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GRAPPLING WITH OUR PAST, LOOKING
FeatURe aRtICLe
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ALPHA SIGMA ALPHA
Grappling with Our Past, Looking Towards a Better Future
Justine “Tini” Wan (NN), Lisa Argento Boyer (EN), Anjelica “Jeli” Fiol (Zɸ), Hanan Stiff (BN)
Over a year ago, our country experienced an emotional surge in a battle for racial justice when a series of senseless Black murders occurred. From learning about the shooting of Breonna taylor in her sleep to witnessing the murder of George Floyd, both at the hands of their local police offi cers, “inspiring” is not quite the word for these moments in our country’s history. However, these events played an infl uential part in bringing attention to a wound that has desperately needed to be addressed.
It is easy to fall hopeless during a time when racial injustice continues to blatantly take place in what is supposed to be a well-developed society. But these murders are an extreme consequence of what is a wide spectrum of systemic imbalance — there is much work to be done in both our society and in ourselves. this is not limited to just issues of racial injustice in our society, although much of our research has centered around racial issues, but on all social matters that may or have already affected past and present members of alpha sigma alpha. a recommendation in the diversity, equity and Inclusion (deI) audit, performed in 2019, was to acknowledge alpha sigma alpha’s history. National council appointed a workgroup to research and write this article. while this article could not possibly include all communication relating to the topic at-hand, we attempted to encapsulate the correspondence we could fi nd. In some instances, specifi c names have been removed for the protection of our members.
“Do the best you can until you know better. Then when you know better, do better.” ~ Maya Angelou
It is our hope that this article sheds some light on our history so that we better know our past and, in turn, can do better and continue to encourage diversity, equity, inclusion and a sense of belonging within our sisterhood.
CONFRONTING OUR PAST
One of the fi rst steps to improving ourselves and our future is by understanding the mistakes and grievances of our past. Alpha Sigma Alpha celebrated its 120th anniversary in 2021 and the organization has certainly grown and changed over the years. When we start refl ecting on our humble beginnings at The State Female Normal School (now Longwood University) in Farmville, VA, it cannot be ignored that we were founded in a place and time that puts much of our early history in the center of race issues in our nation.
In 2015, Longwood University confronted their own history in a statement, saying that “while many individual members of the Longwood community spoke and acted bravely in support of the inarguable principle of equal protection under the law and educational opportunity for all, as an institution Longwood failed to stand up publicly for these ideals, resulting in support to those who opposed desegregation, and falling short in its duty to provide strong moral leadership in the community.”1
It should also be acknowledged that the father of one of our founders, Juliette Hundley Gilliam, “championed the cause of white supremacy” and fought hard to defend racist laws, specifi cally the Walton Law, designed to suppress black votes.2 Mr. George Hundley was the judge that helped Alpha Sigma Alpha offi cially charter our organization. It is clear that he played an important role in helping establish our Sorority, but we do not know how infl uential his beliefs were to the founding of Alpha Sigma Alpha.
It is possible that our founders and earliest members of Alpha Sigma Alpha were focused on establishing Alpha Sigma Alpha as a new sorority concerned with social issues of the time like women’s suffrage. In the very fi rst publications of the Phoenix, readers can almost feel how proud the fi rst members were to be strong and distinguished women with their own ideas of what it means to be a woman. There were members who pushed the boundaries of what it meant to be a working woman or a single woman.
“Alpha Sigma Alpha is a combination of the old and new woman. It believes in the home and in marriage. It rejoiced exceedingly when one of its daughters fi nds her mate and happiness. But Alpha Sigma Alpha believes in single blessedness, indeed the principal symbol of the new Alpha Sigma Alpha is the Phoenix, which built its nest without a mate and arose from it renewed and strengthened. Legend says that the Phoenix likewise fanned the purifying fl ames with its own wings. The unmated AΣA may likewise rise on the wings of the spirit and prove an inspiration to those who walk with their eyes on the ground.”3
Over time, Alpha Sigma Alpha continued to evolve, making decisions on how to become a better and more established sorority so that we could be where we are now. Many of the fi rst Phoenix volumes highlighted the growth and establishment of our Sorority, which was a great feat as we have come so far over a century later. And while there is a lot of inspiration to be found in how we have established ourselves to elevate the infl uence of women in the world, there is a noticeable lack of infl uence when it comes to other social issues, such as the civil rights movement and integration, the LGBTQ+ rights movement and others that have been major parts of our country’s history.
During the 1940s-1970s civil rights era, autonomy was often the validation for national organizations to disobey college and university campus policies implementing integration among fraternities and sororities. In Illinois, the NAACP became involved, noticing that there were pockets of local chapters across the country that were willing to integrate, but the leaderships of those organizations were not as welcoming to the idea.
“The color ban in fraternities and sororities occurs primarily because local chapters are controlled by their national organizations and their alumni. Some few have explicit racial clauses in their constitutions; others have them in their rituals; still others have them through unwritten agreements imposed upon them by their nationals and their alumni. Hence these groups, not directly concerned with or a refl ection of the student body, nevertheless throttle chapter autonomy and deny present fraternitysorority students of the U. of I. that right to pick their own associates.” -Letter from local NAACP branch, February 19574
During that same time, we see a noticeable lack of progression and open-mindedness from Alpha Sigma Alpha. Alpha Sigma Alpha has a document entitled “membership selection policy” from 1957 that stated, “although its constitution has no restrictive clauses, Alpha Sigma Alpha does not extend membership to Negroes.” This policy was distributed to national offi cers [volunteers] with the comment that, “The above statement
FeatURe aRtICLe is for your information. It is to be kept in your confi dential fi le and never to be taken on the campus visits. It is to serve only as your guide and to aid you in dealing with matters involving this question and when need arises.” A 1956 letter addressed between national council members mentioned, “Evidently, this problem of rushing Negro girls is going to continue to come up every year at Greeley...I feel that it is so much safer to talk this over and not put it in writing.” In the same letter, concern was expressed, “We have had enough problems the last few weeks with girls transferring to other colleges and being accepted. It would never work if a Negro went to a college where there were barriers.”5
Further, we found evidence of sisters from Kappa Kappa Chapter (Temple University, PA) and Gamma Delta Chapter (Queens College, NY) who chose to terminate their membership after witnessing women being denied membership because of their race.
In 1964, two collegiate members of the Kappa Kappa Chapter submitted their letters of resignation, saying “This fall, 1963, a Negro girl expressed a desire to rush Kappa Kappa Chapter…The girls voted not to rush her because of her race. Our advisor believed that this decision was best for all concerned. This decision goes directly against the teachings that we seek to live by. We try to follow the way of our Lord and the way that he would treat people. He loves us all and to Him we are all his children. To cut ourselves off from another girl we feel would hurt our fellowship with God and go against his plan for our lives. The girl was not allowed the consideration of being evaluated according to her individual dignity and worth. The decision rested entirely on the racial factor.”6
When submitting their resignation letters to national council, the Kappa Kappa Chapter president explained her point of view: “The entire business of rushing a Negro girl was discussed thoroughly at a chapter meeting and whether or not to encourage this girl to rush was voted upon by the entire chapter. The vote came out in favor of not encouraging this girl. Among the many reasons for this negative vote was that we felt it would be best for the girl herself and also for the future of the Negro sororities now on campus whose membership is quite small.”6
In 1965, a collegiate member of the Gamma Delta Chapter also sent a letter of resignation to the Alpha Sigma Alpha National Council because “it is against every value that I hold to belong to an organization that denies sisterhood to an individual because of her race...as long as I have this choice, I will not belong to any organization in which a minority of members can determine a racist policy for the rest of the group.”7
Intra-sorority correspondence from an Alpha Sigma Alpha visiting offi cer to national council refl ected that the Gamma Delta Chapter president felt these claims were untrue, explaining that the potential recruit was not issued a bid because she “did not measure up to Alpha Sigma Alpha standards regardless of her race.” The correspondence continued explaining that chapter advisor Miss Cox, who was a Black woman and not an initiated member of Alpha Sigma Alpha, also “agreed with the chapter’s thinking on the subject and felt that the Negro girl was not of high caliber and that Gamma Deltas were correct in their evaluation of her.”8
As a response, the national council accepted the member’s resignation without addressing her concerns, closing their letter to her with, “It is our hope that you will always recall with pleasure the time you were affi liated with Alpha Sigma Alpha.”
Interestingly, intra-sorority correspondence also included mention of the possible initiation of the Gamma Delta Chapter advisor Miss Cox. It appeared that the chapter had requested for her initiation but it was not approved, also leading to that same member’s resignation. Miss Cox was then persuaded to return as chapter advisor, and correspondence from the visiting offi cer stated a case for Miss Cox’s initiation, “As those of you who know Miss Cox will concur: she is a fi ne person, attractive, intelligent, etc. She has diligently worked with Gamma Delta through the years and, as you recall, was the chapter adviser at the time of Gamma Delta’s installation in 1957 and, prior to that, the local group. To my knowledge, there is no one to take her place…To be quite frank, if Gamma Delta
1896
Plessy v. Ferguson (allowed separate but equal) 1908
*Alpha Kappa Alpha founded 1913
*Delta Sigma Theta founded ***Phi Sigma Sigma founded
1901 1909 1917
Alpha Sigma Alpha founded **Alpha Epsilon Phi founded **Delta Phi Epsilon founded **Sigma Delta Tau founded * Divine Nine and National Pan-Hellenic sororities. Founded a er Alpha Sigma Alpha at a time when integration did not exist **Current NPC sororities founded a er Alpha Sigma Alpha based in Judaism 18 Phoenix of Alpha Sigma Alpha 18 Phoenix of Alpha Sigma Alpha ***Current NPC sorority founded a er Alpha Sigma Alpha not based in any kind of religious philosophy when founded
requests her initiation: I feel if we vote negatively the only possible reason for such a vote is that she is a Negro. And, quite frankly, if it comes to a vote I feel that I, personally, cannot vote against initiating her with a clear conscience. I also feel that if we do vote to initiate her it can be with no strings attached; that an initiated Alpha Sigma Alpha is an initiated member with all privileges, etc.” Miss Cox was never initiated.
These biases and social issues are not limited to generations past. There has been controversy in recent years surrounding “plantation parties”, also known as “Old South” parties, and their strong affi liation with many sororities and fraternities. We know that these parties have existed in Alpha Sigma Alpha’s history as early as the late 1930s9. At the 1955 Alpha Sigma Alpha convention in Biloxi, MS, the closing convention dinner was labeled as the “plantation and garden dinner.”
RELIGIOUS EXLUSION IN GREEK LIFE
Inclusion is a word we often hear today and Alpha Sigma Alpha has been committed to making our organization more inclusive. Historically, Greek life, including Alpha Sigma Alpha, was not always inclusive of everyone, similar to our nation. If others seemed different, they were shunned. This was not exclusive to potential members of different ethnic or racial backgrounds, but religious backgrounds, as well.
Many National Panhellenic Conference (NPC) sororities were established by women of the Christian faith. Alpha Sigma Alpha is no exception, with Christ being one of our founding exemplars and refl ecting the importance of faith for our founding members. With so many sororities having a Christian foundation, it would have been likely for Jewish women attending colleges in the early 1900s to feel like outsiders when it came to recruitment.
This was evidenced in the origins of the four sororities founded after Alpha Sigma Alpha. Alpha Epsilon Phi was founded in 1909 by seven Jewish women at Barnard College, NY. In 1913, Phi Sigma Sigma was founded by 10 women as the fi rst nonsectarian sorority, meaning they did not require members to adhere to any specifi c religious or political group10. Sigma Delta Tau and Delta Phi Epsilon were also founded by Jewish women, both in 1917 and both specifi cally positioning themselves as groups that were accepting women of all backgrounds during a time when that was not the norm for other established sororities. These four groups were founded at universities in the north where it may have been more progressive than the south but exclusion still existed.
It is hard to pinpoint when our own recruitment practices became more inclusive of non-Christian women. However, Alpha Sigma Alpha archives include correspondences from the late 1960s that confi rm our constitution and bylaws did not include any blatant discriminatory clauses11 . In 1994, Alpha Sigma Alpha offi cially added to our bylaws that chapters are prohibited from barring admission on the basis of race, color, religion, age, disability or national origin.
INTENT vs IMPACT
As an organization that aims to empower our members, it is important to understand that intent, even when it is without malice, can still cause harm or trauma. Implicit bias, defi ned as unconscious attitudes or beliefs that infl uence our perceptions, is often something we don’t realize is causing certain actions or reactions we have.
Our policy of ritual attire is a good example of this. At fi rst, white shoes were required for ritual attire, and then later, nude shoes were allowed. While there was no intention to leave out non-white sisters from participating in rituals; this policy did not consider that “nude shoes” inherently match the skin tone of lighter women. In 2020, this policy was rectifi ed to specify “skin-tone” shoes, rather than “nude.”
In 1992, blindfolding was offi cially removed from Alpha Sigma Alpha’s printing of the Ritual. Although not considered a discriminatory or hazing act on its own, it was decided that some chapters did not follow the “spirit” behind the ritual and, in some cases, took the gesture too far out of context.
In the same vein, we can take a lesson from these
1920
*Zeta Phi Beta founded 1952
Ethel Alpenfels fi rst recipient of Recognition of Eminence Award
1922
*Sigma Gamma Rho founded 1955
Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott
1954
Brown v. Board of Education 1957
The Little Rock Nine and the Little Rock Central High School Integration
FeatURe aRtICLe moments in Alpha Sigma Alpha history that it is always possible for our impact to land differently than our intent. Even with the intent to be more inclusive, we must constantly pause and refl ect if our actions are making the positive impact we desire. It is possible, even with great intentions, to falter and make mistakes. Change is often cyclical, not linear, and if we do make mistakes or encounter bumps in the road, we must remind ourselves to continually confront our past so that we can continue learning and growing.
ALPHA SIGMA ALPHA’S INFLUENCE
It is normal to confront our past with mixed emotions but it is an important step to learn about our history and fi gure out how to progress. Although there have been many areas of our past we can certainly improve upon, there are also moments where we can draw inspiration and strength.
Adopting Special Olympics as a Philanthropic Partner In 1976, Alpha Sigma Alpha offi cially adopted the Special Olympics as a philanthropic partner, offering amazing opportunities for our members to promote respect, acceptance, inclusion and human dignity for people with intellectual disabilities. Sisters are able to meet and make long-lasting friendships with children and families they meet at Special Olympics events, including local polar plunges, fundraising events and other sporting events. Part of Special Olympics is the Spread the Word: Inclusion campaign, a movement to help people commit to ending the usage of the R-word (“retarded") while promoting inclusion and empowering all people with intellectual and developmental abilities.
Verbiage in Governing Documents Alpha Sigma Alpha has made improvements in our governing documents in just the last two decades. In 1994, our governing documents specifi ed that “chapters are prohibited from barring admission on the basis of race, color, religion, age, disability, or national origin.” In 2006, this bylaw was updated to also include “sexual orientation” and, in 2014, to include “marital/familial status” and “veteran status.” In 2017, the governing documents were once again updated to, “Every Alpha Sigma Alpha chapter is required to use the Membership Selection Procedure to evaluate any undergraduate student who identifi es as a woman and is seeking membership. Chapters are prohibited from barring admission on the basis of race, color, religion, age, disability, marital/familial status, veteran status, national origin, or sexual orientation.” We were never in the habit of looking for any further verifi cation of a woman’s identity and fi nalizing the verbiage in our governing documents solidifi ed our stance in accepting any woman at her word.
In 2020, the National Policy on Legacies was updated so that chapters no longer were required to invite legacies to the fi rst invitational round of recruitment. They were also no longer required to notify related members when releasing a legacy. While Alpha Sigma Alpha values relationships, including ones that exist among family members, the elimination of our legacy policy also eliminated preferential treatment during the recruitment process, opening up our recruitment and membership to more groups of people who may not have had the legacy privilege and opportunity in their familial history.
Ritual Changes Since the fi rst printing of the Ritual in 1932, our ritual has been updated six times. Most of these updates were additions of new services and adjusting for more modern language. In 2018, our national council appointed a study team to review the 2007 edition of The Ritual of Alpha Sigma Alpha. National council reviewed feedback from focus groups about attire, logistics, and the language and manner of the Ritual. Updates were made and a new edition was published in 2020.
The fi rst notable change was that ritual language was updated to be more inclusive of members with different faiths. While the tenets of Alpha Sigma Alpha’s rituals remain constant and biblical quotes remain in current rituals, just as other spiritual and secular quotes remain, further references to the Bible or indications
1960
The Greensboro Four and the Sit-In Movement Ruby Bridges and the New Orleans School Integration 1964
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 superseded all state and local laws requiring segregation 1976
Alpha Sigma Alpha adopted Special Olympics as a philanthropic partner
1961
Freedom Ride 1965
Bloody Sunday - Selma 1994
Alpha Sigma Alpha added to our bylaws: Chapters are prohibited from barring admission based on race, color, religion, age, disability or national origin.
that members look to Christ for spiritual guidance were removed. References to “altars” were replaced with the word “table,” and there is no longer a need for members to place their hand on a Bible when taking ritual vows.
Other aspects of inclusivity became a focus as we now have dyslexia-friendly large-font and Braille versions available. A section was added in the foreword called “Care for Our Sisters” and offers guidance for logistical accommodations for members with all abilities.
Phoenix Degree attire has been adjusted to allow members to wear badge attire. This removes barriers and relieves the of stress of time and fi nances to fi nd a white outfi t in three days.
As previously mentioned, the description of ritual attire requirements was also updated. Now, “white attire” includes “white or skin-tone dress shoes...hosiery is not required, but if a woman chooses to wear hosiery, it must be white or skin tone. Undergarments should also match a member’s skin tone.”
These are just some of the notable changes that have been made in regards to our rituals and we are proud to say that our Ritual is more inclusive than it has ever been while still upholding our central beliefs as a sorority.
Ethel J. Alpenfels Alpha Sigma Alpha member Ethel J. Alpenfels of the Beta Beta Chapter, a progressive sister in her time, wrote about racial equality. Some of her notable publications include “Sense and Nonsense about Race” (1946) and “Race Against Time” (1947). In 1950, Ethel was honored as one of fi ve outstanding women in the U.S. in the fi eld of human relations by the National Association of Negro Women. In 1952, Alpha Sigma Alpha honored Ethel as the fi rst recipient of the Recognition of Eminence Award, an award designed to recognize alumnae whose professional or community achievements have attracted attention beyond the circle of Alpha Sigma Alpha membership. That same year, Ethel was voted as an honorary member of Alpha Kappa Alpha.
Ethel’s legacy and her chapter’s forward-thinking continued to shine on despite the national organization still being slow to progress. The Beta Beta Chapter (University of Colorado, Greeley) requested clarifi cation from national headquarters in 1956 regarding discrimination in recruiting because they were interested in rushing a Black woman. While we do not know the exact outcome of their request, there were several other written correspondences to university offi cials from that time that made clear we had no discriminatory clauses in our constitution or bylaws. However, as noted earlier in this article, internal correspondence said differently.
PAGE 44 & 45 OF “SENSE AND NONSENSE ABOUT RACE” (1946) WRITTEN BY ETHEL J. ALPENFELS, BETA BETA.
2006
Alpha Sigma Alpha added “sexual orientation” to bylaws. It reads: Chapters are prohibited from barring admission based on race, color, religion, age, disability, national origin or sexual orientation. 2017
Terminology added to membership selection to address those identifying as woman
2014
Alpha Sigma Alpha added two more, so it reads: Chapters are prohibited from barring admission based on race, color, religion, age, disability, marital/familial status, veteran status, national origin or sexual orientation 2020
Ritual changes to be more inclusive in the areas of attire, logistics, language and manner
aNNUaL RepORtFeatURe aRtICLe
In 2021, Alpha Sigma Alpha took the official steps towards prioritizing diversity, equity and inclusion, starting with our DEI framework. The initial framework is as follows:
1
PRIORITIZING DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION
We need leadership and a committed effort to make Alpha Sigma Alpha more inclusive. A vision reminds us why the work is important and metrics keep us focused.
This work will require all members of Alpha Sigma Alpha to work together to create a membership experience that facilitates an environment of trust and authenticity.
The portrait of Alpha Sigma Alpha membership has changed over time and we have an incredible wealth of identities, stories and backgrounds to share and learn from our members.
The success of Alpha Sigma Alpha is amplified when we engage with individuals who bring different perspectives to our sisterhood.
Growth and development allow members to reach their potential as women and leaders, especially when that learning is rooted in the principles of diversity, equity and inclusion.
Define the vision and value of diversity, equity, and inclusion in Alpha Sigma Alpha. Establish goals related to DEI and measure progress against our goals. Allocate resources to advance DEI initiatives.
Promote inclusive values, norms and behaviors. Foster an environment of trust through transparency and communication. Audit organizational policies and procedures to encourage equity and promote accountability for DEI initiatives.
Create and seek opportunities for members to share their unique stories and experiences. Feature the richness and diversity of our membership on media and marketing platforms. Pursue self-reflection as it relates to Alpha Sigma Alpha’s history.
Address bias in recruitment and membership selection processes. Adopt inclusive hiring methods. Develop a process to identify and recruit volunteers with varied backgrounds and experiences.
Provide targeted opportunities for volunteers and leaders to grow through DEI education. Incorporate DEI education in events and programming. Establish a comprehensive library of DEI resources and training modules that are accessible to all members.
CULTURE
2
3
TELL OUR STORY
RECRUIT AND DEVELOP DIVERSE TALENT
4
5
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT
“Diversity is being invited to the party. Inclusion is being asked to dance.” —Vernā Myers
HOW DO WE MOVE FORWARD? A CALL TO ACTION
It takes a village, and, in Alpha Sigma Alpha’s case, every member of our Sorority to implement change when it comes to Diversity, Equity & Inclusion. In the past, Alpha Sigma Alpha had members who forged ahead toward more equal and inclusive rights for women of color, even when the national organization and NPC were stagnant and slower to move in that direction. Moving forward, we must ask ourselves:
What steps are we, from both the national and local level, taking to create leadership teams that are diverse and inclusive?
How are collegiate chapters creating a great experience for potential members, no matter their race, religion, ability and more, during recruitment?
What biases and stereotypes are we perpetuating in our recruitment and membership selection process, and how do we change?
How are we creating more opportunities for members to share their unique stories without tokenizing their identities and experiences?
In what ways are we actively self-refl ecting on our past so that we can create better goals for our future? Members can prioritize diversity, equity and inclusion in their everyday lives by being open-minded towards people of different cultures and those who look and act differently from themselves, especially during recruitment and membership selection. It will also be important for individual chapters to foster a sorority environment that is welcoming and nurturing to others so that potential new members will be excited to join and stay as members. Another way members can prioritize diversity, equity and inclusion in their chapters is by hosting and attending DEI-centered events as part of their educational programs each academic year. Chapters are encouraged to continue planning and hosting these events and share what has been successful so that others may also implement those programs. Chapters and members should continue to seek guidance from our national and regional leadership when there are questions surrounding best practices for recruitment and membership selection, membership experience, rituals and other offi cial Alpha Sigma Alpha policies. As the top leadership, our national council sets an example of what it means to make our organization more diverse, equitable and inclusive; not in a performative way, but in an infl uential way. This may include setting strategies, policies and procedures so that they refl ect DEI values, and defi ning measurable goals and areas of success and failure when it comes to these initiatives.
“Basic values do not deteriorate- the foundation stones of human behavior are today what they were yesterday and many yesterdays before. Only our approach to them may be different. To maintain a well-balanced view, we need association with women from many sections of the country, women who are a product of varying cultures.” -Mrs. W. [Mary] Lawson Blackstone, Alpha Sigma Alpha National President 1961-64
At a glance, it may seem that change comes slowly, but that does not mean we are not already changing and being shaped at this moment. We must be encouraged by why we are here in the fi rst place. If you are an Alpha Sigma Alpha, you should be proud that you have been chosen for your character and concern for others. As we move forward elevating the infl uence of women in the world, we must work together to hold each other accountable and continue to grow our Sorority for the better, so that all of our members, present and future, “love life and joyously live each day to its ultimate good.”
REFERENCES
1. Anderson, N. (2015, January). Longwood U. in Va. expresses regret for actions in civil rights era, apologizes. Washington Post. Retrieved January 6, 2022, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/ local/education/longwood-u-in-va-expresses-regret-for-actions-incivil-rights-era-apologizes/2015/01/18/14fc2e02-9ce1-11e4-a7ee526210d665b4_story.html
2. Burrell, C. E. (1922). A history of Prince Edward County, Virginia: from its formation in 1753, to the present. Williams Printing Company. 5. Bell, E. G. (1956, November 24). [Letter to Polly Schlosser & Wilma Wilson Sharp].
6. Thorsen, K., & Smith, J. (1964, March 17). [Letter].
7. Latter, M. M. (1966, January 17). [Letter].
8. Brewer, V. C. (1965, November 15). [Letter].
9. Phoenix of Alpha Sigma Alpha, 25(1). (1938, November).
3. Phoenix of Alpha Sigma Alpha, 1(14). (1916, February 8).
4. E. John Dorr, President NAACP Champaign-Urbana Branch Letter to University of Illinois, February 1957 10. Our founding. (n.d.). Phi Sigma Sigma. Retrieved January 6, 2022, from https://www.onephisigmasigma.org/we-are-phi-sig
11. Goeke, M. C. (1965, October 13). [Letter to Harry L. McCloskey].
NOTES
The word “negro” is transcribed directly as it is written in its source (sometimes capitalized and others not).