sense impart sweepingexaggeratedfold on Prague, centered is concerned, ful style natuand earthy more animation vigor and but which existedvirtuallyall over Europe: ralisticthan that of the firstgroup. Fromthe start,it is apparentthat the Clois- from Cologneto Prague,fromMilan to Cra-

6* Madonnaand Child.SouthBohemian(Stratovztska'), abOllt I400. Paintedpanel,I9 X I5 inches.National Gallery,Prague

7. Madonnaof Vyssz Brod,by the XIasterof Vyssi Brod. SouthBohemian(monastery churchof the Virgin Mary,Vyssz Brod),afterI420. Temperaon wood panel,38 X 29X6 inches.NationalGallery,Prague 8. St. Apollonia,detailof Figure7

cow. rhe development and spread of the Beautiful Madonna style was organic; the transmissionof the style occurredas much throughthe exportof worksof art to distant places as through the creationby itinerant artists, influencedby a particularwork, of theirown versionsin widelyremovedregions. The Cloisters Madonna is not excepted from the obscuritiesof the period, but certain observationsenhanceour knowledgeof the piece. The principalstylistic source of this sculptureis clearlyrootedin South Bohemianpanelpaintingin the Beautifulstyle. If one comparesthe Childherewith the Child in the so-calledStratovitskaMadonnapanel of about I400 (Figure 6), the porcelainand stiff doll-likequality of the two is immediately striking.A closercompositionalrelationship with the CloistersMadonnaand Child can be seenin the panelof the Madonnafrom Vyvsvsl Brod, painted about I420 (Figure 7). The mannerin which the Madonnaholdsthe Child varies only slightly from that in the Cloistersstatue.The curiousthicknessof the Madonna'sright hand is prominentin both. In each work the Madonnaand Child gaze at eachotherwithout theireyes meetingand hencenot quite achievingthe intendedsense of close spiritualcommunication-arelationshipnot attemptedin the earlierpanel.Thus it is apparentthat the sculptorof the Cloisters Madonnaworkedin a style closerto that of the South Bohemiapanelpaintersof the second decadeof the fifteenth century than to thosearoundthe turnof the century.Indeed, the stylisticaffinitiesare as stronghere as in any exampleof sculpturethat has survived. Most strikingare the similaritiesin the handlingof the draperyof the figureof St. Apolloniaseenin the upperleft framepanelof the Vyvssvi Brod Madonna(Figure8). The Cloisters Madonnahas three particulardrapery motifs, all of which occur in the draperyof St. Apolloniabut whichdo not seem to have appearedsimultaneouslyin sculpturalexamples of the style. These motifs are the two deeplycut and bowl-shapedfoldsin the front of the mantle, the mantle looped over and cascadingfromboth sidesof eacharmin evenly turnedpipe folds, and the mantle falling

9. The RoudniceMadonna.South Bohemian(Capuchinmonastery churchof St. Wenceslas, Roudnice),beforeI400. Temperaon limewoodpanel, 35S x 26S inches.Cational Gallery,Prague

StandingMadonnaand Child.BothSouthBohemtan, I420-I430 andaboutI420. Wood.NationalGallery,Prague

I O, I I .

I2.

diagonallyfromboth sidesuntil it reachesthe groundbetweenthe Virgin'sfeet and breaks in a stifflybent roll fold. The initial conclusionwould seem to be that the CloistersMadonnawas executedby a South Bohemiansculptorin close association with the panel painting of the region St. Catherine. SouthBohemian aroundI420 or slightlylater. But the caseis not quite this simple.The Vyssi Brod Ma(vicinityof Leubus),about donna is essentiallya later copy of the pros400. Limestone andpolytotype providedby the RoudniceMadonna chrome,height331S6 inches. NationalMuseumof Poznan, thought to be painted in the last decade of the fourteenth century (Figure 9). Of the Poland.Photograph: Foto vast numbersof panels that follow in the Marburg style of the RoudniceMadonna,whichparallels in panel painting the perfectionof the Beautiful Madonna style achieved by the Madonnafrom Cesky Krumlovin sculpture StandingMadonnaand Child. SouthBohemian,abouts395. Limestone,height74,14inches. Churchof St. Bartholomew, Pilsen.Illustration from K. Clasen,lDieSchoneMadonnen

286

(Figure2), the VyVsvsi Brod is one of the last. The delicatefacialfeaturesand the gracefully curved stanceof the Madonnaand the four female saintsin the frameof the VyVsvs Brod Madonnaare clearlyrootedin the fourteenth-century tradition of the Beautiful style. The drapery, however, through its hard lines, stiff voluminousforms, and unrhythmical sculptural motifs, is not only characteristicof the decline of the idealism and lyricismimplicit in the Beautifulstyle, but is, as well, indicativeof an altogethernew and incompatiblestylistic format. This same stylistic conflict exists in the Cloisters Madonna. For all its grace and charmone sensesthat the piecewas the result of an artist trying to recapturethe impactof a work that greatly impressedhim, but in renderingit he lost the spontaneityof the originalworkand, boundby a forcefultradition, failed to invoke his own artisticexpression or to successfullyintegrate the current stylistic trends.While it is reasonableto assume that the CloistersMadonnais datable to I 420 or later, contemporaneoussculpture executedin South Bohemia(see Figures IO, I I) bearslittle relationship to ourpiece,making this region an unlikely origin for our sculpture. Nonetheless,the prototypes in sculpture, as in panel painting,generallyoriginatedin South Bohemiaand date to the last decade of the fourteenthcentury. Two clearly related examples are the Madonnain the churchof St. Bartholomew in Pilsen (Figure I2) and the figure of St. Catherinein Poznan (Figure I3). The Pilsen Madonnais one of the earliestexamplesof the style with the Childin a diagonalposition and leaning sharply to the left, the format that the CloistersMadonnafollows. Other coinciding motifs are the two deep-bowl folds in the mantle, the mantle borderspulled together by a large brooch-forming an x pattern,and the draperyof the robefolding over one foot. The gracefulstanceof this Madonna, the counterplayof drapery,and the expressivenessof the gentle face are executed with a mastery and sophistication representativeof the best traditionsof the

Madonna, erine simllar shares including in like shape similarities theand drapery structure with motifs the to ofCloisters that4 of the {L 19l | i -a W iS

ZyoW s4. StandingMadonnaand Child.A>ustrian, Limestone.St. Stephan's I420-I430. BundesCathedral,Vienna.Photograph: dentmalamt,Vienna |

w Beautifulstyle that the sculptorof the Madonna wasstrivingto maintain Cloisters later.ThePoznanSt. Cathseveral decades

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rcut8 in its bv1rs [a:src Cloiste1 s lviadon1l:z,

hasthe folding oseronefoot,andlnaddition from of pipefoldsdescending evencascade thearm.Theface,asin thePilsenMadonna,

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t Madonna| a jll-g the exactsourceof the Cloisters iEX* 1 | Acloserelatlon- L_nw ofcertalnty. wlthanydegree : tu' t panelpainting l_ shipwithSouthBohemian > thereis an ob- _ ffi1 likewise, hasbeenobserved; _ B^]< on the Polish-Bohemian ViOUS dependency 3 L f of thelastdecade _ prototypal forms sculptural i Whether theartist century. ofthefourteenth D wasmoreinfluenced_ Madonna oftheCloisters f source thantheotherbecomes f byonestylistic =< of a mootpoint,butit seemsrea- X__Lf somewhat _ thatthetwoweresoirrevsonable toassume _ i1 _ as to makethemvir- _ ocablylntertwlned the _ Iflurthermore, tuallyindistinguishable. its of theperiodassures andothersculpture 287

productionoutside the regionsof Bohemia and Poland. Indeed, examplesof Beautiful Madonnas providing the closest comparisonsto the Cloisterspiece are found predominantlyin SouthGermanyandAustria.In the Cathedral of St. Stephanin Viennais a stone sculpture of a BeautifulMadonna(FigureI 4), generally thoughtto be of SouthGermanorigin,which comes remarkablyclose to the CloistersMadonnain the renderingof the Virgin'smantle drawntogetherby a broochand folded over her right foot exposingthe toe of her shoe, the pipe folds cascadingoff each arm, the Virgin'sright hand holding the Child'sfoot, and the rigid near-horizontal positionof the Child.Anotherrelatedfigureis an enthroned Virginand Child on a crescentmoon in the LandesmuseumJoanneumin Graz (Figure I5). Thoughthispieceis morecloselyalliedto the late Gothic style of the mid-fifteenth

centurythan to the Beautifulstyle of around I400, thereareparticularmotifsthat areheld over from the earlierstyle, whichcloselycorrespondto the CloistersMadonna.The handlingof the facialfeatures,the neck, the hair, the crown, and the veil are so similarthat their relationshipmust be more than coincidental. The draperyin particularis of a later style that does not coincide with our Madonna,yet thereis the strikingrecurrence of the x pattern,and the curiouslyprominent bent rollfold over her rightfoot - an unusual motif occurringin the CloistersMadonnaas well. A further related sculptureis a figure of St. Catherinefrom the FranzMonheimCollectionin Aachen(FigureI6). Againit is the renderingof the head,veil, and crownrather thanthe draperythat areso close.The roundness of the face, small chin, and expansive forehead,the fleshinessof the neck, and the

arcinglinesof the hairbringthis figurewithin the samegeneralareaof productionas the CloistersMadonna(compareFigures I7-I9). The MonheimSt. Catherineand the Graz Enthroned Virgin and Child can be safely dated within the third and fourthdecadesof the fifteenthcentury.The CloistersMadonna must date from the third decade, sharing with the later examplesa similarrendering of facial featuresbut lacking the format of drapery and less formalizedstance characteristicof the late Northern Gothic. A date of I420 to I430, althoughlate for the mainstreamof the BeautifulMadonnastyle, does not seem unreasonablefor the CloistersMadonna, and there are factorsother than the stylistic ones alreadymentioned to support the assumption.The useof woodas a material was not commonto the BeautifulMadonna style during the time of its greatestmomentum and only cameinto use as the style penetratedto the moreremovedareasand became imitated by provincialartists.The fact that thereare no iconographical motifs,suchas an apple or the Child holding the Virgin's

drapery,whichwerecommonat the height of the style,indicatesthat the CloistersMadonnawasexecutedat a timewhenthe symbolic contentof the style had lost its full meaning.Althoughdirect traveland trade routeshad beenfirmlyestablished between SouthBohemiaandSouthGermanyas early as I380, the greatestinfluxof SouthBohemianinfluence, carried principally throughthe exportation of worksand travelingsculptor groupsor "Hutten,"did not reachsouthern Germanyuntil the seconddecadeof the fifteenthcentury.Thefragment of thefresco of the ThreeMarysin the Augsburg cathedral,datableto this periodand clearlyof Bohemianstylisticorigin,is an indication of this. Althoughour knowledgeof the Cloisters Madonna is limitedandan exactprovenance is unlikelyto be established, it canbe appreciatedasan interesting exampleof the Beautiful Madonnastyle and the impact this styleexertedduringthe firstseveraldecades of the fifteenthcenturyon the sculptural production of SouthGermanyand Austria.

Dieter Grossmann,"SchoneMadonnen:I350in Salzburgs Anteilan den"Schonen MaI wishto expressparticular indebtedness to Pro- donnen." Exhibitioncatalogue,SalzburgDomorafessorMoimirFrinta,whosedoctoraldissertation torien (Salzburg,I965), pp.24-45. coversin exactingdetailthe entirescopeof the AlbertKutal, "La'BelleMadone'de Budapest" Beautifulstyle. The divisionof the Beautiful in Bulletindu Muse'e Hongrois desBeaux-Arts 23 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

AND

REFERENCES

I450"

style into two majorstylisticgroupings wasfirst pp.2I-40. proposedby WilhelmPinderin I923 andrecon- (I963), Antonin Matejcek and JaroslavPesVina, Czech sideredby AlbertKutalin I963. TheodorMuller GothicPainting, I350-I450, trans.by J. C. Houra recognized a connection betweentheMadonna in (Prague, I950), pp. 7I-73 83-84the tympanumof the BenedictineAbbey of Theodor Muller, "La Sculpture" in L'Art Marienburg in Vintschgau withtheKrumauMa- europe'en versI400. Exhibition catalogue,Kunstdonna.I alsowishto thankDr. PeterLudwigof historischesMuseum (Vienna, [I962]), pp. 264Aachenforkindlyproviding mewithphotographs 275. of the St. Catherine in the FranzMonheimCol, Sculpture intheNetherlands, lection. Germany, France,and SpainI400-I500 (BaltiKarlHeinzClasen,Die SchoneMadonnen:Ihr more, 1966), pp.25-46,66-78. WilhelmPinder, "Zum Problemder 'Schonen Meisterund SeineNachfolger(Konigstein imTauMadonnen' um I400" in Jahrbuch nus,n. d.), pp. 3-6. derPreussis44 (I 923), V. Denksteinand F. MatousV, pp. I 47- I 70. Gothic Art in chenKunstsammlungen GrosseKunstdes Mittelalters aus Privatbesitz. SouthBohemia(Prague,I955). MojmirS. Frinta,"TheBeautifulStylein the Exhibition catalogue, Schnutgen Museum (CoSculpturearoundI400 and the Masterof the logne, I960), no. 54, pp. 40-4I. Philippe Verdier, Introduction to The InterBeautifulMadonnas" (doctoral dissertation, UninationalStyle:TheArtsin EuropearoundI400. versityof Michigan,I960). Ernst GuntherGrimme,DeutscheMadonnen Exhibition catalogue, The Walters Art Gallery [Baltimore I962], pp. X-XV. (Cologne,[I 966]), pp. I 3 -23, I o6-I o8.

290

MedievalStainedGlass fromSt.Leonhard in LavantEal at The Cloisters

hasrecentlyacquiredtwentylhe Cloisters four panelsof stainedglassthat cameoriginally from the pilgrimagechurchof St. Leonhardin Lavanttalin southernAustria. The group comprisesone entire window, completeeven to its tracerylights,showing of Christafterthe scenesof the appearances andpartsof fourothers,depictCrucifixion, ing saintsandapostles.All of the piecesdate fromthe sameperiod,about I340, and all werepaintedby the sameworkshop.This sinceit museums glassis uniquein American the largestnumberof not only represents Austrianwindowsfroma singlechurchin anycollectionbut it is alsothelargestgroup in any of Austrianstainedglassassembled museum1nthlS country. wasbuiltbeThe churchof St. Leonhard tweenI3II and I330, andstainedglasswas of thechoirsoonafter placedin thewindows The southaisleof the nave its completion. wasaddedat theendof thecentury,andthe windowsthere were glazedin a different style. In the seventeenthcentury,an enorwaserectedin the mousbaroquealtarpiece .

The Harrowingof Hell,from St. Leonhard abouts340. Stained in Laranttal.24ustrian, glass,height353hinches.TheCloisters Collection,68.224s

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apse, completelyobscuringthe windowsbehind it. A fire in the nineteenth century severelydamagedthe westerntower, and in orderto raisemoneyfor the necessaryrepairs to this part of the church,some of the glass hiddenfromview by the altarwassold.Much stained glass still remainsat St. Leonhard, now reinstalledin the windowsof the nave whereit can be seen. As far as is known, the panels at The Cloisters are the only ones fromthe earlyglazingprogramthat existoutside Austria. This glass will eventually be permanently installedat The Cloisters.Becauseof its importance,however,it will be put on display for the first time later this year,accompanied by a descriptivepamphlet.In style, it has a specialcharmboth in its naive simplicityof designand in the intricacyand detail of its painting. The workshopresponsiblefor the St. Leonhardwindows,probab]yoriginating in the nearby town of Judenberg,was the most influentialof its time in that part of Austria.Glassproducedby this workshopis particularlynoteworthyfor brillianceof color and richnessof ornament-qualitiesinherent in the Cloisterspanels,and duringthe special exhibitionit will be possibleto observethese qualitiesat close range. JANE HAYWARD AJssociate Curatorof The Cloisters

St. Cunigunda, from St. Leonhard in Laranttal. Height383Sinches.The CloistersCollection, 65.96.4

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