The Waste Revolution Handbook Volume 2 by GreenEconomyMedia

The

Waste Revolution Handbook

South Africa Volume 2

The Guide to Sustainable Waste Management

ISBN 978-0-620-45067-6 02 ISBN 978-0-620-45067-6 02 www.wasterevolution.co.za

9 780620 450676

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100 11th Avenue New York LEED certified Skyscraper designed by Jean Nouvel

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t Jean Featuring Nouvel keynote presentation and from many award winning other architect international, Jean Nouvel andand many regional other international, and regional and Featuring keynote presentation from award winning architect Jean Nouvel many other international, regional and structured locallocal speakers, in an to quality highly overover quantity interactive format, structured to include multi-disciplinary highly interactive multi-disciplinary speakers, ininnovative aninclude innovative quality quantity format, structured to include highly interactive multi-disciplinary ading workshops. event. Don’t missmiss the 6th annual issue of this market leading event. workshops. Don’t the 6th annual issue of this market leading event.

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enDorsement message

The InsTITuTe of WasTe ManageMenT of souThern afrIca endorseMenT The Institute of Waste Management of Southern Africa (IWMSA) a multi-disciplinary nonprofit association is committed to supporting professional waste management practices.

Stan Jewaskiewitz President

Our organisation comprises of voluntary members who promote environmentally acceptable, cost effective and appropriate waste management practices. We strive towards the protection of the environment and people of Southern Africa from the adverse effects of poor waste management by supporting sustainable best practical environmental options. One of the key events on the waste management calendar is the biennial waste management conference hosted by the IWMSA, known as WasteCon. The IWMSA is not just about recycling; we have various interest groups that focus on key waste management elements, these groups include: The Landfill Interest Group, Collection and Transport Interest Group, Waste Minimisation and Recycling Interest Group and the Health Care Waste Forum. We currently have over 950 members and we provide them with various benefits, by providing opportunities to network and exchange information with experts, debate burning issues, have a voice in the formulation of legislation and also provide professional and business growth. We are represented nationally, and have branches in Gauteng, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu Natal the Western Cape. The IWMSA continues to endorse the Waste Revolution Handbook because it supports the objectives of the IWMSA to promote the science and practice of sustainable integrated waste management. For more information on the IWMSA please visit www.iwmsa.co.za.

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SA-COC-1396 ÂŠ 1996 Forest Stewardship Council A.C.

The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is the accepted leader in forest and product certification and has established standards for environmentally, economically, and socially responsible forestry.

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eDitor’s note As South Africa emerges from having hosted and guided the UNFCCC COP17 discussions in Durban we are proud to bring you the second volume of the Waste Revolution Handbook, which offers a collection of expert, and peer reviewed articles from waste industry stakeholders in South Africa. The high level climate change talks in Durban focused principally on the reduction of GHG emissions at an international level, however the event also played host to many side events, exhibitions, activities and initiatives that were collectively critical in that they brought environmental issues and solutions into the practical realm, particularly for the South African public, business and government stakeholders in attendance. There is no doubt that South Africa is far more alive to the challenges and opportunities of environmental management post COP17. Internationally and now also in South Africa the waste sector has been a relatively successful ‘business case’ example for how environmental regulation and partnerships can work together in the pursuit of a common objective. A strategic and integrated approach by government can ensure that economically sustainable systems operate to dramatically reduce waste to landfill, reduce consumption of natural resources, reduce environmental impact, create jobs and positively stimulate the economy. In South Africa, the waste act of 2008 has precipitated by-laws and initiatives that are now really creating a platform from which South African cities and municipalities can target these same outcomes. At a national level South Africa is creating policies that are meaningfully increasing the responsibility of waste generators (producer pays) and which are acting as a catalyst to waste beneficiation projects that close the loop on primary waste materials that were previously destined for landfill. There has been much momentum since the publication of Volume 1 of the Handbook. In Volume 2 we examine the act in more detail – the context, the challenges and the opportunities that it represents - and we take a look at current waste practices in South Africa. We examine waste management best practice and the economic viability of waste beneficiation and also touch on eWaste and international trends. Many more interesting topics are dealt with in Volume 2 and the contents pages should contain something for everyone who is in some way involved in this critical yet exciting emerging sector in South Africa. As usual we invite feedback and invite suggestions for articles and authors for future volumes. I would like to thank Richard Emery (Jeffares and Green) for his valuable role as Consulting Editor to this publication and to Siann Silk from Alive2green who has played a key role in the development of the content in this Volume. Sincerely Lloyd Macfarlane

the waste revolution hanDBooK

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ADMINISTRATION Ruth Basson

Handbook

GENERAL MANAGER SALES Debbie Zeelie

Waste Revolution South Africa Volume 2

The Guide to Sustainable Waste Management

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THE WASTE REVOLUTION HANDBOOK

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chapter 1: Finding the benefits of the new waste definition

the waste revolution HANDBOOK

chapter 1: Finding the benefits of the new waste definition

Finding the benefits of the new waste definition Charlaine Baartjies Managing director EcoPartners (Pty) Ltd

Introduction:

A whole army of unintended consequences reported for duty when the regulations under the Waste Act were promulgated. The freedom fighters in this revolution are chanting slogans like: “Recycle, ReUse, Reduce” and “Separate at source”. This Chapter examines the progress of the waste revolution in the context of the legal requirements. Did the change of the waste definition provide new opportunity or greater regulatory demands in the market place, and if so, how does industry cope with either? The more pertinent question begging to be asked: “Is industry aware of the consequences of their waste management activities?”

What is industry’s goal?

The business of business MUST be business. This implies that we need to identify the business case for waste management. In short: How do we make money out of waste? The intended consequence for being in business is to make money. Going back to first principles, there are three opportunities: Using the equation: “Income – Expenses = Profit” • You can increase your profit by increasing your income • You can increase your profit by reducing your expenses • You can increase your profit using economy of scale. (The best of both).

Waste costs money

Regardless of the business you are in, waste costs you money. Expanding this notion, we can define five specific categories of cost directly associated with some waste items. 1. You buy waste as part of a product, like the container for milk. 2. The cleaning service on site. 3. The monthly waste removal service (Hazardous waste costs much more). 4. The polluter pays, if anything results in a spill or leak. 5. Rehabilitation of full landfill sites and the capital development of new landfill sites. The logic follows that if there is less waste, the cost of waste (as an expense) will be less. The more money you save, the more money reports to profit. The less waste you generate, the more money you save. Opportunity 1: “Reducing waste, saves money.” In an unexpected turn of events, the Consumer Protection Act (Act No. 68 of 2008), provides the most significant cost reduction strategy with regards to hazardous waste. Section 59 of the act enforce compulsory take back schemes for any components, remnants, containers, or packaging that is prohibited by a national law to enter a common waste stream, at no cost to the consumer. The unintended consequence here is that procurement procedures might change to favour those suppliers with the capacity to deal with this requirement.

the waste revolution HANDBOOK

chapter 1: Finding the benefits of the new waste definition

Waste can generate money

The opportunity to increase income, arises when the company manage to develop a by-product out of one of the existing waste streams. A classic example is SASOL. They were primarily generating liquid fuel from coal. Today they generate a greater income from their by-products, than from their fuel. (SASOL, 2011). Opportunity 2: “Find the waste stream that can be a by-product and sell it.” A variety of income opportunities exist. Examples of each opportunity are mentioned in order to illustrate what industry has done already. The unintended consequence here might be that modular plants could become more popular as sections of a plant can be replaced in order to facilitate a different process that can be sold as a by-product. Even if the product cannot be sold, the need of another company to remove it free of cost is cheaper than the disposal cost.

Reduction:

One of the programmes that focus on the reduction of waste is the cleaner production programme sanctioned by UNIDO. The National Cleaner Production Centre – South Africa (NCPC-SA) is a cooperation program between South Africa and UNIDO with financial assistance from the DTI, CSIR and the Governments of Austria and Switzerland. (NCPC website). Several success stories are published on their website.

Direct use:

In the Western Cape; an online Integrated Waste Exchange (IWEX) portal is run by the City of Cape Town. The principle of the programme is “one person’s garbage is another person’s gold,”. IWEX facilitates the re-use of waste and reduces the pressure on Cape Town’s landfill space. It is a free online system that enables waste generators and the users of these “inputs” to get into contact with each other.

Treatment of waste:

Anglo Platinum has built an acid plant to treat waste emissions, where sulphur dioxide gas is converted to sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is then used in the further processing of Platinum Group Metals and Base Metals.

Recycling:

The National Oil Recyclers Association of South Africa (NORA-SA) was established in February 2005. Used oil is collected from generators and delivered to processors for the recycling of the oil. The oil is “cleaned” and used as a “heavy fuel oil”, similar to the heavy fuel oil obtained from crude oil. Opportunity 3: “Apply, once off, for all the company’s waste management activities.”

What needs to be done to achieve this goal?

Identify the opportunities in your business to reduce your expenses, increase your income and use the economy of scale. In terms of waste management it implies the following:

Know your company’s waste.

The National Environmental: Waste Act of 2008 defines waste as: “any substance, whether or not that substance can be reduced, re-used, recycled and recovered(a) that is surplus, unwanted, rejected, discarded, abandoned or disposed of; (b) which the generator has no further use of for the purposes of production; (c) that must be treated or disposed of; or (d) that is identified as a waste by the Minister [of Environmental Affairs and Tourism] by notice in the 14

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chapter 1: Finding the benefits of the new waste definition

[Government] Gazette, and includes waste generated by the mining, medical or other sector, but (i) a by-product is not considered waste; and (ii) any portion of waste, once re-used, recycled and recovered, ceases to be waste” The National Environmental: Waste Act of 2008 defines a by-product as: “a substance that is: (a) produced as part of a process that (b) is primarily intended to produce another substance or product and (c) that has the characteristics of an equivalent virgin product or material” This means that in order to “test” whether something is a waste, we can use a “negative test”, like in Figure 1.1. In order to see whether something is NOT waste, the “tests” shown in Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3 can be used. It is important to note that when the Minister declared something to be a waste, it is immediately a waste, irrespective of what any other legislation states. The Minister may make regulations explaining how to deal with specific substances. Examples of these include: “Waste / Used tyres”, “Asbestos containing substances”, “Plastic bags”.

Figure 1.1: The waste test: Is a substance waste?

Figure 1.2: The NOT - waste test: When is a substance NOT waste?

Figure 1.3: The NOT - waste test: When is a substance NOT waste? the waste revolution HANDBOOK

chapter 1: Finding the benefits of the new waste definition

Opportunity 4: “Understand your company’s waste streams and its destination.” A further unintended consequence is that: Under the new waste definition, many more things are now waste that was previously excluded. Examples included now are: Sewage, Dust, Ash dumps; Contents of return water dams and contents of oil/water separators. The cost of environmental non-compliance has increased significantly: • Company A lost R180 million in one day, in shareholders’ value • Company B was liquidated, because its environmental liabilities exceeded its assets • Company C lost the backing of its investors and had to repay their loan. • Company D had a visit from the Green Scorpions – 17 people • Company E was fined R 3 million for the wrong name on an authorisation

Know your company’s waste streams.

Every waste stream originates from a specific activity. Understanding which activities generate waste will allow an opportunity to reduce the waste at source. Hazardous waste could be replaced with less harmful substances, or a change in the activity might produce a waste that could be useful in another process. Of all the waste streams generated, hazardous waste is substantialy more costly to dispose of. Depending on the nature of the hazard, the cost could be as high as fifty times the cost of general waste disposal. Initially South Africa used its own system SANS 10228 (The Identification and Classification of Dangerous Goods for Transport) to classify hazardous substances, but the documents eminating from government suggests a change towards a system used worldwide, the Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). This has been designated as SANS 10234, and it is proposed that this system be used in the classification of hazardous waste. This type of systematic change has huge cost implications. There are several challenges when using the new system for example hazardous substances and hazardous waste is NOT the same. Firstly hazardous waste is a mixture of hazardous chemicals and SANS 10234 is applicable to chemicals. Elsewhere in the world, these can react with one another and result in completely different components as the original chemicals. The way many people deal with waste: “Out of sight, out of mind”, will need to change. Understanding the disposal requirements of various waste streams might be the difference between affordable legal disposal costs and the temporary or permanent closure of a business or an important component of a business. Hazardous waste streams differ, during different periods of the month, with different products produced, with quantities of certain products, classification can only be applied per batch determined in an analytical chemistry lab. This might be very costly.

Know your listed waste management activities

Since the proclamation of the waste management activities, the recycling, re-using and recovering of waste are regulated by a series of activities that requires authorisation. On 13 November 2011, the draft regulations for the payment of applications were promulgated. In short, Category A applications will attract a fee of R2 500 and Category B applications will cost R10 000. Government gazette GN 718 (3 July 2009), list the Waste Management Activities in respect of which Waste Management Licences are required. The waste management activities are listed in Appendix A as a guideline. In the author’s experience, most industries with 50 employees and more trigger a waste management activity. Most “primary economy” industries trigger a waste management activity regardless of the size of the operation. “Primary economy and provision of infrastructure” industries include companies that clean areas as their core business, companies that generate effluent, emissions or burns significant amounts of fuel. 16

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chapter 1: Finding the benefits of the new waste definition

What opportunities exist?

• • • •

Opportunity 4: “Understand your company’s waste streams and its destination.” Opportunity 1: “Reducing waste, saves money.” Opportunity 2: “Find the waste that can be a by-product and sell it.” Opportunity 3: “Apply, once off, for all the company’s waste management activities.”

Waste streams have the potential to contribute to pollution or generate an income, depending on how the business manages this resource. When waste is considered as an opportunity to generate an income, it might change the face of how we do business in South Africa.

Conclusion

To answer the question: “Have we revolutionised the way we manage waste?” the answer remains: “No”. The entire context for waste management has changed, even the definition is no longer the same, but it will be very difficult to find a business, which has assessed all substances generated, inputs as well as outputs, in order to reduce their waste and increase their by-products. All employees need to be aware of their role in waste reduction and waste generation. Section 16 of the Waste Act states that any employee / any person under supervision must be prevented from contravening the Waste Act. Non-adherence can result in a R10 000 000 (ten million rand) fine, yet finding companies that communicate the complexities of the act to their employees remain the exception to the rule. A range of activities require a waste license. Something that seems innocuous like watering the road with grey water as a dust suppression mechanism, becomes an activity that requires a licence, as it is the disposal of waste to land. It is worthwhile it to consider adherence of legal requirements. Better yet, the revolution we should seek is: a) Understand the waste we generate and b) Find the means to re-integrate it into the business cycle, c) For the benefit of all.

Appendix A:

Listed Activities that might typically be triggered by different industries: Industry List: A: Agriculture B: Mineral extraction and upgrading C: Energy D: Metal manufacture E: Manufacture of non-metal mineral products F: Chemical and related industries G: Metal goods, engineering and vehicle industries H: Textile, leather, timber and wood industries J: Manufacture of paper and products, printing and publishing K: Medical, sanitary and other health services L: Commercial and personal services M: Construction Category A: A person who wishes to commence, undertake or conduct an activity listed under this Category, must conduct a basic assessment process, as stipulated in the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations made under section 24(5) of the National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998) as part of a Waste Management Licence application. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

chapter 1: Finding the benefits of the new waste definition

Category B: A person who wishes to commence, undertake or conduct an activity listed under this Category, must conduct an environmental impact reporting process, as stipulated in the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations made under section 24(5) of the National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998) as part of a Waste Management Licence application.

All Industries trigger:

Category A: 1, 5, 10, 11, 17, 18, 19, 20 Category B: 5, 11 Activity Description

Category A

The storage of general waste with capacity > 100m

All industries

The storage of hazardous waste with capacity > 80m3

B, C, D, E, F, H

The storage of general waste in lagoons

A, B, D, F, H

The storage of waste tyres with area > 500m2

The sorting, shredding, grinding or bailing of general waste with operational area > 500m2

All industries

The scrapping or recovery of motor vehicles with operational area > 500m2

The recycling of general waste with operational area > 500m

A, F, H, J

The recycling of hazardous waste > 500m but < 1 ton per day

The recovery of waste with capacity > 10 tons, < 100 tons general waste or > 500kg, < 1 ton hazardous waste

The treatment of general waste with capacity > 10 tons, < 100 tons, or > 500kg, < 1 ton hazardous waste per day

D, F A, B, C, E, F, H, J

The remediation of contaminated land

All industries

The extraction, recovery or flaring of landfill gas

Landfill sites

The disposal of inert waste to land with a cumulative total > 25 000 tons

A, B, H, M

The disposal of general waste to land with area > 50 m2but < 200m2 with a cumulative total < 25 000 tons

A, B, F, J, K, L

The disposal of domestic waste < 500kg per month.

A, K

The reuse, treatment, processing or disposal of animal waste with capacity > 1 ton per day The reuse, treatment, processing or disposal of sludge with capacity > 10 tons general sludge or any quantity hazardous sludge per day The construction of facilities for activities listed in Category 1

The expansion of waste management activities

All industries

The decommissioning of waste management activities listed in Category A or B

All industries

All industries All industries,

Table 1.1: Category A listed activities and the potential industries that will trigger these. Note: The above tables provide only a rough guideline and should be used with caution

Activity Description

Category B

The storage of hazardous waste in lagoons

A, B, D, E, F, H

The reuse or recycling of hazardous waste > 1 ton per day

A, B, C, D, E, F, H

The recovery of hazardous waste with capacity > 1 ton hazardous waste per day

B, C, D, E, F, H, J

The recovery of general waste with capacity > 100 tons per day

B, D, E, F

The treatment of hazardous waste with capacity > 1 ton hazardous waste per day

All industries

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chapter 1: Finding the benefits of the new waste definition

Activity Description

Category B

The treatment of hazardous waste in lagoons

A, B, C, D, F, H, K

The treatment of general waste with capacity > 100 tons general waste per day

A, F, H, J, K

The treatment of health care risk waste

The disposal of hazardous waste to land

The disposal of general waste to land covering an area > 200m

Landfilling

The construction of facilities for activities listed in Category B

All industries

Landfilling 2

Table 1.2: Category B listed activities and the potential industries that will trigger these.

Industry

Waste Management Activities Category A

Category B

A: Agriculture

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16 17, 18, 19, 20

1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 11

B: Mineral extraction and upgrading

1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11

C: Energy

1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 17, 18, 19, 20

2, 3, 5, 6, 11

D: Metal manufacture

1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 10, 11, 17, 18, 19, 20

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11

E: Manufacture of non-metal mineral products

1, 2, 5, 9. 10, 11, 17, 18, 19, 20

1, 2, 3, 4, 5,11

F: Chemical and related industries

1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11

G: Metal goods, engineering and vehicle industries

1, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 17, 18, 19, 20

1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11

H: Textile, leather, timber and wood industries

1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 17, 18, 19, 20

1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11

J: Manufacture of paper and products, printing and publishing

1, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20

3, 5, 7,11

K: Medical, sanitary and other health services

1, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20

5, 6, 7, 8, 11

L: Commercial and personal services

1, 5, 10, 11, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20

5,11

M: Construction

1, 5, 10, 11, 13, 17, 18, 19, 20

5,11

Table 1.3: List of Activities possible for each Industry

References 1. Anglo Platinum. Internet. [http://www.angloplatinum.com/safety/enviro/management]. Accessed - 15 November 2011. 2. Baartjes, J C. 2006. Waste management challenges faced by the developing countries due to technological advancements. The South African perspective. Not published 3. Baartjes, J C. 2006. Hazardous waste challenges for South Africa. Not published. 4. Consumer Protection Act (No.68 of 2008). 2008. Government Gazette Vol. 526 No. 32186 5. Department of Water Affairs & Forestry, Third Edition, (2005). Waste Management Series. Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal by Landfill. 6. Department of Water Affairs & Forestry, Third Edition, (2005). Waste Management Series. Minimum Requirements for the Handling, Classification and Disposal of Hazardous Waste. 7. Department of Water Affairs & Forestry, Third Edition, (2005). Waste Management Series. Minimum Requirements for Water Monitoring at Waste Management Facilities. 8. Integrated Waste Exchange. Internet. [http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/iwex/Pages/default]. Accessed – 15 November 2011. 9. National Environmental: Waste Act (No. 59 of 2008). 2008. Government Gazette Vol. 525, no. 32000. 10. National Cleaner Production Centre – South Africa. Internet. [http://www.ncpc.co.za]. Accessed - 15 November 2011. 11. National Oil Recyclers Association – South Africa (NORA-SA). Internet. [http://www.norasa.co.za/default.asp?id=975] Accessed - 15 November 2011. 12. SANS 10234: 2008, Globally Harmonized System of classification and labelling of chemicals (GHS), South African National Standards. 13. SASOL Integrated Annual Report. 2011. Internet [http://www.sasol.com/sasol_internet/] Accessed - 15 November 2011. 14. City of Cape Town. 2011. [Online] Available at: (http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/iwex/Pages/default.) 15. AngloAmerican. Environmental Management systems. Available at: (http://www.angloplatinum.com/safety/enviro/management.asp) 16. NORASA. National Oil Recycling Assocation of South Africa [Online] Available at: (http://www.norasa.co.za/) the waste revolution HANDBOOK

Construction and Mining Specialist Consultants

Construction Construction and Mining and Mining Construction and Mining Construction and Mining Specialists Specialists Consultants Consultants Specialists Consultants Specialists (CMSC) (CMSC) is is a boutique isConsultants a boutique (CMSC) a boutique (CMSC) is was a was boutique company company that that was company that company that was established established to to provide to provide established provide established to provide support support services services to to the to support services thethe support services to the Engineering Engineering Field. Field. Engineering Field. Engineering Field.

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Waste Management in South Africa: Where Are We, and Where Are We Going? Dr. Herman Wiechers is Managing director of Dube, Ngeleza Wiechers Environmental Consultancy (Pty) Ltd.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Waste management in South Africa is guided by various governmental requirements and processes. This paper briefly outlines key South African waste management policy, strategy and legislation. It sets out both the status quo as well as the anticipated future for waste management in this dynamic developing country. Integrated Pollution and Waste Management Policy: This national policy on sets out the vision, principles, strategic goals and objectives that government will use for integrated pollution and waste management in South Africa. National Waste Management Strategy: The National Waste Management Strategy is a legislative requirement of the National Environmental Management: Waste Act. The purpose of the NWMS is to achieve the objects of the Waste Act. National, Provincial and Local Government Authorities, as well as affected Industries, other organisations and private persons are obliged to give effect to the. The numerous challenges Waste management faces in South Africa are described. Waste Management Act: In March 2009 the Government of South Africa published the National Environmental Management: Waste Act, Act No. 59 of 2008 (SA Government, 2009). This Act was promulgated to reform the law regulating waste management in South Africa. This report briefly describes the requirements of the Act and the challenges being faced with its implementation.

INTEGRATED POLLUTION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICY

The government’s national policy on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management sets out the vision, principles, strategic goals and objectives that government will use for integrated pollution and waste management in South Africa (DEAT, 1998). This Draft White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management for South Africa serves the following two purposes: to inform the public of the government’s objectives, and how the government intends to achieve these objectives, and to inform government agencies and State organs of these objectives, and what must be done to achieve these objectives.

Definition of Integrated Pollution and Waste Management

Pollution is the introduction into the environment of any substance property (including radiation, heat, noise and light) that has or results in direct harmful effects to humanity or the environment, or that makes the environment less fit for its intended use. • Environment is defined as the following - the biosphere in which people and other organisms live and consist of: • renewable and non-renewable natural resources such as air, water (fresh & marine), land and all forms of life. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

chapter 2: Waste Management in South Africa: Where Are We, and Where Are We Going?

• natural ecosystems and habitats, and • ecosystems, habitats and spatial surroundings modified or constructed by people, including urbanised areas, agricultural and rural landscapes, places of cultural significance and the qualities that contribute to their value. Integrated pollution and waste management is a holistic and integrated system and process of management aimed at pollution prevention and minimisation at source, managing the impact of pollution and waste on the receiving environment and remediating damaged environments.

Scope and Purpose of Policy

This White Paper sets out the government’s Integrated Pollution and Waste Management policy for South Africa and describes the context in which it has been developed. This Policy comprises the following sections: • an introduction that describes the concept of integrated pollution and waste management used in this policy, the scope, purpose and vision of this policy and the consultative process used in developing this policy, • setting the context of the Integrated Pollution and Waste Management policy globally and nationally, • key issues relating to pollution and waste management identified through the stakeholders and based on the public participation process, • the shift to prevention that sets out the reasons for changing the emphasis from control to prevention, • approaches to development of this policy describing the environmental media approach, • policy principles and criteria affecting governance, and accepted for developing this policy and subsequent planned actions, including decision making, legislation and regulation, • the government’s strategic goals and supporting objectives for addressing the major issues regarding pollution and waste, as well as for measuring the success of policy implementation, • the government’s approach to governance, detailing the powers and responsibilities of the different spheres and agencies of government and the regulatory approach to integrated pollution and waste management, and • the way forward which outlines the government’s priorities and provides a framework for implementing the Integrated Pollution and Waste Management policy, emphasising the development of a National Waste Management Strategy.

Vision for the Policy

The vision of the government is to develop, implement and maintain an integrated pollution and waste management system which contributes to sustainable development and a measurable improvement in the quality of life through harnessing the energy and commitment of all South Africans for the effective prevention, minimisation and control of pollution and waste.

Purpose of the Policy

The Integrated Pollution and Waste Management Policy (IP&WMP) is a subsidiary policy of the overarching environmental management policy as set out in the White Paper on Environmental Management Policy for South Africa. This Integrated Pollution and Waste Management policy subscribes to the vision, principles, goals and regulatory approach set out in the draft environmental management policy and details the government’s specific policy for pollution and waste management. This IP&WMP applies to all government institutions and to society at large and to all activities that impact on pollution and waste management. One of the fundamental approaches to this policy is the prevention of pollution, minimisation of waste, control of impacts and remediation. The management of waste will be implemented in a holistic and integrated manner, and will extend over the entire 26

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waste cycle, from cradle to grave, including the generation, storage, collection, transportation, treatment, and final disposal of waste. This policy acts as a statement of intent by the government on how to manage and minimise South Africa’s diverse pollution and waste streams, in a manner which is environmentally, socially and politically acceptable as well as economically sustainable. The government aims to: • promote the prevention and minimisation of waste generation and hence pollution at source, • promote the management and minimisation of the impact of unavoidable waste from its generation to its final disposal, • ensure the integrity and sustained “fitness for use” of all environmental media i.e. air, water and land, • ensure the remediation of any pollution of the environment by holding the responsible parties accountable, and • ensure environmental justice by integrating environmental considerations with the social, political and development needs and rights of all sectors, communities and individuals.

Need for an IP&WMP

South Africa is emerging from a period of unsustainable and inequitable development that not only threatened the livelihoods and degraded the quality of life of a large proportion of the population, but which was also responsible for environmental degradation. In order to move towards development that is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable, all sectors of society will have to undergo a number of important transitions. Some of the important transitions will be: • A move to equitable sharing of development opportunities and benefits and an equitable provision of services. This priority transition must be aimed at significantly improving the situation of the impoverished majority. • A move towards efficient use of energy with a priority on the development of renewable and affordable resources. • A transition towards accelerated industrial development while using cleaner technologies and production methodologies. • An institutional transition towards new structures at national, provincial and local government levels with a priority to integrating economic, equity and environmental imperatives in planning and decision making within and between different ministries and between provinces. • A governance transition towards greater public accountability and participation with a priority to initiate and maintain sustainable development partnerships between government and civil society. • A capacity building transition towards greater national and regional self-reliance with a priority to accelerate development and promote the use of local knowledge, technology and expertise. • A move from reliance on foreign aid to economic self sufficiency. To effect the transformation to development that is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable, the government has met the challenge of redefining the way in which pollution and waste will be managed in South Africa. The much needed economic growth for the upliftment and enhancement of the South African population, and in particular for the generation of jobs, can be achieved through more appropriate and efficient use of natural resources, within a framework of integrated pollution and waste management to protect both the people of South Africa and the environment without a continuous degradation of natural resources.

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NATIONAL WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY

The National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS) is a legislative requirement of the National Environmental Management: Waste Act, Act No. 59 of 2008. The purpose of the NWMS is to achieve the objects of the Waste Act. Organs of state and affected persons are obliged to give effect to the NWMS (DEA, 2011). Waste management in South Africa faces numerous challenges and the NWMS provides a plan to address them. The main challenges are: 1. A growing population and economy, which means increased volumes of waste generated. This puts pressure on waste management facilities, which are already in short supply. 2. Increased complexity of waste streams because of urbanisation and industrialisation. The complexity of the waste stream directly affects the complexity of its management, which is compounded by the mixing of hazardous wastes with general waste. 3. A historical backlog of waste services for, especially, urban informal areas, tribal areas and rural formal areas. Although 61% of all South African households had access to kerbside domestic waste collection services in 2007, this access remains highly skewed in favour of more affluent and urban communities. Inadequate waste services lead to unpleasant living conditions and a contaminated, unhealthy environment. 4. Limited understanding of the main waste flows and national waste balance because the submission of waste data is not obligatory and where available is often unreliable and contradictory. 5. A policy and regulatory environment that does not actively promote the waste management hierarchy. This has limited the economic potential of the waste management sector, which has an estimated turnover of approximately R10 billion per annum. Both waste collection and the recycling industry make meaningful contributions to job creation and GDP, and they can expand further. 6. Absence of a recycling infrastructure which will enable separation of waste at source and diversion of waste streams to material recovery and buy back facilities. 7. Growing pressure on outdated waste management infrastructure, with declining levels of capital investment and maintenance. 8. Waste management suffers from a pervasive under-pricing, which means that the costs of waste management are not fully appreciated by consumers and industry, and waste disposal is preferred over other options. 9. Few waste treatment options are available and so they are more expensive than landfill costs. 10. Too few adequate, compliant landfills and hazardous waste management facilities, which hinders the safe disposal of all waste streams. Although estimates put the number of waste handling facilities at more than 20003, a significant number of these are unpermitted. The objects of the Waste Act are structured around the steps in the waste management hierarchy, which is the overall approach that informs waste management in South Africa. The waste management hierarchy consists of options for waste management during the lifecycle of waste, arranged in descending order of priority: waste avoidance and reduction, re-use and recycling, recovery, and treatment and disposal as the last resort. The NWMS is structured around a framework of eight goals, which are listed in Table 2.1 together with the targets for each goal that must be met by 2016:

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Table 2.1: Summary of NWMS Goals

Goals

Description

Targets (2016)

Goal 1:

Promote waste minimisation, re-use, recycling and recovery of waste.

Goal 2:

Ensure the effective and efficient delivery of waste services.

Goal 3:

Grow the contribution of the waste sector to the green economy.

Goal 4:

Ensure that people are aware of the impact of waste on their health, well-being and the environment. Achieve integrated waste management planning.

25% of recyclables diverted from landfill sites for re-use, recycling or recovery. All metropolitan municipalities, secondary cities and large towns have initiated separation at source programmes. Achievement of waste reduction and recycling targets set in IndWMPs for paper and packaging, pesticides, lighting (CFLs) and tyres industries. 95% of urban households and 75% of rural households have access to adequate levels of waste collection services. 80% of waste disposal sites have permits. 69 000 new jobs created in the waste sector 2 600 additional SMEs and cooperatives participating in waste service delivery and recycling 80% of municipalities running local awareness campaigns. 80% of schools implementing waste awareness programmes

Goal 5:

Goal 6: Goal 7: Goal 8:

Ensure sound budgeting and financial management for waste services. Provide measures to remediate contaminated land. Establish effective compliance with and enforcement of the Waste

All municipalities have integrated their IWMPs with their IDPs, and have met the targets set in IWMPs. All waste management facilities required to report to SAWIS have waste quantification systems that report information to WIS. All municipalities that provide waste services have conducted full-cost accounting for waste services and have implemented cost reflective tariffs Assessment complete for 80% of sites reported to the contaminated land register. Remediation plans approved for 50% of confirmed contaminated sites. 50% increase in the number of successful enforcement actions against noncompliant activities 800 EMIs appointed in the three spheres of government to enforce the

Details of the objectives, indicators and targets to achieve each goal are in Section 2 and actions to achieve the goals (with the responsible actors) are in Appendix 1. To achieve these eight goals, the Act provides a toolbox of waste management measures: 1) Waste Classification and Management System – provides a methodology for the classification of waste and provides standards for the assessment and disposal of waste for landfill disposal. 2) Norms and standards – establishes baseline regulatory standards for managing waste at each stage of the waste management hierarchy. 3) Licensing – lists activities that require licences (with conditions) and those that do not if undertaken according to conditions or guidelines. 4) Industry waste management plans – enables collective planning by industry to manage their products once they become waste and to collectively set targets for waste reduction, recycling and re-use. 5) Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) – regulates that industry is responsible beyond point of sale for particular products that have toxic constituents or pose waste management challenges, particularly where voluntary waste measures have failed. 6) Priority wastes – identifies categories of waste that, due their risks to human health and the environment, require special waste management measures, particularly where a solution requires the involvement of multiple role-players. 7) Economic instruments – encourages or discourages particular behaviour and augments other regulatory instruments.

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Objectives of National Waste Management Strategy

The primary focus of these objects of the NWMS is the achievement of the waste hierarchy, but there is also a set of broader social and economic objectives which the strategy aims to achieve, summarised in Section 6 (1)(a)(vi) above. These objects of the Waste Act have been distilled into a set of high level goals and objectives for sustainable development and for each step of the waste hierarchy. The goals and objectives of the NWMS are summarized in the table below. Table 2.2: Goals and objectives for NWMS

Goal Securing ecologically sustainable development while promoting justifiable economic and social development

Avoiding and minimizing the generation of waste Reducing, re-using, recycling and recovering waste

Promoting and ensuring the effective delivery of waste services

Treating and safely disposing of waste as a last resort

Remediating land where contamination presents a significant risk of harm to health or the environment

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Objectives To ensure the protection of the environment through effective waste management measures To protect the health and wellbeing of people by providing an affordable waste collection service Grow the contribution of the waste sector to GDP Increase number of jobs within waste services, recycling and recovery sectors Promote SMMEs in waste sector Ensure the design and manufacture of products that avoid or minimize waste generation Discourage waste generation through cost reflective and volume based tariffs Increase consumer awareness of waste minimization issues Increase reuse and recycling rates of products Reduce the percentage (%) of recyclable material to landfill Ensure separation at source in all metropolitan and local municipalities Encourage the establishments of Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) Encourage waste to energy options Support the diversion of high calorific waste from landfill to recovery options Facilitate the provision of at least a basic level of waste service to all Ensure an efficient and effective solid waste management Implement free basic refuse removal policy for indigent households Promote the regionalisation of waste management services Stabilise quantity of waste disposed to landfill then reduce this volume Improve landfill management to comply with legislation Increase thermal treatment and conversion of waste to energy Ensure the diversion of certain waste tyres from landfill Quantify the extent of contaminated land Implement contaminated land measures in the Waste Act Remediate priority areas of contaminated land Clarify extent of state liability for contaminated land

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Table 2.3: Process related goals and objectives

Goals Achieving integrated waste management planning Sound budgeting and financial management for waste services

Adequate staffing and capacity for waste management

Effective compliance with and enforcement of waste regulations

Effective monitoring and reporting on performance with waste functions Ensure that people are aware of the impact of waste on their health, well-being and the environment

Objectives Reliable information on waste flows and an accurate national waste balance Establish and implement an effective system of performance based IWMPs at all levels of government IndWMPs approved for key industrial sectors Sound financial planning for waste services Full cost accounting for waste services Cost reflective and volumetric tariffs implemented Waste services sustainably financed WMOs appointed at all levels of government Additional technical capacity developed to deal with norms and standards, industry regulation and remediation EMI capacity expanded to deal with Waste Act Private sector capacity mobilized to support waste service delivery and community based collection models Conduct systematic monitoring of compliance with regulations and permit conditions Create a culture of compliance with Waste Act regulations Establishment of a hotline to report non-compliance Successful prosecutions of waste offenders. Implement systematic monitoring of key performance indicators by each sphere of government Reporting on key performance indicators in line with Waste Act Conduct regular evaluation of performance with waste functions and IndWMPs Develop national and local awareness campaigns on the social importance of waste management Promote waste minimization and recycling through education system Establish an equivalent to the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Blue Dropâ&#x20AC;? award for waste management by municipalities

WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT

In March 2009 the Government of South Africa published the National Environmental Management: Waste Act, Act No. 59 of 2008 (SA Government, 2009). This Act was promulgated to reform the law regulating waste management in South Africa, in order to: i. Protect health and the environment by providing reasonable measures for the prevention of pollution and ecological degradation and for securing ecologically sustainable development; to provide for institutional arrangements and planning matters; ii. Provide for national norms and standards for regulating the management of waste by all spheres of government; to provide for specific waste management measures; iii. Provide for the licensing and control of waste management activities; iv. Provide for the remediation of contaminated land; to provide for the national waste information system; v. Provide for compliance and enforcement; and vi. Provide for matters connected therewith. More specifically the objectives of the Act are to: (a) To protect health, well-being and the environment by providing reasonable measures forâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; (i) minimising the consumption of natural resources; (ii) avoiding and minimising the generation of waste; (iii) reducing, re-using, recycling and recovering waste; (iv) treating and safely disposing of waste as a last resort; (v) preventing pollution and ecological degradation; (vi) securing ecologically sustainable development while promoting justifiable economic and social development; (vii) promoting and ensuring the effective delivery of waste services;

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(viii) remediating land where contamination presents, or may present, a significant risk of harm to health or the environment: and (ix) achieving integrated waste management reporting and planning; (b) To ensure that people are aware of the impact of waste on their health, well-being and the environment; (c) To provide for compliance with the measures set out in paragraph (a) and (d) Generally, to give effect to section 24 of the Constitution in order to secure an environment that is not harmful to health and well-being. The objectives of the Act are achieved through, inter alia: (a) National norms and standards, provincial norms and standards and waste service standards; (b) Certain organs of state (provinces and local authorities) preparing integrated waste management plans; (c) Reporting on implementation of integrated waste management plans; (d) Declaration of priority wastes; (e) Reduction, re-use, recycling and recovery of waste; storage, collection and transportation of waste; (f ) Extended producer responsibility; (g) Listed waste management activities; (h) Prohibition of un-authorised disposal; (i) Preparation of industry waste management plans; (j) Licensing of waste management activities; and (k) Establishment Of National Waste Information Systems.

PRACTICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA

A waste management system has to relate to the communities it serves. In South Africa the political, social, environmental, economic and technical factors create a unique dynamic milieu, in which the challenges are so diverse that problems cannot be solved by merely scaling up existing levels of services. New approaches are required to handle rapid urbanisation, recycling and industrial waste through regionalisation, legislation and control (DEA, 2011).

Waste Management Needs

The Department of Environmental Affairs has identified the following waste management needs: • A paradigm shift from end of pipe treatment to pollution prevention / waste minimisation • Provision of basic waste management services to all South Africans • Proper consideration of health and safety • Integrated waste management Integration with other government department initiatives, programmes and administrative systems The National Waste Management Strategy (2010) is entering its fourth phase, which is the implementation phase.

Waste Management Campaign

In order to solicit government’s goals and to continuously implement initiatives designed to improve the quality of life of the people of South Africa, the DEAT launched a National Waste Management Campaign on 1998 and again in 2010. The aim of the Campaign is to inculcate the culture of responsibility with regard to waste and pollution management to enable South African communities to initiate projects designed to abate waste and pollution problems. Subsidiary aims include: • To create a sustainable livelihood for the poor through improved access to environmental resources • To improve the level of public awareness with regard to waste and pollution management, as well as the need for community action in the development and maintenance of green spaces and other public facilities and amenities 32

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â&#x20AC;˘ To return and guarantee the dignity and humanity of the African people, in particular those living in informal settlements, by providing sustainable, appropriate and affordable sanitation

Waste Management Approach to Job Creation

With increasing unemployment in South Africa, many people are finding alternative means to generate income. One of these is to establish a recycling depot or a buy-back centre. The Waste Management and Community Programmes sub-directorate of the Department of Environmental Affairs has received numerous enquiries and applications to support these ventures. Although most of these ventures have environmental merit, the planning is frequently inadequate. Waste Collection: There are various ways in which communities can create work through projects that collect waste from where it is generated. One of the popular models used is the One Person Contract [OPC] in which case individuals are responsible for collecting waste from households. They take it to central points where another contractor with a vehicle will collect and transport it to a transfer station or for disposal. Transfer Station: Waste is temporarily stored here. Individuals can then sort the waste into recyclables and non-recyclables. Recycables can either be organic or inorganic waste. Buy-Back Centre: At a buy back centre, people sell recyclable material they have collected. It is important to know that recycling companies pay only for materials they can use. It is therefore important to obtain sufficient information about the type and quality of material needed by such companies. Recycling: Plants: These plants are a source of a number of jobs. This ranges from managerial to more menial tasks. Composting: Organic waste can be used for compost material, which can make an important contribution to soil fertility. Making compost is an opportunity for creating employment. Compost is useful for community parks, gardens and nurseries, which all create jobs within communities. REFERENCES DEA (2011) National Waste Management Strategy, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria, November 2011 DEAT (1998) White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management for South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria, November 1998 DEA (2011) Waste Management In South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria, http://www.environment.gov.za/enviro-info/env/waste.htm, 2011 SA Government (2009) The National Environmental Management: Waste Act, Act No. 59 of 2008, Government Gazette Vol. 525, No. 32000, Cape Town, 10 March 2009

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PROFILE

Disposing of E-waste made easy at Unisa The term E-waste is longer one that can be casually thrown around without realizing its impact on our community, country and continent. And with Unisa as the leading distance education institution in South Africa, they are on board making a difference and expressing, wholeheartedly, a concern and responsibility towards the natural environment by initiating several projects. The area of waste is indeed one that requires much attention. The National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008 (Act no 59 of 2008), as well as other initiatives like the National Waste Minimization Strategy and the Polokwane Declaration aiming at Zero Waste to landfill, urging waste minimization and responsible disposal of waste speaks to the issue. Currently most of Unisaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s waste is landfilled, but itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s promising to note that the right discussions are taking place change this in the direction of less waste to landfill and moving towards recycling. E-waste refers to everything working with a power source and includes all electronic goods that have reached the end of their lifespan at work or at home. These range from computers, entertainment electronics, telecommunications equipment/cellular phones, hairdryers, etc. E-waste is, according to legislation, classified as hazardous waste and need to be regulated. The danger when land filled is that some components may leak harmful substances into the groundwater, causing pollution and posing a direct human hazard. Also, when land filled,

PROFILE reclaimers on the landfill site try to take out the valuable parts, exposing themselves to harmful chemicals. The rest of the redundant electronic device is then left on the landfill. It occupies space in a landfill, does not degrade easily, is often informally recycled it will simply add to the mountain of waste accumulating in the landfills. Most electronic equipment is indeed made of recyclable materials. At dismantling plants like DESCO, a company where the recycling of E-waste is done in a skilled and controlled manner, the different components are separated and either reused or reworked (recycled) into new products. It is therefore regarded as a resource. Not only is it reducing the impact of producing new materials, it also creates job and provide an income to many people. In addition to paper recycling initiatives at Unisa, E-Waste has also been a priority. These initiatives are a joint one by the Unisa’s Department of Environmental Sciences, University Estates, Security Services and DESCO electronic recyclers - an E-waste recycling company based in Gauteng. DESCO has provided Unisa with recycling bins at the Muckleneuk and Florida campuses and since E-waste is regarded as hazardous, security aspects of placement of the containers are an important consideration. The containers are therefore placed in an area where there is ample security. Staff are encouraged to make use of the E-waste containers and dispose of anything with a power source. DESCO will collect these items, disassemble it and reuse whatever are reusable. For example, they recycle the plastic and make outdoor furniture, lintels and sun decks which are extremely durable. The green E-waste container on Muckleneuk campus is situated at the TvW building, 2nd Floor entrance, delivery side of the Old Stationary Store. The container on the Florida Campus is situated 50 meters to the right of the main entrance on the corner of Christiaan de Wet and Pioneer Avenue. This is under supervision of the guards at the entry gate and is only locked during the night. Clear signage to indicate the positions of the containers will be put up soon. On recycling day, 17 September 2010, staff were invited to bring their old and non-functional appliances to the green E-waste containers and awareness was created by messages on Internal Communication as well as a fridge magnet that was handed out with information on the E-waste project. Each participant was awarded with an ice cold soft drink. Compiled by Roelien Du Plessis: Department of Environmental Sciences • To learn more about e-waste in South Africa visit: http://drupal.e-waste.org.za/ or www.ewaste.co.za. • To learn more about Desco, see http://www.desco.co.za/.

chapter 3: PACKAGING AND PAPER INDUSTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN

the waste revolution HANDBOOK

chapter 3: PACKAGING AND PAPER INDUSTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN

PACKAGING AND PAPER INDUSTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN Packaging Council of South Africa

INTRODUCTION

This Industry Waste Management Plan (the “Plan”) has been prepared and is being submitted pursuant to the National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008 (the “Act”). The Act empowers the Minister of Environmental Affairs to require certain industries to develop Industry Waste Management Plans. The draft National Waste Management Strategy arising from the Act has identified the packaging and paper sector as a priority to prepare such a plan (together with the pesticides, lighting, E-waste and tyre industries). This Plan is being submitted by the Packaging Council of South Africa (PACSA), whose converter members account for some 70% of the turnover of the packaging industry in SA. In 2006 PACSA formed the Recovery Action Group (RAG), which consists of the material organisations representing the paper industry and the major packaging materials (metal, plastics and glass as well as paper). RAG was established to work together on common issues relating to recycling and to ensure more effective communication between the industry and all levels of government. DEA first approached PACSA/ RAG in 2008 with an informal request to write a plan. This request was formalised in an exchange of correspondence between DEA and PACSA during 2009, but the instruction from the Minister to prepare and submit a Plan is still to be gazetted. The Plan covers packaging and paper, defined as all packaging materials except for timber and textiles, and all printing and writing papers consumed in SA. It covers non-hazardous solid packaging and paper waste, both post-consumer waste and material that is discarded during industrial processing and which, if not retrieved for recycling, would end up in landfill. Emissions into the air or water as well as other waste in the production, such as inks and chemicals, would be excluded. However, containers contaminated by hazardous contents (which are managed differently from general waste) are included in the tonnage of packaging on the market as it is not possible to separate them from other containers. To help it develop this Plan, PACSA enlisted the services of Perchards Ltd, a leading international consultancy specialised in recycling policy and producer responsibility legislation and systems around the world, particularly those relating to packaging waste. This has made it possible to develop the Plan taking account of different requirements, systems and practices in both the developed and developing worlds. It is evident that systems and practice differ, even between countries of similar culture and economic development such as those in the European Union. PACSA also appointed BMI Research, a leading industry research consultancy in SA, to prepare the relevant data and statistics to support the Plan. PACSA has consulted extensively with other organisations involved in the packaging and paper supply chain, and these are listed at the end of this Executive Summary. In the context of this Plan, the supply chain for packaging and paper includes all the participants from raw material producers to retailers, including converters, packaged goods producers and also distributors and importers. Each plays an important role in determining the type and composition of the final product. ththe waste revolution HANDBOOK 39

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Industry Waste Management Plans are based on the principle of extended producer responsibility, which means that the producers of the products covered take full or partial responsibility for managing the waste arising from their products. Unlike the other products identified as priorities by the Government, the products covered by this Plan are purchased on a daily basis by all the people of SA, irrespective of their income levels. It is therefore crucially important that this Plan delivers its objectives as cost-effectively as possible. Implementation costs incurred by producers will be internalised in product prices and so could contribute to inflation and thus affect citizens in their daily purchases of packaged products. Empirical evidence from the metros in SA suggests that when the full extent of savings and revenue generated by the most appropriate separation at source system are taken into account together with the existing rates paid for collection, there should be no need for ongoing subsidies. The following points should be stressed at the outset as they inform the development of the Plan and are crucial to its ultimate success: • The recycling rate for packaging and paper consumed in SA was 44,5% in 2009. This is the starting point for the Plan and is the result of initiatives voluntarily driven and funded by industry. The Plan will build on and expand existing models that are already working successfully in SA. • The Plan considers how the producers involved intend to grow existing markets for recycled materials and to develop new markets to deal with the additional tonnages of recyclable material that will be collected through source-separation systems. For this objective to be realised, it is essential that the material delivered for recycling is clean and uncontaminated. • Ensuring that the materials delivered for recycling are clean and uncontaminated will require the municipalities to establish source-separated collection and sorting facilities (material recovery facilities, or MRFs), to adopt the appropriate regulations and to ensure compliance with these regulations. • A large number of different organisations and individuals work with the municipalities on the collection and sorting of waste. Many of these do an excellent job, generating materials for recycling and providing many people with an income. Collection arrangements in each municipality will need to involve these enterprises. • The involvement of these varied enterprises, together with the wide range in income levels and different types of housing in SA, mean that collection and sorting models will vary significantly. The Plan cannot be based on a single “one size fits all” model. • The Plan will succeed in meeting its objectives only if all interested parties collaborate and play their respective roles effectively – central government, provincial governments and the municipalities, producers and importers, the waste sector and consumers. Government regulations to ensure compliance by all parties are essential to ensure there are no free riders. Equally important will be enforcement action by the authorities against those who refuse to participate in this or any other approved scheme.

OBJECTIVES OF THE PLAN Recycling

The key objective of the Plan is to increase the recycling rate for new packaging and paper from 44,5% in 2009 to 51% over the five-year period of the Plan. In 2009, 1,539 million tons were recycled and in Year 5 this will rise to 1,975 million tons – 436 000 tons more than in 2009. Over and above the baseline level, a total of 1,26 million additional tons will be recycled over five years. These figures are based on a projected average growth rate of 1,9% per year in the market for these materials, a relatively low rate because lighter materials are expected to continue to replace more traditional packs.

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The targets per material stream are:

Experience around the world highlights the difficulty and complexity of tracking the consumption and recycling of packaging and paper accurately. The statistics provided by BMI Research are as accurate as possible and the best currently available in SA. The data will continue to be tested and refined during the Plan period. Aggregate statistics for 2010 will be available in the fourth quarter 2011.

Other elements of the waste hierarchy

The Act reflects the conventional waste management hierarchy which puts prevention as the first priority, followed in descending order by re-use, recycle and recover, with landfill as the last option. It should be understood however that the waste hierarchy should be only a starting point. The “best practical environmental option” (i.e. the option causing the least environmental impact) may not necessarily be the one at the top of the hierarchy. The main focus of this Plan is on recycling, but it does address other elements of the hierarchy. Indeed, the packaging and paper sectors are already contributing on prevention and reuse: a) Prevention/reduction – Since 2000 packaging growth has consistently been below GDP real growth. Initiatives by packaging producers to reduce the weight of individual packs and a switch to lighter materials have been a major contributor to this. This trend is expected to continue during the Plan period, as brandowners will maintain pressure on their suppliers to reduce packaging in order to reduce cost. It is proposed that successful reduction projects will be identified and publicised, to encourage other users to adopt them. However the Plan does not contain any prevention targets because demand for packaging and paper is strongly affected by factors beyond the control of producers. Demand for packaging is determined by demand for the packaged product, which is influenced by factors such as demography and income levels. Similarly, demand for graphic paper is affected by factors such as literacy levels and the expansion of electronic communication. The European Commission has also argued against imposing prevention targets for packaging. b) Reuse – Managed reuse systems continue to operate in certain product sectors, including glass beverage containers, plastic crates in the food and beverage industry and plastic and metal drums in the chemicals and other sectors. These systems avoided the consumption of 2 million tons of packaging in 2009, which means that a higher tonnage was diverted from landfill through reuse than through recycling. The beverage sector has invested R 4,5 billion in infrastructure and materials to support these returnable bottle and crate systems. The Plan does not set any targets for reuse because targets would interfere with the market relationships between suppliers, customers and consumers. No European country has set reuse targets for transport packaging, and those that have set them for beverage containers have abandoned them. c) Recovery – The Act allows controlled energy from waste, though this treatment method has not been introduced yet in SA. This option will be explored, particularly co-generation with other materials as a recovery option for contaminated plastics and paper. Fuel generation from plastic wastes is also ththe waste revolution HANDBOOK 41

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under development and could be operational during the term of the Plan. Given that recovery is still under development in SA, it is not appropriate to set a recovery target at this stage. The chart below shows the overall amount of material already being diverted from landfill as a result of reduction, reuse and recycling. The consumption bar shows that if there had been no initiatives to reduce and re-use packaging, packaging consumption would have been 5,55 million tons rather than 3,46 million tons.

It is important that environmental factors are considered by brand owners when selecting their packaging, and in the first year of the Plan PACSA will develop and circulate to all brand owners guidelines on how to ensure that their packaging is recyclable.

MEETING THE RECYCLING TARGETS

Implementation of the Plan will build on existing successful programmes and initiatives that have been undertaken voluntarily by the paper and packaging sectors in SA. There are two key performance areas necessary for the Plan to succeed: â&#x20AC;˘ Development of new collection systems for packaging and paper, in particular from households. The household collection arrangements will be based on the principle of separation at source, which is vital to ensure that recyclers get better quality and a higher quantity of waste, because contaminated packaging and paper waste often cannot be used. As the collection options affect all streams in the plan, they will be co-ordinated by a new industry body to be called SAPPREP (South African Packaging and Paper Recycling and Environmental Programme) under the auspices of 42

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PACSA. In addition, existing arrangements to collect recyclable materials from business will expand. To this end, municipal bye-laws on source separation should include business end-users in their territories. â&#x20AC;˘ Development of sufficient new markets to achieve or exceed recycling targets, using as raw material the extra tonnage of clean, high quality waste that will be collected. This is the responsibility of the individual material streams. The issues facing each material are different, so the tasks to be undertaken by each material organisation will vary. Each material organisation (MO) will make its own arrangements to support collection systems when market conditions are adverse. Conversion capacity in these new markets needs to be developed beforehand, and it is a basic assumption of this Plan that economic policy will support and encourage investments of this nature in SA. The development of markets for recyclable materials is the key priority in the Plan as it will encourage the roll-out of new collection systems by guaranteeing an outlet for the collected materials and providing a stable income for a growing number of collectors. The ability of the packaging and paper sectors to meet the targets will be affected by external factors beyond their control. These could either speed up or slow down progress towards the targets. Such factors include economic booms or recessions which would affect demand for and thus the price of raw materials including recyclables; changes in the exchange rate for the Rand, which will either boost or hinder the export of materials and products from SA; the speed of development of sourcesegregated collection by the municipalities; and the level of participation by producers in the system, which will affect the level of funding available.

Collection

The focus of the Plan will initially be on household post-consumer waste: as there is currently limited separation at source in this area, there is the greatest potential to increase the quantity of recyclables collected for recycling. Collection from commerce, industry and other bulk areas is generally well established as the tonnages are larger and recyclables often more homogeneous and cleaner than in the household sector. Collection from business end-users is expected to expand on an ad hoc basis in response to growing demand for cleaner recyclables from these sites. In any case, this sector should be included in any municipal regulation to separate waste at source to ensure compliance from all end-users. The Act makes it clear that municipalities remain responsible for collection. It says that the critical role of a municipality is to â&#x20AC;&#x153;perform its executive authority and perform its duty in relation to waste services, including waste collection services, waste storage and waste disposal servicesâ&#x20AC;?. Further details on the role of municipalities in collection were set out in the National Domestic Waste Collection Standards, published by DEA and effective February 2011. The standards say that separation at source must be encouraged and supported and that all domestic waste must be sorted at source in the metropolitan and secondary cities. Municipalities should also adopt regulations specifying how collection should be undertaken and ensure that all operators and end-users, including business end-users, participate in the collection systems established. There can be no single collection and separation model for SA, and the collection arrangements will be tailored to the local situation. Arrangements will differ, taking account of circumstances such as transport distance, population density, income levels and housing types and the attitude of municipal officials towards issues such as public/private partnerships. SAPPREP will engage with municipalities, and any private companies and NGOs working in the municipality, to identify the most suitable arrangements for the specific circumstances of the municipality, and it will support that arrangement where necessary. ththe waste revolution HANDBOOK 43

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SAPPREP will develop tools for this purpose to assist in the development of the best collection and MRF systems, including data to scope the size of the waste stream and a training programme for waste pickers. SAPPREP’s involvement will help to ensure that experience from pilot models in areas such as Cape Town are taken into account, to avoid repeating mistakes made earlier. SAPPREP can also offer advice to municipalities on putting collection out to tender, on the operation of a MRF and on appropriate contract terms. It is expected that the extra costs of the new system will be offset by savings in landfill life and transport and the revenue streams for both existing and new collection systems and the revenues to be generated by the MRF operator. The Plan considers collection models and funding in both developing and developed countries. South Africa straddles both the developing and developed worlds and the Plan aims to combine the vitality and flexibility of the informal sector with the organisational and financial strength of formal waste management. The analysis indicates that unlike Europe and North America, where consistent financial support for collection is a key feature of producer responsibility systems, collection in SA can be selffinancing, i.e. the costs are met from the sale of the material. This is because socio-economic conditions are very different than in the developed world. In SA, as elsewhere in the developing world, informal collectors are expected to play a key role in collection in SA. This is desirable both because it will provide an effective and flexible way to create employment opportunities and entrepreneurship and because it will keep costs (and thus fees paid by producers) low, which is in the interest of all South Africans. In addition to informal collection, formal collection arrangements will be introduced where appropriate in some areas of SA: drop off containers and drop-off centres, kerbside collection, and buyback centres. It is expected that kerbside collection, based on a two-bag system (one for dry recyclables, one for other waste) will be introduced in the higher income areas. In the lower income areas, the establishment of buyback centres should be promoted: they will pay the community for the separated waste. It is not planned to introduce a compulsory deposit-return system for recyclable but non-refillable containers. A voluntary deposit system of this type already operates in some product sectors for refillable bottles, and this reduces the number of non-refillable containers that could potentially be handled through such a system. Furthermore, collection by the informal sector is likely to be far cheaper than the introduction of a new deposit system, which requires sophisticated data and refund systems, not least to prevent fraud. Diverting deposit containers away from kerbside and other collection systems would reduce the cost-effectiveness of these systems. A common feature of collection systems around the world is that they rely on recyclables being separated at source from other waste. Segregation at source ensures that the recyclables stay cleaner, which makes them less hazardous to sort and easier to recycle. All recyclables delivered to a “dirty MRF” co-mingled with organics and other fractions suffer from contamination, be it organics, packaging and paper or even construction waste, and this contamination makes the material either less valuable or completely useless.

Employment opportunities

DEA has stressed that job creation should be a priority of this Plan. The potential to create employment and, importantly, entrepreneurship, will indeed be taken into account in its development and implementation. There will be situations when the objective of maximising jobs conflicts with another priority of the plan, to keep costs down, and a balance will then have to be drawn between them.

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According to Goldblatt of PDG in a paper prepared in 2009 for DEA, 117 505 people were estimated to be employed in the waste sector that year, of which some 88 000, many self-employed, worked in the collection sector. The balance worked for government (20 505) and recyclers. The report did however emphasise the extreme difficulty of determining accurate employment numbers for this sector. Over the five-year period of the Plan it is estimated that the establishment of MRFs and separation at source systems will provide permanent employment for 13 000 people. This is likely to absorb some who are already working as informal waste pickers on landfill sites and in the suburbs, but these would benefit from improved working conditions. It is proposed that these numbers are reviewed annually as data improve and the systems are rolled out. This estimate excludes the estimated 2 870 current job vacancies in waste departments in the public sector. It is planned that informal waste pickers will be included in the systems put in place to implement this Plan. To this end, in June 2011 PACSA led a delegation, including a representative from the Waste Pickers Association, to Brazil to study the role played by waste pickers in the industry-sponsored initiative there. The report on this important initiative is attached as Annex 2 and is discussed more fully in Chapter 6. All the delegates believe that a similar co-operative model should be investigated in SA, particularly where collection services need upgrading. Discussions are continuing with the waste pickers to take this forward and it is the joint intention of PACSA and the waste pickers to introduce pilot schemes in different areas of SA as soon as possible. Funding for the pilot projects needs to be addressed.

Proposed industry structure to implement the Plan

Material organisations have been in operation for some time. They are already playing a active role in supporting and developing recycling for their material and contributing to the recycling rate already being achieved. These organisations, which are all members of RAG, are: • Collect-a-Can (metal packaging); • The Glass Recycling Company; • Paper Recycling Association of SA (PRASA); • Plastics SA; • PETCO; • Polystyrene Packaging Council; • Tetra-Pak. In the past year, three new material organisations have been formed under the umbrella of Plastics SA where greater focus is needed: Polyco (polyolefins), SAVA (PVC) and The Multilayer Packaging Forum. Another new MO is being contemplated for laminated paperboard cartons for liquids. To co-ordinate elements of the Plan common to all materials, a new industry organisation, SAPPREP, is being established. The task of SAPPREP will be to: • engage with government and obtain its approval for this Plan, including the targets and other objectives and the timetable for achieving them; • introduce the necessary monitoring and measurement systems and report to government regularly on performance against the Plan; • engage with government bodies such as DTI to obtain their active support for green investments. This includes access to plastic bag levy funds for infrastructure from DEA; • engage with municipalities as outlined above to: – help them to identify and implement appropriate source separation collection systems tailored to their circumstances; ththe waste revolution HANDBOOK 45

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– support these collection systems as necessary; –d evelop effective communication and awareness programmes, targeting different levels of society to explain what should be collected in the local area and how (this may also include antilitter programmes); – engage with relevant structures to obtain support and funding for appropriate investments in infrastructure); • work with government to ensure that regulations require all producers in the sectors covered by this Plan to contribute to its implementation and thus to minimise the number of free riders. The regulations should also require separation at source where necessary; • recruit and retain producers on an ongoing basis to ensure that there are no free-riders. SAPPREP will be managed by industry and funded by an industry fee. The MOs in the packaging and paper supply chain will be invited to be represented on the SAPPREP board. It is likely that SAPPREP will replace RAG. Opinion on competition issues for relevant elements of the Plan is being sought.

Funding and other support

The Plan considers different funding models around the world and concludes that the most suitable and simplest model for SA market conditions is for recycling fees to be paid by raw materials producers. Most of the material organisations already have a funding mechanism in place to promote and support the development of their recycling plans. Therefore MOs will continue to be funded by industry, although this will change from a voluntary to a compulsory basis. The funding required for the operation of SAPPREP will be raised from a fee to be paid by raw material producers as described in 9.4.1.1. and 9.4.2.1. It is expected that the fee will be a separate line item on invoices and will be passed through the supply chain. In order to comply with competition laws, it is likely that both parts of the fee (SAPPREP and MO) will be paid to a third party organisation, an arrangement that will ensure that no producer has access to the market data of other producers. This organisation will also audit producers to ensure the accuracy of the data and thus the amount of fee paid. Importers will also have to pay a recycling fee. This will pose administrative challenges. The material organisations and SAPPREP may consider simplified reporting arrangements for importers. The fee rates for the first year will be agreed before the Plan has been approved. It is estimated that the fees collected from all the organisations affiliated to the Plan (SAPPREP and all the MOs) in Year 1 will exceed R 100 million.

TIMING

The Plan will take effect only once its acceptance by the government has been gazetted and once followup regulations to create a legal framework to underpin the Plan and prevent free-riding have been adopted and gazetted. Until the Plan takes effect, the MOs can be expected to continue their existing voluntary activities. However new activities and funding outlined in this Plan designed to deliver more and better quality waste to the recyclers will not begin until the Plan has formally taken effect. The five year timetable for meeting the recycling targets will also start only once the Plan has taken effect.

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PARTICIPANTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLAN

PACSA and RAG, with the assistance of Perchards, have prepared this plan with the active participation and input from the following organisations: • Aerosol Association of SA • The Consumer Goods Council of SA • Collect-a-Can • The Glass Recycling Company of SA • Multilayer Packaging Forum • Paper Manufacturers Association of SA • Paper Recycling Association of SA • PETCO • Plastics SA • Polyco • Polystyrene Packaging Coumcil • Printing Industries Federation of SA • South African Liquor Brand Owners Association • S A Plastics Recycling Organisation • Southern African Vinyls Association

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PROFILE

SA Zero Waste SA Zero Waste’s modus operandi is primarily ecofriendly. This entails operating all machinery, in order to preserve the various eco-systems found within municipal-, mining-, industrial- and domestic boundaries. The workforce are trained to function within these strict environmental codes. All vehicles collecting garbage and waste are technically equipped, to fulfil the supra tasks within the eco-friendly constraints. The goal is to have Zero Waste. The objective will be to enlighten all domestic garbage and industrial waste producers, that when the management services of SA Zero Waste are employed, their refuse will never serve as a precursor to any eco-disaster. All SA Zero Waste’s final products are geared to be eco-friendly. The Waste Management team of SA Zero Waste’s are defined by their passion and experience to produce Zero Waste. Their experience in safe, loose material transport and environmental preservation, lends credence to their goal. All vehicles employed to transport refuse and waste, are technically developed to fulfil this goal. Services SA Zero Waste specialises in “green-waste” management and composting, audits, waste and refuse consulting and supervisory services, landfill management, onsite waste management, applicable plant-hire and training for, inter alia: • District Councils and Municipalities • Mining houses • Light- and heave Industrial areas, abattoirs and railway stations • Domestic or household residences and Hotels • Schools and Tertiary institutions • Hospitals, Pharmacies and clinics • Agricultural holdings and farms, where applicable • Fuel and oil depots Products available from SA Zero Waste: • Organic Compost Pine bark / compost • Wood chips • Saw dust • Wood shavings • SA Zero Waste PCSCS Compost • Feed for Animals (Silage, Pig Feed etc.) • Waste and refuse converted into compact and highly efficient fuel for future Power Stations • Recycling of steel / iron / metal and glass • Firewood Contact us Rudolf Waldeck- Cell: 084 513 1332 Tel/Fax: 013 656 0599 E-mail: info@sazerowaste.co.za Address: Postnet Suite 512, Private Bag X 7260, Witbank, 1035

chapter 4: Waste Categorisation: Known Characteristics and Challenges

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chapter 4: Waste Categorisation: Known Characteristics and Challenges

Waste Categorisation: Known Characteristics and Challenges Chris Wiid Waste Engineer Arcus GIBB (Pty) Ltd

INTRODUCTION

The terms ”waste categorisation” and “waste classification” are regularly used but perhaps, less well understood. This article briefly highlights the difference between the two. Practical advice is offered using the example of a waste categorisation study carried out for a typical medium to large Municipality. Specific results and data are not discussed as the purpose of the article is to outline methodology and challenges associated with the carrying out of the categorisation of a waste stream.

WASTE CATEGORISATION AND WASTE CLASSIFICATION – DEFINITIONS

The National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008 (Act no. 59 of 2008), refers in Chapter 2, to the newly promulgated National Waste Management Strategy states: “……Importantly, the categorisation system for waste will lay the basis for reporting on waste to the South African Waste Information System (SAWIS) and related systems. In terms of Section 7(1 ) of the Waste Act:…… The classification of waste will be addressed through the Waste Classification and Management System (WCMS) which is being developed by DEA. The WCMS will be formalised into regulations in terms of the Waste Act. The WCMS distinguishes between classification and categorisation of waste in the following terms: • “Waste Classification is the process by which waste is assigned to one or more hazard classes based on its properties, characteristics, and components. • Waste Categorisation defines waste in terms of a list of categories and sub-categories which is used to determine procedures for classification and is used for the purposes of monitoring and reporting…..” We can then accept that waste categorisation is the analysis of a sample of waste, and the quantification and identification of its constituents. In a simplified form, this process will involve sampling, sorting and recording.

WHY DO WE NEED TO CATEGORISE WASTE ?

The move towards cleaner production, waste minimization and recycling, has highlighted the need for waste managers to understand the constituents of their respective waste streams. This understanding is essential for planning and implementation of waste management strategies, including municipal integrated waste management plans. While this may seem to be a statement of the obvious, the need for this information is equally obvious. The requirements of the National Waste Management Strategy are clear. The data required an sensibly informed by waste categorisation. In the example of the medium to large Municipality, it is likely that a waste categorisation study would the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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have been commissioned in order to provide comprehensive information of the amount and nature of recyclable material in the domestic waste stream.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTE CATEGORISATION

A fundamental characteristic is that a categorisation of this nature is a messy job as it involves the physical examination of raw waste. Furthermore, the waste is extremely variable. A study is further characterized by the compilation of data and the collating thereof on the basis of a pre-determined structure.

CARRYING OUT A WASTE CATEGORISATION PROJECT

The first step when contemplating a study of this nature is to fully understand its purpose. This clarity will inform planning and implementation. Is also important to understand that the planning is an iterative process which requires the revisiting and refining of methodology based upon the various elements discussed below. Implementation is equally dynamic and methods sometimes require revision during the course of a study.

Scale:

The scale or extent of the study must be understood. The implementation of the categorisation of waste from a manufacturing process is far less complicated than that carried out for a Municipality. All aspects of implementation are coloured by the scale. By further example, there is a fundamental difference between simply seeking to identify the organic vs the non-organic fraction of a waste stream, as opposed to identifying 5 categories of recyclable material in the same stream.

Study area:

For the categorisation of the waste from a medium to large municipal waste study, the study area is naturally, large. This will require that the area is divided into sections which are more easily managed but that still are consistent with the greater methodology.

Categories:

Having understood the purpose of the study, the categories to be selected are clearer. Categories that require great deal of effort to identify and quantify, but do not yield much meaningful information, must be avoided. If, for instance, the recyclable content of a waste stream is being examined, it may be helpful to set only two categories for paper – “newspaper” and “other”. A further consideration when contemplating a category is the “do-ability” of examining a particular waste fraction. With due reference to scale, the feasibility of trying to identify a specific grade of plastic in a domestic waste stream is questionable.

Type and size of waste:

All methods and considerations are limited and informed by the physical size and form of the waste. The sorting of waste from a clothing business is far simpler than that for domestic waste.

Working areas (sampling stations):

A working area for the processing and sorting of samples is required. Aspects such as access to working area, hours of operation, distance from source of waste, and distance to disposal facility are important. A large, covered, concreted area is ideal as this makes sorting much easier. Weather impacts are reduced in such an environment.

Sample size:

The distinction is made between sampling (the taking of a sample of waste with due regard to its representivity of the greater waste stream) and sorting (the physical processing and categorisation of the sample). 52

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The determination of the sample size is one of the major challenges associated with a categorisation study. A statistical approach is essential and both the size and form of the waste, as well as the overall volume of waste emanating from the study area, are fundamental to these considerations. It is clear that it would be completely impractical to set out to study the entire waste stream and here, selective sampling is indicated.

Selection of samples:

The way in which samples are physically taken is an important consideration. The question of whether to target the source of the waste or the stage at which it is disposed, is equally important. Accessing waste at the “end point” would certainly facilitate the access to large amounts of waste, but is likely to complicate the identification of the source. An understanding of the source is helpful if the study is attempting to tie the waste characteristics to a particular group (area, socio economic etc ).

Transport of samples:

The type of waste and sample size informs transportation. In addition, the geographical layout of the study area will set limitations on transport due to distance to the working/sorting area, the number of samples to be collected and the time taken. An open trailer is useful as it can accommodate both bags and bins.

Staff and training:

It was stated earlier that a characteristic of a categorisation study, particularly for domestic waste, is that it is a messy job. The implications of this must not be underestimated. It requires constant management to ensure that staff remains focused and motivated. The use of informal “pickers” could be advantageous but their availability close to chosen work areas, is likely to be problematic. The training of staff must ensure that they have a clear understanding of what they are doing and why they are doing it. The decision of which categories to use, must be finalised before training so that staff understand. A number of “dry runs” and hands-on sessions must be held.

Staff remuneration:

Given the nature of the task, it is to be expected that staff will have to be paid more than the basic labour rate. This is naturally to be agreed beforehand. It is also beneficial to the project if payment is task-based i.e. based on the number of samples sorted. This, in turn, will have been based upon the overall budget for the study and will translate into a target number of samples to be processed, from source to completion, in a day. Again, this needs to be agreed with staff. While this approach will seek to resolve production, quality cannot be ignored. Consequently, management is essential to prevent to shoddy processing of samples and the risk of meaningless results. Task-based work, to be effective, must be facilitated by the ready access to the raw waste. This requires other team members to bring the waste to the respective sorting areas.

Protective clothing:

Health and Safety must be addressed in a study of this type and staff must be provided with the necessary protective clothing and trained in the use thereof. This must be both suitable and sufficient. A further critical factor is the protection of hands. A careful balance must be struck between the efficacy and durability of gloves, and the ease with which the gloved hands can operate. The protection of the face and eyes is a further factor and goggles are necessary. A First Aid Kit per team, is also required. Staff involved in the sorting of waste must be aware of the risks involved with the job. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

chapter 4: Waste Categorisation: Known Characteristics and Challenges

Equipment:

Tools for the sorting operation are required - garden forks and rakes have been shown to be effective. Flat spades, hand tools (trowels and forks) are helpful. Naturally, these tools are necessary for both sorting and moving of the waste. The weighing of material is required and portable, electronic scales are used. The size and mass range of the scale is determined by the contemplated sample size, the physical form of the waste and the containers used for weighing. Scales must have the facility to adjust for the mass of the container. This is crucial to ensure that the mass recorded by the scale, is the net mass of waste. In the flurry of sorting activity, this factor is often overlooked. The allocation of the duty to a regular operator will serve to reduce this problem and facilitate consistency.

Team size:

Numbers are obviously determined by the amount of waste to be processed and the associated quantity of samples. Each team member must be assigned duties the principle of which is the individual responsible for recording. The degree of supervision is naturally dependent upon the number of teams in one location. It is often the case that the supervisor is also responsible for the records.

Sorting:

The sorting phase is hopefully, where â&#x20AC;&#x153;it all comes togetherâ&#x20AC;?. Poor sorting can negate the best of planning and implementation. With the pre-supposition that staff are fully trained and informed, sorting can take place. Team members are allocated a working space and the supervisor/record keeper, presides. It is often helpful to have actual examples of the sorted waste, by category, at hand. This gives an on-going visual reference to the sorters and seeks to ensure consistency.

Reporting: sheets and content

Pre-printed record sheets are required. They must be printed in a large enough format to allow sensible use and writing. The team member responsible for this task would choose not to have to remove his/ her gloves in order to write down data. Sheets must be attached to a large clipboard and a box or file must be provided for the storing of complete sheets. These must be collected regularly for collation.

Processing of results:

The foundation of this phase is the clear vision of why the study was conducted in the first place and of course, the selected categories. The use of a spreadsheet and graphical applications is obvious. Commonly available software (MS Excel) is accessible to even the smaller Municipalities. The selection of software will be informed by the scale of the study as well as the statistical approach adopted. The statistical approach alluded to is a challenge in both the contemplation and implementation. While it is, at a certain level, fundamental, it is made more complex by the very nature of the waste (size, type, categories, variability, source) the selection of sample size and the varied source of the samples (a large geographical area, subgroupings within that area, further groupings based on socio-economic criteria). The processing or manipulation of the data is relatively simple if the approach is clear.

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chapter 4: Waste Categorisation: Known Characteristics and Challenges

BRIEF CASE STUDY AND DISCUSSION OF CHALLENGES:

As stated earlier, the example of a categorisation study carried out for a large Municipality, is referred to. The section headings discussed previously, are again used in order to illustrate various practicalities. Results have not been discussed in detail as they are not the focus of this article.

Purpose of study:

The purpose of the original study was to understand the composition of the domestic waste stream and to categorise the waste on the basis of the recyclable content. A further goal, was to collect and collate the data in such a way as to enable analysis of wastes emanating from various geographical areas in the Municipality.

Study area:

The area considered covered some 2 500 km2 and consisted of in excess of 900 000 households. The Municipal area was broken into catchments – where a catchment served a disposal site or transfer station. Catchments were further divided into “beats”. A beat was defined as an area that was serviced by a number of waste collection vehicles. Accordingly, the “beat” was used as the smallest unit for the breaking up of the study area.

Categories:

The following categories were chosen: Garden waste, Plastic, Paper, Cardboard, Food waste, Glass and Cans. A further category that was used was entitled “un-identifyable”. This encompassed those wastes that were not allocated a discrete category, as well as the remnants and dregs that were too small to place in a category. A far larger list was contemplated at the commencement of the study but was subsequently deemed to be impractical.

Fundamental methodology:

The overall approach was that each “beat” would be sampled. Naturally, in order to contain costs, it was not intended that a “beat” would be sampled more than once. Initially, the study was conducted on the basis of setting up sampling points at Transfer Stations and Disposal Sites. i.e. an “end point” study was planned. The determination of the origin was to be based upon the identification of the collection vehicle and it’s areas of duty. This was, by intention, a convenient way of containing/limiting the working area and, by using Transfer Stations as working areas (undercover and concrete surfaces). Disposal Sites were also used as sampling stations as many collection trucks did not use Transfer Stations. This approach proved to be flawed in that collection trucks sometimes were redeployed at short notice, arrival times were erratic or too concentrated (too many trucks at the same time) and that there was sometimes a degree of confusion in the busy transfer stations. As a result, sampling was not representative of areas and there was insufficient control of the origin of samples. During the course of the study, the approach was changed to selecting samples at source (“source” study). In this way, there was total control over the sample origin. However, the problem unique to this approach was that residents put their waste out for collection, only once a week. Thus, field workers could sample on one day only and had to access the waste before the collections trucks had arrived at the households. In addition, this often had to take place during peak traffic times.

Working area:

The use of Transfer Stations as sorting stations/work areas was very convenient due to being covered the waste revolution HANDBOOK

chapter 4: Waste Categorisation: Known Characteristics and Challenges

and that equipment could be stored safely. Public transport for labour was also available. When using landfill sites, all of these factors were problematic.

Sample size:

There were a number of considerations with regard to the sampling. These spoke to the number of samples, and the physical size of an individual sample. This manifested itself in two approaches. For the initial “end point” method, the questions were “how many collection vehicles represent a beat?” and “what size of sample represents a truck?”. The strategy here was that one collection truck per ”beat” was targeted and a sample of 200kg was extracted from the truck’s load. It was felt that the truck would have collected from a range of households (a good distribution) and that the truck’s contents would be reasonably mixed. With the “source” approach, wheelie bins, outside households, were accessed. The contents from a number of bins were collected. The number of bins was varied based on the size of the “beat”. Again, a 200kg sample was extracted for sorting.

Additional challenges:

Some of the additional challenges were: • The control of budget. The variability of most of the activities, as well the difficulty in controlling these, had major effects on budget. • Time management. The management of time and the associated need to keep all teams busy was a challenge. One of the greatest impacts was the time taken to access waste in the collection areas, and then to transport samples to the sorting stations – thereby keeping the sorting teams busy. • The maintaining of a consistent quality of sorting. Staff had to be tightly controlled in order to keep focus, to ensure that sorting remained consistent and that productivity was maintained. • Poor sorting and recording can result in the waste of all of the efforts leading up to that point.

ADVICE OFFERED

While this article does not purport to have all the answers, some advice is offered. • Develop a very clear understanding of the categorisation exercise/study with regard to purpose and expected outcomes. • Compile a comprehensive plan. Use the headings discussed above as a starting point and as a framework. This will go as long way towards “covering all the angles”. (there are likely to be additional considerations that are project-specific). • In the planning phase, develop a statistical approach that informs sample size and the number of samples to represent a larger amount of waste or a defined, geographic area. • Reach a clear understanding of time/budget requirements and limitations.

Conclusion:

A waste categorisation study can be an extremely complicated task. There is a risk that a lot of time and effort could be expended and that results are seen to be questionable. A statistical approach, tailored to suit the specific study, is very important. The inherent variability of the composition of the waste and its generation, bedevil attempts at arriving at consistent results. An overall view that sets out to obtain results that are adequate to the stated purpose, is required. There is a danger that a study could become overwhelmed by the many challenges and variables. Excessive effort could be expended and results may not necessarily be a reflection of time and money spent.

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Gro-e-Scheme

C R E AT I NG J O B S , G ROWING TH E ECO NO MY

How does the scheme work? • Funding will be made available at prime less 3% to businesses that will create jobs. • A minimum of R1 million with a maximum of R1 billion per project will be allowed. • The funding is available over five years or until the scheme is exhausted, whichever occurs first. • The first draw must be within a year from approval of funding. If not, pricing reverts to normal IDC pricing. • Reduced loan pricing will be available for five years, after which normal IDC pricing will apply. • Finance required in excess of the scheme’s limit can be accessed through normal IDC funding.

Terms and conditions • The funding period will be structured to meet the cash flow needs of the business. • Appropriate capital and interest payment holidays will be applied, depending on the financial needs of the business. • There is no prescribed minimum for owner contribution. This will be determined by the financial capacity of the entrepreneur and the cash flow profile of the business.

Business support • The IDC will also assist businesses with capacity building, where needed. • Businesses are encouraged to consider this support, which is partially grant funding.

• •

Contact For more information on the scheme, please contact the IDC on 086 069 3888 email: callcentre@idc.co.za website: www.idc.co.za

What sectors does the IDC fund? In line with Government’s New Growth Path and Industrial Policy Action Plan (IPAP2), businesses in the following sectors will be considered for funding: Green industry • Renewable energy • Energy efficiency • Pollution mitigation • Waste management and recycling • Biofuels

©hillibush4551IDC

Manufacturing activities • Advanced manufacturing • Automotives, components, medium and heavy commercial vehicles manufacturing • Clothing textiles, footwear and leather • Forestry, paper & pulp, and furniture • Metals fabrication, capital & transport equipment • Pharmaceuticals • Plastics and chemicals

Agricultural value chain • Agro-processing Mining value chain • Downstream mineral beneficiation • Mining • Mining technologies Tourism and high-level services • Business process services • Tourism

For further information, please contact: IDC Call Centre: 086 069 3888 Email: callcentre@idc.co.za Website: www.idc.co.za

Knowledge economy • Healthcare • ICT • Biotechnology Media and motion pictures • Media pictures production • Media value chain – broadcasting (radio and television) • Media expansion – new media included • Music value chain • Film production and animation

PROFILE

Bin-n-Waste Waste Management has made a 360 degree turn around the past few years. Bin-n-Waste adapted with confidence striving to deliver a specialized Industrial & Domestic waste management service. Total Waste Management with the priority of Recycling, catering tailor made Waste solutions for Companies. Bin-n-Waste has over 15 years’ experience in the waste management industry. We are fuelled on Quality service and Competitive prices. We are totally committed to the environment and to help companies reduce their impact on the environment, by means of effective recycling methods. BIN-n-WASTE cc was established in 1993 as a family business under the name of Pyramid Waste. We have since grown and are now able to give a quality Total Waste Management service to all of our clients. We are BEE Compliant. The company has sound backing, which enables us to give the best, personal service at competitive prices, but never to the expense of quality. Our premises are ideally situated in the Central Gauteng, East Rand area, and is easy accessible from all the national motorways. B-BBEE Contributor Registered with Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality to dispose of waste

Waste Recycling

It’s everybody’s responsibility to recognize the impact waste has on the environment. Not

PROFILE

only does recycling make economical sense but also improves our quality of life. Identify your waste and determine in what way it should be disposed of makes commercial sense. Bin-n-Waste provides a range of services and equipment to meet your recycling requirements e.g. Baling Machines for paper, tins etc Nil to Landfill… We recycle where possible all plastics and other components

Total Waste Management Service Includes:  •Waste Management Consultations.  •Waste Container placement (6m³,11m³,18m³,22m³ and 28m³).  •On site waste recycling.  •Safe Disposal with Certificates.  •Construction Clean-up with Tipper Vehicles and T.L.B’s  •R.E.L. Compacter Vehicles  •Lift-On Waste Vehicles  •Roll-on Waste Vehicles  •Static Compacter Units  •Baling machines  •Sale of 240 liter Otto bins.  •Domestic Building Rubble & Garden Refuse removal

Contact Details:

2 Wizard Road, Germiston, 2135, Johannesburg Tel: (011) 872-2438 Fax: 086 622 4045 Email: dewald@binnwaste.co.za Website: www.binnwaste.co.za

chapter 5: The Cost of Landfill Closure

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chapter 5: The Cost of Landfill Closure

The Cost of Landfill Closure

Seakle Godschalk Executive Director, Environmental & Sustainability Solutions CC

The three “R”s (reduce, reuse, and recycle) are well known to every waste manager. But unavoidably, even after these concepts have been applied, some waste remains that needs to be disposed of, usually at landfills. Landfills are waste management facilities specially designed to receive and hold such waste indefinitely. Landfills have engineered designs and a predetermined lifespan (which may run into decades), after which they have to be rehabilitated and closed. A landfill can have negative impacts on the environment, especially water resources, during its operation as well as after closure. Therefore, strict specifications have been laid down for the rehabilitation and closure of landfills. These are mostly embodied in the Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal by Landfill, 2nd edition issued by the Department of Water Affairs & Forestry in 1998, as amended and supplemented by regulations.

Fig 5.1. Waste dumped in a quarry filled with rainwater can result in contamination of groundwater. Such a situation will significantly increase landfill closure costs.

When considering the cost of managing landfills, the costs of rehabilitating and closing the landfill after it has reached the end of its operational lifespan is often down-played. There are two main reasons for this. Firstly, the timing of this cost is often not within the short and medium planning timeframes of officials due to the long lifespan of a landfill resulting in “Not in my lifetime”. Secondly, because it is not so easy to determine landfill closure costs, especially at the long timescales involved. The main purpose of rehabilitation and closure is to mitigate any adverse effect that has taken place, and to prevent any further impacts from occurring. To this end, potential impacts on the environment have to be monitored over an extended period, usually up to 30 years after closure. In addition, the landfill needs to be prepared for the alternative use which has been selected.

Why worry about landfill closure costs when the landfill is only scheduled for closure in say 30 years’ time?

If a company or municipality does not make provision for landfill closure costs, it may be faced with an unexpected large amount to fork out suddenly in order to ensure that it complies with legislation. The landfill industry does not want to saddle the South African government with a legacy of abandoned landfill sites for which no provision for closure was made, as happened with approximately 6 000 abandoned mines. In addition, accounting standards require that a provision be made for closure costs the waste revolution HANDBOOK

chapter 5: The Cost of Landfill Closure

for landfills. Lastly, if you don’t know what affects closure costs, you cannot consider management measures during its operation that could reduce final closure costs. Companies and municipalities need to determine the costs associated with the rehabilitation and closure of its landfill. By applying appropriate discounting policies the provision for closure costs will be small when the landfill still has a considerable lifespan. Over time it will grow to the extent that it will match the actual closure costs that will have to be expended when time for closure has come.

What makes estimating landfill closure costs challenging?

Whilst the Minimum Requirements lay down much of the specifications for rehabilitation and closure of landfills, it does not provide a framework for the determination of closure costs. There are no standards for closure cost determinations. Therefore, each company or municipality can decide on its own what to include and what not to include. Some may decide to only determine the number of hours for back actors and bulldozers required, whilst others consider a comprehensive provision covering pre-closure, closure and post-closure costs. Secondly, because of a lack of standardisation and publicly available benchmarking information, determining closure costs is difficult. Thirdly, in the absence of a standardised methodology the determination of landfill closure costs can be an expensive exercise, especially as it has to be reviewed annually. Lastly, evolving regulatory requirements change the landscape of landfill closure and its associated costs continuously.

What makes up landfill closure costs?

As mentioned above, the components of landfill closure costs can vary based on the approach of a company or municipality. A comprehensive approach is best to follow, as it provides the best possible information for accounting and planning purposes. In this comprehensive approach, landfill closure costs are made up of three main components: • Pre-closure planning costs • Actual rehabilitation and closure costs • Post-closure monitoring and maintenance costs

Component 1: Pre-closure planning costs

Planning costs for landfill closure are directly associated with the activity and timing of closure, and should, therefore, be regarded as integral part of the closure costs itself. Without closure, there would be no planning for closure costs. These costs usually include the costs for applying for a landfill closure license, the basic assessment with accompanying public participation process, and finalising end-use plans and closure designs. Fig 5.2. This part of the landfill has already been fully utilised and “closed”, but no rehabilitation has taken place yet, adding to future closure costs.

Component 2: Rehabilitation and closure costs

These costs are expended in the year of closure and a number of years subsequent to closure to ensure effective closure. This relates to costs for final shaping and compacting, capping, top-soiling and vegetating as well as installing stormwater control, leachate seepage and gas control systems. It also includes costs associated with erection of a proper fence (if not yet in place), decommissioning of any infrastructure and erection of end-use related infrastructure.

Component 3: Post-closure monitoring and maintenance costs

This component includes costs associated with post-closure environmental monitoring, as well as ongoing maintenance and management. This phase usually lasts for 30 years after closure. 62

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Variables that affect the costing of landfill closure

Fig 5.3. Properly placed monitoring boreholes will reveal information on any negative impact of the landfill on groundwater sources.

The various components of landfill closure costs are affected by a number of variables. This includes obvious aspects such as size of the area already used, the expected remaining lifespan of the landfill, the current condition of the fence, and whether the landfill is situated in a water deficit or water surplus area. However, aspects such as the quality of available information, the quality of operational management of the landfill and availability of closure material also impact on several cost elements.

Costing of municipal landfill closure

During 2011, Environmental & Sustainability Solutions (ESS) developed a generic Municipal Landfill Closure Costing Model (MLCCM), following the comprehensive approach to landfill closure costing outlined above, including costs elements, variables and a set of intricate algorithms linking the variables, cost elements and baseline unit costs. The model was used to assist local municipalities with determining the provision for landfill closure they should disclose in their balance sheets. These municipalities had previously not disclosed any provision for landfill closure or had disclosed an arbitrary provision without substantive backup regarding methodology used. Most of the local municipalities had received a qualified audit report on this matter during 2010. ESS applied the MLCCM to 13 landfills controlled by eight municipalities, which included communal, small and medium landfills. An overview of actual closure costs, before discounting, is illustrated in table 5.1. Average

Average %

Range

Range %

Planning for closure costs

Rm 1.88

Rehabilitation and closure costs

Rm 3.89

Rm 1.14 – Rm 3.14

11 – 75

Rm 0.10 – Rm 11.76

6 – 71

Post-closure monitoring and maintenance costs

Rm 1.38

Total closure costs

Rm 7.16

Rm 0.33 – Rm 2.70

8 – 26

Rm 1.70 – Rm 16.48

Table 5.1. Overview of closure costs for 13 landfills

The MLCCM is not a detailed quotation tool for landfill closure. However, it does provide a reliable estimate for the provision for closure costs to be included in the balance sheet at an affordable cost and without the need to conduct detailed technical investigations. The costing by means of the MLCCM is based on site visits, interviews with staff responsible for landfill management and reviewing all available documentation.

Are closure costs outside the control of the landfill manager?

Companies and municipalities may argue that they can do nothing to reduce future closure costs. However, this is not true. Several factors relating to availability of information and landfill management practices do impact on future closure costs and are to a certain extent under control of the landfill manager.

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chapter 5: The Cost of Landfill Closure

Information about technical investigations that were carried out in support of the landfill permit application is also needed during planning for closure. If such information is not available (anymore) such work may need to be repeated at substantial cost. It will serve landfill managers well to source such information to avoid unnecessary expenses. Fig. 5.4. Effective daily compacting of the waste body will reduce future subsidence of closed landfills.

In very few cases active monitoring of water quality was observed. If no confirmation, by means of water monitoring, is available that the landfill does not have an adverse impact on water resources, it must be assumed that the landfill may have a negative impact, resulting in an increase in the financial provision for closure costs. Implementing water monitoring, which was in any case required by the permit, proved to be one of the most important measures to reduce future closure costs. The same applies to the availability and management of closure material, be it capping clay or cover material. In the absence of information on availability of such material or if such material is not properly managed to retain its characteristics for effective use during rehabilitation and closure, the provision for closure costs needs to be raised. Effective covering and trimming of existing landfills also reduces future closure costs.

Fig 5.5. A dedicated area for recyclers helps to divert part of the waste stream entering the landfill for more productive use.

Information on waste streams entering the landfills is often incomplete, if existing at all. Knowing which types of waste are disposed of at the landfill, and how much of each type, allows the landfill manager to develop focused plans to reduce the amount of waste entering and to convert these volumes into a usable resource. This will not only increase the lifespan of the landfill (which has a major positive impact on the provision for landfill closure) but will also encourage entrepreneurship and be positive for the environment.

What can be done to improve the situation?

Currently, valuation of landfill closure costs is not standardised in terms of the scope and extent thereof. The full scope of closure costs is often not recognised resulting in underestimation of the provision for closure costs. A better understanding of the full costs associated with the closure of landfills should be developed. Linked to that is a need for standardisation of the extent of closure costs. This would improve comparability of such costs over time as well as between landfills. The link between currently available information and current landfill management practices and future closure costs is not well understood. A better understanding thereof will undoubtedly lead to improvement of landfill management practices and a reduction in closure costs.

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PROFILE

RGM Plastic Packaging RGM Plastic Packaging was founded by George Mooloo in 1995 as a distributor of returnable plastic packaging products. RGM Plastics supplies mainly into the greater Gauteng area, but also supplies on an ex works basis to the rest of South and Southern Africa. ” No Client to small – we help anyone” is a watch phrase for the operation, personal attention to detail from George and his team to satisfy the requirements of the client is the key to the last 16 years of successful operation. The company operates from a small holding in Centurion that has plenty of warehousing space, and easy access from Pretoria or Johannesburg on the R55 Kyalami/ Swartkops Road. George has been involved in the Plastics industry since 1979, before leaving Megapak in 1995 to run RGM Plastic Packaging. George has over the last 30 years acquired a detailed knowledge of all the returnable plastics packaging products available in the South African market, and their applications. RGM Plastics supplies a diverse range of packaging products, supplying products into the agricultural (such as chicken coops, lug boxes), bakery (bread trays, confectionary trays) , food handling (meat trays, dairy crates, glasses trays and 90l food bins), materials handling (security boxes), chemicals (buckets and drums ranging in size up to 200l) hardware (buckets and stack bins) and the refuse handling sector (dustbins, wheelie bins). RGM Plastics is a Qualifying Small Enterprise BEE contributer, having a level 3 BEE rating. RGM plastics is 100% owned, controlled and staffed by previous disadvantaged individuals. RGM Plastics are one of the Gauteng agents for Megapak and Mpact repectively.

Contact Details

Phone 012 7513690/1 Cell 0829392667 / 082 6245350 Fax 0866 895404 Email Rgmplastics@iafrica.com web www.rgmplastics.co.za

chapter 6: MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT- GOOD PRACTICES

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chapter 6: MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT- GOOD PRACTICES

MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENTGOOD PRACTICES COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Waste Flow Diagram

This document aims to cover good practices in each of the stages of waste management, from the point of collection through transport, storage and treatment to final disposal. The principles of the waste hierachy which include waste minimisation, re-use and recycling, is supported to reduce disposal at landfill. Some examples may work well in certain areas and not in others. Municipalities should determine the suitability of specific programmes for their specific circumstances. The Integrated Waste Management Plan (IWMP) can evaluate and recommend the most appropriate systems for each municipality. In South Africa the majority of waste ends up in landfills as mixed waste (thick grey arrow in the waste flow diagram). Reduce, re-use and recycling activities should be encouraged (the green arrows), which will result in a smaller waste stream to landfill (the black arrows).

The Purpose and function of waste facilities

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chapter 6: MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT- GOOD PRACTICES

Waste Collection and Transportation

The purpose of a waste collection service is to separate the generated waste from the community for health reasons. Linked to the life cycle of a common house fly, the preferred frequency of collection services to households is once a week. A more frequent service i.e. daily removal is required for restaurant putrescible waste (organic waste that quickly decomposes). The reliability of the service is more important than the type of receptacle or collection vehicles used. Due to variations in community structures and geographical distribution, the same type of waste collection service will not be appropriate and sustainable across areas/municipalities (i.e. one size does not fit all). Service levels may vary between: • Kerbside collection; • Organised transport to central collection points; • Community transfer to central collection point (medium density settlements); • On-site appropriate and regularly supervised disposal (applicable mainly to remote rural areas with low density settlements and farms). At household level the type of service will determine the type of receptacles, infrastructure and equipment required to render the service. Waste from sources other than households will require systems as determined by the type and volume of waste and the collection frequency required. 68

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The choice of transport vehicle may also dictate the most appropriate receptacles to be used. Regular and planned vehicle maintenance is required to ensure the reliability of the transport fleet. A contingency plan, detailing the course of action in cases of vehicle breakdowns, is required in order to maintain the required level of service. Transport routes and distances to travel between collection points and disposal/transfer facilities will influence the type and size of vehicles used. In the South African context any combination of the following transport types deserves a place in waste collection systems: wheelbarrow, hand drawn carts, push carts, bicycles, donkey’s carts, tractor trailer combinations, railway trucks, bakkie, bush trucks, cage trucks and compactor vehicles. Different vehicle types may be appropriate for different stages along the waste collection and transport route, for example, from household to central collection point, to transfer station and lastly to landfill (see prior diagrams). Collection vehicles that are the most appropriate for the specific task should be used. Consideration must be given to the following: • Type of waste to be removed – recyclable or nonrecyclable; • The geographical area of collection; • Accessibility – for example road conditions and narrow roads or roads without thoroughfare; • The method of collection – for example, whether the receptacles in use need specialised equipment to be lifted or not; • Distance and route to cover; • Number of staff in collection team. Waste collection systems must provide for the collection of separated waste as required by the Waste Act (Act No. 59 of 2008). Current collection systems are often not conducive to waste separation at source and hence must be revised and adapted accordingly. Dual collection systems for recyclable and non-recyclable waste can entail multi-compartmentalised vehicles or separate collection rounds on the same or different days. Collection of source separated waste is discussed in the Reduce, re-use and recycling section.

Lessons learnt

• Use transport vehicles optimally • Evaluate the cost efficiency of transportation methods • Explore alternative transport options (for example, rail by night at reduced fees) • Reduce unnecessary wear and tear by dividing the fleet and assigning specific functions within the waste collection- disposal cycle (keeping collection vehicles off landfills) • Service vehicles and equipment regularly to lessen untimely breakdowns

Transport costs hamper service delivery

Problem: Transport is an expensive aspect of providing the waste management service. Many municipalities thus struggle to meet their legal mandate of providing at least a weekly waste collection service to all households due to limited budgets. Solution: Innovative thinking and planning may go a long way in saving the municipality huge capital and operational costs of providing the waste collection service to all households as required by law. Example: Caged trucks with trailers In order to accommodate the collection of source separated recyclables in their normal waste collection schedule at minimal cost, Knysna Municipality adopted a truck and trailer approach. Instead of duplicating the waste collection fleet and the service provided, collection trucks tow trailers in which the recyclables are collected. The additional cost for the collection of recyclables is minimal in comparison to what additional vehicles and collection rounds would have cost. (The Knysna Municipality 3-bag collection service is also discussed further on.) the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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Failing service delivery due to vehicle breakdowns

Problem: Vehicle breakdowns are a symptom of other problems including vehicle age, poor road conditions, overloading and lack of routine maintenance. The breakdown of municipal waste collection vehicles results in inconsistent collection services. Disrupted waste collection services may result in waste being illegally dumped. This is especially the case in situations where drop-off centres are considered too far away or where drop-off centres do not accept general waste. The public is also not keen to incur additional cost over and above the collection service already paid for. Solution: Having enough operational vehicles is crucial to avoid overloading and to ensure a continued service when vehicles are serviced. Several options can be explored to deal with this problem: i) A dedicated workshop with qualified personnel dealing with waste vehicles only will ensure that vehicles are regularly serviced. When a breakdown occurs, the dedicated mechanics are immediately available, resulting in shortened vehicle down time which impacts less on service delivery. ii) Use vehicles for the meant purpose and provide training to the staff and drivers to avoid unnecessary break downs. iii) Lease vehicles: Leased vehicles are normally not too old and the down time due to breakages should be less. Include the demand for regular vehicle maintenance in the lease agreement. The owner of the trucks should take the responsibility to keep the required number of vehicles operational, and not the municipality. The lease contract should be properly drafted to place no additional liability on the municipality. Learn from the successes and failures of municipalities which have lease contracts in place. Example: Fleet lease agreement and in-house mechanics The City of Tshwaneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vehicle lease agreement includes a routine service maintenance clause. Workshops are open 24 hours per day and in-house mechanics check vehicles between shifts. Minor repairs are done immediately. Hydraulic and other specialised repairs are outsourced. This significantly reduces the down time of vehicles. 70

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Periodic high volumes of waste (events or season related)

Problem: During certain seasons (tourist destinations during holiday periods) or events (sporting events, concerts) waste volumes within a particular area may increase substantially. Normal waste collection services during these periods of high volume waste generation are inadequate. Solution: Special waste management arrangements should be made for such events and/or seasons to ensure that waste is collected efficiently. Example: Holiday seasons During the peak holiday season, the influx of tourists to popular holiday destinations challenges the local waste management services. To overcome this, Bitou Municipality collects waste twice per week instead of the normal weekly removal. This more frequent waste collection service prevents or minimises waste receptacles from overflowing. Waste is collected in two shifts during these times (from 5:00 till 13:00 and from 13:00 till 21:00). Additional vehicles and additional workers are also hired to ensure that all waste is adequately removed and collection staff not unduly stressed.

No service in rural and informal areas

Problem: In South Africa, the biggest waste collection backlogs exist in rural areas and informal settlements. Obstacles to providing a sustainable waste collection service include: i) Limited road access and infrastructure: In certain areas, road infrastructure is limited and the collection vehicles cannot reach all the households. Where road infrastructure exists, the streets are often inaccessible to conventional waste collection vehicles due to steep slopes and narrow roads with sharp curves, deep potholes and dongas. ii) Extensive travel distances: Transportation costs in rural settings where households are sparsely spread over long distances impede a weekly waste collection service, thereby contributing to rampant illegal dumping. Solution: The solution for this problem can be in two ways: i) Households facilitating and funding the operation: Each household can be made responsible for transporting their waste to central collection points and/or transfer stations which are easily accessible to the municipal vehicles. The households can either do this individually or organise themselves and get one contractor to transport their waste. ii) Municipality facilitating and funding the operation: The municipality can contract community members to collect waste from all households within their area and transfer it to central collection points where the municipal waste collection vehicles can collect the waste for disposal. This will have the added advantage of job creation. Selecting one of the above solutions will be influenced by the area specific circumstances, for example, the socioeconomic conditions of the community provided with the service, or whether the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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the municipality can afford the programme. The recently approved Policy for the Provision of Waste Management Services to Indigent Households is applicable in this case. Example: Rural bring-in-system The Breede River Winelands Municipality renders a kerbside waste collection service to all households, excluding rural areas. Some residents in rural areas take responsibility for the disposal of their household waste. These households bring their waste to transfer stations where they pay a minimal dumping fee.

Vehicle wear and tear at landfills

Problem: Irregular landfill road surfaces, steep slopes, loose sand, dust and the nature of the material disposed at landfill sites increase the rate of wear and tear on vehicles operating on such sites. Solution: Specialised vehicles execute certain functions best within the waste collection to disposal cycle. Using vehicles specialised for waste collection to transport waste over long distances to landfill sites might not be the most cost effective. Using appropriate vehicles for specific functions within the waste collection to disposal cycle may reduce wear and tear. For example, divide the fleet into: • vehicles that collect waste from households and take the waste to transfer stations; • vehicles that transport the waste from transfer stations to the landfill site (not the working face of the landfill); and • vehicles that transport the waste to the working face on the landfill site. This exercise should however be based on a cost-benefit exercise to ascertain the cost effectiveness of such an operation and its mode of operation. Example: Use specialised vehicles to prevent wear and tear The City of Tshwane uses their waste collection trucks optimally by offloading the full waste compartments at garden sites (middle). Chain-trucks (top) then transport the loaded compartments from the garden sites to the landfills. The specialised waste collection compactor trucks are freed up to do more waste collection rounds and potential damage to the vehicles is reduced. The chain trucks also do not go onto the working face of landfill sites, but offload within the premises of the landfill where specialised trucks operating on the working face can collect the waste and transfer it to the working face. eThekwini has a similar approach (bottom).

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Waste and Storage

Waste is stored at different stages of the waste management chain: i) Waste is stored at points of generation before collection. Receptacles at points of generation are intended for the storage of waste between collection days. Aspects to take into account in the choice of receptacle are: size, cost, availability, durability, type of waste and ease of handling by waste generators and waste collectors. Waste storage systems must allow for separation at source. The type and size of receptacles will determine the most appropriate means of transport. The choice of receptacle should also be mindful of the potential impacts at the landfill e.g. adding plastic to landfill. ii) Waste is stored at collection points for recyclables. These facilities include clean Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs), garden sites, drop-off and buyback centres. iii) Waste is stored at other intermediate facilities prior to final disposal to landfill or prior to the waste being treated or recycled. These include transfer stations and dirty Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs).

Lessons learnt

The focus should be on a service being provided rather than on the type of receptacle in use, as long as the receptacle is suitable for the specific area’s challenges. Depending on the area, different types of receptacles prove to work well: • Wheelie bins • Bins with plastic bin liners • Metal bins work well for hot ash • Bags placed on stilts or in cages prevent dogs from ripping it open • Monkey/baboon proof bins • Bins provided by the households themselves can be used. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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Lack of storage receptacles at points of waste generation

Problem: Most municipalities do not provide waste receptacles to all waste generators, especially the indigent households who cannot afford to buy such receptacles for themselves. This lack of receptacles may result in littering and illegal dumping as people seek to clear their households of the accumulated waste. Solution: Provision should be made to provide households with receptacles, especially indigent households who cannot afford to pay for such receptacles. Please note that the Policy for providing indigent households with basic waste removal services has been approved by parliament and as such Treasury has made financial allocations to enable municipalities to implement this service. Example: Providing refuse bags and a cleaning service in informal areas City of Johannesburg provides households in informal settlements with black refuse bags and a daily cleansing service including waste collection to combat illegal dumping.

Lack of incentives to utilise drop-off facilities

Problem: Transporting waste to drop-off sites has a cost implication for the waste generator. Charging excessive fees at the drop-off sites might discourage the use of these facilities. Solution: Incentives to encourage community members to make use of drop-off centers include subsidised charges and buy-back centres. Transport costs to drop-off sites can then be covered by the payment for recyclables. Example: Subsidised charges for garden waste disposal The closed Alton landfill in uMhlathuze Municipality now operates as a drop-off centre for garden waste and recyclables. The charges are low enough to encourage people to use the facility. The first load of garden waste is accepted free of charge provided that it does not contain bulky stumps. Additional loads are charged at R20.50 per load. The use of drop-off facilities at Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality is encouraged by subsidising the cost rather than collecting fees for the use of the facility. Garden waste is also collected free of charge at the Knysna drop-off centres for garden waste.

Lack of easily accessible drop-off facilities

Problem: Communities are more likely to dispose their waste illegally and not be concerned to separate their waste for recycling if they lack the appropriate facilities or if such facilities are not easily accessible to them. In addition, establishing such facilities can be an expensive and long process for municipalities since they require appropriate infrastructure and relevant permits/licences. Solution: Using existing facilities, which the community are familiar with, as drop-off facilities encourage people to use such facilities for bringing in their waste. In addition, such existing facilities have all the necessary infrastructure and permits/licences. This minimise the cost implications on municipalities. Example: Converting a closed landfill site into a drop-off centre and transfer station The closed Alton landfill in uMhlathuze Municipality now operates as a transfer station and as a drop-off centre for garden waste and recyclables (below). This ensures that the people in the vicinity continue to dispose of garden waste and recyclables at the old landfill site. The new site is much further away. No additional operating permit applications were required, because the end use as a drop-off facility and transfer station can be included in the closure permit application. This resulted in a cost saving for the municipality. 74

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Keeping storage facilities neat

Problem: One of the key issues facing storage facilities (transfer stations, central collection points etc.) is keeping them neat and tidy. Storage facilities, if not kept neat, have the potential to become litterstrewn mini dump sites. In addition to the visual impacts, rodents and vectors are normally associated with these conditions and consequently negative health impacts. Solution: Development of operating procedures and ensuring adherence to such guidelines will assist in ensuring that the area remains neat. Example: Transfer of compacted waste in closed containers The City of Tshwane and eThekwini Metropolitan Municipalities use compactor trucks to transfer the waste from households to transfer stations. A closed compacted container (below left) is off-loaded at the transfer station and is then picked up by the chain truck (below right). This practice limits spillages of waste during the exchange of vehicles.

Waste deposited next to and not in communal skips

Problem: In many cases, community members use wheel barrows or send children to take waste to central collection points. The skips that are normally used at these points are not easily accessible, as they are too high to hoist over heavy loads from wheelbarrows or to be accessed by children. This results in most of the waste being dumped next to the skip instead of inside. Solution: Provide containers that are easily accessible by wheelbarrows and/or children at these central collection points. This may entail ensuring that the bin opening is at a level easily accessible by either building ramps to climb to the elevated level of the skip, lowering the height of the container to ground level by embedding it in the ground or altering the container design by having the opening the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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on the sides of the container not on top. When embedding containers into the ground, the ease and practicality of emptying such containers should be taken into account. Education and awareness are still important in ensuring that these interventions succeed. Example: Walk-in bins Walk-in containers (such as the empty one on the left) enable community members to place their waste inside the bin. In Mabopane, in City of Tshwane Municipality, a standard 12 m3 container was fitted with doors and a ramp to enable easy access for persons pushing wheel barrows and for children. The introduction of walk-in containers significantly improved the tidiness of communal collection sites.

Overflowing waste bins in areas with high pedestrian traffic

Problem: The normal street bins being provided in areas with high pedestrian traffic are often ineffective due to high waste volumes being disposed. These bins are often seen overflowing with waste due to limited capacity combined with waste collection frequency being too low. Solution: Install containers that can accommodate larger volumes of waste. Because bin capacity is increased, regular collections can now be scheduled and adhered to.

Reduce, Reuse & recycle

Depleting natural resources, together with the environmental impacts of waste and the diminishing capacity of landfills, has prompted the need for reduced waste generation. The Waste Hierarchy which comprises five waste management categories: waste prevention (reduction), re-use, recycling, energy recovery and finally disposal, is applied internationally to reduce the waste ultimately disposed to landfill. Encourage waste reduction across all levels of society, including at household level. Awareness and education campaigns play an important role in the success of any reduce, re-use and recycling initiative. The socio-economic conditions prevailing in a specific municipality must be taken into consideration when establishing waste management programmes, as well as when deciding on the type of communication campaign to use. Incentives, together with awareness creation, have the potential to change consumer behaviour. Incentives for minimising waste can include Pay-As-You-Throw charges, where the waste management charges correlate with the amount of waste being disposed. The less waste households dispose of, the less they pay. For example, charges are calculated on the basis of the number of bags collected or the bin size used for disposal. Apart from financial benefits, there are no real incentives for communities to participate in recycling initiatives. Financial incentives would include reduced disposal charges and financial returns. Reclamation activities on many landfill sites around the country highlight the value of disposed materials. Ideally, re-usable and recyclable waste should be reclaimed before the waste reaches the landfill site. Diverting reusable and recyclable waste away from landfill can be done by sorting through mixed waste at “dirty” MRFs or separation at source combined with further sorting at “clean” MRFs. Clean MRFs deliver “clean” recyclables which fetch higher prices. Clean MRFs also provide more humane working conditions adding to the dignity of workers. The volumes and types of waste sorted at these facilities will dictate the level of sophistication required in the machinery used. Conveyer belt systems are well suited to dirty MRFs while less costly table-top sorting systems can be employed at clean MRFs. Cost effectiveness and efficiency is not guaranteed by having more mechanised systems. High capital investments versus labour intensive practices need 76

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to be considered. Technologies are likely to be more complex at clean MRFs due to the need for cleaning and more advanced sorting (e.g. different types of plastics and metals). The type of plant influences the quality of the recyclate. It may be difficult to find markets for contaminated recyclate. Fluctuating markets for recyclables remain a threat for the sustainability of recycling initiatives. Regulation of the recycling sector by national government may offer some relieve and balance in the local markets. Low volumes of recyclables and the distance to the markets may hamper the success of recycling initiatives in smaller and remote municipalities. A cost-benefit analysis of the different treatment and disposal options for specific municipalities should be addressed in the Integrated Waste Management Plans to enable a municipality to make an informed choice of the most appropriate system(s) based on its specific scenario and setting.

Lessons learnt

• Recyclables separated from the general waste stream at source ensures a cleaner working environment for workers in the recycling industry • Separation at source results in higher quality recyclables entering the recycling stream with a higher resale value • The easier it is for communities to dispose of recyclables, the more likely they are to take part in the initiative • Innovative thinking and forming partnerships can alleviate some of the daunting financial costs of initiating some of the recycling programmes

Lack of incentives for source separation of waste

Problem: Participation in source separation of recyclables without any significant financial benefit can be challenging as it is considered as time consuming. Solution: Incentives, for example a cost saving on the monthly disposal charges, would encourage a business to participate in source separation. Buy-back centres are more viable in low income areas, where participating community members are rewarded for collecting and bringing in recyclables. Example: Buy-back centre The Walker Bay Recycling Centre in Overstrand Municipality has a buy back facility that is used by young and old (Below left and centre). The incoming recyclables are weighed, a number allocated and then paid for in cash. The “Recycling Swop Shop” is advertised at shows and exhibitions (below right). Also see the awareness creation section.

Collecting source separated recyclables challenge municipalities

Problem: Separation at source and the need to collect the recyclables separately has only recently become a requirement with the promulgation of the Waste Act. Incorporating separate collection of recyclables into existing collection systems may be challenging. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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Solution: Dual collection systems are not necessarily more expensive and time consuming. The total amount of waste to be collected is still the same, but now it has to be separated. Ways to achieve separate collection are: a) Municipalities can adapt their existing collection vehicles to collect both recyclables and general waste in a cost effective manner: existing municipal trucks can be partitioned into two-cabin trucks; or a truck and trailer system would keep the two waste streams separate in one collection round. b) Employing contractors to collect the recyclables shift the responsibility from the municipality to the contractor. The contractor receives a monthly fixed payment from the municipality which streamlines the municipal budget process. c) Involvement of and partnerships with the private sector to provide a kerb side collection service for recyclables would alleviate the cost and time implications on municipalities. Close collaboration with the municipality is however essential to ensure a smooth complementary collection service. d) Establishing drop-off and buy-back centres in strategic locations for the community members to deliver their recyclables can be another less costly exercise than providing a kerbside collection of the recyclables. Please note that the establishment of these facilities need not be at the cost of the municipality. The recyclers (private sector) are the intended recipients of the waste material and could therefore be approached to invest in collecting recyclables, as well as establishing drop-off and buy-back centres. Example (a): Municipal dual same-day collection uMhlatuze Municipality provides a same day dual collection service. Rear end loaders collect the nonrecyclable waste from the wheelie bins and bush trucks collect the yellow bags filled with recyclable waste. All vehicles are owned and operated by the municipality. The recyclable waste (in yellow bags) is taken to the drop-off centres where the recyclable materials are further sorted.

Rear end loader (left) and bush truck (right)

Disposal of re-usable and recyclable waste to landfill

Problem: Separation at source is a relatively new concept in South Africa and hence not practiced in many municipalities. The bulk of the re-usable and recyclable waste is thus disposed to landfill and largely lost to the recycling industry. In addition, this contributes to the diminishing capacity of available landfill airspace (Refer to the Landfill section). Solution: In order to ensure maximum diversion of re-usable and recyclable waste from landfill, a wide range of re-use and recycling programmes, including composting should be initiated. It is important to ensure sustainability of such programmes through the provision of the necessary support, such as resources for establishing recycling and composting facilities and creation of sustainable markets for the products. 78

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Establishing MRFs is another way to divert recyclables from landfill. Several MRFs are operational throughout the country and many are in the process of being established. Landfill airspace is saved and salvaging from landfill sites minimised.

Facilitating exchange of re-usable materials

Problem: Potential users of waste material and potential suppliers are not aware of each other. Solution: Create a system where potential buyers can source available materials. Example: On-line exchange Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality manages a Waste Exchange (WX) Project. It is a web-based free online service available to business, industry, non-governmental organisations, schools and individuals who generate materials that others may have a use for. This initiative assists with the marketing of unwanted material and the matching with users, re-users and recyclers. Available and wanted items are listed on the web site. This project was initiated in an effort to increase the re-use of waste and to reduce the dumping, for example, of builderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rubble and other waste in the municipal area. The success of the project is measured by the number of successful exchanges made. The marketing of this new concept is a challenge due to limited internet access of potential users. Flyers do not seem to have the desired effect on all target groups. (www.nelsonmandelabay.gov.za/waste).

Electronic waste needs specialised recycling

Problem: Recovering electronic waste is a relatively new stream in the South African recycling industry. The hazardous components in electronic waste complicate the dismantling, recycling and disposal process. Solution: Recycling or re-use of electronic waste requires a full understanding of the components of the materials being dealt with. Strict control measures should be put in place in dismantling the equipment and recovering the recyclable or re-usable parts to avoid further environmental impact. Example: Dismantling old computers and TV sets A private waste recycling contractor at City of Cape Town dismantles old personal computers and television sets. All components are sorted according to type of material.

Lack of resources to facilitate recycling

Problem: Municipalities may not have the required resources to establish the necessary facilities to support recycling, especially separation at source. Solution: Municipalities could partner with the private sector to establish some of the required infrastructure. Although municipalities may not have resources, they may have access to land which can be used by private sector companies. In addition, municipalities could explore low technology high labour intensive projects, which may not require a high capital investment. Explore workable municipality/private sector partnership options. Example: Private sector involvement The 100% privately owned and operated MRF at Msunduzi Municipality (left) buys recyclables from vendors and scavengers at the landfill. In the order of 100 salvagers provides recyclables to the MRF.

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Landfill Sites

Basic requirements for the safe disposal of waste on landfill include: • Access control and signposting: Landfills sites must be properly fenced off to keep people and animals out. Pickers, children and domestic animals should not be allowed onto any landfill site for safety reasons. Access control at the gate is required to monitor the types and volumes of waste being dumped at the site. A sign post at the gate should indicate the types of waste allowed and the operating hours of the site. • Daily compaction and cover: Good landfill management entails daily compaction and soil coverage of the waste at the workface to prevent wind scatter (windblown litter) and fly breeding. Compaction also uses airspace more efficiently. • Recordkeeping: Recordkeeping of the incoming waste types and quantities must be as accurate as possible given local circumstances as it is important for planning and reporting purposes. Ways of estimating waste volumes or weights in the absence of more accurate systems such as weighbridges must be explored. • Fires must be avoided: Fires on landfill sites are difficult to control due to the presence of landfill gas. In addition, fires release harmful substances into the air. Strict enforcement of the minimum requirements for landfill as well as the permit/licence conditions and tipping fees at landfills in the absence of by-law enforcement may potentially contribute to incidences of illegal dumping.Therefore enforcement of by-laws is critical in combating illegal dumping.

Lessons learnt

• Innovative thinking and planning save on landfill sites expenses • Landfills are suitable for multiple uses, for example, awareness creation and conservation • Managing a landfill and its buffer zone as one unit prevents potential problems and complaints in future • Rehabilitate landfill cells as they reach full capacity

Environmental impacts and nuisances arising from landfills

Problem: Compliance to permit conditions is critical in mitigating the impacts of landfill sites. Many municipal landfill sites are not permitted and permitted sites do not always operate according to their permit conditions. Poorly operated landfill sites impact on the environment and can cause nuisances to communities living close-by. Solution: A compliance check list can assist the landfill operator in complying with the permit conditions. Internal audits also ensure that the operator is following the check list and the site meeting the permit conditions. Example: Weekly checklist At the landfill site of Bitou Municipality, the foreman uses a checklist to ensure that all necessary tasks are executed and permit conditions adhered to. This procedure improves the general housekeeping at the site.

Housekeeping at landfill sites

Problem: Impacts of landfill sites include odour, wind scatter and regular fires. The risk from these negative impacts increases where communities live close to landfills. Solution: Compliance to permit conditions and general good housekeeping, including operating a small working face, compacting and covering the waste on a daily basis, minimise these impacts. Specific techniques for odour control and containing wind scatter can be employed. 80

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Picking at landfills

Problem: Pickers living off landfill sites are a reality for most municipalities. This is undesirable based on health and safety risks. Workers (including pickers) should be provided with Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). The use of heavy machinery in landfill operations also poses safety risks to pickers. The liability of any incidents occurring on these facilities lies with the owners of such facilities which in most cases are the municipalities. Solution: Uncontrolled salvaging on landfill sites must be phased out. It is recognised that some families rely on salvaging for their livelihood. In addition, the role of informal recycling activities forms a significant part of the South African recycling industry. It contributes significantly to the diversion of waste from landfill.

Limited airspace at landfill sites

Problem: Most landfill sites are nearing their end of life. Competition for land is high with housing taking up most of the available land. Finding suitable land for landfill sites is increasingly difficult. Therefore, ways of extending the life spans of existing landfill sites is important. Solution: Apart from exploring alternative treatment technologies, diverting recyclables from landfill is one way of ensuring that less waste is disposed at landfill and the life span of landfill sites extended. Example: agreement between landfill operator and municipality The Highlands landfill site operator asked for an extension of his 5-year contract which was envisaged to take the landfill to the end of its life cycle. Through the following innovative interventions, and to the mutual benefit of all parties in the Swartland Municipality, the original projected lifespan of the landfill was extended by almost 10 years: • Establishment of a MRF on site to reclaim recyclables added 3.5 years*; • Change in site design (following an EIA process) from 2 to 6 m deep added 2.5 years; • The use of compactors on the landfill together with recalculations added another 4 years to the life span of the landfill site. *The contractor responsible for the Highlands landfill has put up a MRF at his own cost. The municipality pay 25% of the saving on landfill space to the contractor and about 20 jobs on the recycling plant are secured. Arrangements are made with businesses to bring their recyclables to the landfill site at their own cost.

Encroachments into landfill site buffer zones

Problem: Forward planning is always encouraged in landfill site selection and development in order to ensure compliance with all legal requirements including the EIA process. However, where landfill planning is not integrated with other adjacent development planning, conflicting land uses can be approved. Solution: Different measures can be employed to ensure that conflicting EIAs are not approved. These are: • Good record keeping by EIA authorities; • Undertake site inspections and understand the land uses of adjacent properties by EIA authorities; and • Major land use approvals should be included in the municipal spatial planning to ensure consistency. In addition to the above, municipalities should ensure that their application includes the buffer zone area to ensure no encroachment onto the earmarked site. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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Vandalism and theft

Problem: Vandalism and theft on landfill sites is a common occurrence. The fence, and electronic equipment on site, is mostly the target. Solution: Access control and proper security measures is required on landfill sites. Regular inspections of the perimeter of the landfill and immediate repairs of the fencing are crucial. Example: Security measures The entrance to the Bisasar Road landfill in eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality is guarded by security guards. The surrounding precast concrete wall is regularly repaired. The newly developed Buffelsdraai landfill site has a generator and satellite phones on site due to the prevalent cable theft in the area. Tzaneen Municipality has erected an electric fence around its landfill site to ensure strict access control onto the site.

Air pollution

Problem: One of the main impacts of landfilling is air pollution from landfill gas. Typically, landfill gas comprises of about 50 – 55% methane, 40 – 45% carbon dioxide (both of which are green house gases) and the remainder to complex organic compounds that did not decompose, some hydrogen sulphide and other sulphur compounds. Solution: Compliance to permit conditions and landfill gas extraction at landfill sites which are big enough to produce significant landfill gas emissions is important to minimise the negative impact from air pollution.

Traffic congestion at landfill sites during peak hours

Problem: In most big municipalities, traffic congestion can be experienced at weighbridges on landfill sites during certain peak time periods. Solution: Several payment methods (account system or pre-paid systems) can be employed to minimise the time spent making payments at weighbridges. This will ensure that the traffic flows quicker. The installation of additional weighbridges may also be useful where such financial costs can be afforded. Example: Weigh regular customers once At eThekwini Municipality’s (Durban Solid Waste) landfill sites, vehicles are weighed on their way in and out at the fully operational weighbridges. The weighbridge operator uses human judgement to decide on the type of waste contained in the load on which the tariffs are based. Regular customers have 5 weighing opportunities to calculate an average “empty” weight to be used to calculate the tariffs for waste disposal at the landfill. This means that for such customers, vehicles are weighed once only, when entering the landfill site. This helps to alleviate traffic congestion on the site during peak hours.

Exchange of cash at waste facilities is a risk

Problem: Handling cash is a risk and paying cash for disposal of waste at landfill sites poses a safety risk. Solution: Either a pre-paid system or an account system similar to the charge for waste collection could be implemented. Example: Monthly billing of regular customers Regular customers at eThekwini Municipality’s (Durban Solid Waste) landfill sites get consolidated bills 82

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once a month with a 57 day interest free period to pay. Tariffs are charged as units of 250kg or any part thereof, e.g. a load of 260kg is charged as two units. Tariffs are clearly indicated at the entrance to the weighbridge.

Governance

Waste management governance encompasses the legal framework and institutions involved in waste management. As such the main players are National Departments of Environmental Affairs and Co-operative Governance and Traditional Affairs, the various Provincial departments responsible for environmental affairs and Local government including Metropolitan, District and Local Municipalities.

Roles and responsibiities of District and Local municipalities

The Constitution assigns responsibility for refuse removal, refuse dumps and solid waste disposal to local government. District and Local municipalities have roles and responsibilities that differ, but also complement each other as outlined in the Municipal Structures Act (Act No. 117 of 1998). District municipalities have powers and functions related to the integrated, sustainable and equitable social and economic development of the district. Local municipalities are responsible for the provisioning of specific services, including the removal and disposal of waste. Municipalities (district and local) are encouraged to practice the principles of corporate governance to avoid conflict between overlapping functions. Combining efforts where there are similar initiatives may achieve better results. District municipalities are responsible for: • Ensuring integrated development planning for the district as a whole. This includes the development of a framework for IDPs and ensuring that IWMPs inform the IDP process. • Promoting bulk infrastructure development and services for the district as a whole. The infrastructure refer to the establishment of regional waste disposal sites and bulk waste transfer stations that can be used by more than one local municipality within the district. • Building local municipality capacity – where a local municipality fails to perform its management functions, the District municipality can enter into a Service Level Agreement (SLA) with the local municipality to provide the service for a stipulated period until such time that the local municipality can offer the service. • Promoting the equitable distribution of resources between the local municipalities in its area, for example, ensuring that resources are deployed in municipalities within their area of jurisdiction, where it is most needed. Specific Local Municipality functions include: • Compiling and implementing integrated waste management plans and integrating these into IDPs; • Running public awareness campaigns; • Collecting data for the Waste Information System; • Providing waste management services, including waste removal, waste storage and waste disposal services, in line with national norms and standards. Municipality specific standards for separation, compacting and storage of solid waste that is collected as part of the municipal service, may be set and enforced by the municipality. • Implementing and enforcing waste minimisation and recycling (including the encouraging of voluntary partnerships with industry and waste minimisation clubs).

AWARENESS CREATION

The main purpose of awareness creation campaigns in communities is to change people’s attitudes and behaviour to ensure a cleaner environment. While many current initiatives lead to visually cleaner areas, it does not encourage sustainable practices that reduce littering and illegal dumping in the long run. More emphasis is required on awareness creation relating to the implementation of the waste hierarchy. As such, waste minimisation and waste separation at source needs to be encouraged to enhance reuse and recycling activities. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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Willingness to pay for waste services will also improve with increased awareness as a result of increased insight into the benefits of waste services, as well as the actual cost thereof.

Lessons learnt

• Clean-up campaigns do not succeed in changing behaviour • The main messages of awareness campaigns must be: “Do not litter” and “Reduce, re-use and recycle” • Incentives associated with clean-up campaigns often reward bad behaviour • Payment for clean-ups must be decoupled from volumes of waste collected but should rather relate to cleanliness of the areas • Advertising/creating awareness on a regular basis is important to inform household members that are new to the area • Start recycling initiatives and get buy-in from councillors and municipality officials before awareness is created amongst the public

Lack of awareness and understanding of waste management issues

Problem: There is a lack of awareness and understanding of the importance of waste management amongst all stakeholders including elected political representatives in government, especially local government, and the community in general. This has negative consequences for planning, personnel and budget allocations within municipalities. This problem often transpires as littering, illegal dumping and failing waste collection systems. Solution: Awareness creation amongst all key stakeholder groups, including local government officials, councillors and the public, is imperative for effective and sustainable waste management services. There is a wide range of methods used to raise awareness. A combination of all, or as many methods as possible, will assist in reaching the desired impact which is to inform all people of the importance of keeping the environment clean and the role recycling can play. It is however, important to choose the communication channels and materials that are appropriate for each target audience and for the specific situation of the municipality. Examples include slogans, billboards, exhibitions, flyers, booklets, personal visits, campaigns, and to educate on site.

Lack of stakeholder involvement in ensuring a clean environment

Problem: While government is striving for cleanliness, it is the responsibility of every citizen to ensure that their surroundings are clean. Municipalities generally have limited resources to ensure that all areas prone to illegal dumping are cleaned-up and kept clean at all times Solution: Introduce innovative ways of attracting the involvement of other stakeholders such as school kids and businesses. Where there is an incentive, people are likely to participate. However, the focus should be on preventing littering and not incentives for cleaning after littering. The latter might drive the wrong behaviour.

Lack of dedicated and trained awareness creation personnel

Problem: Awareness creation has to be on-going and consistent in order to be effective. Planned programmes must be relevant for the targeted audience. This is normally not done to this level of detail since municipal officials have many other responsibilities to deal with. Solution: Ensure that there are staff members who are dedicated to the awareness creation task. Such officials should be properly trained to ensure that their planned programmes are effective and have the envisaged impact. 84

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Example: Include awareness creation in job description Conducting general awareness is included in the job description of the community liaison officers (CLO) in Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality. They make use of about 1000 unemployed volunteers for litter picking, street sweeping and raising awareness. In areas where illegal dumping is rife, the community liaison officers tell people door-to-door why they should not dump.

COMBAT ILLEGAL DUMPING

Conventional ways of dealing with illegal dumping, in other words, clean-up by the municipality or cleanup campaigns on their own, do not seem to drive the correct behaviour towards improving the problem of illegal dumping. Cleaning of illegal dumping is costly and counterproductive as it dilutes the available funding and resources for waste management or other much needed municipal services. Furthermore, by cleaning illegal dumping and littering without other punitive and or deterrent measures sends out the message that it is not wrong to litter and dump. Although it has the potential, legislation and an enabling environment in itself does not prevent illegal dumping practices. An enabling environment include the strategic provision of waste bins, waste collection services to all communities, alternative management options for specific waste streams, and the enforcement of updated by-laws including the ability to issue spot fines for illegal dumping when caught in the act. The introduction of access control with restricted gate hours and/or tipping fees at landfills may potentially contribute to incidences of illegal dumping if not implemented as part of a holistic approach to waste management, for example, it should be more expensive to pay the fine for illegal dumping than to pay the tipping fee at the landfill. Some of the above challenges are addressed by implementing a wide range of awareness creation options (refer to section on awareness creation), punitive and deterrent measures including deployment of additional law enforcement officers to improve enforcement.

Lessons learnt

• Paying for clean-up does not deal with the problem of illegal dumping • Job creation as a result of illegal dumping is not sustainable • Provision of waste collection services reduce incidences of illegal dumping • Law enforcement combat illegal dumping and littering • Cleaning illegal dumping is more costly than providing formal waste collection services • Illegal dumping can be eradicated through implementation of innovative systems

Illegally dumped waste impacts on environmental and human health

Problem: Illegal dumping is one of the most common problems in South Africa, affecting both big and small municipalities alike. The practice of illegal dumping has huge impacts on the environment through contamination of land and pollution of water bodies. This again impact negatively on the health of the people. Solution: Different methods have been employed in different municipalities ranging from awareness creation to enforcement as well as the improvement of waste collection services and the provision of all necessary tools and equipment such as storage receptacles. A combination of these should ensure successful eradication of illegal dumping.

A littered environment encourages further littering and dumping

Problem: If an area is already strewn with litter or illegally dumped waste, people are likely to continue to litter and dump in that area or on that particular site. If no action is taken, the surface area where the problem occurs is likely to increase over time. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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Solution: Instead of spending available funds on clean-up campaigns, municipalities must take preventative actions such as beautifying the area, providing waste bins at strategic locations and implementing projects that can deter people from illegally dumping, e.g. using open spaces for projects that can be beneficial to residents. Projects could include: • creating parks and playgrounds for children; • initiating community gardens including vegetable gardens for social upliftment; and, • establishing car washes to provide employment for the youth in the area. The choice of a project will be influenced by the specific area conditions and needs of an area. This is a shortened version of the CSIR Municipal Waste Management- Good practices document. To view the full document please visit www.csir.co.za/nre/docs/Waste_Management_Toolkit.pdf References Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs (COGTA) 2009. Local Government Turnaround Strategy – Working together, turning the tide in local government. Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs, Pretoria. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) 2007. Assessment of the status of waste service delivery and capacity at the local government level. August 2007, Draft 3. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism; Pretoria. Godfrey L 2008. Facilitating the improved management of waste in South Africa through a national waste information system. Waste Management, 28:1660–1671. Godfrey L and Oelofse S 2008. A Systems approach to waste governance – unpacking the challenges facing local government. Proceedings Waste 2008: Waste and Resource Management – a Shared Responsibility, Stratford-upon- Avon, Warwickshire, England, 16-17 September 2008. Oelofse SHH and Godfrey L 2008. Towards improved waste management services by local government – A waste governance perspective. Proceedings of the CSIR: Science Real and Relevant Conference. 17-18 November 2008, Pretoria. Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) 2007. General Household Survey 2007. Statistical release P0318. Available online at: www.statssa.gov.za.

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PROFILE

Harmony Recycling and Projects Harmony recycling and projects is a new company that is passionately driven by a potential young man. Harmony Recycling was originally started by collecting bottles and cans for recycling, the locals were also interested in collecting bottles and cans for cash. Harmony recycling was created with the intention to reduce unemployment by creating jobs. Our vision is to be the leading recycling business and to help in cleaning our environment. Our mission is to get more clients and retain the current clients in order to be able to employ even more people from the local community.

The objectives of Harmony recycling and Projects are to increase business so that the company can expand and purchase its own vehicle and premise. We would like for Harmony recycling and projects to expand and have branches located nationally as well as a website to increase traffic to our business. The main objective is to grow large enough to employ additional staff country wide in order to help combat unemployment.

The services provided by Harmony Recycling and Projects include: • RECYCLING : bottles and cans • CLEANING: offices, streets, car wash, complex, grass cutting, waste removal, bush cutting, plant cleaning. • ROAD PROJECTS: potholes, street line (road marking), road signs, speed hump, paving. • MINING; screen plant, atiqula dump truck, crusher, front and loader, plant hire, transporting of stock piles. • BUILDING CONSTRUCTION: painting, ceiling, tiling, plastering and building, renovating.

Contact Details: Postal address: House no 276 Boitshoko Street,Regorogile Extension 1, Thabazimbi, 0380 Cell no: 078 1115 238 or 072 3947 647 Fax no: 086 535 7870 e mail: harmonyrecycling.projects86@yahoo.com

PROFILE

Imvemvane Logistics A new way of Waste Management Turning Waste to Diesel (Synfuel) through Depolymerisation (Waste for Oil), incorporating ALPHAKAT Technology from Germany We are drowing in and the country is being suffocated by waste. Waste management is very expensive without offering a proper revenue. Landfills can’t take anymore waste, they are full and will be closed soon – so where to go with the waste? Landfills are also a source of hazardous emissions and fumes and the people trying to make a living from going through these landfills are of poor health, in need of medical attention (additional costs), jobs and accommodation. One must also not forget the contamination of ground water resources, air pollution and the contribution to global warming by these landfills. Which solutions do the CPD plants offer: 1) Instead of incinerating the waste – a method with low effectivity from an energy point of view and still considerable toxic emissions – the CPD converts all organic waste (anything that burns) to highest quality synthetic Diesel without causing any hazardous emissions or pollution to the surroundings. As the Diesel comes out of the CPD (Catalytic Pressureless Depolymerisation) plant it is ready to be used in cars, trucks, engines, generators, locomotives, ships, helicopters and planes.

2) Gain of oil-equivalent from various technologies

PROFILE CPD-Diesel Potential from secondary Raw Materials in Germany

With the exploration of secondary raw materials like wasted plastics (PVC, PE, PP, ...) wasted oil, used paper and cardboard it is possible to produce furthermore 6.7 billion liter of CPD-Diesel in Germany. Therefore secondary raw materials could cover 19% of the year consumption of diesel (2006). 3) Existing plants in Mexico, Spain, Bulgaria, Italy, Canada, Finland, USA (122 plants on order), and Germany, besides the test plants, a commercial plant is presently under construction. CPD-500 Mexico This Facility in Monterrey, Mexico was the first industrial CPD - plant ever. It converts waste oil into CPD-Diesel. At the end of 2006 the system was refitted with eight turbines (high speed chamber mixer) of the newest generation. The system is working efficiently and accurately since October 2004.

The plants have gone through many improvements since this picture and are mostly double story and within a building now

4) Feedstock for these plants all organic material such as household and bio waste, wood paper, sewage sludge, medical waste, plastic, carcasses, old oil, old tyres etc. 5) Plant sizes: The plants range from hourly production of 150 to 500, 1000, 2000, 2500, 5000, 10 000, 15 000 and 20 000 l/hr and that for approx. 8000 hrs/year â&#x20AC;&#x201C; all depending on the amount of waste (mixed or single) the operator has available per year. Please ask us for more details.

Contact Details:

Imvemvane Logistics 12 Hibiscus Street Durbanville 7550 info@organicsa.co.za Tel.: (0)878058803 Cell : 0836424246 Fax: 0866865172

PROFILE

Filter Focus The WEAR CONTROL GROUP holding company was formed in order to consolidate expertise and provide industry with substantial and quantifiable improvements to Plant and Asset protection, while diligently considering and conserving the environment. We combine expertise in the fields of Filtration, Lubrication and Tribology; offering an advanced and comprehensive service to our Customers. Our philosophy is one which encompasses the protection and optimisation of Plant and Equipment, through sound tribological principles. Providing practical and proven solutions and yielding considerable financial benefit for our Customers. Filter Focus SA (Pty) Ltd was established to develop the concept of combination filtration. As such we have solidified our position as market leaders in hydrocarbon ISO cleanliness for “in or out of operation” lubricants. Filter Focus strives to eliminate contamination related wear and failures in heavy industrial equipment. It is a fact that there is no such thing as diesel, oil or grease which is clean enough. The cleaner the diesel, oil or grease, the longer your equipment will last ! Filter Focus designs and manufactures specialist Vacuum Dehydration plants and high efficiency, high capacity, off-line filtration systems. We easily remove large volumes of contamination, quickly efficiently and cost effectively. Integrated Fluid Technologies (Pty) Ltd, a Wear Control Group Company, provides the market with addon services such as Easylube® RFID automated lubrication, Vacuum dehydration and Filtration services, Rental options, Oil analysis, Reliability engineering, and Predictive and Preventative maintenance. (News Flash) Integrated Fluid Technologies (Pty) Ltd is proud to announce that we have been awarded a three year Service and Filtration contract with Africa’s leading iron ore supplier, Kumba Iron Ore. Dedication to service and attention to detail; combined with unequalled performance of Filter Focus filtration technology, we have risen above all competitors in our field. Throughout industry, the science of lubrication and filtration is grossly neglected. It is commonly accepted that general lubricants are adequate for the task and that filtration supplied by Original Equipment Manufacturers will protect machine components. This is however unfortunately not the case, as they are minimum protections at best. With Filter Focus on your side; you can now close the technology gap. Progress in these areas of operation can, and will appear on your bottom line as dramatic improvements to equipment reliability, availability and operating profits. Filter Focus has combined the most efficient and cost effective filtration solutions with the world’s most advanced range of lubricating oils and greases. Huge technological gains have been achieved in lubrication in recent years, with NASA approved Lubrication Engineers being at the forefront of development. A Company’s Carbon Footprint is the sum of all emissions of CO2 (carbon dioxide), which is incurred by its activities in a given time frame. The use of Filter Focus products and technology ensures a dramatic and measurable reduction of your Carbon Footprint and therefore the negative impact an operation has on the environment.

PROFILE Filter Focus has successfully achieved results in the following areas: Mining and General Industry:    

Major reductions of lubricating oil consumption, reduced onsite pollution Lower electricity consumption through lubrication Technological breakthroughs in Open gear lubrication Increases in component life with improved Plant availability and reduced breakdowns

Diesel engines and Generating sets:  60% reduction of harmful engine emissions, with 3% reduced fuel consumption.  Standard oil service intervals of 1000 hours, up to 3000 hours with LE Monolec oil  Vastly extend machine life and eliminate breakdowns from fuel or oil components. STRIVE FOR GREATER ENVIRONMANTAL RESPONSIBILITY and BENEFIT FINACIALLY RESULTS ACHIEVED OIL FILTRATION - Sishen Iron Ore Mine: • 40 000 litres of oil saved in the first year of implementation. Since 2007 this has increased to a minimum 75 000 litres per annum. • Historically socket liners were replaced every 3 Months. Average life extension on socket liners, hydraulic pumps and other components has been extended by 10 times historical averages. LUBRICATION - Lonmin Platinum • Pyroshield open gear lubrication reduced kW demand on Primary and Secondary mills by 10% and 12% respectively. • 15% reduced vibration on pinion bearing • Increased PGM yield of about 1% - Due to less pollution and absence of hydrocarbons in the process fluid DIESEL ENGINES - Vodacom Life expectancy of a generator in Africa is 11 months. Filter Focus fitted generators in Mozambique in 2003 and to date; Vodacom has not experienced a single failure or breakdown across a network of over 620 units, in a country known for poor quality fuel conditions. After 8 years these engines are still performing like new, thanks to Filter Focus technology. CONTACT DETAILS Telephone: +27 11 315 9939 / 49 Facsimile: +27 11 805 4007 Email: cfitz@filterfocus.co.za Website: www.filterfocus.co.za

PROUDLY MANUFACTURED IN SOUTH AFRICA

chapter 7: THE PRIVATE SECTORS CURRENT ROLE – STAYING AHEAD OF THE LEGISLATIVE CURVE

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chapter 7: THE PRIVATE SECTORS CURRENT ROLE – STAYING AHEAD OF THE LEGISLATIVE CURVE

THE PRIVATE SECTOR’S CURRENT ROLE – STAYING AHEAD OF THE LEGISLATIVE CURVE Sally-Anne Engledow Associate Jeffares & Green (Pty) Ltd, South Africa

What is the private sector’s role in terms of the affordability of integrated waste management systems? Firstly, it is important to understand what is meant by the term ‘private sector’. The private sector can be defined as “the part of the national economy that is not under direct state control” (Oxford Dictionary, 2010) but also includes “households, sole traders and partnerships, companies, and voluntary bodies such as charities and churches”(Oxford Dictionary of Economics, 2002). In terms of waste management, the above definitions are important to understand as often waste management services and solutions are only sought from one source, e.g. private industry and to a lesser degree the informal sector. This article will attempt to show that the private sector is actually quite diverse and therefore the net for waste management solutions should be spread wider than what previously has taken place. Worldwide solid waste management is being transformed by national planning for waste reduction, promotion of recycling and stakeholder participation (Furedy, 1992). Decentralisation, civic engagement and privatization are key areas of debate with the management of waste (Beall, 1997). Decentralisation refers to government’s plan to transfer power and responsibility to lower levels of government and communities in order to manage certain services (Beall, 1997). Civic engagement encourages individual citizens to take responsibility for waste management in their communities (ibid). In this way many developing countries’ waste management initiatives and projects are started by Community Based Organisations and Non-Governmental Organisations and only more recently within the governmental planning environment. In South Africa, Government, in terms of local municipalities have a clear mandate in the Constitution (Act No 108 of 1996) and Municipal Systems Act (Act No 32 of 2000) to provide solid waste management services in the form of collection, transport and disposal. Therefore, waste management has largely been in the control of municipalities and the informal private sector and to a lesser degree the private sector in terms of nonprofit organisations. Over the last 15 years, there has been a shift to include the private sector in a more diverse range of integrated waste management options formally. Characteristics of the restructuring process were based on an approach referred to as the ‘new public administration’ or ‘new public management’ which included decentralization of national government functions to the local level, privatization of state owned enterprises, the formulation of public-private partnerships, greater emphasis on service delivery and the implementation of performance management systems (Wilkinson, 2004). Section 78 of the Municipal Systems Act enables municipalities to investigate alternative systems for the provision of municipal services, e.g. solid waste management (SA, 2000). Public-private-partnerships are therefore fast becoming an alternative to assist with more cost effective ways to manage waste. However, the waste management industry is still focussed largely on the traditional services, i.e. collection, transport, transfer and disposal and more recently on-site sorting and recovery of recyclables. However, what this indicates is an end-of-pipe approach to waste management, whilst ignoring (predominantly) the product manufacturers. A further exciting change has occurred in the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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South Africa in 2008 and more recently in 2011. The National Environmental Management: Waste Act (NEM:WA) was promulgated in 2008 (Act No 59 of 2008), and the National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS) (DEA, 2011) which is a legislative requirement in terms of the Waste Act (Section 6) (SA, 2008), has just been finalised (November 2011). What is encouraging is that there are additional aspects that the private sector must consider in terms of integrated waste management, namely (DEA, 2011:8): • Take responsibility for their products throughout the products’ life cycle. • Institute cleaner technology practices and minimise waste generation. • Establish systems and facilities to take back and recycle waste at the end of their products’ lifecycle. • Develop waste management technologies to ensure that all the waste produced in the country can be managed according to the waste management hierarchy. • Prepare and implement Industry Waste Management Plans. • Comply with licence conditions and regulations. For the first time, through the NEM:WA and the enabling NWMS, cleaner production and extended producer responsibility are legislated requirements which require product manufacturers to start taking responsibility in terms of the products that they released into the market. What does this mean for the private sector? At first glance, the private sector may see additional constraints in an already challenging market; however, there are endless opportunities for innovation and improvements in terms of efficiency. Interface Carpets® are a great example of how to stay ahead of the legislative curve. In 1994 this company that had been operating for 21 years already essentially changed the way they did business following the Natural Step Approach following key areas, including (Interface, 2008): • Front 1 – Eliminate Waste: Eliminate all forms of waste in every area of business. • Front 2 – Benign Emissions: Eliminate toxic substances from products, vehicles and facilities. • Front 3 – Renewable Energy: Operate facilities with 100% renewable energy . • Front 4 – Close The Loop: Redesign processes and products to close the technical loop using recovered and bio-based materials. • Front 5 – Resource Efficient Transportation: Transport people and products efficiently to eliminate waste and emissions. • Front 6 – Sensitize Stakeholders: Create a culture that uses sustainability principles to improve the lives and livelihoods of all of our stakeholders – employees, partners, suppliers, customers, investors and communities. • Front 7 – Redesign Commerce: Create a new business model that demonstrates and supports the value of sustainability-based commerce. Interface Carpets® have adopted the above approach throughout the company and for all of their products offered. In respect of waste reduction Figure 7.1 provides a graphic illustration of the amount diverted from landfill from carpet factories.

Figure 7.1 : Interface Carpets® waste reduction (Interface, 2008)

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Further pressure is being experience with the current global financial crisis as well as the threat of natural resource scarcity (e.g. raw materials - oil, coal and water) and not to mention the electricity price increases over the past 3 years and into the future. The NWMS states that industry must consider and plan for the complete lifecycle of a product which can be achieved through appropriate Industry waste management plans and extended producer responsibility. The plan would need to have adequate industry and governmental enforcement and monitoring to ensure that action is indeed being taken initially. However, industries operating within this new approach will realise a competitive edge as well as realise savings in terms of resource inputs, the enforcement and monitoring will not be necessary to ensure compliance to the plan. . At first these mechanisms appear to be an additional cost to the private sector, interventions such as these may well save organisations money in the long term in terms of input and operational costs. A well-known fact is that the recovery and recycling of various waste materials has the potential to realise environmental and economic savings involved with substituting virgin materials with recycled products (Lave et al, 1999). Mercer, 2010, provides some valuable examples of the potential energy savings: • Recycled pulp produced in the production of paper requires fewer chemicals during the processing stage. According to the Clark County website (2008), production of new paper from recycled materials saves approximately 40% of the energy that it would take to produce paper from virgin trees. • The production of new aluminium from recycled materials is said to save as much as 95% of the energy that it would take to make it from virgin mineral ore. • The production of new plastic products using recycled material is said to save up to 33% of the energy required to manufacture it from new fossil fuels - mostly oil and gas. • Production of new steel products from recycled materials is said to save up to 74% of the energy that it would take to make steel from virgin mineral ore. • New glass, when produced from recycled materials, is said to save 30% of the energy that is required to make it from new raw materials. The above examples focus on energy savings, but other savings, including water savings, air emissions, landfill airspace savings should not be forgotten. The NWMS (DEA, 2011) further requires the private sector, especially the manufacturing industry, to institute cleaner production studies in order to minimise resource use (electricity, water, raw materials) and minimise waste outputs. This type of intervention, again, can assist companies to realise real savings and increase profits whilst minimising an organisation’s environmental footprint. Essentially, what is being emphasised now in South Africa’s legislation and supporting guideline documents is ‘design with the ‘end’ in mind’. If this is done properly, there is no end to the technical or biological nutrients within the system, i.e. the cradle to cradle® philosophy (McDonough & Braungart, 2002). Technical nutrient cycle refers to the technical metabolism of the flow of industrial materials; derived from the natural biological cycles in nature. The basic tenet of the philosophy is that waste equals food (ibid). Figure 7.1 provides an illustration of the technical and biological nutrient cycles. A simple example of a technical nutrient cycle can be shown with glass recycling. Rather than glass being disposed of in a landfill, glass can be continuously recycled into new glass products. A simple example of a biological nutrient can be found in kitchen food waste which can be composted at home or in an industrial process. Examples of more industrial applications can be found in the MBDC, 2010.

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Figure 7.2 : Adapted from Cradle to Cradle®, 2011

The private sector, as provided in the definition, also includes households, and households consists of individuals which means that as individuals in a society it is important to take ownership of this role too and not rely only on government and the private sector in terms of business and industry to address waste management issues. As consumers or waste generators it is important to become conscious consumers and to demand more sustainable products that are easily recovered and recycled. As individuals in society, it is also important to understand how much waste you are generating and take ownership of this. It is important to be familiar with the consequences of inappropriate waste management. An example can be illustrated by the act of throwing a cigarette butt out of a car window; or throwing packaging from the fast food meal just consumed into a gutter. It is uncertain whether individuals ever think about where exactly this litter ends up or who’s ‘responsibility’ it is to clean this litter. The connection is not made that the litter that is seen on our beaches or in our rivers or injuring wildlife, is actually a direct result of the inappropriate actions taken when throwing the waste out of the car window or when walking along the street. Individuals need to start taking ownership and making the connection to the consequences of our actions. Waste service providers form an important part of the private sector. Municipalities often contract waste service providers to do municipal functions in terms of collection, transport, transfer and disposal. In Cape Town, waste service providers have also been contracted to assist with pilot projects in the form of 2 bag collection systems, i.e. wet waste / dry recyclables collection. There are 4 such pilot projects in operation in the City of Cape Town at present, with the first starting in 2007. The very first pilot project was conducted in a small community in Cape Town called Marina da Gama in 2002 in response to a strong political request from then ruling party members (Democratic Alliance) to explore practical ways to develop and implement strategies aimed at waste reduction to landfill (Dittke, 2003; Dittke and Engledow, 2004). Waste service providers also operate independently and service private clients in terms of waste removal services. Many corporate offices, industries and multi-purpose business precincts use private waste service providers for their waste management needs. The first discussions around integrated waste management in South Africa were initiated in 1996 with the first outcome being the National Waste Management Strategy followed by the promulgation of the White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management in 2000. Since then, service providers started to broaden the services that were offered. It is only in recent years though that this really has gained momentum due to the promulgation of the NEM:WA. Certain waste service providers have taken the opportunity to further increase their service offerings by including training and education packages for their clients. Training includes assistance with understanding the NEM:WA and local municipal integrated waste management (IWM) by-laws in certain municipalities (i.e. the City of Cape Town and the City of Johannesburg); as well as the benefits 96

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of implementing an on-site recyclable recovery program. Whilst most municipalities do not yet have IWM by-laws, until they have drafted these, the national laws apply and the private sector are therefore responsible for the waste generated.

National Waste Management Strategy

The NWMS provides valuable insight and guidelines for how to achieve true integrated waste management and in years to come instead of referring to integrated ‘waste’ management, the reference will hopefully rather be integrated ‘materials’ management. Table 7.1 refers to a summary of the goals that government have set in the NWMS. These goals do not mention the impending National Standards that are due to be promulgated which would add further challenges to industry, including: • Draft National Standards for the Scrapping or Recovery of Motor Vehicles • Draft National Standards for Disposal of Waste to Landfill • Draft National Standard for Assessment of Waste for Landfill Disposal • Draft National Standards for Extraction, Flaring or Recovery of Landfill gas • Draft Waste Classification and Management Regulations • Draft National Norms and Standards for the Storage of Waste Table 7.1: Summary of goals of the NWMS (DEA, 2011)

Goals

Description

Targets (2016)

Goal 1:

Promote waste minimisation, re-use, recycling and recovery of waste.

Goal 2:

Ensure the effective and efficient delivery of waste services.

95% of urban households and 75% of rural households have access to adequate levels of waste collection services. 80% of waste disposal sites have permits.

Goal 3:

Grow the contribution of the waste sector to the green economy.

69 000 new jobs created in the waste sector 2 600 additional SMEs and cooperatives participating in waste service delivery and recycling

Goal 4:

Ensure that people are aware of the impact of waste on their health, wellbeing and the environment.

80% of municipalities running local awareness campaigns. 80% of schools implementing waste awareness programmes.

Goal 5:

Achieve integrated waste management planning.

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Goals

Description

Goal 6:

Ensure sound budgeting and financial management for waste services.

All municipalities that provide waste services have conducted full-cost accounting for waste services and have implemented cost reflective tariffs.

Goal 7:

Provide measures to remediate contaminated land.

Assessment complete for 80% of sites reported to the contaminated land register. Remediation plans approved for 50% of confirmed contaminated sites.

Goal 8:

Establish effective compliance with and enforcement of the Waste Act.

50% increase in the number of successful enforcement actions against non-compliant activities. 800 EMIs appointed in the three spheres of government to enforce the Waste Act.

Targets (2016)

(Source: NWMS, page 6)

Conclusion

In conclusion, the private sector’s role is diverse and shows how important it is in terms of ensuring that waste management options remain affordable. For too long the private sector has not taken the full cost of waste and the management thereof into account. The recently promulgated NEM:WA and the NWMS have now legislated certain requirements which will add to the challenges of the private sector; but add even more opportunities. Table 7.2: Private Sector summary of actions

Industry / manufacturers

Consumers / Generators

Service Providers

Industry Waste Management Plans

Conscious consumers – know what you are buying

Diversification into new services provided

Cleaner production

Generation – know how much you are generating

Training & awareness raising

Extended producer responsibility

Minimise waste generated

Minimise landfill disposal

Responsibility & ownership

Responsibility & ownership of what happens to the waste that you generate

Responsibility & ownership

Table 7.2 provides a summary of the actions required by all actors within the private sector. Industry/ Manufacturers are required to develop industry waste management plans and undertake cleaner production studies in order to ensure that any products that are manufactured are designed with a cradle to cradle philosophy as opposed to a cradle to grave philosophy. Consumers / generators need to become more aware of what they are buying and take ownership of the appropriate management after the products useful life. The waste service industry has a big role to play in terms of diversifying their business to offer additional and alternative services to the traditional transport and disposal method. Services including training and awareness raising for clients, on-site sorting and minimising landfill disposal. Overall, all those involved in the private sector which includes households, sole traders and partnerships, companies, and voluntary bodies such as charities and churches, i.e. everyone, must take ownership and responsibility for the waste that is generated.

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chapter 7: THE PRIVATE SECTORS CURRENT ROLE â&#x20AC;&#x201C; STAYING AHEAD OF THE LEGISLATIVE CURVE

References Beall, J. 1999: The role of households and livelihood systems in the management of solid waste in South Asia. Waterlines, 17 (3). Clark County. 2008. Where does my recycling go? http://www.co.clark.wa.us/recycle/recycles/recycling.html. Accessed 23 November 2011. Department of Environmental Affairs. 2011. National Waste Management Strategy. Pretoria. Dittke, S.; Engledow, S. 2004: Review, documentation and evaluation of the Marina Da Gama yellow bag separation at source pilot project (August 2002-October 2004). Unpublished. Evaluation done for the City of Cape Town: Waste Directorate. Furedy, C. 1992: Garbage: Exploring non-conventional options in Asian cities. Environment and Urbanisation, 4(2) 42-61. Interface Carpets. 2008. http://www.interfaceglobal.com/Sustainability/Our-Progress/AllMetrics.aspx. Accessed 8 December 2011. McDonough, W., Braungart, M. 2002. Cradle to cradle: remaking the way we make things. North Point Press. New York Wilkinson, P. 2004: Renegotiating local governance in a post-apartheid city: The case of Cape Town. Urban Forum, 15(3), 213-230. Private sector. 2010. Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Accessed 23 November 2011 http://english.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/private+sector Private sector. 2002. The Oxford Dictionary of Economics. Ed. John Black. Vol. 1. Gale Cengage, 2002. http://www.enotes.com/private-sector-reference/privatesector. Accessed 23 November 2011. Lave, L.B.; Hendrickson, C.T.; Conway-Schempf, N.M. and McMichael, F. 1999: Municipal Solid Waste Recycling Issues. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. MBDC. 2010. Sustainable Business: Minimisation vs Optimisation. http://mbdc.com/images/whitepaper_efficiency-optimization-Feb2010-v2.pdf. Accessed 8 December 2011. Mercer, M.J. 2010. Recycled Vs. Virgin Materials for New Products http://www.sustainablecitynetwork.com/topic_channels/solid_waste/article_61ab9ebcbdfd-11df-b50f-00127992bc8b.html. Accessed 23 November 2011. South Africa. 2008. National Environmental Management: Waste Act, No 59 of 2008. Pretoria: Government Printer. South Africa. 2000. Municipal Systems Act, No 32 of 2000. Pretoria: Government Printer.

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PROFILE

Solid Waste Technologies SA (Pty) Ltd Your Leader in Medical Waste Management Solid Waste Technologies SA (Pty) Ltd (SWT) was established for the purpose of seeking business opportunities within the waste and energy sector in South Africa. SWTSA strives to provide a quality service in processing medical waste by using the best technology available, taking into consideration the environmental and legal requirements in South Africa.

Keys to Success •

• •

The use of technology i.e. Electro Thermal Deactivation in SWT’s processes, which is favoured by environmentalists, the department of environmental affairs and private hospitals. Offering a full cradle-to-grave service Knowledge and experience of staff in the medical waste environment. The CEO and his team are well conversant with the market and has a good relationship with all role players in the waste sector including the state and private institutions Great Customer Service Building a brand name for SWT as the market leader in the medical waste sector

SWT offers on-site services, training, collection and transportation of medical waste and treatment, supply of containers and disposal of such waste. The service also includes pharmaceutical waste and encapsulation; handling of hazardous waste; training of hospital staff, which has come as a prerequisite of the department of health; collections and sorting of waste.

PROFILE The waste is collected from medical institutions by road to SWT for processing. The medical waste material is shredded, sterilized and minimized to 85% of its original form and disposed at a H:H class waste disposal site. SWTSA currently has 45 vehicles running nationally servicing all provinces. The two plants together house the largest available capacity to treat waste in the country. SWT has a strong management team with a collective manufacturing and operations experience of over 60 years and over 30 years experience in finance and administration. Mr. Edgar Adams the Managing Director studied in mechanical engineering, business management and educational research. He is the founder member of SWT SA and has actively been in business since 1988. He has been involved in the research of waste technologies for the African continent and providing a service in this sector in SA.

Mr Edgar Adams, founder and CEO of Solid Waste Technologies SA

Service Executives based in Johannesburg and Cape Town are trained to ensure excellent service and have recently received an award from the MediClinic group of Southern Africa. Two qualified environmentalists and management from the services, hospitality, pharmaceutical and engineering and investment industries ensure smooth running and optimal service. With the two plants, distribution centres, transfer stations and a well-equipped head office, SWT ensures your medical waste; whether sharps, infectious, anatomical or pharmaceutical, is treated with respect.

Contact Details

CPT: 021 556 9167 JHB: 011 613 2091 www.swtsa.co.za info@swtsa.co.za Branches in : Kimberley - George - Port Elizabeth - Durban - Bloemfontein Facilities Cape Town, Killarney Gardens â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 6 Hunt Road, Milnerton, 7441 Johannesburg, City Deep â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Unit 7, 83 Heidelberg Road, City Deep, 2001.

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Mineral Waste Beneficiation: Opportunities for the Environment Lloyd Macfarlane Director at Alive2green, Sustainability Consultant and Editor of the Green Business Journal

Mineral waste beneficiation is the process of separation, recovery and beneficiation of waste streams from the mining, minerals, and metallurgical and smelting industries. The principle of beneficiation is one that sees recovered products being given back to the waste generator for reprocessing, or given to alternative markets as raw materials for other products. Mineral waste separation and recovery addresses various objectives that are contained in the Waste Act, the principle of which are: • Reductions in volumes of waste that is sent to landfill, tailings dams or stored by waste generators in the form of legacy waste stockpiles. • Creation of recycled raw material for Industry. Different methods and systems of waste separation and recovery exist, depending on the target waste stream. Recovery is possible for large mass material such as rock and slag or fine material such as raw material dust. Mineral waste separation and sorting processes can be installed into existing process industry or can be directed at legacy waste stockpiles.

Mineral Waste Management and the Environment

A common practice, particularly in the mining sector, has been that of disposing of mineral waste in tailings dams. ‘Tailings’ is one of the terms used to describe the materials left over after the valuable resource has been extracted from the ore. Depending on the mineral process concerned, tailings can take the form of dry waste rock or fine, small particles, which have been mixed with, water to form ‘slurry’. Disposing of tailings in dams has been a common way to prevent the uncontrolled release of tailings materials into the environment. Tailings dams are themselves of great environmental concern, particularly if they are not sufficiently controlled – acid drainage can occur as water passes through or leaks from the dam. It was estimated that there were as many as 3500 active tailings impoundments in the world in the year 2000. The responsibility for acid mine drainage rehabilitation is currently not sufficiently owned in South Africa. Mining rights are issued and once it is no longer viable to for mining companies to exercise those rights, land often simply reverts to government, as do the environmental problems created by acid drainage. Legislation will begin to enforce additional levels of accountability and responsibility for waste by mining companies in order to ensure the closure of this loop. In this process, the various objectives of the Waste Act (2008) will also be realised.

Mineral Waste Recovery

Opportunities now exist to process and beneficiate this mineral waste material prior to storage in dams and also to process tailings that have already been sent to dams. There are various applications for recovered materials and in particular materials are being used successfully as replacement aggregates for the construction industry. Other applications are being investigated and range from paint pigments to pottery glaze to cladding. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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External Costs of Virgin Materials Versus Processing Costs of Recovered Materials

The solid waste emanating from mineral activities is often very process (and energy) intensive as it may require breaking and/or crushing. This increases the embodied energy of the recovered material and also the embodied cost. Successful closed loop beneficiation is dependent on a stable and sustainable market for the recovered material, which must contemplate all the embodied costs of production. Until such time as the true external environmental cost of using virgin materials as an alternative is factored into total cost, recovered materials will struggle to compete on price. However, as energy and water costs increase and as policies such as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;producer paysâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; begin taking effect, a more accurate total cost comparison will soon be possible.

Beneficiation Example: Anglo Platinum Smelter Project

Anglo Platinumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Polokwane Metallurgical Centre has been involved in researching the potential uses of the slag generated by extracting platinum ores. This research has resulted in beneficiation projects, which have seen slag being used in mining and building products. These initiatives have also acted as a catalyst for entrepreneurial activities in the region. The Polokwane Smelter generates approximately 60,000 tons of smelter slag per month. Previously, the slag was milled and sent through a float plant, where residual valuable metals were recovered with the tailings from the float plant then disposed of in a tailings dam. More recently however, the further milling and float plant activities were found to be uneconomical and the build up of slag waste was not sustainable. The research centre analysed the slag material, particularly its chemical composition, in order to determine any value-add potential and also the economic sector(s) in which the new products would be likely to be needed on a sustainable basis, including agriculture, mining and building. The centre also investigated the processes that would be necessary to transform slag for new applications. Various trial products were developed using slag and were evaluated in terms of their viability, and significant process routes were identified. The slag was found to be suitable for use in certain mining and building products and other possible applications continue to be explored. Anglo Platinum is making sure that the slag products are commercially viable and that they lead to the creation of sustainable small and medium enterprises. Beneficiation activities of this kind must be adjacent to existing operations and must be income generating opportunities for the company if they are to succeed in the long term. Chapter references included in following chapter.

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lanruoJ ssenisuB neerG tnemerucorp ssenisub gnihcaeR yrtsudni neerg dna sevitucexe .acirfA htuos ni sredlohekats ten.lanruojssenisubneerg.www

enizagaM emoH neerG dlohesuoh dna sremusnoc gnihcaeR .acirfA htuos ni srekam noisiced az.oc.enizagamemohneerg.www

Green Business Journal Green GreenBusiness BusinessJournal Journal Reaching business procurement Reaching Reaching business business procurement executives and procurement green industry executives executives and and green industry industry stakeholders ingreen south Africa. stakeholders stakeholders in in south south Africa. Africa. www.greenbusinessjournal.net www.greenbusinessjournal.net www.greenbusinessjournal.net

Green Home Magazine Green GreenHome HomeMagazine Magazine Reaching consumers and household Reaching Reaching consumers consumers and household household decision makers inand south Africa. decision decision makers makers in in south south Africa. Africa. www.greenhomemagazine.co.za www.greenhomemagazine.co.za www.greenhomemagazine.co.za

For more information contact alive2green on 021 447 4733 For For more more 3website information 374 744 at 12contact 0 contact no neealive2green ralive2green g2evila tcaon tnon o021 c021 no 447 i447 tam 4733 4733 rofni erom roF or visit ourinformation www.alive2green.com ororvisit visitour ourwebsite websiteatatwww.alive2green.com www.alive2green.com moc.neerg2evila.www ta etisbew ruo tisiv ro

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chapter 9: Landfill Waste Beneficiation Streams: Challenges and Opportunities

Landfill Waste Beneficiation Streams: Challenges and Opportunities Lloyd Macfarlane Director at Alive2green, Sustainability Consultant and Editor of the Green Business Journal

The objectives for cities under the Waste Act (2008) include diverting waste from landfill, creating jobs within the waste sector and developing new and alternative materials for industry. Landfill waste beneficiation activities are focussed on the separation and recovery of materials previously destined for landfill and the development of real markets for these materials. Cities in South Africa will make use of the Waste Act to give effect to certain urgent objectives, which include: • Reduction of waste to landfill • Reduction of environmental impact of solid waste • Reduction of natural resource expropriation • Job creation • Climate change mitigation

Primary Agenda for Local Government

The primary agenda for cities and municipalities is to deal with the rapidly diminishing resources and landfill spaces available in urban areas as these issues fall clearly within their scope of management and accountability. Natural resource availability and landfill space is measureable and now tangibly finite. Waste material beneficiation has been identified as an effective way to reduce landfill and incineration waste and unlock new, local sources of raw material.

Secondary Benefits

The secondary benefits of waste beneficiation are arguably just as relevant but not quite as immediately urgent or tangible. Yet energy savings and greenhouse gas emissions are quickly becoming items that industry must manage in order to remain competitive, as they are forced to start incorporating certain external costs of production. Industry must start considering the benefits of using waste stream materials and government should promote the business case for participation.

Energy Efficiency

When total lifecycle analysis costs are calculated for raw materials versus recycled materials, recycled materials are more than often less energy intensive. Recycled Material

Potential Energy Savings

Steel

60%

Paper

45%

Plastic

70%

Glass

40%

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Virgin Material Secondary Waste

Total cost comparisons of virgin versus recycled materials should always incorporate a provision for secondary materials saved. For example, when 1 ton of steel is recycled approximately 1100kg of iron ore, 600kg coal, and 50kg of limestone can be conserved. This excludes the benefits of energy (cost) savings that are associated with extraction, transport and processing.

Greenhouse Gases

Methane caused from organic waste in landfill is approximately 70 times more detrimental as a global warming agent in the earth’s atmosphere than CO2, and up to 40% of South Africa’s primary landfill waste is organic. By diverting organic waste to controlled composting facilities gas emissions can be managed, air quality improved and valuable by-products in the form of compost and bio-organic fertilisers can be produced. Methane that is controlled through separation processes can also be used to generate electricity – a process that is already being succesfully practised by Ethekwini Municipality.

Risk Management

General safety at landfill is affected by the presence of waste scavengers and informal separators on site who are sourcing materials and whose presence may lead to accidents or fire. For example fires caused by waste scavengers who are attempting to extract metals from plastic coated wires or tires can often spread with serious consequences to safety and to air quality. Waste recovery reduces the extent to which informal separators can access waste materials and reduces their presence at landfill.

Applications

There are certain target materials that form part of the landfill waste beneficiation process, which can be separated, packaged and commercially valued as material resources for large or small industry. The more commonly recovered materials are: • Organic waste and sludge for the creation of biomass or bio-organic fertilisers, which are not harmful to the environment • Builder’s rubble and demolition waste for building industry/construction aggregate materials, which replace virgin materials and haver a lower embodied energy. • eWaste components that can be reused or recycled or if necessary more suitable disposed of. • Traditionally recyclable materials such as paper, cardboard, plastic, glass and metal, which can be returned to industry as raw material. • Waste materials that can be used along with other materials in the creation of composite materials which are robust more efficient, environmentally friendly and thermally efficient.

Organic Waste

Large volumes of organic waste can be recovered at landfill, which can be converted to compost. Compost has applications at landfill (in the stimulation of methane gas production for energy) and can be sold locally for urban gardens. The relatively low value of compost, per volume, means that it cannot be distributed too far before it incurs an embodied cost that threatens its economic viability. Further opportunities exist to convert compost to bio-organic fertiliser which has a value estimated at more than 5 times the value of regular fertiliser. Bio-organic fertiliser is a green alternative for chemical fertilisers and is gaining wide recognition as the better alternative for gardeners and farmers who are pursuing organic production processes. Bio-organic fertiliser is not only less harmful for the environment, it has a lower embodied energy and carbon footprint because of its components and its production methods.

eWaste

Electronic waste or eWaste is potentially hazardous with materials such as mercury, cadmium and lithium being generally prevalent in many electronic goods that are destined for landfill. There are a 108

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number of beneficiation opportunities and applications for components of this waste stream such as metals, plastics, circuit boards, monitors, printer cartridges, cabling which are in most instances capable of re-entering the production stream at some level

Plastics

Unlike glass, plastics cant be crushed and tend to occupy a larger volume of site space, particularly relative to value. This makes the management and beneficiation of plastic more difficult. Plastic waste also has a lower market value, particularly if unprocessed. Because there is very little value for collectors of small amounts of plastic, it is necessary to consider large scale processing centres that are centralised and which sort, wash, granulate and process plastic waste for application in composite materials or back into the plastic industry. Some of the plastic waste at landfill is unusable or contaminated and this can be further separated to create refuse-derived diesel fuel, which can be used locally at landfill as an alternative energy source.

Glass Recycling

Thousands of tons of glass enter landfill or separation systems in South Africa each day and although the ideal beneficiation model for glass is the re-use model which sees glass containers being cleaned and reused by bottlers, good progress has been made where recycling at household level is concerned. The beneficiation opportunities for glass waste are mostly related to the recycling of glass back into the industry as raw material, however there are also composite applications for glass, which even include crushed glass as a replacement aggregate for sand in concrete or cement mix materials. Additional small industry beneficiation activities for glass waste material exists in the ceramic and paint industries, in water filtration, sand blasting and glass bead production in craft market microindustries.

Composite Materials

Composite materials are made from two ore more materials and take on new properties that allow them to perform better in certain applications. Composites can contain waste materials recovered from landfill and can be (for example) stronger than timber, more resistant to mould or borer and longer wearing. Current applications of wood composite products can be found in decking, flooring, furniture and cladding with new applications in the form of roof tiles and man hole covers currently be investigated and rolled our.

Economic Challenges to Landfill Waste Beneficiation

Transport Costs

Waste stream processes require critical mass in order to be economically viable and processed waste stream materials are generally also more marketable in larger quantities. This requires that waste stream processing plants are consolidated, where materials must be collected from various sites in order to achieve critical mass. The distance between landfill (or source) and processing, and then between processing and final market (customers) will determine the embodied transport costs of the recovered waste stream material and transport costs often affect the viability of waste stream material beneficiation.

Materials Collection, Processing and Storage Space

Further challenges lie in the voluminous nature of certain waste stream materials at landfill relative to their mass or relative to their potential value, for example, plastic containers (as mentioned above), or pallet timber.

Waste Beneficiation Stimulus

The Producer Pays

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should bring about economically sustainable systems within each stream, however each waste stream system will requite the support of regulation and incentives to bring it to that state. Principles such as the ‘producer pays’ will assist to ensure that collection is more organised and take back systems are implemented. As this happens it will become easier to link the ownership of waste to individual producers or to industries and therefore easier to finance processing (and/or transport) costs.

True External Accounting for Virgin Material

Until such time as producers are required to account (and pay) for the total environmental cost of using virgin materials (think total environmental cost of ground water needed to grow just one tree), the commercial case for using recovered materials will continue to be difficult to motivate.

Public Private Partnerships

Incentives for private companies that wish to participate at various stages in waste stream beneficiation can serve to stimulate interest and artificially prop up the early stages of stakeholder buy-in. Government can play a leading role by exploring mechanisms such as inexpensive project finance, tax incentives, guaranteed purchase agreements for processors and guaranteed material supply agreements for take-back producers. The Durban based section 21 company called Use-It is successfully rolling out beneficiation projects that are incorporating many such incentives.

Supply Chain Policies

By incorporating procurement policies such as ESS, government can be an example to companies in the private sector and can stimulate take-back and post consumer waste materials sourcing. If government were to specify that it will only procure products with recycled content, this would increase the value of waste materials and force producers who want government business into participation. Conversely, and in time, tax can be levied to producers whose products do not contain recycled materials.

Education

Consumers should be educated about the difference that they can make when they buy products that contain recycled materials. This will help to accelerate supply chain changes. Consumers ‘vote’ when they purchase and an educated consumer is increasingly concerned about environmental impact and reputational issues. References: Denholm, C, T Danehy, S Bulsler, R Dolance and M Dunn, 2008. Presentation at the National Meeting of the American Society of Mining and Reclamation, June. TE Martin, MP Davies. (2000) Trends in the stewardship of tailings dams Jared Diamond (2005) Collapse. Penguin. Page 452-458 www.use-it.co.za Ethekwini Municipality http://www.interwaste.co.za http://www.angloplatinum.com/safety/enviro/management.asp http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=147564 http://eprints.ru.ac.za/982/1/Keirungi-MSc.pdf National Waste Management Strategy: 2005 http://durbanportal.net/default.aspx www.enviroserv.co.za

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PROFILE

Aquatan Lining systems Aquatan supplies reliable and economical state-of-the-art solutions to most geomembrane lining requirements in the construction engineering field throughout the African Continent, the Indian Ocean Islands and South America. Since 1961 Aquatan has supplied the industry with in excess of 60 million square metres of expertly installed Geomembranes. Aquatan’s geomembranes comply with the most stringent international specifications and standards. Specifications include ISO 9001:2008, the South African National Standards SANS 1526:2003 (Thermoplastic sheeting for use as a Geomembrane), SANS 10409:2005 (Design, selection and installation of Geomembranes), GRI GM specifications (Internationally accepted standards for a variety of Geomembrane types as determined by the International Geosynthetic Institute (GSI)). Our Geomembranes include smooth, single and double sided textured or embossed, white coextruded laminated and conductive Geomembranes to cater for a variety of installation conditions. Geosynthetic clay liners, Geodrains and Geotextiles are also included in our portfolio. Essentially impermeable Geomembranes are applied as single or multiple liners to engineered civil or earthworks structures as a barrier to contain harmful liquids and solid waste or to prevent evaporation of potable water and biogas collection if installed as a floating cover amongst many other applications. The durability and quality of Aquatan’s geomembranes is supported by: • 50 Years of experience as a geomembrane installer. • Use of proven polymers and Masterbatches. • A successful track record since 1961. • ISO 9001 accreditation. • Accredited member of the IAGI (International Association of Geosynthetic Installers). • Member of the International Geosynthetic Institute. • Unique Project Management Software. • Enhanced Barrier System for VOC, moisture and temperature control in liners and caps. • Innovative Deployment Methods. Our clients enjoy the use of the best membranes available by the most experienced installer (Master Welders with IAGI Compliance Certificate) in the world. Our state-of-the-art welding equipment and installation techniques combined with our IAGI and GSI accreditation ensure that the client gets the most advanced material and installation methods available in the world. Aquatan’s geomembranes are able to contain from the most harmful chemicals and aggressive effluents to potable water. Aquatan is the only South African lining company belonging to the exclusive International Geosynthetic Society (IGS) of Philadelphia in the USA. The IGS gives Aquatan exclusive insight into all the latest developments and research including long term performance of geomembranes across the range of available polymers.

www.aquatan.com

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The benefis of sustainable e-waste management

Dell – Jonathan Perry, Take Back Compliance Consultant - Europe, Middle East & Africa

IBM – Steve Bushnell, Environmental Affairs Manager - UK, Ireland, Sub-Saharan Africa and Nordics

HP – Ruben Janse van Rensburg, Environmental Manager - English Africa

Nokia - Elisabeth Tanguy, Senior Sustainability Manager Middle East & Africa

Introduction

E-waste is a term used to cover almost all types of electrical and electronic equipment that has or could enter the waste stream. Although e-waste is a general term, it can be considered to cover TV’s, computers, mobile phones, white goods (fridges, washing machines, dryers etc.), home entertainment and stereo systems, toys, toasters, kettles – almost any household or home business item with circuitry or electrical components with power or battery supply. Electrical waste contains materials that, if mishandled, can become hazardous to human health and the environment, but, most importantly, also materials that are valuable and scarce. E-waste is growing exponentially simply because the market in which these products are produced is also growing rapidly as many parts of the world cross the so called ‘digital divide’. Rapid product innovations and replacement, especially in ICT and office equipment, combined with the migration from analogue to digital technologies and to flat-screen TVs and monitors, for example, are fuelling the increase. Economies of scale have given way to lower prices for many electrical goods, which has increased global demand for many products that eventually end up as e-waste.

Treating E-Waste

If not properly treated, e-waste can have negative impacts, both on human health and on the environment. However, sustainable treatment of e-waste avoids these negative impacts. The recycling chain for e-waste is classified into three main subsequent steps: • Collection, • Sorting/dismantling and pre-processing(including sorting, dismantling and mechanical treatment) and • End processing. All three steps should operate and interact in a holistic manner to achieve the overall recycling objectives. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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The main objectives of sustainable e-waste recycling1(UNEP, 2009) are: • Treat the hazardous fractions in an environmentally sound manner, • Maximize the recovery of valuable materials, • Create eco-efficient and sustainable business, • Consider social impact and local context.

Sustainable e-waste recycling yields many benefits, for example:

• Sustainable recycling operations also considerably contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. • Recycling means that less money and energy has to be expended for the mining of the various minerals which are consumed during the manufacturing process for the production of ICT equipment. • Essentially, the environmental footprint of a phone, a computer and other electronic devices could be significantly reduced if treated in environmentally sound managed recycling operations, which prevent hazardous emissions and ensure that a large part of the contained metals are finally recovered for a new life2 (UNEP, 2009). • The building of a sustainable recycling infrastructure creates jobs, and contributes to capability building. The sustainable collection, sorting, manual dismantling and pre-processing of e-waste could create a significant number of jobs in South Africa.

How much E-Waste is there?

EMPA conducted an E-Waste Assessment of South Africa in 2008 (Finlay, 2008) that included projected calculations up to 2012. The assessment considered three primary e-waste streams: white goods, consumer electronics, and information technology (ICT). By focusing on several tracer products in these categories – namely, fridges, washing machines, microwaves, TVs, PCs, printers, and mobile phones it outlined the current E-Waste situation in South Africa. Identified 37 new and 4 used EEE stakeholders Key findings of the E-Waste Assessment outlined that: • Between 1,129,000 and 2,108,000 tons of potential e-waste is estimated to be in South African households. This includes white goods, consumer electronics and ICT most of which is likely to enter the waste stream only in the next 5-10 years. • The assessment through a household survey suggests that the total amount of e-waste (considering all product categories) generated by the top 10% of households by income is nearly 84,000 tons a year. This can be broken down into the following categories: White goods 64%, Consumer Electronics 17% and ICT 19% The findings from the South African E-Waste assessment (Finlay, 2008) revealed that Recyclers processing non-ferrous and ferrous metals have been operating in South Africa for decades, as have specialised e-waste recyclers. There is also some degree of category specialization, with some E-Waste Recyclers specializing only in specific E-Waste categories. The recycling processes amongst the current operators are not uniform, and include manual dismantling and mechanised shredding. Manual dismantling is a value-add process that allows different markets to be found for the separated fraction.

E-Waste treatment challenges

According to the E-Waste of Assessment (Finlay, 2008), South Africa faces a number of recycling challenges when it comes to e-waste. These include dealing with hazardous fraction, such as Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) glass, and finding markets for flame-retardant plastics. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors are also likely to present a key challenge in the future, while the technology does not currently exist in the country for the environmentally friendly recycling of rechargeable batteries used in electronics and the recycling of fridges. At the same time, basic environmental precautions are 114

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absent at some recyclers, and health and safety regulations are loosely enforced. Most refurbishers and recyclers interviewed for this assessment did not hold or meet ISO Environmental Management System standards. Of the 40,000 plus informal recyclers estimated to be working in South Africa, it is likely that most of them, at some time or another, have dealt with e-waste. While the informal sector in South Africa offers critical income generating opportunities for people, when it comes to e-waste, negative social impacts include: • Open burning of plastics, both to extract value from metals such as copper, and for warmth • Smashing of monitors to extract copper • Exposure to hazardous substances generally • A lack of basic safety equipment • A lack of basic safety information about e-waste • Vulnerability to e-waste traders (e.g. collectors do not have much leverage or bargaining power when negotiating with scrap metal merchants on prices)

In the legal framework

The South Africa National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS), published in November 2011, seeks to establish a common platform for action between industry stakeholders in order to systematically improve waste management in South Africa. The IT Association of South Africa Producer Environmental Group represents a key industry sector: the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector. Although it is estimated that the ICT sector accounts for only 16% of all e-waste generated in Europe (UNU, 2008), the ITA Producer Environmental Group has decided to proactively assemble an industry plan to tackle the e-waste problem in South Africa under the framework of the NWMS. This type of plan is known as a producer responsibility plan or more specifically in the legal framework as an Industry Waste Management Plan. The aim has been to create an effective structure in order to deliver a solution to the issues which also meet the requirements of the National Waste Management Strategy and allows for healthy competition within the e-waste sector. All parties and stakeholders, (local and global producers, importer, retailer, distributor, operator, consumer, refurbisher, recycler, government etc.) should play their part in the establishment of a sustainable solution. This will help avoid ‘free riders’ and will result in long-term environmental and societal benefits. A sustainable solution should ensure a level playing field between all actors in the value chain. There is a need to regulate the recycling activities but it should not create trader barriers, discriminate against organisations, companies or products.

Making Producer Responsibility work

Central to the principle of producer responsibility and the Industry Waste Management Plan is to ensure that the consumer can return end of life electrical and electronic products at no cost for recycling. The consumer should be able to return product to retailers, at, or after point of sale, a municipal collection point or to a specialist e-waste collector where the items/material would be consolidated. This material should then be collected by a specialist recycler who would then treat the product to specific standards ensuring that all material is properly treated. The material can then enter the local and global materials market where it will be recycled into raw material ready for use in new products. It is essential that the producers be central to that plan as they will fund the management and treatment of e-waste.

Key principles

• The plan considers electronic-waste as an opportunity: to recover valuable materials, to create jobs, and to grow the recycling industry in South Africa. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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• The plan takes care of the ICT e-waste stream, including problematic hazardous materials and fractions (currently being burned or landfilled) as well as materials and fractions with value. • Authors and supporters of the plan acknowledge their responsibility as producers to take care of their products at the end of their life-cycle, which includes a financial obligation. • The plan recommends implementing control mechanisms to ensure fair allocation of the responsibility of treating e-waste amongst all producers. • The plan seeks to harness existing recycling infrastructure and encourages industry growth and job creation through an effective and viable structure. • The plan recommends a multi-stakeholder approach where all actors in the value chain have an important role to play.

Key benefits

• The development of a green industry sector in South Africa creates opportunities for enterprise development, rural and youth skills development, unique home-grown technologies and IP for export to the rest of the African continent. Maximizing collection and the consolidation of specific E-Waste categories will secure much needed recycling technology investments. • The development of a green industry sector in South Africa provides opportunities for job creation, for example in the recycling sector. • The appropriate handling of e-waste can both prevent serious health and environmental damage and also recover valuable materials, especially metals. • Sustainable recycling operations also considerably contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. “Mining” of old phones or old computers to recover the contained metals – if done in an environmentally sound or correct manner – needs only a fraction of energy compared to mining ores in nature.

Government involvement

The participation of the government with appropriate enforcement is key to making the whole plan work. Lack of enforcement will result in parts of the industry taking on more responsibility and burden than others. While the plan has primary relevance to the Office, Information & Communication Equipment industry sector, the content and structure of the plan are such that they could be relevant to other industry sectors and, potentially, to all categories of electronic waste including batteries used in ICT equipment.

Summary

The Implementation of the plan will provide both environmental and economic benefits to South Africa. It will provide greater levels of environmental protection and help reduce risks to public health through safe handling and processing practices. The building of a sustainable recycling infrastructure will create jobs and contribute to building capacity as the informal recycling sector becomes more formally established through integration. The ITA Producer Environmental Group plan is available for download and review the plan in full at www.ita.org.za. References Mathias Schluepa Christian Hageluekenb Ruediger Kuehrc Federico Magalinic Claudia Maurerc Christina Meskersb Esther Muellera Feng Wangc a Federal Laboratories for Material Testing and Research (EMPA). (2009). RECYCLING FROM E-WASTE TO RESOURCES. Available: http://ewasteguide.info/files/ UNEP_2009_eW2R.PDF. Last accessed 05th December 2011. Finlay, A Liechti,D. (2008). e-Waste Assessment South Africa. Available: http://www.ewasteguide.info/files/Finlay_2008_eWASA.pdf. Last accessed 5th December 2011. Huisman, Jaco (lead author) Magalini, Federico Kuehr, Ruediger Maurer, Claudia Ogilvie, Steve Poll, Jim Delgado, Clara Artim, Eniko Szlezak, Josef Stevels, Ab . (2007). Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Final Report. Available: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/weee/pdf/final_rep_unu. pdfEuropean Commission. Last accessed 5th December 2011. 116

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T0122 ISO/IEC 17025

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WASTE-TO-ENERGY: WHAT IS IT AND CAN IT BE DONE? San Oosterhuizen

INTRODUCTION

Why should South Africa consider the generation of energy from waste? At the beginning of 2010 South Africa committed itself to the Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to take all the necessary actions to reduce the country’s greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 34% by 2020 (Winkler et al., 2010). South Africa is the African continent’s main producer of electricity, generating 43% of the total electricity in 2007 (Amusa et al., 2009; Odhiambo, 2009). In South Africa approximately 92% of electricity produced by Eskom is produced from coal, with the remainder generated from nuclear energy (5%) and other sources (3%) (Amusa et al., 2009). There are a number of options South Africa can consider in order to scale back on its greenhouse gas emissions. Reduced electricity usage, use of renewable energy sources and the use of alternative heating sources to generate energy are amongst the options that can be looked into. This chapter focuses especially on the use of waste as a potential source of heat to generate energy.

STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER

In order to determine what is meant by “Waste to Energy”, there are two concepts we need to investigate: energy and waste. We begin by giving a brief overview of the Department of Energy (DoE), their mandate and strategic objective, structure, and key policies. This is followed by a description of the current trends in terms of energy generation and usage, challenges with the use of coal for electricity generation and the current movement in the use of renewable energy. In the last sections of the chapter the feasibility of waste-to-energy and current practices in South Africa are highlighted. Note that the legislative framework of waste is not be discussed in this chapter as it is anticipated that it is comprehensively dealt with in previous /other chapters.

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

The Department of Energy was established in May 2009 as a result of a decision by the President to separate the Department of Minerals and Energy into two independent departments – the Department of Energy and the Department of Mineral Resources.

Mandate and Strategic Objectives

The mandate of the Department of Energy is to ensure, secure and provide sustainable energy for socio-economic development. The strategic objective should reflect South Africa’s current stance on renewable energy and would indicate if the government support waste–to-energy projects. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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The Department’s strategic plan for 2010/11 – 2012/13 seeks to deliver results along eight strategic objectives, listed below: 1. Ensure energy security– creating and maintaining a balance between energy supply and energy demand, develop strategic partnerships, improve co-ordination in the sector and ensure reliable delivery and logistics. The electricity demand growth assumptions for 2010 to 2016 (calendar years) are illustrated in Figure 11.1 below. 2. Achieve universal access and transform the energy sector– diversify energy mix, improve access and connectivity, provide quality and affordable energy, promote safe use of energy and transform the energy sector. 3. Regulate the energy sector – develop effective legislation, policies and guidelines, encourage investment in the energy sector, ensure compliance with legislation. 4. Effective and efficient service delivery – understand stakeholder needs and improve turn – around times. 5. Optimal utilisation of energy resources– develop enabling policies, encourage energy efficient technologies . 6. Ensure sustainable development– promote clean energy alternatives, encourage economic development, promote job creation. 7. Enhance DoE culture systems and people– attract, develop and retain appropriate skills, promote good organisational culture, make the Department an employer of choice. 8. Promote corporate governance– optimal utilisation of resources, manage budget effectively, implement fraud and risk management, and ensure compliance with relevant prescripts.

Figure 11.1: Electricity demand growth assumptions – 2010 to 2016 Source: Medium Term Risk Mitigation Project Team (2010)

Key Energy Policies and Legislation The White Paper on Energy Policy is the premier policy document which guides all subsequent policies, strategies and legislation within the energy sector. Several key energy policy documents are briefly outlined below. 120

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The White Paper on Energy Policy The White Paper on Energy Policy consists of four parts: context and objectives for energy policy; demand sectors; supply sectors and crosscutting issues (Department of Minerals and Energy, 1998). The following five policy objectives form the foundation of the White Paper on Energy Policy: Increasing access to affordable energy services; Improving energy governance - Governance of the energy sector will be improved; Stimulating economic development - Government will encourage competition within energy market; Managing energy-related environmental and health effects - Government will promote access to basic energy services for poor households, in order to ameliorate the negative health impacts arising from the use of certain fuels; and Securing supply through diversity- Given increased opportunities for energy trade, particularly within the Southern African region, government will pursue energy security by encouraging a diversity of both supply sources and primary energy carriers. The White Paper on Renewable Energy The White Paper on Renewable Energy was published in November 2003. The objective of this policy is to provide an outline of governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vision, policy principles and strategic objectives to encourage the use of renewable energies and to inform the relevant institutions of their role within the process. The midterm (10-year) aim of the Paper is to facilitate the production of 10 000 GWh of final renewable energy consumption by 2013, representing 4% of projected electricity demand (Department of Energy, 2003). The White Paper on Energy Policy provides a national context for the White Paper on Renewable Energy by emphasising integrated resource planning. This ensures that necessary resources are provided to promote renewable energy. Climate change, the potential for renewable energy markets and South Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role in the international arena have created an environment for South African entities to participate in renewable energy developments. In particular, the Johannesburg Action Plan from the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) has increased the urgency for global action against climate change. The White Paper on Renewable Energy is currently undergoing a review process by the department (Department of Energy, 2010b). Integrated Resource Plan The Integrated Resource Plan (IRP 2010) supersedes the Energy Security Master Plan for Electricity which was approved by cabinet in 2001. The IRP2010 determines the demand profile for electricity over the next 20 years and details how this demand can be most effectively met from different sources, such as nuclear energy, coal, gas and renewable energy (Department of Energy, 2010). National Energy Act The National Energy Act, 34 of 2008, is a framework legislation which empowers the Minister to undertake certain measures to ensure energy security including integrated energy planning, energy research and collection of information regarding energy demand, supply and generation. It also serves to address gaps in existing legislation or those elements in the White Paper on Energy Policy which have not been implemented. the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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Integrated Energy Planning Integrated Energy Planning (IEP) involves estimating how much energy all the different consumers (e.g. industry or households) will need in the future to deliver certain services; and then identifying a mix of appropriate sources and forms of energy to meet these energy service needs in the most efficient and socially beneficial manner. The IEP is both a methodology and a framework for analysing the energy system and linking policy formulation to broader national goals. The IEP focuses on the energy service needs of energy users. To meet user needs effectively, different fuels or a mix of fuels or possibly alternative investment in conservation or efficiency measures need to be considered (Department of Energy, 2010b). In terms of Section 6(1) of the National Energy Act, Act 34 of 2008, the Minister must develop and, on an annual basis, review and publish the Integrated Energy Plan (IEP) in the Government Gazette.

CURRENT SITUATION ON ENERGY GENERATION AND USAGE

State-owned Eskom is one of the largest utilities in the world. It generates 95% of South Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s electricity, and 45% of Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s electricity (Eskom, 2011). Electricity is exported to Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zimbabwe and Zambia. In the 2011 financial year, Eskom produced 235 301 GWh of electricity (refer Figure11.2), 220 219 GWh of which was derived from coal power stations (refer Table11.1). While Eskom does not have exclusive generation rights, it monopolises the supply of bulk electricity, and has a net maximum capacity of 40 870 MW (Eskom, 2011). South African municipalities add a capacity of approximately 2 400 MW, and private companies about 800 MW (DME 2009).

Figure 11.2. Comparative flow of energy for the year to 31 March 2010 and the year ended 31 March 2011 (all numbers in GWh) Source: Eskom Annual Report, 2011

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Table 11.1: Electricity production by own stations Source: Eskom Annual report, 2011

The consequence of the current approach of electricity supply and demand was assessed by the National Medium Term Risk Mitigation (NMTRM) Project Team. The NMTRM was established with the support of government, business, NEDLAC and Eskom because the IRP 2010 does not provide sufficient detail to assess short term electricity supply shortages. The team was established to better understand the risk, and assess options for mitigating the risk. Figure 11.3 illustrates the consequence of continuing with the current approach and shows an ongoing shortfall in supply capacity to meet the anticipated demand starting 2011 through 2016. Total shortfall expected is ~ 42,000 GWh for the period (NMTRM, 2010).

Figure 11.3: Electricity Supply GAP before mitigation Source: Medium Term Risk Mitigation Project Team (2010)

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Realisable potential risk mitigation options that can be implemented, over the period 2011 to 2016, to reduce the risk of the above shortfall are presented in Table 11.2. Supply Options

GWh(2011 – 2016)

Renewables

302

Co-generation

7,300

Own Generation

22,500

Independent Power Producer

14, 000

Demand Options Efficiency Projects “Price Driven”

7,000

Efficient Technology “Carrot/Stick”

12,000

Changed behaviour “Carrot/Stick”

400

Table 11.2: Realisable mitigation options to reduce the supply “Gap” Source: Medium Term Risk Mitigation Project Team (2010)

The extent to which risk will be reduced by the above options was modelled and the results are illustrated in Figure 11.4 below.

Figure 11.4: Electricity Supply GAP after mitigation Source: Medium Term Risk Mitigation Project Team (2010)

From the above figure it is evident that even with the implementation of mitigation options an electricity supply GAP is expected in 2012 and 2013. It should also be noted that the implementation of the realisable potential risk mitigation options as presented in Table 11.4 will require extraordinary action, in the main by government, Eskom, business and large metropolitan councils.

Challenges with using coal to produce electricity

With 93% of Eskom’s electricity generated from coal-fired stations, this already implies a major environmental footprint. The most topical of the environmental impacts is Eskom’s carbon footprint. Eskom’s CO2 emissions for the 2011 financial year were 230.3Mt, an increase of 2.5% on the previous year’s 224.7Mt. In its 2011 Annual Report Eskom committed to a reduction in CO2 emissions by 2030. Subject to the support from the shareholder (the South African government) and the allocation of nuclear and renewable energy to Eskom, they anticipate the peak to be 124

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283Mt in 2022 and the target to be 235Mt by 2030. This will see relative CO2 emissions at 0.68t/MWh compared to the current 0.99t/MWh. However, Eskom’s coal-fired power stations depend on a continuous supply of coal. Eskom burnt 127 Mt of coal to produce 220 219 GWh of electricity (refer Table 11.3). EcoPartners estimated that SA only has 15 000Mt of recoverable coal reserves (EcoPartners, 2011). At the current rate of mining and electricity demand this is enough to sustain current electricity supply for another 60 - 70 years.

Table 11.3: Eskom Environmental Information RA = Reasonable assurance provided by independent assurance provider Source: Eskom Annual report, 2011

According to research done by the Harvard Medical School’s Centre for Health and Global Environment, the health, environmental and other costs of using coal for the United States are 500 billion dollars per year. The study tracked the multiple health, environmental and climate change impacts of coal from its source at the mine to its combustion at the power plant (Center for Health and the Global Environment, 2011). Although the study is restricted to the US, it may have relevance for South Africa, which generates over 90 percent of its electricity from coal and is in the process of setting up three new coal-fired plants at a cost of R75 billion (Naidoo, 2011). Figures from the US Energy Information Administration show that the US uses just over 1 billion tons of coal per year. South Africa uses just over 10 percent of that amount. Theoretically, the costs of using coal in South Africa could be a little over $50 billion, or R350 billion (Naidoo, 2011). It should be noted however that South Africa burns a coal of poorer quality than that of the USA, and while this may still mean that there is increased cost, a direct comparison between SA and the USA may not be possible. According to the study by the Harvard Medical School’s Centre for Health and Global Environment, air pollution emissions in the USA cost $187.5 billion, mercury emission impacts reach $29.3 billion, and greenhouse gas emissions (and accompanying climate change effects) from coal-fired plants costs between $61.7 and $205.8 billion. Other costs included up to $10 billion from land disturbances, impacts from toxic spills, declines in property values, tourism loss, and crop damage, the study noted. Coal has always been seen as the cheapest way to produce electricity but costs associated with the impacts on human health, environmental degradation and loss of agriculture productivity are substantial and could probably run into the hundreds of millions of Rands per year. Water and environmental specialist at One World Sustainable Investments, Arthur Chapman, is reported to say that “the cost of electricity from coal needed to include the costs of air pollution, water pollution such as acid mine drainage from coal waste dumps, rainfall acidification, soil acidification, the clean-up of abandoned mines, among others” (Naidoo, 2011). the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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Renewable energy

This target set for renewable energy in the Renewable Energy White Paper Policy can only be achieved through the implementation of renewable energy projects. The NERSA (National Energy Regulator of South Africa) initiated a development of the REFIT (Renewable Energy Feed-in Tariff ) regulatory framework to promote renewable energy in South Africa and to meet the Government’s target of 10 000 GWh by 2013 (Nersa, .2009). Approved technologies in REFIT Phase 1 were: • Concentrated Solar Power with storage • Landfill Gas • Small Hydro • Wind Qualified technologies for REFIT Phase 2 include: • Biogas • Biomass solid • Concentrated Solar Power plant without storage • Concentrated Solar Power (Central Tower) • Photovoltaic (PV) systems (large ground- or roof-based > 1 MW) The potential of some of the above mentioned technologies in terms of energy generation in South Africa is discussed in the following paragraphs. Solar Power South Africa has some of the worlds‘ best conditions for solar power. Almost the whole of the interior of South Africa has an average insolation in excess of 5 000 Wh/m2/day. Refer to Table 11:4 for the insolation values for Johannesburg. Parts of the Northern Cape have average insolation of over 6 000 Wh/m2/day. Although the annual 24 hour solar radiation average for South Africa is higher than for parts of the USA and for parts of Europe solar power does not generate any electricity for the national grid. Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Insolation, kWh/m²/day

6.70

6.10

5.46

4.77

4.21

3.80

4.08

4.78

5.69

5.98

6.29

6.62

Table 11.4: Insolation values for Johannesburg, South Africa Source: New et al. (2002)

Hydropower Hydropower is limited by its environmental impacts due to the flooding of large areas and the displacement of people for the development of dams. The Inga hydropower scheme on the Congo River is viewed as having great potential for providing electricity in Africa via the Southern African Power Pool (SAPP). Wind Energy South Africa has good conditions for wind energy, mainly in the coastal regions. Other areas such as the Eastern highveld, Bushmanland and the Drakensberg foothills show moderate potential for wind generation. Total onshore wind generation has an estimated potential to provide 1% of the required electricity in South Africa. 126

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Wind is used widely for pumping water on remote farms and it is estimated that about 300 000 such windmills have been erected over a long period. There are also about 500 wind turbines on farms used to generate Direct Current (DC) electricity, usually at 36V. The Darling Windfarm was commissioned in 2009; it is a 5.2 MW capacity and estimated to generate 13 GWh per annum. The off-taker is City of Cape Town. Biomass Biomass is estimated to contribute about 10% of South Africa’s primary energy. Biomass can be divided into wood and bagasse. Note that some biomass could also be considered as waste. Wood Wood as a source of energy in South Africa has two quite different uses: industrial and domestic. The industrial use is by South Africa’s modern pulp and paper industry, which has a production of about 4.5 Million ton (Mt) a year. In the chemical pulp mills, the fibre is separated out in chemical digesters and the residue, known as “black liquor” and containing useful energy, is burned in recovery boilers to raise steam for process heat and electricity generation (Department of Energy, 2010b). Bark and sawdust from the wood is also burned in boilers. Note that some biomass could also be considered as waste. The domestic use is by poor households, mainly in the remote un-electrified rural areas. Wood is a very important residential fuel in South Africa, as it is throughout the continent. It is used for domestic purposes including cooking, heating water, space heating and others (refer figure 11:5). The exact amount of residential wood fuel used is unknown but estimates put it at 86 Petajoule2 per year (PJ/y), roughly equivalent to 7 Mt of wood per year (Department of Energy, 2010b).

Figure 11.5: Electricity used for lighting, wood used for cooking Source: Photo taken by JC Baartjes

Bagasse Bagasse, the waste fibre from sugar cane, is the most important energy source for South Africa’s sugar refining industry. The total sugar cane crop is over 20 Mt a year, which yields about 7 Mt of bagasse with a heating value of 6.7 MJ/kg, most of which is used as energy in raising steam for process heat and electricity generation. The installed generation capacity of the industry is about 245 Megawatt electrical (MWe). Some bagasse is used for making paper (Department of Energy, 2010b). Note that Waste-to Energy projects are not considered as a technology in terms of the REFIT. This means that Eskom tariffs would not consider any energy generated through the implementation of waste-to- energy projects.

1.5 WASTE TO ENERGY

Energy from waste is of considerable interest in urban areas due to the large amount of waste and the increasing costs of landfill sites in higher population density areas. South Africa disposes of almost the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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all of its refuse in landfill sites. It has been estimated that the total domestic and industrial refuse has an energy content of about 11 000 GWh per annum (Department of Energy, 2010b). This could be directly incinerated or converted into biogas and methane to produce electricity. The recovery of energy from waste in Europe dates back 100 years. Today about 420 plants treat 64 million tonnes of municipal, commercial and industrial waste every year to produce electricity for 7 million households and heat for 13.4 million households. This reduces CO2 emissions per year by 23 million tonnes; equivalent to taking 11 million cars off our roads (Plastics Federation of South Africa, 2011). A growing number of projects are being proposed for South Africa under the label of ‘Waste to Energy’ where waste is burned instead of coal. It is difficult to calculate how much energy can be generated by using solid waste as the current data on waste flows is incomplete. The Department of Environmental Affairs’ (DEA) figures for the 2006/7 financial year indicate that 24,115,402 tons of general waste was disposed of in landfills during that year and according to the South African Institute of Civil Engineering (2011) 710 000 tons of hazardous waste (117 500 tons organic) was disposed of in 2007, along with 42 200 tons of health care waste. In a feasibility study done by Agama (2009) to provide guidelines for implementing Biogas from waste projects in municipalities, they projected that the quantity of solid waste disposed by the six largest municipalities (City of Johannesburg, Ekhurhuleni, eThekwini, Tshwane, Nelson Mandela Bay and the City of Cape Town) in 2004 was about 8 million tonnes with a projected increase to 10 million tonnes in 2010. When using this number it relates to a total amount of 71,000 TJ/a of net energy content that is disposed of at the landfill sites of South Africa’s Metros. This is equivalent to a total electricity generation of 6,000 GWh/a (Giga Watt hours/annum) from a capacity of 693 MW (Mega Watt) of net energy being discarded. Note that this is a theoretical number of all the embedded energy and it does not take into account any energy losses occurring in energy transformation and supply systems, nor infrastructural constraints, and assumes conversion of all of the energy content. If only the organic fraction is considered for the generation of biogas then the six largest metros, where it is more likely that an energy from waste project is feasible (due to scale), about 1,500GWh/a is possible from about 176 MW of capacity. If a 25% organic waste capture factor were taken into account this would result in 375 GWh/a from 44 MW of capacity (AGAMA, 2009). The current national wastewater treatment plants process an estimated 7,600 ML/day. AGAMA Energy conducted an assessment of the six largest metro’s wastewater to energy potential arriving at 31 MW capacity or 263 GWh/a (AGAMA, 2009).

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According to the Plastics Federation of South Africa, unrecyclable plastic waste can provide a valuable source of local energy / electricity through Energy from Waste (EfW) - using established clean incineration technology. Typical plastic waste contains some 18000 to 20000 BTU/lb versus fuel oil at around 21,000 BTU3/lb (refer Table 11.5). Material

Btu/pound

Plastics PET

10,900

HDPE

18,700

Other Plastic Containers

16,400

Other Plastics

17,900

Rubber & Leather

12,800

Newspaper

8,000

Corrugated Boxes (paper)

7,000

Textiles

9,400

Wood

7,300

Yard Wastes

2,900

Food Wastes

2,900

Heat Content of Common Fuels Fuel Oil

20,900

Coal

9,600

Table 11.5: Heat content of alternative fuels Energy Values

Source: The Plastics Federation of South Africa, 2011.

From the above it is clear that South Africa does have the potential to generate energy for the waste it disposes of.

WHAT IS BEING DONE IN SOUTH AFRICA?

A number of waste-to-energy projects have been initiated in South Africa. Some of these projects are discussed below: Prestige Thermal In August 2008 the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest waste-to-energy plant opened in South Africa. Prestige Thermal developed specialised autoclaving technology through which waste is reduced to cellulous fibre and pyrolysis - a process whereby solid waste material is converted into clean gas. Employing these new technologies, Prestige Thermalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s R28 million plant in Wadeville, has the capacity to produce 3MW of electrical energy from three tons of municipal solid waste (Sustainable Energy Africa, 2009). the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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PPC PPC Cement is currently utilising coal as their main source of energy required for the manufacturing of cement. Cement manufacture is an energy-intensive process, and therefore large amounts of coal (a non-renewable resource) are utilised. PPC has been seeking means of minimising their use of coal by investigating the use of secondary materials in the cement manufacturing process. Secondary Materials under considerations are: • Scrap tyres and rubber waste; • De-watered, treated sewage pellets; • Hydrocarbon waste (such as used oil, oil-contaminated general waste, oil-contaminated soil and coal fines); • Plastic waste; and • Biomass (such as paper waste, sawdust, wood chips and waste from bio-fuel production). PPC applied for the use of these secondary materials at 5 (five) of its cement manufacturing plants (Marsh Environmental Services, 2007). The Environmental Authorisation for the introduction of secondary fuels and raw material in the cement kiln of the Hercules Plant was granted in October 2008. Holcim In 2003, Holcim commissioned an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for the conversion of Kiln 3 at Dudfield to co-process Alternative Fuel Resources (AFR). The EIA was submitted to NWDACE in October 2004 for a Record of Decision (RoD). The Department, in consultation with other government departments, and following an independent review, issued a negative RoD based on the EIA. Acknowledging that further information is required to facilitate informed authority decision-making, Holcim has commissioned an independent environmental consultant to prepare a completely new EIA for the use of AFR in Kilns 2 and 3 at Dudfield. Holcim South Africa proposed to use the following wastes in Kilns 2 and 3 at Dudfield: • Scrap tyres; • Blended waste from the proposed Holcim / EnviroServ Waste Blending Platform in Roodepoort; • Spent refractories from the non-ferrous metal refining industry; • “Filter cake” from hydrocarbon sludge processing in the petrochemical industry; • Baled plastic (excluding PVC); and, • Grease contaminated textiles. Cement manufacture requires high temperatures. The average energy needed to produce 1 ton of cement clinker in a pre-heater kiln ranges between 3,300 to 4,500GJ. This would typically be generated by burning 130 tons of coal in the kiln per 1,000 tons of clinker. According to the Scoping Report Dudfield consumed up to 275,000 tons of coal per annum at 2007 production rates. The calorific value for waste tyres range between 28 – 32 MJ/kg and is higher than that of coal, which range from 24 – 29 MJ/kg. It is expected that by substituting a proportion of the coal with waste of suitable calorific values and chemistry, the total use of coal and the cost of energy, per tonne of cement, can be reduced. The environmental application for the project was submitted to the NWDACE in June 2006, in terms of the requirements of Regulation 1182 of the Environment Conservation Act (Act 73 of 1989) (Mark Wood Consultants, 2006). It could not be ascertained whether a RoD on this project has been issued. City of Cape TownLandfill Gas-to-Energy Project The City of Cape Town and CEF (Pty) Ltd have been working together over the past two years to develop a landfill gas-to-energy Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project, in order to generate 130

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‘green’ energy. However, owing to recent legislation passed by National Government, the City has had to explore other partnerships. CEF intended to apply for the renewable energy feed-in tariff (REFIT), thereby adding to the financial stability of the project. However, the National Government has released regulations as part of its REFIT programme, barring public entities (such as CEF and any municipality) from participating as a majority shareholder in the REFIT programme. This policy prevents CEF from developing the project for the City as CEF was intended to be the majority shareholding entity conducting the CDM project. “The City has commenced the process to form a public-private partnership to take this important project forward (City of Cape Town, 2011)”, said the City’s Mayoral Committee Member for Utility Services, Alderman Clive Justus. Johannesburg Landfill Gas to Energy Project The City of Johannesburg initiated the landfill gas-to-energy Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project in 2007. The main aim of the project is to mitigate the harmful greenhouse gases emitted from the landfills. The extraction and flaring of these gases has provided the City with an opportunity to receive revenue from the generation of emission reductions certificates through the CDM process and from generation of electricity. It is anticipated that the renewable energy generated will be fed into the municipal grid, thus off-setting largely coal derived electricity. The project is being implemented in five of the City’s landfill sites, making it the largest landfill CDM project in South Africa so far. Approximately 19MW will be generated from the project (comparable to electricity usage by about 13000 middle income households). The upgrade of the Robinson Deep landfill launched the Johannesburg Landfill Gas to Energy project. Construction of the Robinson Deep landfill started on 21 February 2011 and was completed on 25 July 2011 (City of Joburg, 2011). NPC Cimpor NPC-Cimpor (Pty) Ltd. (NPC-Cimpor) currently operates two clinker kilns, one cement mill and a cement storage and packaging facility at their existing Simuma operations near Port Shepstone, KwaZulu-Natal. The EIA for the proposed storage and utilisation of alternative fuels and resources (tyres) at NPCCimpor, Simuma Facility, Port Shepstone, KwaZulu-Natal is in process. A Final Scoping Report (FSR) and Plan of Study for EIA, which identified the scope of the environmental issues identified during the technical review and public involvement process, was prepared and submitted to the Provincial KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs (DAEA), now known as the Provincial KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs and Rural Development (DAEARD) on 21 April 2007. The FSR, including the Plan of Study for EIA and the Trial Burn Protocol (TBP) was approved by the DAEARD on 15 September 2009. As per the approved Plan of Study for EIA trial burns of tyres were conducted between June to September 2010 at NPC-Cimpor, Simuma (SRK, 2011). Based on the tyre trial burn, NPC-Cimpor are initially proposing a 12% substitution rate, replacing tyres for coal. This substitution rate may increase up to and beyond 25% substitution in the future, dependent on tyre availability and the possible incorporation of truck tyres as tyres AFR and technology developments. The final EIA report stated that total replacement of coal with AFR tyres will be unlikely. NPC-Cimpor at a production capacity of 1000 000 tpa of clinker produced, use 130 000 tpa of coal, the replacement with AFR at a 12% substitution rate; will represent an annual reduction of 15 600 tpa of coal (SRK, 2011). the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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CONSTRAINTS

Challenges in bringing potential opportunities for waste-to-energy projects to the market can be summarised as follows: • Landfill disposal is still relatively cheap. • Electricity generation from coal, although the cost is rapidly increasing, is still relatively cheap. • Capital and Operational Costs of plants are high when compared to landfills and currently many municipalities around the country cannot even afford basic landfill infrastructure to operate sanitary landfills. • Although proposals brought to the table are technologically sound, there always seem to be a lack of consistency in providing a financially viable model (Haider, 2011). • The major driving force in the National Environmental Management: Waste Act is waste minimisation. • No guarantee of waste streams. • The primary obstacle to sustainable waste management services in municipalities is a lack of skills, e.g. 87% of municipalities do not have human capacity to pursue the waste minimisation strategy per the National Waste Management Strategy. This is especially prevalent in rural areas, where insufficient management results in poorer service than in metropolitan areas (South African Institute of Civil Engineering, 2011). • Uncertainty in terms of emissions generated with the burning of waste as alternative heat source. • A waste-culture that shows people only care about waste until it is in the waste bin, what happens thereafter is someone else’s problem (refer Figure 11.6). • Waste-to-energy projects are not considered in the REFIT.

Figure 11.6: Disposal and burning of waste on the outskirts of Burgersdorp Source: Photo taken by JC Baartjes

CONCLUSION

From the above it can be seen that South Africa is required to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions, that a GAP is anticipated in electricity supply and demand, that electricity supply from coal is not sustainable, that excessive waste is still being generated and disposed at landfill sites and that waste-to-energy projects are not considered as part of the national grid. It is necessary to consider the possibilities that Waste-to-Energy technologies present, not only from their energy generation potential, but also from their potential to reduce greenhouse gases and to reduce the amount of waste that ends up in landfill. REFERENCES: Agama (2009) Sustainable Cities: Biogas Energy from Waste - A Feasibility Study and Guidelines For Implementing Biogas from Waste Projects in Municipalities. Amusa, H., Amusa, K. &Mabugu, R. (2009)Aggregate demand for electricity in South Africa: An analysis using the bounds testing approach to co integration, Energy Policy, vol. 37, no. 10. Center for Health and the Global Environment (2011) Mining Coal , Mounting Costs: The Life Cycle Consequences of Coal, Center for Health and the Global Environment Harvard Medical School, Boston. Central Energy Fund (2011) Viewed November 2011, http://www.cef.org.za/. City of Cape Town (2011) City to pursue landfill gas-to-energy project with other partners following amendments to regulations, Media Release No. 146 /2011, 28 February 2011. City of Johannesburg (2011) Launch Of The Johannesburg Landfill Gas To Energy Project, September 21, 2011, Viewed November 2011, http://www.joburg.org. za/gds2040/20sep_landfill.php Department of Energy (1977) Petroleum Products Act (Act 120 of 1977), Government Printers, Pretoria. 132

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Department of Energy (2008) National Energy Act (Act 34 of 2008), Government Gazette, No. 31638, Pretoria. Department of Energy (2010a) Integrated Resource Plan for Electricity, Pretoria. Department of Energy (2010b) South African Energy Synopsis 2010.. Department of Energy (2011) Viewed November 15 2011, www.http://www.energy.gov.za/files/au_frame.html. Department of Minerals and Energy (1998) White Paper on the Energy Policy of the Republic of South Africa, Pretoria. Department of Minerals and Energy (2003) White Paper on Renewable Energy, Pretoria. EcoPartners (2011) Pers. Comm. Eskom (2011) Integrated Report, Eskom Holdings Limited, Johannesburg. Guidelines Report (2009) South African Cities Network, July 2009. Haider, S (2011) Challenges in bringing potential opportunities to the market, Viewed November 2011, http://green-cape.co.za/upload/Waste-to-energy_ round_table at_River_Club_April_11.pdf. Mark Wood Consultants (2006) Environmental Impact Assessment -Proposed Alternative Fuel Project for Kilns 2 and 3 at the Holcim Dudfield Plant, near Lichtenburg, North West Province. BID Document. Marsh Environmental Services (2007) Environmental Impact Assessment: PPC Hercules Secondary Materials Co-Processing Programme, Scoping Report. Medium Term Risk Mitigation Project Team (2010) Medium Term Risk Mitigation Plan (MTRM) for Electricity in South Africa â&#x20AC;? 2010 to 2016 - Keeping the Lights on, Phase 1 Report Current Situation Diagnostic and Project Scope Assessment. Naidoo (2011) Revealed: the cost of electricity from coal, West Cape News, Published 23 February 2011. Nersa (2009) Role of Nersa in diversification of energy in South Africa, Presentation Given To Southern Africa Biofuels Association National Stakeholders Forum 2009, NERSA. New, M., Lister D., Hulme, M. and Makin I (2002) A high-resolution data set of surface climate over global land areas, Climate Research Volume: 21, Issue: 1, Inter-Research. Odhiambo, N.M. (2009) Electricity consumption and economic growth in South Africa: A Trivariate Causality Test, Energy Economics, vol. 31, no. 5. Plastics Federation of South Africa (2011) Energy from Waste, Viewed November 2011, http://www.plasticsinfo.co.za/plastics-the-environment-energy-fromwaste.asp. South African Institute of Civil Engineering (2011) Infrastructure Report Card for South Africa 2011. South African National Energy Development Institute, (2011), Viewed November 2011, http://www.saneri.org.za/. SRK (2011) Draft Environmental Impact Assessment - Proposed Storage and Utilisation of Alternative Fuels and Resources (Tyres) at NPC-Cimpor, Simuma Facility, Port Shepstone, KwaZulu-Natal, Report Prepared for NPC-Cimpor (Pty) Ltd. Report Number 315359/DEIAR. Sustainable Energy Africa (2009) How to implement renewable energy and energy efficiency options - Support for South African local government,Funded by REEEP (Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency Partnership). Winkler, H., Jooste, M. &Marquard, A (2010) Structuring approaches to pricing carbon in energy- and trade-intensive sectors: options for South Africa, Putting a price on carbon: Economic instruments to mitigate climate change in South Africa and other Developing Countries, Energy Research Center, University of Cape Town.

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PROFILE

Puricare International Puricare International was founded in 1990 when the need for more effective and ecologically sound methods for the treatment of water, effluent and air were identified. Puricare International’s technology and processes focuses on the treatment of wastewater without the degradation of natural life support systems by using only state of the art Ultraviolet, specific Multimedia and unique Activated Oxygen technologies. All related treatment processes are energy efficient compared to other methods. Our track record speaks for itself and in collaboration with our distribution and technology licensing partners worldwide, we have experienced expeditious growth and breakthrough technological advances over the past few years. This has made Puricare International a preferred supplier to customers ranging from state owned enterprises, governmental agencies to large international corporations.

Preferred Wastewater Treatment Methods: 1. Activated-Sludge (Effluent) Process The activated-sludge process is a biological method of wastewater treatment that is performed by a variable and mixed community of microorganisms in an aerobic aquatic environment. These microorganisms derive energy from carbonaceous organic matter in aerated wastewater for the production of new cells in a process known as synthesis. A number of microorganisms in the system obtain energy by converting ammonia nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen in a process termed nitrification. This consortium of microorganisms, the biological component of the process, is known collectively as activated sludge. The overall goal of the activate-sludge process is to remove substances that have a demand for oxygen from the system. In the last phase of the activated-sludge plant, the water is exposed to a germicidal UV sterilization process where all remaining harmful bacteria are removed. 2. Industrial Wastewater Process Proven state of the art and chemical free technology is used to reduce the levels of heavy metals and unwanted elements present in industrial wastewater to render quality water that is compliant with required standards. Water is oxidised with activated oxygen and passed through a contact adsorption- and/or ion exchange media. The elements accumulate in the water during a settling and/or a dissolved-airfloatation process and are removed. Clear parted water gravitates into a sump. The sludge slurry is removed for processing and disposal and the sump water is filtered with a multimedia filtration process to remove any remaining impurities. In the final phase of the process the purified water is sterilized with an Ultraviolet (UV) unit and delivered into distribution tanks/river. The process is automatically driven and continuously monitored by a telemetric system. Features and Benefits: • Our wastewater treatment plants can be custom designed in order to treat wastewater of any capacity. • Our plants are manufactured from Fibre Reinforced Plastic (Fibreglass) which eliminates expensive and unnecessary civil works and construction costs. • Our unique activated oxygen technology is used to assist in the degradation process of complex organic molecules, pharmaceuticals and phenols. • By using Puricare’s technology the production of disinfection byproducts e.g. Trihalomethans

PROFILE

• • • • •

(THMs) or other chlorinated byproducts are eliminated. We use a chemical free process doing away with the traditional use of expensive and hazardous chemicals. Ultraviolet (UV) is used to eliminate waterborne pathogens. Recent studies report that our technology effectively removes Faecal coliform and Escherichia coli present in wastewater. Elements present in wastewater, especially industrial wastewater from mines, can be removed. These elements amongst others include Cadmium, Titanium, Thallium, Iron, Lead and Zinc. Satellite Effluent Treatment Plants are ideal for remote areas where infrastructure such as sewer delivery lines and pipes are unavailable. Existing wastewater plants can be retrofitted with our specialized technology. Final water is suitable for irrigation purposes or natural stream discharge and is considered environmental friendly.

In summary we supply: • Planning and design of the plant • Civil requirements (if not outsourced) • Reactor and clarifier tanks • All pipe-work and fittings, aeration pumps, blowers and bridge walkways • Electrical panels/boxes, motors and wiring • All sludge handling pumps • UV germicidal sterilization for final effluent • Telemetry monitoring • Shipment and installation • Operator training and manuals Puricare International’s wastewater treatment processes are environmental friendly, energy efficient and cost effective. Modular Effluent Treatment Plants: 50m³ – 2 000m³/day Plants Typical preparation

Contact details Head Office ,Tel: 044 878 0529, Email: info@puricare.co.za, Website: www.puricare.co.za We are leading the way to a cleaner, healthier environment.

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Integrated Waste Management Facilities Jansie Cornelius Associate EcoPartners (Pty) Ltd

Introduction

Waste management challenges stems from the volumes, pollution threats, health risks, logistical challenges and property devaluations associated with waste. In South Africa over 566 million tonnes of waste are disposed of each year (SAWIC, 2011). Much of the waste ends up in massive heaps on landfill sites, also called waste disposal sites (a typical landfill site is shown in Figure 12.1). Waste generation increase with population expansion and economic development. Wealthier communities, have been observed to generate more waste per capita (DEA, 2005). Poorly managed waste poses a risk to human health and the environment. Uncontrolled dumping and improper waste handling causes a variety of immediate problems, including contaminating water, attracting insects and vermin and increasing flooding due to blocked stormwater drains. In addition, it may result in safety hazards from fires or explosions. Improper waste management also increases greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which contribute to climate change (U.S.EPA, 2002).

Figure 12.1: Typical landfill site Source: Photo taken by JC Baartjes

• • • •

Rapidly filling landfills force new landfills to be developed, often further away with an increased distance, resulting in increased disposal costs. The cost of waste management in South Africa is increasing due to a number of factors including the increase in transport cost, steep growth in population, general waste contaminated with hazardous waste and landfills reaching its design capacity. The following landfill sites have closed in the last 10 years because it has been filled to capacity:

Linbro Park in City of Joburg, 2006; Kay Sands in City of Joburg, 2001; Nigel landfill in Ekurhuleni Municipality, 2004; and Alton landfill in uMhlathuze Municipality, 2004.

Waste Management Problems at the Municipal Level

Municipalities must implement new waste management systems and integrated waste management plans but there is a lack of waste awareness by officials and administrators to plan and implement this. Most generators of waste, whether individuals or companies, do not think about waste generated beyond their property boundary. “Once it is off my property, it is no longer my problem”. Currently most waste reports to a landfill site. There is an absence of recycling infrastructure which will enable separation of waste at source and diversion of waste streams to material recovery and buy back facilities. This will reduce the need for airspace in municipal landfills and keep the cost of disposal down. For every ton of paper recycled three cubic metres and for every ton of PET plastic containers (softdrink and water bottles) six cubic metres of landfill space is saved (PRASA, 2011). One ton of organic waste on a landfill site produces 365 kg of carbon dioxide emissions, the same amount of waste composted only produces 30 kg of carbon dioxide (Full Cycle, 2011). the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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Typical Integrated Waste Management Facilities

Integrated Waste Management (IWM) facilities are dedicated, licensed areas that offer one-stop waste recycling, treatment and disposal services. A typical IWM facility will offer waste management options other than disposal, which include, but is not limited to, separating waste into recyclables (material recovery), facilities for household hazardous and electronic waste, composting facilities and transfer facilities. An IWMF is typically a combination of more than one waste management service at one location. The goal is to divert the municipal solid waste (MSW) stream from landfill sites. An IWM facility must offer to the community options to dispose of typical household waste, which consists of: • Garden waste; • Recyclable waste (plastic, paper, cardboard, cans); • Non recyclable combined packaging material; and • Household hazardous waste (e-waste, fluorescent tubes, batteries, pesticides, biocides). IWM does align with the waste hierarchy as illustrated in Figure 12.2 below. IWM systems should first aim to reduce the amount of waste generated. If waste generation cannot be avoided then reuse what is feasible for reuse. Where necessary waste that cannot be re-used must be recycled (and composted). What cannot be recycled or composted can be used to generate energy. As a last option, waste (that cannot be reused, recycled, composted or used to generate electricity) can be treated to make it less hazardous or disposed to managed and permitted landfill sites (NWMS, 2011).

Figure 12.2: Waste Management Hierarchy Source: NWMS, 2011

Local municipalities as well as public-private partnerships can initiate IWM facilities to reduce or divert the amount of waste going to municipal landfill sites. An IWM facility should consider the following: • Collection of waste: How will the waste be collected?; or will the facility offer collection services?; • Waste awareness campaigns: Community awareness, explaining how the facility will work. (this could be in pamphlets, newspapers, on the water and electricity account.); • Separation of waste at source: Households could be instructed under the by-laws to separate certain types of waste into different receptacles (like coloured bags/bins). Or separate dry recyclables into separate receptacles; • Sorting of waste: Will the site implement manual or mechanical sorting?; • Buy-back opportunities: Will people be paid for recyclables (Certain recyclables can be bought like used oil); • Recycling of recyclable waste: Recycling is a process that involves collecting, reprocessing, and/ or recovering certain waste materials (e.g., glass, metal, plastics, paper) to make new materials or products; • Treatment: Biological treatment of organic waste (composting); • Treatment: Options to make waste less hazardous (e.g. Combining an acidic and an alkaline waste stream to neutralise the pH); 138 the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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• Energy (thermal treatment): Fuel burning of higher calorific value substances; and • Disposal: Will the site be located at an existing landfill site? Will the site extract landfill gas?

Recycling and IWM

IWM has a natural link to recycling. The benefits of recycling in an IWM system can be listed as follows: • Recycling saves raw materials. Using recyclables rather than raw material to make new products; • Saves landfill space. Using recyclables as raw materials results in less waste going to landfill, and – extends the life of landfills so saving limited landfill space; – saves the cost of purchasing and maintaining new landfill sites; and – reduces the cost of transporting waste; • Some recycled organic materials are rich in nutrients and can be used to improve soils (the conversion of waste materials into soil additives is called composting). Recycling and composting generate many environmental and economic benefits, for example, they create jobs and income, supply valuable raw materials to industry and produce soil-enhancing compost (U.S.EPA, 2002); and • Can reduce littering as waste is collected for recycling (waste has value).

The Importance of IWM Facilities

A significant driver to change from waste disposal to an IWM system is limited landfill airspace and rapidly rising cost of landfilling. All municipalities, but most of all urban municipalities, are under pressure to divert waste away from landfill sites and offer more sustainable and viable opportunities. The National Waste Management Strategies and Action Plans SA, 1999 proposed a shift from fragmented, uncoordinated waste management to integrated waste management. These IWM objectives are listed in Table 12.1 below. Existing Waste Management Approach

Strategic Objectives for IWM

Limited focus on control mechanisms Inadequate waste collection services Adverse effect on the environment and public health Fragmented approach with single media focus

Focus on sustainable environmental protection Adequate waste collection services for all Sustainable protection of the environment and public health Consolidated multimedia approach

Conflict of interests

Transparency in conflict resolution

Insufficient information Inadequate environmental planning

Integrated Waste Information System Holistic integrated environmental planning and capabilities

Inadequate R&D programmes Fragmented regulatory approach

Focused investigations that take cognisance of cross-cutting implications Integrated regulatory approach

Regulations inadequately enforced

Enforcement facilitated

Full waste management costs not realised

Polluter Pays Principle and total cost accounting

Table 12.1 Shift from fragmented uncoordinated waste management to integrated waste management Source: NWMS and Actions Plans SA, 1999

Changes in environmental legislation compel local government to implement services that must adhere to the national norms and standards. These standards include the minimisation, re-use, recycling and recovery of waste, including the separation of waste at the point of generation.

International Trends

Internationally, there has been a positive move for governments and regulatory authorities to actively move away from landfilling municipal waste as a primary waste management practice. Internationally, integrated waste management (IWM) planning is done to optimise waste management by maximising efficiency, and minimising associated environmental impacts and costs. Funds are very the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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important to create proper working IWM facilities. Two primary costs must be considered in any waste management system; initial capital costs (to purchase equipment or construct new facilities) and ongoing operational, monitoring and maintenance costs (U.S.EPA, 2002).

Some Examples of International IWM facilities:

1. The Peel Integrated Waste Management Facility (IWMF) is the largest of its kind in Canada (Region of Peel, 2011); and consist of: • Single stream material recovery facility (MRF); • Waste transfer station; and • Organics composting plant. The MRF has a capacity to process 130 000 tonnes of material per year. The waste transfer station is approved to transfer up to 100 000 tonnes of waste per year. The organics composting plant has the capacity to process 60 000 tonnes of organic material annually. The facility provides several significant benefits to the region: • Long-term processing capacity for recyclable material and organic waste will enable Peel to meet its waste diversion targets; • This large-scale region-owned facility provides a cost effective solution for the region’s future waste management needs; and • This multi-purpose facility provides flexibility to effectively collect a wide range of recyclable material and organic waste on one truck, which benefits the environment and reduces waste collection costs. 2. Hong Kong Integrated Waste Management Facility: The Hong Kong IWM facility aims to substantially reduce the bulk size of mixed MSW and to recover useful resources. It will minimize the landfilling of waste significantly, thereby extending the useable life of landfills and their extensions in Hong Kong (Environmental Protection Department, 2011). The IWM facility can provide several significant benefits to the region. Apart from avoiding the need to landfill more than 2 500 tonnes of waste each day and recovering approximately 100 tonnes of recyclable material (e.g. metals) each day. The first phase of the IWM facility would recover energy from the MSW which could be used to generate electricity to supply up to 100 000 households in Hong Kong, thereby reducing the use of fossil fuel for electricity generation. The first phase of the IWM facility would contribute positively to the reduction of GHG emission in Hong Kong (Environmental Protection Department, 2011). In South Africa at present the local recycling industry is not subsidised in the same way as in some developed countries that have economic instruments such as green taxes and government grants. Recycling is a competitive business where prices for recyclables are subject to the fluctuations of the market, and supply and demand (DEA, 2005).

The Role of Legislation

The South African legislation listed below is important for waste management and support IWM. Only specific sections of the relevant legislation are captured below.

The Constitution of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996)

Section 24 states that “Every person has the right to an environment that is not detrimental to their health and well-being” In fulfilling the rights contained in section 24, the State is required to put in place uniform measures that seek to reduce the amount of waste that is generated and, where waste is generated, to ensure 140 the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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that waste is re-used, recycled and recovered in an environmentally sound manner before being safely treated and disposed of. It is therefore a requirement that waste must be disposed of in a way that does not negatively effect on the environment.

National Environmental Management Act (Act 107 of 1998)

It is important that the negative and beneficial environmental impacts (direct, indirect and cumulative) of a new IWM facility is investigated before environmental authorisation(s) is approved (the commencement of the activity). Section 24 (1) of NEMA states “In order to give effect to the general objectives of integrated environmental management laid down in this Chapter the potential impact on: (a) the environment; (b) socio-economic conditions: and (c) the cultural heritage, of activities that require authorisation or permission by law and which may significantly affect the environment, must be considered, investigated and assessed prior to their implementation and reported to the organ of state charged by law.”

National Environmental Management: Waste Act (Act 59 of 2008)

The objects of the National Environmental Management Waste Act (NEMWA) support the implementation of an IWM approach. The NEMWA can also require that municipalities implement waste management services other than collection and disposal which can include separation at source and to divert recyclable waste from landfill sites. The relevant sections of the NEMWA are shown in the accompanying boxes. Section 2 “The objects of this Act are: • to protect health, well-being and the environment by providing reasonable measures for: • minimising the consumption of natural resources; • avoiding and minimising the generation of waste; • reducing, re-using, recycling and recovering waste; • treating and safely disposing of waste as a last resort; • preventing pollution and ecological degradation; • securing ecologically sustainable development while promoting justifiable economic and social development; • promoting and ensuring the effective delivery of waste services; • remediating land where contamination presents, or may present, a

significant risk of harm to health or the environment; and • achieving integrated waste management reporting and planning; • to ensure that people are aware of the impact of waste on their health, well-being and the environment; • to provide for compliance with the measures set out in paragraph (a); and • generally, to give effect to section 24 of the Constitution in order to secure an environment that is not harmful to health and wellbeing.” Section11: “Certain organs of state to prepare integrated waste management plans.”

It is very important that new IWM facilities apply for a waste management license before commencing any listed waste management activity. A number of listed waste management activities can be applicable to an IWM facility. IWM facility operators must ensure that the triggers for waste management licenses are understood, and ensure that waste management licenses are applied for, for all waste management activities as required by the relevant waste regulations.

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Section 20:â&#x20AC;&#x153;No person may commence, undertake or conduct a waste management activity, except in accordance with (b) a waste management licence issued in respect of that activity, if a licence is required.â&#x20AC;?

Category A, Activity 2: The storage including the temporary storage of hazardous waste at a facility that has the capacity to store in excess of 35m3 of hazardous waste at any one time, excluding the storage of hazardous waste in lagoons.

Listed Waste Management Activities that may be required by a typical IWM Facility include: Recycling Category A, Activity 5: The sorting, shredding, grinding or bailing of general waste at a facility that has the capacity to process in excess of one ton of general waste per day. Category A, Activity 7: The recycling or re-use of general waste of more than 10 tonnes per month.

Treatment Category A, Activity 9: The biological, physical or physico-chemical treatment of general waste at a facility that has the capacity to process in excess of 10 tonnes of general waste per day. Category A, Activity 10: The processing of waste at biogas installations with a capacity to process in excess of five tonnes per day of biodegradable waste. Category A, Activity 13: The extraction, recovery or flaring of landfill gas.

Composting Category A, Activity 9: The biological, physical or physico-chemical treatment of general waste at a facility that has the capacity to process in excess of 10 tonnes of general waste per day. Storage and transfer (storage of waste and household hazardous waste until collection) Category A, Activity 1: The storage, including the temporary storage, of general waste at a facility that has the capacity to store in excess of 100m3 of general waste at any one time, excluding the storage of waste in lagoons.

Category B, Activity 4: The biological, physical or physico-chemical treatment of hazardous waste at a facility that has the capacity to receive in excess of 500 kg of hazardous waste per day. Category B, Activity 5: The treatment of hazardous waste using any form of treatment regardless of the size or capacity of such a facility to treat such waste. Category B, Activity 8: The incineration of waste regardless of the capacity of such a facility.

Other legislation that should be taken into consideration before starting an IWM facility is the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998), National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (Act 39 of 2004) and other legal requirements and agreements. The Polokwane Declaration (box below) sets out the medium term waste reduction goals for South Africa to achieve by 2022. Polokwane Declaration

A shared, national vision of zero waste by 2022 was formulated in the Polokwane Declaration in September 2001. Interim targets include a 50% reduction in generation of waste by 2012, and a 25% reduction in disposal of waste by 2012. In South Africa, the Polokwane Declaration (2001) endorsed by national, provincial and local government, requires us to cut the generation of waste by 50% and disposal of waste by 25% by 2012. Unfortunately, the achievement of these goals to date has been to some extent absent. South Africa currently disposes of in the region

of 20 million tonnes of general waste per year in landfills. The current trend is that this amount increases between 4.5% and 9 % per annum depending on the region and the rate of urbanisation. At this rate, the amount of waste going to landfill will increase to more than 28 million tonnes by 2012. At an average annual rate of increase of 7%, we will have increased our waste going to landfill by 35% instead of achieving the 25% reduction required by the Polokwane Declaration. It will be required to divert and process more than 7 million tonnes per year to achieve the minimum diversion requirement (eThekwini Municipality, 2009).

Conclusion

The volumes, pollution threats, health risks, logistical challenges and property devaluations associated with waste can all be addressed by the development of an IWM strategy that lends to the development of regional IWM facilities. Municipalities and private contractors have started various drop-off centres, buy-back centres and MRF some with success but most of them closed within a very short period after opening due to financial constraints or limited support from the regional community.

Some problems experienced with waste management facilities included:

Financial sustainability requires of the IWM facility to make a profit, or at least break even, when considering the income and expenses statement of the facility. A typical problem experienced by 142 the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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MRF is that the MRF cannot make a profit if the capital and operating expenditure have to be covered with the income generated by the sale of recovered materials. The prices for recovered items fluctuate too much. Many MRFs have closed their operation due to this issue since the operators were expected to make immediate profits. A facility will require the support from government or private enterprises. The amount of waste landfilled can be reduced if other waste management options are available and supported. Over the medium to long-term the processing capacity for recyclable material and organic waste will enable a municipality to meet its waste reduction targets.

Environmental and economic benefits of IWM facilities include:

• Saving of landfill airspace, and thereby prolong landfill life; • Can save on disposal cost as IWM facilities can be centrally located to reduce transport costs to landfill sites; • Job creation; • Improve and growth of the recycling market; • Reduce raw material requirements; and • Reduce the pollution footprint. An IWM system must divert waste from landfill, reduce waste generated and increase recycling. In order to implement the National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS) you would require a coordinated action by households, businesses, community organisations, nongovernmental organisations, parastatals and the three spheres of government (DEA, 2011). The proposed targets (to be achieved by 2016) are that: • 25% of recyclables diverted from landfill sites for re-use, recycling or recovery; • All metropolitan municipalities, secondary cities and large towns have initiated separation at source programmes; and • Achievement of waste reduction and recycling targets set in Industrial waste management plans for paper and packaging, pesticides, lighting (CFLs) and tyres industries. IWM facilities are the most holistic initiative that can be applied by government to implement the NWMS and to meet the set waste reduction goals.

Integrated Waste Management Facilities: An Example of an Effective System

An effective IWM system will have to achieve a balance between the following criteria (Franke): • Environmental effectiveness; • Minimise the environmental effects of the overall system so that it becomes environmentally sustainable; • Becomes economically sustainable; and • Socially acceptability.

An example of IWM facilities in South Africa The Kraaifontein Integrated Waste Management Facility The Kraaifontein IWM facility located in the northern suburbs of the City of Cape Town was been opened in February 2011(City of Cape Town, 2011). The Kraaifontein IWM Facility was the first of its kind to be established in South Africa. The IWM is comprised of the following: • A refuse transfer station; • A compaction hall; • Container handling facilities; the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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• • • •

Garden refuse chipping facilities; A Materials recovery facility; A Domestic recycling centre; and A Public Drop off area.

The design capacity allows for a maximum of 100 tonnes per day MRF and a 1 000 tonnes per day refuse transfer station (Jeffares & Green 2011). Once the IWM facility is fully operational it will process waste from approximately 1 million residents. The new facility has also provided employment for local residents during the construction phase and up to 24 people will be employed at the site. About 120 additional jobs will be created once the materials recovery facility is fully operational (City of Cape Town, 2011).

The Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) at the Malmesbury Landfill Site:

The MRF is located close to the town Malmesbury, north from Cape Town with a population of approximately 40 000. The success of the MRF is ascribed to cooperation between the municipality, landfill contractor, the recycler and sorters. It is estimated that the recycling of waste will reduce the waste stream and the expected life of the landfill site is more than doubled (Snyman, 2009). The municipality collects and drops off MSW and commercial waste at the processing plant. In 2001, 25% of the total incoming mass of mixed waste was processed for recycling and 25% of airspace was saved on the landfill site. The profits from the recycling scheme do not cover the recovery project infrastructure, but income generated through the extension of the landfill lifespan supports and subsidises the recovery scheme (Snyman, 2009). The waste sorting and processing plant is located at the municipal landfill site. The landfill contractor invested in a processing plant with conveyer belt and baler to recover recyclables from the waste stream in order to extend the life of the site. The facility recovers paper, newspaper, cardboard, cans, glass, plastic crates and PET bottles from selected loads of the 60 tonne per day mixed municipal waste stream (Snyman, 2009). The operation does not have high technology mechanical sorting machinery. Workers recover recyclables manually from the mixed waste on the conveyor belt and sort them into bins. The facility employs 22 workers with financial incentives. An appointed manager oversees maintenance and marketing of materials (Snyman, 2009). References: City of Cape Town. 2004. Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan: Draft Final Status Quo Report, City of Cape Town City of Cape Town. 2011. New waste management facility for Kraaifontein, Available from: http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/Pages/ NewwastemanagementfacilityforKraaifontein.aspx [Accessed: 9/11/2011]. City of Johannesburg. 2001. Status Report on the Current Waste Generation and Management in the City of Johannesburg, City of Johannesburg DEA. 2001. Working with Waste, Guideline on recycling of Solid Waste Available from: http://www.environment. gov.za/nwmsi/Recycling/Guidelines/Recycling/ Recycling%20Guideline.pdf [Accessed: 9/11/2011]. DEA. 2005. National Waste Management Strategy Implementation, Recycling Waste Stream Analysis and Prioritisation for Recycling, 4 April 2005 DEA. 2011 National Waste Management Strategy, November 2011 Environmental Protection Department. 2011. The Government of Hong Kong, Special Administrative Unit, Available from: http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/ environmentinhk/waste/prob_solutions/WFdev_IWMF.html) [Accessed: 8/11/2011]. Franke M.&Garmendia A. The application of experience in Europe and Integrated Waste Management to Latin American conditions, Available from: http://www. bvsde.paho.org/bvsacd/acodal/ii.pdf [Accessed: 8/11/2011]. Full Cycle. 2011. Full Cycle, green by nature Available from: http://www.fullcycle.co.za/index.php/vmchk.html [Accessed: 11/11/2011]. Jeffares & Green Consulting Engineers, 2011.Kraaifontein Waste Management Facility, Construction Review, May 2011 Available from http://www.jgi.co.za/ news_detail.php?recordID=2011050101 [Accessed: 10/11/2011]. Polity. 2000. Population and Environment, The Importance of the Environment for Social and Economic Development. October 2000 Available from: http://www. info.gov.za/otherdocs/2000/population/chap3.pdf [Accessed: 10/11/2011]. 144 the waste revolution HANDBOOK

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Prasa. 2011. Paper Recycling Association of South Africa, Available from: http://www.prasa.co.za/why-recycle [Accessed: 11/11/2011]. Region of Peel. 2011. Public Works, Waste Management Available from: http://www.peelregion.ca /pw/waste/facilities/ piwmf.htm) [Accessed: 10/11/2011]. SAWIC. 2011. South Africa Waste Information Centre, Available from: http://www.sawic.org.za/[Accessed: 8/11/2011]. RSA. 1996. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act. Government Printers Pretoria RSA. 1998. National Environmental Management Act. Government Printers Pretoria RSA. 2008. National Environmental Management: Waste Act. Government Printers Pretoria RSA. 1998. National Water Act. Government Printers Pretoria Snyman J. 2009. A zero waste model for the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, Department Civil Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, October 2009. Strachan LJ. &Tomaszewski T. 2009.Beyond landfills: A new age of maximising the value of waste as a renewable energy and job creation resource in South Africa. Urban Sprout. 2011. Green news and opinion, and an organic eco directory, Available from: http://www.urbansprout.co.za/how_are_we_doing_with_ this_recycling_business [Accessed: 10/11/2011]. U.S.EPA. 2002.What Is Integrated Solid Waste Management? Available from: http://epa.gov/ climatechange/wycd/waste/downloads/overview.pdf [Accessed: 8/11/2011]. U.S.EPA. 2002.Waste Transfer Stations: A manual for decision-making. United States Environmental Protection Agency [Online]. Available from: http://www.epa. gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/pubs/r02002.pdf. [Accessed: 10/11/2011]. Zerbock O. 2003. Urban solid waste management: Waste reduction in developing nations. Available at: http://www.cee.mtu.edu/peacecorps/ documents_ july03/ Waste_reduction_and_ incineration_FINAL.pdf [Accessed: 10/11/2011].

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SELECTIVE INTERNATIONAL TRENDS Richard Emery Associate Jeffares & Green (Pty) Ltd, South Africa

Richard Emery, for Jeffares & Green, attended the Sardinia 2011 international conference on waste management (in Sardinia, Italy.) Based on this conference, came a myriad of messages, which starts to show the way integrated waste management is heading, particularly in the developed countries (European, eastern countries USA being some) and a host of other developing countries, like South Africa. These workshops and presentations help create the potential path we, as South Africa, can expect to follow and/or learn from, although many practices and much knowledge in South Africa is already first-world. Below are some extracts (snapshot) from some of the debates, presentations and workshops held:

(Findings) from general discussions:

New Landfills are banned in Austria and Germany and current Landfills only allow waste material with <5% carbon content. Only options for some European countries are: (reduce), re-use, recycle, incinerate and export. Germany imports waste from Austria and surrounds at € 200/ton. (Locally they charge € 100/ton) – for incineration & disposal.

Paper (A.Reller, Denmark, 3 Oct 2011)

Biggest challenge foreseeable for the purposes of recycling and re-use is Electronic Waste. This is because that more and more elements of the periodic chart are used in the manufacture of electronic products, which makes it increasingly difficult to separate the material fractions (post-use) for the purposes of re-use.

EU Framework Directive 2008/98/EG:

This EU Framework Directive aims to reduce biodegradable waste to landfill (base year 1995) (to reduce methane generation): • To 75% by 2006, • To 50% by 2009, • To 35% by 2016.

Paper (P.Lechner, Austria, Opening Pres, 3 Oct 2011)

Landfill design should be (in order of importance) :

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Paper (H.Moora, Estonia, Session A1, 3 Oct 2011)

In Estonia: • Now a ban on landfilling of unsorted waste, • Gate fee at landfill of € 45/ton, • Landfill tax of € 15/ton.

In Lithuania: • No legislation to drive diversion and landfill is the main form of disposal (unlike Estonia).

Workshop (Prof Cossu, Italy, Session B4, 4 Oct 2011)

Approach on old landfills/ closed landfills: • Check if still polluting • If so, DO NOT CAP (if possible) • FLUSH landfill, (Water is food for landfill…not the enemy), this can reduce the “aftercare phase” from 30 years to 10 years?) • Monitor until no longer polluting, • Goal: to achieve STABILITY (Total Organic Carbon).

Paper (T.Shimaoka, Japan, Session B10, 5 Oct 2011)

This paper is on a study done to enhance STABILISATION of landfills by air entrainment. The findings show the best way to do this is to maintain & enhance aerobic conditions. Best: 1 l/min air injection at 2,5m depth (aerobic more dominant) – this results in the least carbon remaining in landfill and least GHG emitted (10 year)

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