ALISON PHILLIPS
URBAN DESIGN
WATER CITIES
ST PETERS’ MAKERS PRECINCT
SCHÖNEWEIDE: ECO-DISTRICT
ESSAY
ALISON PHILLIPS Alison recently completed a scholarship obtaining an MA in Urban Development and Design at UNSW (2016). Whilst studying her Bachelor and Masters degree Alison began working at McGregor Coxall as an intern in 2014 and has gained experience on a range of projects supporting the Landscape and Urban Design disciplines. Alison has a passion and flare for the people of the city and how they can inform and aid in the masterplanning process, ensuring holistic and place specific outcomes are delivered. Alison is a key member of the Urban Design team and having helped deliver award winning projects such as the Byron Bay and Springwood Town Centres she has acquired a holistic knowledge of the masterplanning process. Alison brings a creative approach with specialist knowledge in Spatial Design and Place making and a flare for graphics which is invaluable in developing consultation strategies. Alison also has international experience in Chongqing, China and Berlin, Germany.
03 WATER CITIES
1 : 200,000 Urban Region Water Green Space Roads Train Lines
Urban Morphology
1 : 20,000 Built Form Water Green Space
Understanding Amsterdam’s Urban Form
Roads Train Lines
The area of greater Amsterdam highlights its position between two key bodies of water, connected by various man made canals. Rural areas surround greater Amsterdam. There are both road and rail networks linking Amsterdam to other European cities. The distinctive ring canal structure and the typical row housing patterns are evident in the older areas of Amsterdam, South of the River IJ. The industrial areas North of the River IJ, are scattered around the waterfronts. Buiksloterham is typified by industrial warehouses, wide access roads and man-made canals for shipping access. The scarcity of buildings is typical of a post-industrial landscape.
1 : 2,000 Built Form Water Green Space Underdeveloped Land Car parks Roads Trees
Stairs to Water Edge
Bridge Over Canals
Nature to Water Edge
Street to Water Edge
Urban Typologies Understanding Amsterdam’s Urban Edge To understand more about the city water interface we analysed the connections the city had with the water systems. These include intimate man made and natural connections, as well as walk ways and bridges that cross over or follow the interact systems of canals and rivers.
Amsterdam Dikes
Amsterdam Flood Plain
Urban Issues Understanding Amsterdam’s Geomorphology Amsterdam has a long history with water and its impact on the city and the people that inhabit that area has at sometimes been disastrous. To give a broader context 26% of the Netherlands at or bellow sea level and 55% of people living in the flood risk areas, the country has had to deal with the impacts of flooding for centuries. The Dutch are known for their innovative technology and techniques when it comes to holding back the water. One of these developments includes the infamous dike. The infographic to the right shows the correlation of major floods from 1900 - 2000 and the correlation of the development of the dike system, which now spans across the country with various types and functions of the dikes.
Under Sea Level
Water Ways
Netherlands is sea level 26% ofat orthebellow
the Netherlands 60% ofis prone to flooding
inhabit the 55% offloodpeople risk areas
Slight Minor Moderate Major Low Gradient Slopes Minimum Dikes Dikes Reinforced Current Dike System
Major floods in relation to dike developments
Urban Analysis Understanding Buikslotterham
Aspect and Wind Analysis
Proposed Shadow Analysis
Wind Direction
Shadow
Shadow
Issues Decline of the Industrial Sector Buiksloterham suffered from significant urban decay during the late 1990s and early 2000s as industrial operations moved further away from Amsterdam itself to port locations, such as Rotterdam. During the late 1990’s and 2000’s when it became evident that supporting the industrial sector would not be viable, an increase in brown-field sites within Buikloterham occurred. This lead to high volumes of unused land with little prospect of development during the economic hardships of the decade. The area since has been affected by overall neglect that has not been able to be addressed until the recent years since the economy has began to improve.
Existing - Vehicular and Pedestrian
Proposed - Vehicular and Pedestrian
Main Roads
Light Rail
Local Roads
Main Roads
Shared Pedestrian & Cycle Network
Shared Pedestrian & Cycle Network
For much of the past decade, this former industrial land has undergone a number of failed attempts at redevelopment, mostly spoiled by the lack of capital available due to the effects of the global financial crisis and the growing conservative attitude towards property development and speculation during this time. Contaminated Land Due to the polluted nature of the historical industrial activity at Buiksloterham, it is likely that the land on which potential development would occur is highly contaminated. In most instances, this contamination can by treated by soil replacement and isolation; however, any future development must consider both the ramifications of increased cost and potential design limitations that may result from undisturbed pollution. Proximity to Established City Strongly in Buiksloterham’s favour as a development site is its proximity to the already established Southern areas of Amsterdam. However, Buiksloterham does not have a strong connection to the current public transport system. Construction of a new North-South rail link will cater for some of the area’s public transport requirements, however, further growth of this network is required if Buiksloterham is to truly become connected to Amsterdam’s already established areas.
Proposed Natural Environment
Natural Environment Green Space
Green Space Water
Water
Existing Land Use
Proposed Land Use
Local Centre Recreation
Residential
Deferred Matters
Commercial
Mixed Use
Residential
Waterways
Light Industrial
Recreation
Waterways
Special Activities
Infrastructure
Business Park
Special Activities
Infrastructure
Business Park
Working Waterways
Urban Design Framework Vision, Objectives and Strategies
Vision To create a vibrant and sustainable human scale mixed-use precinct, encouraging innovation and collaboration between its inhabitants.
Waters edge to street A
Objectives The site, which currently features little existing development, provides vast scope for a new framework for future design in the area. The objectives of developing this site include; Development of a mixed use area that caters for 5000 residents; Establishment of an innovation hub that creates vast job opportunities in the region and encourages further innovation opportunities; Establishing a site that provides 1000 jobs through its commercial, mixed use and innovation precincts. Strategies Connection to Waterfront and Canals Provide access to the waterfront and canals, aiding in enhancing the character of the site.
Waters edge to shared path A
Transportation Network Increase the efficiency of the public transport network to improve the sustainability and accessibility of inner city travel. Public Domain Upgrade and provide an extensive pedestrian and cycle network. Increase cycling amenities by installing bicycle rental stations across the site. Green Space Strategy Ensure the site has a strong green network providing good quality, accessible open spaces. Whilst also establishing a green space network along the waterfront.
Waters edge to boardwalk
Fine Grain, Medium-Density Development Create areas of enclosure and provide a sense of safety, whilst reflecting the architectural style (low scale, high density housing) character of Amsterdam. A Culturally Rich and Innovative Hub The area provides for cultural activity, a multi-functional economy and reflects the values of the Amsterdam community.
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Section AA
13 ST PETERS’ MAKERS PRECINCT
Urban Analysis
Contours
Understanding Sydney The proposal seeks to transform WestConnex from road infrastructure to Metro rail, replacing a multi-lane motorway in the New M5 tunnel with underground rail lines and transit stops between Kingsgrove and St Peters. In order to identify opportunities for urban regeneration along this corridor, topographical constraints, urban block patterns and built form types were analysed to understand the urban form and structure between the New M5 tunnel alignment and the existing M5 tunnel, which the new infrastructure generally parallels some distance to the south. The study investigated walkable travel distances and inter-modal transfer opportunities of potential regeneration sites in relation to the existing railway stations in the south-west sector of Sydney. Metro stop locations and regeneration sites were also selected in relation to the WestConnex motorway plans for spaghetti road junctions along the New M5 route. Already, these massive roadworks have scarred the urban landscape with resumptions, demolitions and bulk earthworks. The project team recognised the importance of restoring and healing the urban fabric with fine-grained, mixed-use development. The St Peter’s suburban communities was identified for regeneration in accordance with these principles.
Land suitable for development
Transport Nodes
WestConnex Metro Network
Strata land
Urban Analysis
Alexandra Canal (2016)
Understanding Sydney Located in inner-west of Sydney, the Makers Precinct is situated on the former Alexandria Landfill site with strong connections to Sydney Park, the Alexandra Canal and numerous creative precincts. The Makers Precinct infuses life into a former derelict site by establishing a strong urban structure that is dynamic, adaptable and encourages creativity. Demographic Context The demographic profile of Alexandria includes around men at 48.1% and women at 51.9%, the average age 35 – 38, 56.4% not married and largest percentage as professionals and clerical and administrative workers. Understanding the demographic context informs our clientele. Geographic Context
Alexandria Landfill (2016)
The site is in close proximity to St Peters Station, Newtown, and the city. Hence, it can be a highly activated area to accommodate higher density for workers both in the city and surrounding inner western suburbs.The site is also located in close proximity to the creative precincts Newtown, Precinct 75, The Grounds, Australian Technology Park. Forming the main basis for the concept for the Urban Design Framework.
Princes Highway (2016)
Site Cultural Locality
May Lane, Street Art Project (2016)
Surrounding Creative Precincts
Existing Access and Movement
Proposed Access and Movement
Existing Natural Environment
Proposed Natural Environment
Existing Built Form
Proposed Built Form
Existing Culture
Proposed Culture
Existing Economic
Proposed Economic
Urban Analysis Vision, Analysis, Built Typologies “It is not the strongest species that survives more the most intelligent but the one most adaptable to changes.” - Charles Darwin The Alexander Canal is historically significant as a rare example of 19th century navigated canal construction in Australia. Originally built following the former course of Sheas Creek it is now unused and highly contaminated. The surrounding historical factories date back as late as 1850’s which played an important role in Australia’s brick making and wool trade. The area was constructed under the 1887 Work relief scheme to accommodate unemployment. Today, it is further associated as the industrial precinct of inner west, containing many medium scale and intimate scale warehouses that have been adapted. Issues Contamination and Flooding As the site contained various industrial uses, it is highly contaminated. Contamination includes leachate water, ammonia and asbestos. The site is further within a high flooding area, due to the topography and locale next to the canal. Underused site The Princes Highway runs parallel to our site. This road is the main ‘gateway’ road towards Sydney city from the airport however is highly underused and unfriendly to experience as a pedestrian. Furthermore, the site contains few remains industrial and residential buildings which will mostly be demolished within the Westconnex scheme. Flight Path Cannot build above 51meters due to proximity to Airport
2 - 3 INDUSTRIAL (ADAPTIVE REUSE COMMERCIAL)
Storey Industrial (Adaptive Reuse) 5-82-3 COURTYARD (MIXED USE)
Street Section - Laneway
Storey (COMMERICAL Courtyard Mixed 8 - 5-8 10 PODIUM ANDUse MIXED USE)
Street Section - Main Pedestrian Axis
8-10 Storey Podium Mixed Use
Street Section - Local Street
8 - 10 SCREEN BARRIER DESIGN (MIXED USE)
Mixed Use Co-operative Living Building Typology
8-10 Storey Mixed Use Screen Protected
Street Section - Commercial Street
Urban Design Framework Strategies and Objectives
Strategies Train Placement The placement of the train station is within a strategic alignment of both entrances from the existing Westconnex tunnel. The train is to continue underground for easy access and allowing greater built space on the ground level. The station is positioned as an entrance to the civic core of the site, with strong connection to Princes Highway and Sydney Park for activation. As the major movement point of the site, the architecture is orientated to direct people towards Princes Highway and Newtown and Sydney Park. The schematic design of the train station incorporates a civic core which promotes the surrounding creative precincts including interactive digital frontage of train station for events, artistic installations thus embodying as a sculptural icon of the precinct.
Canal Walk
Art Laneway
Pedestrian Plaza towards the Metro ‘Gallery’ Station
A
Access and Mobility Clarity of path and pedestrian permeability are the major focuses of access through the site. The civic spine cuts longitudinally through the site and connects to each precinct. This axes allows pedestrian permeability and decreases urban anxiety with a clear defined grid. There are 4 major street types to define the different scales to allow direct access, interweaving pedestrian access and vistas towards the park, graveyard and canal. These include: shared high streets that are pedestrian and cycle priority, local roads for easy and safe access to medium density housing, laneways for pedestrian permeability within the precincts and commercial activation and vehicle roads for ease of access. Public Realm and Amenity Various scales of public space provide interconnected and multifunctional network of spaces that encourage, walking, cycling, ecology conservation and greater opportunities for sport, recreation and events. The new station will bring in the density, provide a platform for public domain and gallery space, and contribute to urban renewal in the area. Cultural Precinct Combination of open spaces and vertical density that enhances a dynamic community of mixed uses including residential, commercial, cultural and community infrastructure. Adaptive reuse buildings to
A
Urban Design Framework Strategies and Objectives generate small entrepreneurial and start-up businesses which create a vibrant, creative community, reflected in the surrounding cultural context. The Masterplan is to provide a framework of inner suburban and urban living where focus on the new ‘industry’ of makers is encouraged. Readapting the original identity as a place of makers into encouraging flexible living/working/play lifestyle, that can be adaptive for the future. Urban ecology Water Sensitive Urban Design principles have been adopted to accommodate potential flooding and contamination of the site. The inclusion of bio retention of the soil, man-made river system including swales and underground stormwater drainage to decontaminate leachate water on site, contribute to a stronger and sustainable urban village. Economy The consideration of a variety of mixed use buildings provide economy from residential, commercial and cultural facilities. The medium to high density allows economic catchment, particularly in areas surrounding the park and Alexandra Canal. Understanding surrounding neighbourhood and the macro scale of Sydney’s ‘pocket neighbourhoods’, create a precinct of different scales to accommodate flexibility and a creative, innovative centre. Mixed use built form informs lifestyle of precinct each mixed use building should be adaptive to residential/studio/office space, to be dependent on the user, and commercial spaces vary in size to accommodate mix of space and use. Activating street frontages bring night and day activity with various civic and intimate scales for eat streets, commercial and exhibition space. The patchwork of various uses and heights accommodate the pattern language of an inner urban village, encourages vitality, activity and interest which is adaptive to future urban living whilst still containing the human experience.
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Street and Metro Section AA
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21 SCHÖNEWEIDE: ECO-DISTRICT
Urban Analysis Understanding Buikslotterham
Source: Bahnhof Schöneweide (1974)
Once numbered among Berlin’s largest industrial regions and a centre for electrical industries, Schöneweide is now part of the new axis of growth in the city’s south east. The site has gained large attention as to its future development with the announcement of the new Berlin Brandenburger airport and its close proximity to the Flughafen Schonefeld airport. Schöneweide has been outlined as an emerging area for entrepreneurial activity, foremost in science, technology and education. Many of the industrial sites within Schöneweide were abandoned after Berlin’s reunification, leaving a surplus of vacant land.
Source: AEG Factories in Schöneweide (1928)
Old Metal Works (2016)
Spree River (2016)
Urban Anaylsis Understanding Buikslotterham Some of the vacant industrial land has since been repurposed for a range of small scale manufacturing purposes, as well as offices and studios. This redevelopment has mostly occurred on the northern bank of the Spree, with much of the vacant industrial land on the southern side of Schöneweide, closer to the existing S-Bahn station.
Wulheide
University Campus
Wihelmienhofstaße
Innovation Precinct
Creative Industries
Retail & Commercial
Creative Industries
Britzer Zweigkanal
Youth Boat
Stubernauchbrucke
Federal Police Academy
Bärenquel Brauerei
Werksgelände BMHW I
New Big Box Retail
Bruckenrstraße
Schnellerstraße
S-Bahnhof Schöneweide
Köllnische Heide
TO BERLIN CITY CENTRE
Schöneweide Context AP Photo/Evan Vucci
TO FLUGHAFEN SCHÖNEFELD (AIRPORT)
Legend
Urban Analysis Understanding Schöneweide
Existing access and mobility network
Proposed access and mobility network
Connected and Multi-modal Capitalise on the existing transportation network and encourage active transport use by providing new pedestrian and cyclist connections to the EcoDistrict, waterfront & S-Bahn station.
Legend
Community and Culture The new residential community will be modelled on Berlin’s cooperative housing strategy which is backed by the Senate to encourage ‘long-term rental housing and stable neighbourhoods’. There will be new community and cultural facilities to encourage social cohesion, environmental awareness and local knowledge. Green and Blue Infrastructure A key objective is to return the River Spree to the people of Berlin by creating a public waterfront with a continuous promenade, green streets and ecological parks. Water sensitive urban design will be integral in creating a living landscape & public domain network.
Existing community and cultural spaces
Proposed community and cultural spaces
Adaptive Form and Function Proposed buildings will be sympathetic to the sites heritage and neighbouring built form. Heritage elements will be retained and adaptively re-used for innovation and community purposes; a new building type provides affordable housing and adaptive use; and larger scale commercial buildings align the main road and S-Bahn. Co-operative Governance Schöneweide Eco-District will support a new economy sustained by business innovation, community ownership and co-operative governance.
Legend
Existing green and blue infrastructure
Proposed green and blue infrastructure
Legend
Existing built form and function
Proposed built form and function
Urban Typologies Water Sensitive Urban Design Integrated within the development site is an on-site water recycling system. The system collects storm water runoff from the site’s impermeable surfaces through rain gardens and discreet drainage, storing this raw water in an underground storage tank. The untreated water is then pumped to an on site treatment facility, housed in an existing heritage building, featuring water sensitive urban design educational elements.
3. On site treatment facility
Harvested storm water is treated through a three-phase treatment process, involving micro-filtering and 2-stage UV exposure. The treated water is then pumped through the adaptive reuse of the existing overhead piping network and distributed to each building, with storage in smaller on-site tanks. The treated water is then used for non-potable water within the buildings.
6. Grey water reuse in buildings & waste water discharge to sewerage system 4. Adaptive reuse of pipes for distribution of treated water
7. Excess treated water discharged into River Spree, improving overall river water quality & ecology
5. Small on site tanks hold treated water for grey water reuse
1. Storm water run off filters through rain gardens removing trace pollutants & sediments
Water sensitive urban design model devised for the proposed development
2. Water held in storage tanks
Urban Design Framework Vision SchÜneweide will be Berlin’s new eco-innovation precinct with a unique sense of place that embraces the sites industrial heritage and creates a new way of life that engenders social equity and environmental sustainability. SchÜneweide Eco-District will bring an economic revival to the area and return a revitalised waterfront to the people of Berlin.
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1. Cooperative housing model 2. Commercial buffer 3. Train station upgrades 4. Water recycle facility, education and parkland 5. Amphitheater 6. Landscape hill for noise buffer and views 7. Constructed wetlands 8. Extension of boardwalk over Spree River 9. Pedestrian walkway extended 10. Brewery adaptive reuse for community 11. Adaptive reuse maker-spaces 12. Adaptive reuse flexible workshops and co-working spaces
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Riv
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Legend
Sp
Proposed Built Form
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Existing Built Form
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Urban Design Framework Sections
Existing Built Form Section AA
Train Station
Proposed Built Form and Adaptive Reuse
Spree River
Adaptive Reuse
Existing Built Form
Existing Built Form Section BB
Proposed Built Form
Spree River
Proposed Built Form
Existing Built Form 0
20
50
100
200M
Urban Design Framework Urban Design Principles and Evaluation Criteria Three principles form the ‘criteria’ for evaluating urban design effectiveness and to encourage critical thinking during the design process. Interaction A successful urban design outcome will not only design public spaces, but design spaces for an interpretation of uses and interaction. This has been addressed through a substantial open space network leading to a variety of use open spaces for community gathering and activity such as urban farming and recreation. The built form has been designed following the Berlin cooperative housing model to ensure a mix of people are given equal opportunity to live an thrive amongst a like minded community. Sustainability Sustainable initiatives are integral to the 21st century city in steaming the effects of climate change through creating less invasive ways of living. Water Sensitive Urban Design Initiatives ensure water is used to its full potential for grey water reuse and irrigation of the site. Active transport initiatives linking to existing public transport networks ensure sustainable methods of traveling and that is equitable to all. Live-work environments also mean that people have to travel less to get to their work. Adaptive reuse of any existing buildings also means less mater also have to be used to redevelop the site, larger building uses also means greater community facilities.
Wetland and Boardwalk by Spree
Amphitheatre
Economy The economic climate of the precinct will ensure the success of the Eco-District as a whole. If value can be circulated in the Eco-District it will mean a more self sustaining economy, where profit can be given back to the precinct. Equitable models for cooperative housing ensure a just society and build stronger community values around economic sustainability. Ecosystem services payments generate lower costs to the environment and the government, meaning these savings can be used for public domain upgrades and maintenance. Live work environments ensure less public transport upgrades are needed and ensures the cyclical nature of the economy of the Eco-District.
Pedestrian Plaza to Metro Station
Urban Design Framework Co-operative Housing Model The Schöneweide Eco-District incorporates Berlin’s cooperative housing model to ensure the precinct thrives as a socially just, economically and environmentally sustainable district with the post industrial landscape of Schöneweide. The buildings open to the waterfront incorporate a rich variety of uses including standard units, cluster units, communal terraces and interior areas, as well as flexible use spaces. The ground floor is reflective of the community driven precinct, being open to public uses and opportunities for residents, students of the university or young entrepreneurs to flourish in a live work environment, within the new and budding innovation district.
21.5%
Communal Use
27.3%
Standard Unit
20.0%
Cluster Unit
31.2%
Flexible Use
The precinct is sustained through various environmental initiatives such as water recycling and urban farming. Rents would be staggered to ensure social equity and an intergenerational mix, starting at the same price of subsidised housing. If users wish to carry out their own construction of the internals of their own unit a certain budget can be given to the owner, ensuring people with little capital can own their own home.
Breakdown of Product Mix
LEGEND
Exterior Program
LEGEND
Interior Program
33 ESSAY
Securing and Protecting Green Infrastructure In the Context of Urban Transport Infrastructure Projects ‘Securing and Protecting Green Infrastructure in the Context of Urban Transport Infrastructure Projects’ explores the notion of implementing a similar process to ‘biobanking’ in order to secure and protect green infrastructure in the urban environment. The scheme arises from a substantial loss of green space through the WestConnex project occurring in the Sydney region. The proposed Green Network Endowment scheme will ensure that green infrastructure is protected for future generations and that land is secured for future green infrastructure as we see Sydney’s population rise to over six million people in the next few decades (Bureau of Statistics, 2013). Sydney is known for its vast bushland, high quality parks and recreational facilities that lie within the unique landscape of Sydney’s sunken valley. Sydney’s green infrastructure has been recognised as one of the major benefactors to Sydney’s biodiversity, tourism and the beautiful landscape. Since pre-European days when the Aboriginal people burnt and shaped the bushland around them (Gammage, 2011) and during the early settlement, when Governor Macquarie set aside land now known as the Domain and the Royal Botanic Gardens (Cantrill and Thalis, 2013). Green infrastructure has played an important role in the building of Sydney’s cultural and natural landscape. This recognition has been furthered by the recent ‘Sydney Green Grid Tool Box’ (2016) as it states; “Metropolitan Sydney has an extensive urban open space system with almost 600,000 hectares of regional, district and local parkland— being close to 50 percent of greater Sydney’s land. Building and maintaining this open space system for 4.6 million plus Sydney siders is the shared domain of both NSW Government and 31 local councils. This open space mosaic has intrinsic economic, social, environmental and health benefits. Parks and open space improve the quality of city life by providing fertile ground for creativity, healthy sport, recreation and connection to nature. Parks also store carbon, clean the air, produce oxygen, provide homes for native animals and cool the city.” Such knowledge and understanding of the importance of green infrastructure bids the question of how transport infrastructure projects will have such an effect on Sydney’s pocket parks, reserves and bushland. The WestConnex project, an extension of the existing M4 and M5 motorways, threatens such vast amounts of public and private green infrastructure and the need for further studies into securing green infrastructure are imperative to protecting natural bushland, parks and recreational facilities. This is furthered through Byrne and Sipe’s (2010) statement that there is a major need for policy to secure green infrastructure in the city. This notion is reinforced through a range of transport infrastructure projects that have been rolled out across the Sydney region by a conservative political party that is impacting significantly on existing green infrastructure. “The real problem is lack of design” (Barnett, 1974) which can be argued a key issue with the WestConnex project, as well as a lack of planning. This has lead to an uproar in the community and local Councils alike, with key green infrastructure being demolished to make way for the new motorway. As mentioned above there are a range of benefits to green space and vast studies have been conducted into the benefits of green infrastructure in the city, how this affects the natural environment, the economy and the social wellbeing of our cities. With NSW alone projected to grow at a rate of 100,500 people each year until 2031 (Planning and Environment, 2016) it is imperative that there is a plan in place to secure green infrastructure for an ageing population and generations to come. This includes planning an extensive green network and setting in place the policy to secure these spaces. ‘The Role of Urban Parks for the Sustainable City’ (Chiesura, 2004) discusses the need for and importance of green infrastructure in the ever expanding city, for sustainable, equitable and socially just cities;
“Increasing empirical evidence, in fact, indicates that the presence of natural assets (i.e. urban parks and forests, green belts) and components (i.e. trees, water) in urban contexts contributes to the quality of life in many ways.” (2004, p.129 - 130) A range of scholars and theorists have explored the benefits of green infrastructure in the urban environment and there is a clear consensus that the benefits are largely important to both the people, flora and fauna. Green infrastructure has been known to decrease stress, reduce aggression, foster social interaction, reduce pollution, reduce cases of heart disease and obesity, increase biodiversity and provide natural habitat as well as increase the attractiveness of the city for tourism and revenue (2004 p. 136 & 2010 p. 213). The importance of green infrastructure in the city is demonstrated in various studies. The historical importance of green infrastructure to Sydney highlights a clear need for it to be secured as the city continues to grow. There have been various economic schemes aimed at protecting the environment, such as the Carbon-Offsetting Scheme and Biodiversity Banking. The Biodiversity Banking scheme will be explored in more detail as follows; “Biobanking is an example of an offset scheme that has specific application to biodiversity-sensitive urban growth management” (2016, p. 162). Established in 2008 by the Department of Environment and Climate Change in NSW the Biodiversity Banking and Offset Scheme is a voluntary, market-based system for conserving biodiversity whilst also accommodating urban growth. The scheme allows land owners to purchase credits and sell these to developers to offset their impacts, which are used to improve or maintain the site’s biodiversity. Those who own credits are securing the conservation of biodiversity in perpetuity (Department of Environment Climate Change NSW, 2009). The scheme has been praised for its transparency and innovative approach to conservation, although concerns have been voiced over the creation of isolated biodiversity regions. Scanlon presents a well researched article on the ‘biobanking’ scheme and urges further research into stakeholder engagement, noting this may cause potential issues due to the complexity of the project. This concern is also shared by Robinson (2009, p. 235) who also believes that the scheme needs greater participation and involvement from the landowners and government. Scanlon further criticises the project for not being adequately integrated into the governance and planning schemes, and lacking acknowledgement of indigenous land rights (Scanlon, 2007, p. 126-127). Through understanding the various environmental banking schemes, positive and relevant aspects can be carried through to the Green Network Endowment scheme. The key values on which the scheme stems from include social, economic and environmental. As touched on above it is clear that green infrastructure is important to all these aspects, these will be further explored as to how this creates green ‘value’. By analysing the effect green infrastructure has on these aspects it is easier to understand the cost that occurs when you lose these spaces. This in turn can inform a successful economic policy around securing the city’s green infrastructure. As stated by Swanwick, Dunnett and Woolley in the 2003 research paper ‘Nature, role and value of green space in towns and cities: An overview’, the social benefits of green infrastructure contributes significantly to social inclusion and activity, creating neutral grounds where different groups can gather and also contributing significantly to childhood development. Similarly it has been found that green infrastructure has a significant role to play in positive economic development. Green infrastructure generates taxes and is low in cost to maintain compared to a development. Therefore green space in a sense generates economic
benefits to those owners (Benedict & McMahon, 2006). Green infrastructure also benefits surrounding property and businesses who are located along green networks. They are desirable spaces to inhabit and hence are more expensive to rent and in turn generate higher foot traffic, which activates the streetscape creating safer urban environments (Dubin & Sung 1987). Green infrastructure is also integral to the survival of our native flora and fauna in Australia, as explored in the 2008 article ‘A conceptual framework for predicting the effects of urban environments on floras’. Flora throughout the city have an important role to play in the health of our urban environments and it is essential these are protected so that both native Australia fauna and people of the city can thrive. By setting out a clear set of green ‘values’ reinforced by theory it is clear the need for policy in securing green infrastructure has a vital role to play in the success of our urban environments socially, economically and environmentally. The scheme to be proposed is the Green Network Endowment scheme, it ensures that green space is secured in the urban environment and is available for future generations to come. The theory behind the scheme as explored will be able to be applied to further research in this area. The scheme is aimed at both state owned and locally owned green infrastructure. Due to the development and implementation of the Westconnex project and various other transport infrastructure projects across Sydney it is clear that local green infrastructure networks are going to be impacted on by State Government Projects now and into the future (Megarrity, 2011). The Green Network Endowment Scheme ensures that green infrastructure is secured and maintained through a market based credit system. This scheme has been based of the current ‘biobanking’ mechanism as put in place by the Department of Environment and Climate Change. There is an immediate need for policy in securing green infrastructure in the city where so many large scale transport infrastructure projects threaten their existence (Byrne, & Sipe 2010). As explored above green infrastructure plays an important role in the urban environment and it is imperative that policy is set up to secure, maintain and grow green infrastructure (Jim, 2004). The Green Network Endowment Scheme is based on the principle that a viable economic trading system is in place, which recognises the value of green infrastructure, whilst preventing the unnecessary acquisition of these spaces, and secures areas for future green infrastructure development. From this principle a set of objectives outline the aim of the scheme and how it can be achieved. The first objective for the scheme include, preserving and securing green infrastructure through the creation of a policy that utilises an economic trading scheme. This maintains the essential environmental and social infrastructure of the city and prevents the unnecessary loss of green infrastructure. In order to understand the uses and various types of green infrastructure through the city, mapping and modelling can be used vital method of analysis for the scheme. Using current GIS information green spaces across Sydney will be mapped and allocated a type. The need for economic systems and policy in protecting green infrastructure is highlighted through the article ‘Using GIS and landscape metrics in the hedonic price modelling of the amenity value of urban green space: A case study in Jinan City, China’; “Urban green spaces have important amenity values that include provision of leisure opportunities and aesthetic enjoyment. However, most of these values lack a market price. Consequently, they are usually ignored or underestimated by urban planning policy-makers, with the result that remnant urban green spaces are being gradually encroached upon by urban sprawl.”
Secondly, another objective of the scheme includes creating greater transparency amongst the private and public sector of which both would be involved in the workings of the scheme. Three proposed bodies of the scheme would include the Department of Environment and Climate Change (DECC), the Green Infrastructure Trust and the local communities. There has been various studies on Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) over the last decade and its successes when coming to protecting green infrastructure in the city (Zerby, 2016). Examples. The importance of shared ownership and investment in Public-Private Partnerships is highlighted through the following success stories. The first of these projects being the Highline in New York, its success due to the Public-Private Participation (Foderaro, 2011), thee government paid for the first two construction stages of the project and the friends of the Highline railed for its protection and took on all responsibility for the costs of all operations and continue to fund its maintenance. Another success story is the Cross Rail project in London where small amounts of funding are raised from community, businesses and developers contributed alongside government funding (Fullerton, 2016). This comes from the recognition that it is unsustainable for governments to be paying for all infrastructure projects alone, but the beneficiaries should be involved as well. The following quote sums up these ideas; “The sense of a shared future matters now more than ever. Evidence is mounting that the global ecosystems that support human life are in danger. This crisis calls for all kinds of sacrifice we make only when our sense of trust and shared fate is cranked way up….The city challenges us not just to live together but to thrive together, by understanding our fate is a shared one.” (Montgomery, 2013) The proposed Green Network Endowment scheme aims ensure that green space is reserved for future population growth, various habitats and for the good of the city. The proposal of such as scheme would be the first of its kind, and will ensure that green infrastructure is an integral part of the city. The next section explores the viability of the scheme in protecting green infrastructure in the context of urban transport infrastructure projects, specifically WestConnex. The Sydney region over 2015/2016 has been affected by numerous proposed projects and others in the pipeline which are creating major concern in the greater Sydney communities of how this will effect the green infrastructure and the people of Sydney (Farrelly, 2016). One of these large projects is the WestConnex project which is a large scale transport infrastructure project that connects Sydney’s M4 motorway to the M5 motorway. The project, set to cost over $16 billion (NSW Government, 2016), has raised concerns among local councils and the public due to its effect on a range of green infrastructure in Sydney’s Inner-West and Eastern Suburbs. With the removal of a number of local residences containing small green spaces that provide habitat for a range of animals, to the impact of the road network on large scale green infrastructure such as Cooks River, Kogarah Golf Club and Sydney Park just to name a few, the project threatens habitats, public and recreational green infrastructure. This highlights the need for policy that protects the city’s green infrastructure. The need to secure urban green infrastructure has also been reinforced through the City of Sydney’s Draft Open Space, Sports and Recreation Needs Study 2016, Volume 2 Open Space Delivery Plan (2016). It focuses on increased density, population and the public open space amenity needed to cater for these increases. The report also outlines the minimum required green infrastructure needed for the city to function economically, socially and sustainably. This report sets a bench mark for the requirements of green infrastructure in a growing city. The City of Sydney as well as various other Councils in the affected areas have raised various concerns (City of Sydney, 2016) about the WestConnex project and its impact of the affected and surrounding communities as well as green infrastructure.
The following case study will explore how the Green Network Endowment scheme could aid in securing the important site of Arnotts Reserve, Strathfield. Arnotts Reserve, 1.6 hectares was a key strategic community space as a part of the Powells Creek Master Plan (2015) and was acquired as a part of the M4 section, Stage 1 of WestConnex along with a South section of Powells Creek Reserve. This has had a significant impact on the surrounding community by effecting the three green ‘values’ as set out above. The green space being lost effects the social functions of the community relying through the green infrastructure (Our Strathfield, 2015). The houses around the green site will have a decrease in value due to the destructive work occurring on the site (FitzGerald, 2016). The environmental impact of the land acquisition and construction will mean a loss of flora and therefore a decrease in the biodiversity of the site (Our Strathfield, 2015); “Arnotts Reserve is a key part of Council’s Powells Creek Master Plan, which is an important major project for the community. The lack of detail concerning construction works and the location of the proposed on ramp from Parramatta Road will impact on the quality of Arnotts Reserve.” Following the first objective of the scheme Arnotts Reserve in Strathfield would be evaluated in terms of its typology and the NSW Green Infrastructure Trust would be allocate these credits, in relation to the policy that determines the securing of green infrastructure. The process would include extensive community consultation to ensure the scheme is well understood and the processes of the shared ownership. Once all the agreements have been made the DECC will meet with the NSW Green Infrastructure Trust to sign the agreement. The reserve will have an audit every year to ensure the minimum upkeep requirements are held. As a part of the Strathfield Council’s objectives (2015) to upgrade the park to a significant cultural and community space as in the Powells Creek Masterplan, the DECC signs off on the changes as it is seen as a positive strategic upgrade for the community. Upgrading costs come out of the NSW Green Infrastructure Trusts annual payments that will in turn add value to the credits. The community consultation period starts to ensure significant community values, ideas and concerns are voiced. This ensures the community has full involvement of the scheme as a part of the Public-Private Partnership objectives (Zerby, 2016). When all parties have agreed on an outcome the upgrades can occur. As per the DECC and the NSW Green Infrastructure Trust agreement the Trust ensures the park is well maintained, any extra maintenance above and beyond of what is required adds value to the credits. By using the set formula factoring in maintenance and inflation the value of the credits for purchase is determined. This value is of significant difference to the value purchased. The calculation of Arnotts Reserve value is kept confidential. The DECC and NSW Green Infrastructure Trust meet with the potential purchaser, along with a number of signed objections from the community (online voting system) who use the space frequently. The letters of objection are presented and the DECC and Trust share their concerns with the purchaser. If the purchaser goes ahead the value of the land is offered, this value aims to price the purchaser out of the market. In the case of the transportation authority( similar to the case of WestConnex who can afford to buy the credits for the site), the purchaser must use the credits to offset their impact by securing land in the immediate area and matching the credit value as sold. This makes it harder for infrastructure projects to adversely impact the existing green infrastructure.
Legend
In conclusion the proposed Green Network Endowment scheme has great potential to make a positive impact on Sydney’s green infrastructure and its security into the future. Instead of concluding with a single point of view of the Green Network Endowment scheme, recommendations have been laid out to guide future decisions on how the scheme could progress and be taken up as major policy in the NSW region. The following recommendations are as follows: Recommendation 1: Further exploration into the notion of policy for securing green infrastructure will need to be explored in greater depth to ensure the proposal is comprehensive and will be effective in policy. The Green Network Endowment scheme as proposed would need to be reviewed and discussed with experts such as the DECC to ensure its viability. The scheme would also have to be explored at a council and community level. Recommendation 2: Using existing data and extensive mapping, the existing green infrastructure would need to be mapped and explored further. This would need to be combined with the notion of growth centres and the securing of green infrastructure for future public space. Threatened green infrastructure would have to be mapped and logged into a database with the other information to highlight the need for policy in protecting green infrastructure in the urban environment. Recommendation 3: The economic viability of the project needs to be further explored with the DECC and community participation in the project would need to be ensured. The participation of the community in the project will be integral to its success through the notion of shared ownership (2013). Once confirmed further analysis, rules and guidelines and spreadsheets would need to be set up to ensure the scheme is cohesive and standardised across the various green infrastructure spaces. The project poses innovative and new methods for protecting green infrastructure and should be put forward to policy makers, urban designers and experts alike to ensure the protection of Sydney’s beautiful urban green infrastructure. References AECOM Australia Pty Ltd & GHD Pty Ltd., 2015. M4 East Environmental Impact Statement, Volume 2E, Sydney, N.S.W. Barnett, J. 1974. Urban Design as Public Policy: Practical Methods for Improving Cities, McGraw-Hill, New York. Berkessy, S. & Wintle, B., 2008. Using Carbon Investment to Grow the Biodiversity Bank, Conservation Biology, Volume 22 Issue 3, pp. 510 - 513. Bengston, D.N., Fletcher, J.O. & Nelson, K.C., 2004. Public policies for managing urban growth and protecting open space: policy instruments and lessons learned in the United States. Landscape And Urban Planning, Volume 69 Issue 2, pp.271-286. Bureau of Statistics. 2013. Population Projections, Australia. Retrieved September 2016, from http://www.abs. gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/3222.0main+features32012%20(base)%20to%202101 Byrne, J. & Sipe, N., 2010. Green and Open Space Planning for Urban Consolidation - A Review of the Literature
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