American Archaeology Magazine | Fall 2004 | Vol. 8 No. 3 by American Archaeology Magazine

UNDERSTANDING 19TH-CENTURY INDUSTRY • THE BIRTH OF THE MAYA • PREHISTORY DEFROSTED FALL 2004

a quar terly publication of The Archaeological Conservancy

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Vol. 8 No. 3

archaeological tours

led by noted scholars

superb itineraries, unsurpassed service For the past 29 years, Archaeological Tours has been arranging specialized tours for a discriminating clientele. Our tours feature distinguished scholars who stress the historical, anthropological and archaeological aspects of the areas visited. We offer a unique opportunity for tour participants to see and understand historically important and culturally significant areas of the world. Professor Barbara Barletta in Sicily

SICILY & SOUTHERN ITALY

VIETNAM

Touring includes the Byzantine and Norman monuments of Palermo, the Roman Villa in Casale, unique for its 37 rooms floored with exquisite mosaics, Phoenician Motya and classical Segesta, Selinunte, Agrigento and Siracusa — plus, on the mainland, Paestum, Pompeii, Herculaneum and the incredible "Bronzes of Riace."

Beginning with Hanoi’s rmuseums and ancient pagodas, we continue into the heartland to visit some of the ethnic minorities who follow the traditions of their ancester’s. We will see the temples and relics of the ancient Cham peoples, and the villages and religious institutions of the modern Cham. In the imperial city of Hue, marvelous OCTOBER 9 – 25, 2004 17 DAYS remains of the Nguyen kings are set against the romantic Perfume River, while in the old port of Hoi An the blend of Led by Prof. Barbara Barletta, University of Florida architectural styles of its temples, pagodas and shrines MAY 28 – JUNE 13, 2005 17 DAYS will enchant us. After exploring the waterways of the delta, Led by Prof. Blaise Nagy, College of the Holy Cross we end our stay in the river port of Ho Chi Minh, where a sense of vitality permeates the atmosphere. THE DESERT FRONTIERS OF EGYPT An exploration of ancient Egypt’s geographic frontiers DECEMBER 31, 2004 – JANUARY 16, 2005 17 DAYS and the peoples, goods and ideas that have crossed Led by Prof. Jeffrey Riegel, U. of California, Berkeley them. Highlights include border fortifications along the SRI LANKA Suez, the ancient remains of a turquoise mine at Sarabit el-Khadim, Coptic desert monasteries along the Among the world’s first Buddhist kingdoms, the island of Red Sea, St. Catherine’s monastery in the Sinai and the Sri Lanka offers wonders far exceeding its small size. As newly opened tombs and temples in Luxor. Our four- we explore this mystical place, we will have a glimpse of day cruise on Lake Nasser will enable us to visit sites life under kings who created sophisticated irrigation not easily accessible to travelers. The spectacular systems, built magnificent temples and huge dagobas, desert landscapes of the Sinai and serenity of Lake carved 40-foot-tall Buddhas and built a royal residence and gardens on the top of a 600-foot rock outcropping. Nasser will add to the magic of this special tour. Our journey takes us to six World Heritage sites as well OCTOBER 8 – 26, 2004 19 DAYS as monasteries, tea plantations, wildlife sanctuaries, Led by Prof. Lanny Bell, Brown University colonial hill stations, colorful rituals and festivals giving us an understanding of Sri Lankan culture and history. NORTHERN CHILE & EASTER ISLAND 18 DAYS The enigmatic giant statues on Easter Island and the JANUARY 8 – 25, 2005 enormous areas of perfectly preserved geoglyphs of Led by Prof. Sudharshan Seneviratne, U. of Peradeniya northern Chile will be highlights of this unusual tour. In Chile visits include the archaeological remains of THE SPLENDORS OF ANCIENT EGYPT the Atacameno culture, pre-Inca fortresses, fine This in-depth tour begins with six days visiting Cairo’s museums, old colonial churches and Santiago. Lastly, major sites. We will also spend a day in the Delta we study the fascinating prehistoric Rapa Nui culture visiting Tanis and in the Faiyum Oasis to see the collapsed pyramid of Meydum and Roman Karanis. during our seven-day stay on remote Easter Island. With five full days in Luxor we will have a thorough OCTOBER 21 – NOVEMBER 7, 2004 18 DAYS exploration of the temples and tombs of Thebes, as well Led by Dr. Jo Anne Van Tilburg, University of California as Dendera and Abydos before a five-day Nile cruise on GREAT MUSEUMS: Berlin, Vienna & Turin the deluxe Oberoi Philae. The tour concludes with three This tour focuses on the great museum collections of days in Aswan, the Nubian Museum and Abu Simbel. 19 DAYS Egyptian, Classical and Near Eastern Art in Berlin, Vienna FEBRUARY 4 – 23, 2005 and Turin. For all who have visited Egypt, Turkey, Greece, NOVEMBER 11 – 30, 2005 Italy or Syria, or will visit these places, this tour is a Led by Prof. Lanny Bell, Brown University treasure trove of art from their ancient cities. We will visit EASTERN INDIA major collections of Christian art as well as museums known for their paintings. There will also be opportunities Our new tour of the states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar, the birthplace of Buddhism, begins in Hyderabad, to attend opera, ballet or other performances. brimming with palaces, tombs and mosques. In Orissa OCTOBER 7 – 17, 2004 11 DAYS we experience traditional Hindu culture at the pilgrimage Led by Prof. Ori Z. Soltes, Georgetown University town of Puri and the colossal temple to the sun god at Konarak. In Calcutta, capital of British India, we visit SOUTHERN INDIA This popular tour begins in Bombay and includes the India’s earliest archaeological museum. The tour ends in Ellora and Ajanta rock-cut cave temples and the state of Bihar. Housed within a small triangle are Kanchipuram, one of the seven sacred cities of India. We three incredible sites, Bodhgaya, where Buddha gained will visit the famous shore temples outside Madras, the enlightenment, Rajgir, place of Buddha’s meditation, and temples and palaces of Trichy, Madurai, Mysore, Goa and Nalanda, site of the great 5th-century international sail the backwaters of Kerala to Cochin. Highlights of the Buddhist university. The tour is enhanced by colorful tour will be Badami’s cave temples and the extraordinary cultural performances commissioned for our group. FEBRUARY 18 – MARCH 8, 2005 19 DAYS FEBRUARY 7 – MARCH 3, 2005 24 DAYS Led by Prof. Sudharshan Seneviratne, U. of Peradeniya Led by Prof. John M. Fritz, University of Pennsylvania

Vijayanagar ruins at Hampi, a World Heritage site.

GREAT MUSEUMS: Byzantine to Baroque

As we travel from Assisi to Venice, this spectacular tour will offer a unique opportunity to trace the development of art and history out of antiquity toward modernity in both the Eastern and Western Christian worlds. The tour begins with four days in Assisi, including a day trip to medieval Cortona. It then continues to Arezzo, Padua and Ravenna, where we will see churches adorned with some of the richest mosaics in Europe. Our tour ends with three glorious days in Venice. Throughout we will experience the sources of visual inspiration for a thousand years of art while sampling the food and drink that have enhanced the Italian world since it was the center of the Roman Republic and Empire. MARCH 2 – 13, 2005 12 DAYS Led by Prof. Ori Z. Soltes, Georgetown University MAYA SUPERPOWERS

This tour examines the ferocious political struggles between the Maya superpowers in the Late Classical period. At the heart of these struggles was a bitter antagonism between Tikal in Guatemala and Calakmul in Mexico. New roads will allow us to visit these ancient cities, as well as Lamanai, the large archaeological project at Caracol in Belize, Copan and Edzna and Kohunlich in Mexico. The tour also provides opportunities to experience the still-pristine tropical forest in the Maya Biosphere Reserves. Our adventure ends in Campeche, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. MARCH 5 – 21, 2005 17 DAYS Led by Prof. Jeffrey Blomster, George Washington U. NOVEMBER 11 – 27, 2005 Led by Prof. John Henderson, Cornell University TUNISIA

Based in Tunis for four days, we will spend a full day at Phoenician Carthage and explore the northeastern part of the country. Leaving Tunis we tour Dougga, Thuburbo Majus, the unique underground Numidian capital at Bulla Regia, Sbeitla, the Islamic monuments in Kairouan and Tunisia’s major Roman and Byzantine sites. We will spend two days exploring oases deep in the Sahara Desert — plus lovely coastal towns, Berber villages and exotic bazaars. MAY 20 – JUNE 5, 2005 17 DAYS Led by Professor Pedar Foss, DePauw University ADDITIONAL TOURS

Egypt for Grandparents & Grandchildren; Libya; Malta, Sardinia & Corsica; Silk Road of China; Ireland; Japan; Cyprus, Crete & Santorini; Etruscan Italy...and more.

american archaeology a quarterly publication of The Archaeological Conservancy

Vol. 8 No. 3

fall 2004

COVER FEATURE

THE WORLD WIDE WEB OF ANTIQUITIES BY ELAINE ROBBINS

The Internet is providing a new market for illegal antiquities trading. Archaeologists and law enforcement officials are struggling to deal with this problem.

U N D E R STA N D I N G 1 9T H- C E N T U RY I N D U S T RY BY HILARY DAVIDSON

America’s military-industrial complex began with the West Point Foundry. Archaeologists are investigating the foundry’s remains to understand how it operated.

PREHISTORY DEFROSTED BY CATHERINE DOLD

Melting ice patches in Canada’s Yukon Territories are yielding amazing ancient organic artifacts.

THE BEGINNINGS OF MAYA C I V I L I Z AT I O N BY MICHAEL BAWAYA

Researchers have largely ignored the piedmont region in southern Guatemala. But there are indications that it played an important role in the Maya’s development.

THE FATHER OF SOUTHWESTERN ARCHAEOLOGY BY TAMARA STEWART

new acquisition W O O D L A N D S I T E D O N ATED BY C O N C E R N E D LANDOWNER

Having never been excavated, the Giesey site could offer a wealth of information about its inhabitants.

new acquisition EXPLAINING MISSISSIPPIAN EXPA N S I O N

The John Chapman site could answer questions about why the Mississippians moved north.

new acquisition G E T T I N G A GLIMPSE OF THE ADENA

The Williams-Morgan Archaeological Preserve offers researchers an intact Adena mound.

point acquisition THE CONSERVA N C Y ACQUIRES EARLY 1 7T H- C E N T U RY I R O Q U O I S VILLAGE European glass trade beads recovered from the site provide important clues to the area’s chronology.

point acquisition PRESERV I N G E V I D E N C E O F C U LTURAL TRANSITION

The DePrato site is a well-preserved example of cultural change in Louisiana.

american archaeology

JERRY RABINOWITZ

Alfred Vincent Kidder employed a scientific methodology in his work at Pecos Pueblo.

2 Lay of the Land 3 Letters 5 Events 7 In the News Fort Collins Acquires Famous Site • Link Between Jamestown Settlers and Virginia Indians Discovered • Kennewick Man Legal Battle Over?

50 Field Notes 52 Reviews 54 Expeditions COVER: Antiquities trading on the Web is a serious problem. Artifact photos: Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, UNM Design: Vicki Marie Singer

Lay of the Land

n its short history, the Internet has revolutionized the way many of us communicate, do research, and shop. It saves time and opens the world to us. But there is a down side, as we discuss in this issue of American Archaeology. The Internet has become a vehicle for selling looted archaeological artifacts from around the world. Only days after the invasion of Iraq and the looting of its museums and fabulous archaeological sites, the loot began to appear for sale on the Internet. More than a thousand artifacts from dozens of countries are for sale on any day. The opening of this huge new marketplace has in turn been an incentive for increased looting. The na-

tional decline in looting that took place in the 1980s and 1990s has been reversed because this ready market encourages looters to hit once overlooked sites. To date, attempts to curb this trade have largely failed. The big auction houses like eBay say they are unable to tell the difference between legal and illegal items. Law enforcement officials seem overwhelmed. A major effort is needed to curb this growing menace. The U.S. Justice Department and Congress need to take an indepth look at the problem. If current laws are inadequate, then we must pass new ones. The big auction sites need to become more responsible.

DARREN POORE

Dealing With Antiquities Trafficking on the Web

MARK MICHEL, President

They should refuse to list any artifacts for sale. Archaeologists and preservationists must take the lead in pressing for reform. This problem will only get worse unless strong action is taken promptly.

fall • 2004

Letters Dressed For Battle American Indians are interesting people and I have always wanted to know more about their history and culture. The information we have is very limited. I am glad that every once in a while we get more historical information about the first native peoples that inhabited the Americas. Your News article “Comanche Rock Art Depicts Leather-Armored Mounted Warriors” in the Summer issue was informative. With the petroglyphs, we now have some documented proof on what they wore to battle. The leather armor, made from bison skin, is unique. When they placed the armor on their horses, their horses became living tanks. Another fantastic bit about this article is that the archaeologists were able to date the rock to 1700 to 1750. That was incredible. Paul Dale Roberts Elk Grove, California

Studying Kennewick Man I seek to clarify your News article, “Scientists Win Another Kennewick Man Ruling” in the Summer issue. The article reports the recent decision by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upholding the District Court’s decision as a victory of “scientists” over “Native Americans.” This shorthand reference to the plaintiffs and defendants in the case is misleading. Not all scientists are at odds with the Indian tribes and government agencies involved in this long-running suit. More importantly, the article suggests that, had the Indian tribes won, the remains would have been reburied “without a scientific study.” american archaeology

The Kennewick remains have been scientifically studied. Archaeologists, biological anthropologists, and physical anthropologists have conducted detailed and rigorous scientific studies organized by the Department of the Interior and the Army Corps of Engineers as part of the government’s effort to resolve this case. Your article perpetuates an inaccurate perception about scientific study of this set of human remains that is, unfortunately, widespread. Francis P. McManamon, Ph.D, RPA Chief Archeologist, National Park Service Washington, D.C.

Special Travel Special Great Summer issue. We especially liked the “Summer Travel Special” that told of areas of interest to visit and also provided contact information. Please keep doing that for other areas of the country in rotation. We also liked the “Deciphering Maya Hieroglyphs” article. Lewis Picher Denver, Colorado

Sending Letters to American Archaeology American Archaeology welcomes your letters. Write to us at 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517, or send us e-mail at tacmag@nm.net. We reserve the right to edit and publish letters in the magazine’s Letters department as space permits. Please include your name, address, and telephone number with all correspondence, including e-mail messages.

Editor’s Corner The accommodations at Casa de los Hombres were barely basic. Eight beds were crammed into four rooms. Laundry hung from makeshift clotheslines. Around five a.m. the residents began the daily competition for the single bath. A cold shower with low water pressure awaited. Later in the day there would be no running water. After showering and dressing, it was off to the dining room for a quick breakfast, and by seven a day of hot, sweaty work commenced. The task might be cleaning and organizing artifacts in the laboratory, but more likely it was working in the field, mapping, excavating, and screening dirt for artifacts. In the field there is every manner of bug to contend with, not to mention poisonous caterpillars and snakes. People pay good money to do this for two weeks. At least a handful of Earthwatch Institute volunteers did. They came from as far away as Australia to work on an archaeological project in southern Guatemala. This memorable, shall we say, vacation served as a bracing alternative to the more traditional fare of relaxing on the beach or touring foreign capitals. Earthwatch Institute sends volunteers all over the world to participate in research projects, archaeological and otherwise. The work can be hard and the rewards simple—in this case the discovery of a ceramic sherd or an obsidian flake. But, cold showers and all, it can make for a very rich experience.

WELCOME TO THE ARCHAEOLOGIC AL CONSERVANC Y!

he Archaeological Conservancy is the only national non-profit organization that identifies, acquires, and preserves the most significant archaeological sites in the United States. Since its beginning in 1980, the Conservancy has preserved more than 295 sites across the nation, ranging in age from the earliest habitation sites in North America to a 19thcentury frontier army post. We are building a national system of archaeological preserves to ensure the survival of our irreplaceable cultural heritage.

Why Save Archaeological Sites? The ancient people of North America left virtually no written records of their cultures. Clues that might someday solve the mysteries of prehistoric America are still missing, and when a ruin is destroyed by looters, or leveled for a shopping center, precious information is lost. By permanently preserving endangered ruins, we make sure they will be here for future generations to study and enjoy. How We Raise Funds: Funds for the Conservancy come from membership dues, individual contributions, corporations, and foundations. Gifts and bequests of money, land, and securities are fully tax deductible under section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Planned giving provides donors with substantial tax deductions and a variety of beneficiary possibilities. For more information, call Mark Michel at (505) 266-1540. The Role of the Magazine: American Archaeology is the only popular magazine devoted to presenting the rich diversity of archaeology in the Americas. The purpose of the magazine is to help readers appreciate and understand the archaeological wonders available to them, and to raise their awareness of the destruction of our cultural heritage. By sharing new discoveries, research, and activities in an enjoyable and informative way, we hope we can make learning about ancient America as exciting as it is essential. How to Say Hello: By mail: The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517; by phone: (505) 266-1540; by e-mail: tacmag@nm.net; or visit our Web site: www.americanarchaeology.org

5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902 Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517 • (505) 266-1540 www.americanarchaeology.org Board of Directors Vincas Steponaitis, North Carolina, CHAIRMAN Cecil F. Antone, Arizona • Carol Condie, New Mexico Janet Creighton, Washington • Janet EtsHokin, Illinois Jerry EtsHokin, Illinois • W. James Judge, Colorado Jay T. Last, Califor nia • Dorinda Oliver, New York Rosamond Stanton, Montana • Dee Ann Story, Texas Stewart L. Udall, New Mexico • Gordon Wilson, New Mexico C o n s e r va n c y S t a f f Mark Michel, President • Tione Joseph, Business Manager Lorna Thickett, Membership Director • Sarah Tiberi, Special Projects Director Shelley Smith, Membership Assistant • Valerie Long, Administrative Assistant Yvonne Woolfolk, Administrative Assistant R eg i o n a l O f f i c e s a n d D i r e c t o r s Jim Walker, Vice President, Southwest Region (505) 266-1540 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902 • Albuquerque, New Mexico 87108 Tamara Stewart, Projects Coordinator • Steve Koczan, Site-Management Coordinator Amy Espinoza-Ar, Field Representative Paul Gardner, Vice President, Midwest Region (614) 267-1100 3620 N. High St. #207 • Columbus, Ohio 43214 Joe Navari, Field Representative Alan Gruber, Vice President, Southeast Region (770) 975-4344 5997 Cedar Crest Road • Acworth, Georgia 30101 Jessica Crawford, Delta Field Representative Gene Hurych, Wester n Region (916) 399-1193 1 Shoal Court #67 • Sacramento, California 95831

american archaeology

PUBLISHER: Mark Michel EDITOR: Michael Bawaya (505) 266-9668, tacmag@nm.net ASSISTANT EDITOR: Tamara Stewart ART DIRECTOR: Vicki Marie Singer, vsinger3@comcast.net Editorial Advisor y Board Scott Anfinson, Minnesota Historic Preservation Ernie Boszhardt, Mississippi Valley Archaeological Center • Darrell Creel, University of Texas Jonathan Damp, Zuni Cultural Resources • Richard Daugherty, Washington State University Linda Derry, Alabama Historical Commission • Mark Esarey, Cahokia Mounds State Park Kristen Gremillion, Ohio State University • Richard Jenkins, California Dept. of Forestry Trinkle Jones, National Park Service • Linda Mayro, Pima County, Arizona Jeff Mitchem, Arkansas Archaeological Survey • Douglas Perrelli, SUNY-Buffalo Janet Rafferty, Mississippi State University • Judyth Reed, Bureau of Land Management Ann Rogers, Oregon State University • Joe Saunders, University of Louisiana-Monroe Donna Seifert, John Milner Associates • Art Spiess, Maine Historic Preservation Richard Woodbury, University of Massachusetts • Don Wyckoff, University of Oklahoma National Advertising Office Marcia Ulibarri, Advertising Representative 5301 Central Ave. NE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87108; (505) 344-6018; Fax (505) 345-3430; mulibarri@earthlink.net American Archaeology (ISSN 1093-8400) is published quarterly by The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517. Title registered U.S. Pat. and TM Office, © 2004 by TAC. Printed in the United States. Periodicals postage paid Albuquerque, NM, and additional mailing offices. Single copies are $3.95. A one-year membership to the Conservancy is $25 and includes receipt of American Archaeology. Of the member’s dues, $6 is designated for a one-year magazine subscription. READERS: For new memberships, renewals, or change of address, write to The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517, or call (505) 266-1540. For changes of address, include old and new addresses. Articles are published for educational purposes and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Conservancy, its editorial board, or American Archaeology. Article proposals and artwork should be addressed to the editor. No responsibility assumed for unsolicited material. All articles receive expert review. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to American Archaeology, The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517; (505) 266-1540. All rights reserved.

American Archaeology does not accept advertising from dealers in archaeological artifacts or antiquities.

fall • 2004

Museum exhibits Meetings

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Tours

Education

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Conferences

■ NEW EXHIBITS INSTITUTE OF TEXAN CULTURES

National Museum of the American Indian

Smithsonian Institution, National Mall, Washington, D.C.—The much anticipated grand opening of the new museum includes opening ceremonies, the Native Nations procession, a sixday festival, exhibitions, and other events. With its Native-designed architecture, exhibitions, and landscaping, the 250,000-square-foot museum is a one-of-a-kind cultural institution dedicated to the cultures, histories, languages, and artifacts of American Indians. Showcasing objects that represent a 10,000-year time span, the opening exhibitions capture the vast diversity of the Indians of the Americas told from their own perspective. The spectacular First Americans Festival will feature more than 300 of the most talented Native performers representing more than 50 tribes and Native communities. (202) 357-3164, www.AmericanIndian.si.edu (Opening September 21)

NPS

University of Oregon Museum of Natural and Cultural History

Eugene, Ore.—Celebrate the museum’s grand re-opening when the entire exhibition hall will be transformed into a new exhibit, “Oregon–Where Past is Present.” Based on the latest archaeological research, this new exhibit uses thousands of artifacts dating as far back as 15,000 years ago, as well as reconstructions and interactive displays to tell the story of Oregon’s cultural, natural, and geological history. (541) 346-3024, http://natural-history.uoregon.edu (Opening October 8) american archaeology

Events

Festivals

Pier 21 Museum

Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada—The new traveling exhibition “France/New France: From Acadia to Louisiana” marks the 400th anniversary of French settlement in North America, beginning with the first 16th-century settlements. The exhibit examines the role of the First Nations and the motives of French monarchs for colonizing and claiming lands in the New World and those of the French colonists who left their homeland to emigrate to a colony with an uncertain future. (902) 425-7770, www.pier21.ca (Through January 2, 2005) Art Institute of Chicago

Chicago, Ill.—The major new exhibition “Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South” explores the art, ritual, ceremonial places, and settlements of the ancient peoples who lived in the central part of the U.S. between 5000 B.C. and A.D. 1600. The exhibit includes some 300 masterworks of stone, ceramic, wood, shell, and copper. (312) 443-3600, www.artic.edu (November 20 through January 30, 2005)

Institute of Texan Cultures

University of Texas, San Antonio, Tex.—“Sacred Smoke: Tobacco Pipes and the Indians of the Americas,” featuring American Indian pipes from the Red McCombs Collection, offers an anthropological perspective on the use of pipes in American Indian rituals. All tribes used tobacco in many religious rituals involving prayer, healing, and sealing of contracts and treaties. Because tobacco has played such an important role in American Indian beliefs, the pipe is considered a power ful ritual object. Pipes were often carved in the image of animals to assist in spiritual vision quests. (210) 458-2330, www.texancultures.utsa.edu (New permanent exhibit)

Ocmulgee Indian Celebration September 18–19, Ocmulgee National Monument, Macon, Ga. Named one of the top 20 events in the Southeast, this year’s celebration features traditional arts, crafts, technology demonstrations, Native storytelling, dance, and music. (478) 752-8257, www.nps.gov/ocmu 5

■ CONFERENCES, LECTURES & FESTIVALS Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site Indian Pow Wow September 10–12, Collinsville, Ill. Native Americans from across the country will participate in competitive and social dancing at the site’s Dance Circle. Crafts demonstrations will be held at the Interpretive Center. (618) 3465160, www.cahokiamounds.com

Moundville Native American Festival October 6–9, University of Alabama’s Moundville Archaeological Park, Tuscaloosa, Ala. Native American performers and artists will entertain and educate visitors about the rich cultural heritage of the Southeast. Described as the “Big Apple” of the 14th century and a National Historic Landmark, the 320acre Moundville Park contains more than 20 preserved prehistoric mounds, a nature trail, and a museum with some of North America’s finest Mississipian-era artifacts. (205) 371-2234, www.moundville.ua.edu

13th Mogollon Archaeology Conference September 30–October 2, Western New Mexico University, Silver City, N.M. A reception celebrating the museum’s 30th anniversary will kick off this year’s conference, followed by presentations, symposiums, and a public lecture on Mimbres archaeology. (505) 538-6386 Massachusetts Archaeology Month 2004 Throughout the month of October, nearly 100 events are scheduled in communities around the state to promote awareness of the commonwealth’s rich archaeological past. This year’s program offers lectures, tours, storytelling, exhibits, walks, and demonstrations. (617) 727-8470, www.state.ma.us/sec/mhc 3rd Annual Sun Mountain Gathering October 9–10, Museum of Indian Arts & Culture/Laboratory of Anthropology, Santa Fe, N.M. In celebration of 12,000 years of New Mexico’s rich cultural heritage, this year’s event features ancient craft and technology demon-

strations, Indian games and storytelling, the World Atlatl Association, archaeology talks and exhibits, Native music and dancing. (505) 476-1250, www.miaclab.org

Utah Rock Art Research Association 24th Annual Symposium October 9–11, Best Western Red Hills Hotel, Kanab, Utah. This year’s informal theme is about rock art ethics. Presentations and mini-workshops, new this year, will be made on Utah rock art research and related topics. Tours of local sites will be held Sunday afternoon and all day Monday. Contact Troy Scotter (801) 377-6901,troyscotter@comcast.net, www.utahrockart.org 2004 Joint Meeting of the Southeastern Archaeological Conference and the Midwestern Archaeological Conference October 21–23, St. Louis MarriottDowntown, St. Louis, Mo. This year’s conference includes a Thursday evening reception at the Missouri Historical Society in Forest Park, research, and poster presentations. tbaumann@umsl.edu, www.southeasternarchaeology.org 29th Annual Rock Art Symposium November 6, Otto Auditorium, San Diego Museum Zoo, San Diego, Calif. Sponsored by the San Diego Museum of Man, rock art scholars will present the very latest about pictographs and petroglyphs during this comprehensive symposium. (619) 239-2001, www.museumofman.org fall • 2004

MOUNDVILLE ARCHAEOLOGICAL PARK

Events

Kanab, Utah—New intriguing exhibits explore the science of archaeology through life-size replicas of excavations, artifacts recovered from the monument, and “Ask the Experts” audio-visual programs. The progression of the area’s material culture is revealed through a timeline illustration from Paleo-Indian and Archaic through Fremont, Anasazi, Paiute, and modern times. (435) 644-4300, www.ut.blm.gov/monument (New long-term exhibits)

BLM

Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument

Fort Collins Acquires Famous Archaeological Site Colorado’s Lindenmeier Paleo-Indian site is one of the nation’s most significant.

in the

NEWS

JIM WALKER

his past May, the City of Fort Collins, in northern Colorado, purchased the Soapstone Ranch near the Colorado-Wyoming border for nearly $7.3 million. The ranch, which is more than 12,500 acres, contains the Lindenmeier site, a National Historical Landmark and one of North America’s most important archaeological sites. The Archaeological Conservancy is working with the city to design a long-term cultural resource management plan for the site. Lindenmeier was discovered in 1924, two years before the famous discovery of human artifacts in association with extinct bison at Folsom, New Mexico, that helped to define the Paleo-Indian culture. Lindenmeier’s significance was not recognized until 1930, when E. B. Renaud of the University of Denver noted the similarity between Lindenmeier’s projectile points and those from the Folsom site. Lindenmeier was excavated by Frank Roberts of the Smithsonian from 1934 to 1940, and in 1935 by a group from the Colorado Museum of Natural History in Denver under the direction of J. D. Figgins. Largely due to his work at Lindenmeier, Roberts introduced the term “PaleoIndian” to American archaeology. In 1959, Vance Haynes and the late George Agogino of the University of Arizona, radiocarbon dated a sample from the site to approximately 12,900 years ago, which is during the Folsom period of the Paleo-Indian culture. Later occupation of the site has been dated to between 8000 and 5000 B.C. during the Plano period.

american archaeology

The first known Folsom-period camp was discovered at the Lindenmeier site. Lindenmeier has been called one of North America’s most important archaeological sites.

“In my opinion, this is the most important site in North America for better understanding the Folsom technocomplex, its origin, and development,” said Vance Haynes. Lindenmeier contains the first known camp from the Folsom period, as well as an animal-processing site. It was periodically revisited by small groups of hunter-gatherers. A variety of stone scrapers, knives, engraved bone (including possible gaming pieces), bone needles, a hematite bead, diagnostic fluted Folsom points, and other stone tool and projectile point fragments have been recovered from the site. Animal remains found

at the camp include nine species of extinct bison and camel, pronghorn antelope, rabbit, fox, and wolf. Environmental reconstructions have shown that a wet meadowland was located adjacent to the camp during its Folsom occupation, providing an abundance of natural resources for the site’s inhabitants. The acquisition of Soapstone Ranch is part of a project involving Fort Collins, Colorado’s Larimer County, and The Nature Conservancy that will eventually protect tens of thousands of acres along the Colorado-Wyoming border. —Tamara Stewart 7

in the

NEWS

Jamestown Copper Discovered At Indian Village Sites Find indicates trade between the colonists and native peoples.

U.S. NAVY

rchaeologists working at the U.S. Naval Weapons Station in Yorktown, Virginia, have discovered evidence of the relationship between Jamestown’s earliest settlers and Virginia’s Indians. While conducting tests at two newly discovered Kiskiak Indian villages, the archaeologists with the William & Mary Center for Archaeological Research found two small pieces of copper along with several other artifacts of English origin in a trash midden. Prior to European arrival to the area, copper was very rare, consequently colonists obtained great quantities of food in exchange for small bits of the metal. “Copper was the most precious material known to Virginia’s Powhatan Indian groups,” explained Dennis Blanton, former director of the William & Mary Center. “Those who possessed and controlled it were recognized as holding the highest status in their communities.” The Powhatans fashioned copper into gorgets, tubular beads, and other items. Analysis of the chemical makeup of the copper pieces found at the Kiskiak sites showed it to be consistent with copper found at Jamestown, which originated in Great Britain and Sweden. While historic accounts have long indicated that sheet copper was a very important item of trade and played a critical role in the survival of Jamestown, this is one of very few tangible links that have been found between Jamestown and Indian village sites. But as European traders brought more and more copper, Indians began to demand other goods of greater value in exchange for food

An excavator works in a midden where the copper (see inset photo) was discovered. As copper became more common it lost its value, which explains why it was found in a pile of trash.

and security, resulting in a serious economic crisis at Jamestown and strained relations between the colonists and the Powhatan Indians. “Its loss of value due to the glut of English copper is what led, we believe, to the discard of copper in common Indian trash heaps,” said Blanton. When the Jamestown settlers had no trade items of value to the Powhatans, the Indians tried to cut off the settler’s food supply, and the settlers retaliated with military force, driving the Kiskiak people, the last natives in the area, north to the Rappahannock River by 1622. Kiskiak was one of about 30

chiefdoms that made up the domain of the powerful leader Powhatan, father of Pocahontas and ruler of more than 15,000 people along coastal Virginia. Kiskiak was the principal Indian settlement located closest to the site of Werowocomoco where Chief Powhatan lived. The location of Werowocomoco was identified by archaeologists last year in nearby Gloucester. Both of these sites were depicted on a 1612 map of the region created by Captain John Smith of Jamestown, thus their general locations have been known of for centuries. The Navy plans to preserve these settlements. —Tamara Stewart fall • 2004

A Remarkable Archaeological Acquisition Utah obtains land containing thousands of pristine sites.

KEVIN JONES

he State of Utah has acquired Range Creek Ranch, a vast tract of land that is believed to contain several thousand pristine archaeological sites. The sites, located in the remote Range Creek Canyon in eastern Utah, were protected for 53 years by the former landowner, Waldo Wilcox. “I was totally unprepared for the complexity, density, and integrity of the archaeological sites,” said Jerry Spangler, an archaeologist with the College of Eastern Utah who was hired to survey the canyon. “What we have is absolutely mind-boggling. So far we have documented up to 300 sites, almost all of which are in pristine condition.” Researchers estimate that between 2,500 and 5,000 archaeological sites are located within the 12-mile stretch of canyon. They include pithouse villages, agricultural and hunting-gathering sites, cliffside granaries, and petroglyph panels and pictographs with an unusual range of colors that include blue, gold, and white. Three radiocarbon dates obtained from sites within Range Creek indicate that it was occupied from A.D. 1000 to 1200.

in the

NEWS

It’s estimated that only five to 10 percent of Range Creek’s sites have been documented.

Kevin Jones, Utah’s state archaeologist, said protecting the sites on the over 4,000-acre tract of land will be a big challenge. —Tamara Stewart

Another Day In Court For Kennewick Man?

The long legal battle for custody of the ancient remains may not be over.

hough four Northwest tribes seeking to rebury the 9,400year-old human remains known as Kennewick Man will not appeal their case to the Supreme Court, the legal wrangling over custody of the remains could continue. The lawsuit Bonnichsen et.al. v. U.S., which began in 1996, pitted the Nez Perce, Umatilla, Yakama, and Colville tribes, in alliance with the federal government, against a group of scientists. The tribes claimed cultural affiliation with Kennewick Man under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) with the intention of reburying the remains. The scientists sought access to the remains for purposes of research. In the most recent decision in this lengthy case, the U.S. Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in favor

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of the scientists last April. Neither the tribes nor the federal government exercised their final legal option of appealing to the Supreme Court. Nonetheless, Alan Schneider, the scientists’ lead attorney, doesn’t think the scientists will be examining the remains in the immediate future. “The case is a long ways away from over,” he said. “It appears that further court decisions will be necessary.” Schneider said his clients have presented the government a research plan describing the type of analyses they want to conduct on the remains. But, despite losing the legal battle, the government has refused to approve the research plan. Schneider thinks it might take another legal decision by a federal district court to force the government to accept the plan and thereby give the scientists access to

Kennewick Man. “We’re still negotiating with the government,” he added. “We haven’t lost all hope.” Should the government suddenly approve the plan, Schneider thinks research could begin at the end of this year. But even if the government changed its stance, one or more of the tribes could file a lawsuit in district court to prevent testing of Kennewick Man. If the parties do go back to court, Schneider doesn’t know how long it would take to resolve the issue. Calls to the Justice Department, which is representing the government, were not returned at press time. Kennewick Man was discovered in 1996 on federal land in southeast Washington state. The remains are kept at the Burke Museum in Seattle. —Michael Bawaya

in the

NEWS

Microbes May Threaten Maya Ruins Tests show bacteria can break down limestone.

VICKI MARIE SINGER

arvard University researchers have discovered microbes inside the porous stone of the Maya ruins in Mexico that could cause their rapid deterioration. The microbes were found in the limestone of structures at the Mayan archaeological site Ek’ Balam in Yucatan, Mexico. Tests indicate that the microbes, identified as endolithic bacteria, can quickly weaken the porous stone structures. Researcher Christopher McNamara and his colleagues selected stone samples, which were broken down into small particles, from exterior and interior sections of the structures. The samples were then analyzed in a laboratory. Upon culturing the endolithic bacteria, they noted its ability to break down the limestone as the bacteria grew. This research has “important implications for the conservation of Maya ruins as well as other stone objects and structures,” McNamara said. The integrity of stone buildings and objects is generally determined by examining surface samples of rock. “Surface analysis of microbial growth and disinfection of stone objects and buildings can no longer be considered sufficient,” he added. McNamara is currently testing the effectiveness of various treatments used to hold decaying stone together. —Sarah Tiberi

The researchers believe their discovery could play an important role in preserving Maya ruins, such as this structure at Tulum, in Mexico.

Amnesty Program Results In Returned Artifacts Collectors in Four Corner’s region faced no penalty when returning items.

n amnesty program developed and overseen by the U.S. Attorneys of New Mexico, Utah, Arizona, and Colorado has resulted in the return of numerous artifacts taken from Southwestern sites over the past 50 years or so. The 90-day amnesty, which ended on August 18, allowed people in possession of culturally important artifacts to return them without facing questioning or prosecution. The U.S. Attorney’s Office in the District of Arizona initiated the program in order to encourage collectors or inheritors to return the important artifacts to their respective tribal owners. “The U.S. Attorneys came

up with this unusual notion in the hopes of recovering artifacts that we wouldn’t otherwise find or know about,” says Mary Catherine McCulloch, assistant U.S. Attorney in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Among the artifacts returned in New Mexico were a 1,000-year-old pot, a 300-year-old Navajo pot, a 300- to 500-year-old ceramic canteen with a painted frog image from Jemez Pueblo, and a stunning Osage eagle claw necklace. Several sacred Hopi items and four corncobs taken from the cliff-side site of Keet Seel on Navajo Nation land, have been returned in Arizona, and human remains from several sites in Utah have

been returned. The New Mexico objects are being held by the University of New Mexico’s Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, where they will be researched and returned to the appropriate tribes by the Department of Justice. “Repatriation is very much part of the process,” says David Phillips, curator of archaeology at the Maxwell Museum. “If no appropriate home can be found for the objects, they will most likely be curated at the Maxwell on behalf of the U.S. Attorney’s Office. Also, if the tribe prefers to have the objects curated at a museum, the Maxwell can do that for them.” —Tamara Stewart

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Budget Shortfalls Threaten Archaeology

in the

NEWS

Association cites threat to cultural resources in national parks.

NPCA

ccording to the private, nonpartisan National Parks Conservation Association (NPCA), a lack of sufficient funding and staff threaten archaeological resources in many national parks. In a new report, the NPCA says the National Park Service (NPS) is operating on about two thirds of the money it needs for adequate maintenance, which amounts to a yearly shortfall in excess of $600 million. The NPCA cited a number of examples of how this lack of funding is affecting archaeological resources: • An estimated 100,000 artifacts are stolen from New Mexico’s Chaco Culture National Historical Park every year because of a lack of security. Archaeological sites are assessed and examined only once a year there. Funding is also inadequate for longterm maintenance and repair of the crumbling ancient stone structures and heavily used trails. Officials at the park have identified a need for a trail management plan but can’t afford to implement it. • Delaware Water Gap in Pennsylvania and New Jersey has insufficient staff to manage and protect the park’s 458 archaeological sites and 1.2 million artifacts, which document 10,800 years of local human history including the cultures of the Delaware, Lenape, and Munsee Indians, and colonial settlements from the mid 18th through the early 20th centuries. • There is a lack of funding to satisfactorily inspect and mitigate the

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decay of Bandelier National Monument’s prehistoric cliff dwellings. Many of the area park rangers were recently sent to high profile monuments to protect against terrorism, leaving the backcountry archaeological sites vulnerable to looting. Because of deficient staffing, Bandelier is unable to provide educational programs or tours to the many school groups that visit the park every year. • Yellowstone National Park has a history of occupation by 21 Native American groups, yet only one percent of the area has been examined for ancient sites. Through natural erosion, land use, and vandalism, sites are being damaged before they can be studied. • The Grand Canyon has over 3,940 archaeological sites and artifacts that document the park’s 10,000-year-old human history. However, only three percent of the park has been surveyed. • Ancient lake deposits at Joshua Tree National Park in California containing early human artifacts and fossils of extinct mammals are unprotected and threatened by weather and by looters. NPS does not have the staff to inventory, record, and protect Joshua Tree’s vulnerable archaeological and paleontological resources. The NPCA’s report is based on information obtained from the parks and organizations that support the parks, said Andrea J. Keller Helsel, NPCA’s Director of Media Relations. “The park service is well aware that we’re concerned about what’s going

The NPCA’s report states that more money is needed to preserve the cliff dwellings at Bandelier National Monument.

on,” she said. She added that concern in the U.S. House of Representatives resulted in an additional $33 million to the NPS’s base operating budget for the upcoming year. The Senate will consider the measure later this year. But even if this money is appropriated, 244 parks will have smaller budgets in 2005 than they had in 2003, according to Keller Helsel. Elaine Sevy, an NPS spokesperson, noted that the park service’s overall budget increased, though the budgets of individual parks still could have decreased. “All federal agencies are being asked to tighten their belts,” she said. —Sarah Tiberi 11

LARRY MISHKAR

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The West Point Foundry marked the beginning of America’s military-industrial complex. Archaeologists are learning how this sophisticated foundry operated. By Hilary Davidson Researchers work at the ruins of the West Point Foundry. american archaeology

WAR OF 1812 WAS A WAKE-UP CALL FOR JAMES Madison. It wasn’t just that the British had been able to sail up the Potomac and burn down the White House; what alarmed President Madison was America’s dependency on foreign-made weaponry. There were two small foundries in the new nation, but they weren’t capable of building heavy ordnance, and so the U.S. military was forced to employ French and Spanish cannons on the battlefield. Madison’s solution was to establish four foundries that would specialize in the manufacturing of heavy guns. Pittsburgh, Richmond, and Georgetown were selected as locations, but the most important one was located in the village of Cold Spring, 50 miles north of New York City. The West Point Foundry was incorporated here in 1817 by a wealthy entrepreneur named Gouverneur Kemble, a man whose fortunes continued to rise in the decades to follow. Located by the Hudson River, a superhighway of the 19th century, the foundry was protected by the presence of the West Point military academy, located on the opposite bank. Cold Spring was a perfect location for other reasons. The site was selected largely for its natural resources: there were nearby iron mines, the forested land offered wood for the furnaces, and a stream known as Foundry Brook provided water to power the entire operation. Ironically, it is nature that the archaeologists investigating the foundry site are struggling against today. “Look, nature has grabbed it back,” says Patrick Mar-

tin, an archaeologist at Michigan Technological University (MTU), indicating the forested area where the foundry once stood. The remains of the foundry’s two- and threestory brick buildings are spread over approximately 87 acres. After its furnaces were shut down in 1911, nature moved in quickly to reclaim the territory. The only structure still standing is the majestic 1865 red brick office building. It was constructed at the height of the foundry’s might and fame, in the days when 1,500 people worked here and the furnaces never cooled down. A shell of its former self, devoid of windows and even floors, the building nonetheless hints at the West Point Foundry’s former glory. Martin has been guiding archaeological research on the site since 2001 when Scenic Hudson, Inc., the owners of the West Point Foundry Preserve, initiated a partnership with MTU to study the site. Scenic Hudson is an environmental organization working to preserve and restore the Hudson River and its riverfront as a public and natural resource. It purchased the property to protect its historical, archaeological, and ecological resources. Wanting to develop the site into a public historical preserve, Scenic Hudson hired Martin and his MTU colleague, Timothy Scarlett, to investigate the foundry and assist in its interpretation. “It’s ironic for a facility as important as this, as historically significant as it is and as massive as it is, that there are these great gray areas of its history that can only be answered by archaeology,” says Martin.

LARRY MISHKAR

The West Point Foundry Office Building was constructed in 1865, replacing an earlier building. It’s an indication of the company’s former prosperity.

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PUTNAM COUNTY HISTORICAL SOCIETY & FOUNDRY SCHOOL MUSUEM, COLD SPRING, NY

This painting, titled “The Gun Foundry,” was done by John Ferguson Weir in 1866. It’s based on his extensive observations of the foundry’s operations.

Martin and Scarlett are pursuing two research objectives: unearthing information about the foundry’s technology, which was generally very sophisticated, and learning about the area’s social history and the everyday lives of the foundry’s employees. These objectives were chosen to provide insights into the genesis of the American Iron Age and the Industrial Revolution by discovering evidence of specific technological and social developments at the foundry that speak to these larger developments. To date, their primary focus has been on the first objective; when they began, they knew a lot about what was produced at the foundry but almost nothing about how it was done. “We start with big questions and work our way down to small details,” Martin says, adding that these details help them answer the questions. “The site forces people to be nimble about coming up with solutions,” says Martin. “You can’t be satisfied with the easy solution. We’re about solving puzzles.” In the summer of 2004, they managed to solve some of the puzzles concerning the blast furnace. Before they began to excavate the site, they didn’t know how the furnace’s blowing engine operated. After digging four six-square-foot units, their crew unearthed three iron hoops that were eight american archaeology

feet in diameter. “These are iron straps that would have gone around the tubs in a cylinder-based blowing machine,” says Scarlett. The discovery that it wasn’t a bellows machine furthered the researchers’ understanding of how the operation was powered. The foundry started by smelting its own iron ore in the blast furnace, but fairly soon its smelting work was moved to another location and the furnace sat idle. This move coincided with a significant change in American industry: the switch from wood to coal to power plants. Historical accounts don’t explain the move, which may have been related to the wood-to-coal change in some way, or possibly to the availability of new, more desirable sources of iron ore, or been caused by some other factor. The researchers hope their investigation of the blast furnace will identify the cause. “As we’re digging up this blowing engine, we may find that it failed completely,” he says, which could suggest yet another reason for moving the smelting operation. They also uncovered a wall that runs through three of the four units. While they have identified it as a weight-bearing wall because it widens towards its base, they’ve had to put further excavation on it on hold for the 15

Michigan Technological LARRY MISHKAR

University graduate students excavate the waterway system beneath the blowing engine foundation.

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ERIC O’CONNELL

moment because of safety concerns (one unit is about six feet deep, and its walls could cave in if it were deeper). “We’ve been making tremendous progress this year, and one of the ways we see that is through the number of new questions we can ask,” says Scarlett. One of those questions is where the water was channeled after it was used to power the blowing engine of the blast furnace. Though the foundation of the blowing engine and the water wheel that generated its power are being exposed, the archaeologists aren’t certain of the answer. Water running near the furnace could possibly turn to steam, causing a potential hazard. There are some indications, however inconclusive, that the water passed beneath the furnace. Furthermore, changes and additions to the masonry structure could suggest technological changes, expansions, or perhaps something else. Though West Point Foundry’s reputation is that of a highly sophisticated, pioneering operation, a few of the archaeological discoveries have suggested that in some regards it may not have been that advanced. “The area of the blast furnace is slightly weird,” says Martin. The blast engine was powered by Foundry Brook, the source of all of the foundry’s power, but the water wasn’t channeled away from it afterwards. “All of the contemporary designs focus on having drains to get water away from the furnace when it’s spent,” says Martin. “But here, the water appears to be channeled beneath the furnace into a pond.” That man-made body of water was called Battery Pond, and its very name suggests a reservoir system that recycled water power. The archives make no mention of it except for marking it on maps, and as yet nothing has been uncovered that explains how the system worked. “It’s very strange,” he adds. Because the foundry was powered by water, understanding the subterranean network of channels is an essential part of the investigation. In 2003 the crew spent weeks using ground-penetrating radar to assess the integrity of the site and to hunt for tailraces, underground channels that transported water. They also used soil resistivity, a type of remote sensing, to look for buried features, such as underground walls. “Figuring out the water network will help us compute the amount of power the foundry was using,” says Scarlett. “Then there’s the quizzical thing, the fact that they made steam engines, yet they seemed to prefer water power for their own operations.”

N THE 20TH CENTURY, THE SITE WAS USED BY COMPANIES

producing materials as diverse as furniture and silk, and for a time the site was abandoned. A battery manufacturer polluted the nearby land and water with cadmium, and the area eventually became a Super Fund cleanup site, which in turn called attention to the foundry’s archaeological significance. Because of the site’s listing on the National Register of Historic Places, the Environmental Protection Agency re-

american archaeology

Looking at this bucolic photograph of Foundry Brook, it’s hard to imagine that it served as the source of water power for a major industrial plant.

quired that the area be subject to an archaeological investigation before the cleanup. The first archaeological project, which took place in 1979, examined the historical record and surveyed the site. In 1991, researchers discovered the remains of a canon-testing facility, and in 1993 they excavated a group of foundry workers’ homes, recovering 145,000 artifacts that are stored in nearby Orange County. Martin’s crew has not yet examined them, though they hope to do so in the near future. “It’s mostly domestic trash,” he says of the collection, which he’s somewhat familiar with. Martin expects the artifacts to be much more pertinent to the social phase of the investigation. Historical accounts suggest that Kemble studied cannon-making in Spain and served as an assistant to a prominent naval officer, Commodore Stephen Decatur, in the Barbary Coast Wars, during which the U.S. battled the Barbary States in the early 19th century. He was also the brother-in-law of the Secretary of the Navy, a connection that landed him a bonanza in the form of guaranteed contracts for munitions. Thus the privately owned foundry equipped the nation’s military. “This was the start of the military-industrial complex,” says Martin. A quarter of the initial capital investment actually came from the U.S. Treasury as an advance against the government’s first order. At the height of the foundry’s success during the Civil War it had $100,000 in monthly contracts to equip the navy alone. 17

lem was, the maps that were drawn up later were based on The foundry’s operations and innovations, according the first maps, so they couldn’t help but be wrong.” to historical documents, went well beyond its military work. It was one of the earliest vertically integrated indusIn 2002, the researchers spent weeks mapping the site trial sites in the nation. The foundry controlled every step, with a total station. They produced a digital map and atfrom processing iron ore to finishing the manufactured tached archival information in various file forms to it. Much products. Until 1838 the company ran a secondary plant of the archival data came from the research of archaeologist on the west side of Manhattan, and it was there that the Elizabeth Norris who, in 2001, visited nine archives in three first locomotive built in America, named the Best Friend, was created in 1830.The two operations built steam engines, sugar mills and cotton presses, church bells, an iron ship, storefronts, and the cast iron valves and pipes for water systems, such as New York City’s Croton Aqueduct. But the foundry’s primary purpose was producing arms, and its most famous innovation was the Parrott gun, a rifled cannon that was both more mobile and more accurate than its contemporaries. Union forces first used it to powerful effect in the Battle of Bull Run. The Parrott gun is widely viewed as a major factor in deciding the outcome of the Civil War. While the war created an insatiable demand for all that the foundry could produce, the cessa- Archaeologist Patrick Martin stands above excavators working within the watercourse beneath the blowing tion of battle wrought its demise. engine foundation. The excavators are learning how the blowing engine operated. The military cancelled contracts, demand for consumer goods was low, and steelmaking was states to collect data. Her finds included photographs that in ascendancy. Iron making was no longer cutting-edge clearly depict the interior and exterior of different buildings technology, and the foundry went into receivership in 1889. when the foundry was still a thriving enterprise. A photograph of the interior of the Boring Mill has helped to guide the excavation there. With the help of the HE MAPPING OF THE WEST POINT FOUNDRY WAS A KEY photograph they discovered the base of a crane that was issue, in part because of the complexity of the site. It part of a large wheel lathe. They also uncovered a strucwasn’t even clear where some of the buildings had tural wall, a wooden floor with joists underneath, and a stood—many of the fallen bricks were appropriated to sand floor. create a pathway a few years back—and there were ques“We’re taking tions about what purposes each building served, and how samples so we can the foundry changed and evolved over time. Martin and figure out what was his students had access to 19th-century maps of the site, on the floorboards,” says but they soon realized that these maps were inaccuNorris. One of the techniques rate. “Some early maps were drawn up for used to identify the particles on the floorinsurance purposes, and they were boards is magnetic separation. A magnet is run adequate for that,” Martin through soil samples to capture tiny metal particles that are says. “The probsubsequently analyzed under a microscope. By identifying these particles, the researchers are better able to deduce the locations and types of the various manufacturing processes. For example, wrought iron and cast iron objects were worked on different machines and served different purThis cast iron pig marked “WPF 1828” is assoposes. Wrought iron, the stronger of the two, likely was ciated with the foundry’s blast furnace. 18

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LARRY MISHKAR

but it’s something we need to understand.” The archaeological project is being conducted with the idea of public interpretation in mind. The high degree of integrity and preservation of the site, its location in the picturesque Hudson Valley, an hour away by railroad from New York City, and Scenic Hudson’s mission all indicate that the site could become an educational attraction. The historical and archaeological research will help in decisions about how, or if, the site should be developed for that purpose. One of the ironies to the archaeologists is that as important as the foundry was in its day, its existence was frequently ignored in its own era. While Kemble hosted literary salons and befriended several painters of the Hudson

ERIC O’CONNELL

used, among other things, for drive shafts in steam engines. Cast iron was more likely used for steam engine cylinders or cannons. Consequently, areas with a large quantity of cast iron particles could be places where cannons were produced. A concentration of wrought iron particles indicates other types of manufacturing. The archaeologists know that the mill was powered by a 36-foot water wheel, but they had never before seen the iron conglomerate that covered part of the floor. What they discovered was that the foundry actually recycled slag, the waste product of iron ore, and used it for construction purposes. Battery Pond was lined with the same material. “Ironworks all over the world used waste creatively,” Martin adds, “but I’ve never seen anything like this.”

This is the last intact arch of the blast furnace that was used to smelt iron. The furnace later sat idle as the smelting work was moved to another location. The archaeologists hope to learn what caused this change.

While the archaeologists are getting a sense of how the foundry worked, they are just beginning to explore the human relationships that also powered the site. “We want to explore the relationship between capital and labor, and between natives and immigrants—the core set of relationships in U.S. history,” says Martin. He notes that there is very limited information of this sort in the archaeological record. The excavation work thus far has turned up little in the way of personal artifacts, with the exception of a few pipes and buttons. However, probate records from the Putnam County archives show that some of the foundry’s managers built and rented houses to the workers. “It looks like a side business,” Martin says, “and it’s not really a surprise, american archaeology

River School, the foundry was rarely written about or painted (Weir’s work is the anomaly). “The Hudson River painters would paint heroic landscapes without the foundry—they would actually put trees in where the foundry stood,” says Scarlett. Finally, almost 200 years after it was built, archaeologists are putting the foundry back into the picture. HILARY DAVIDSON has written for Discover, University of Toronto Magazine, and Frommer’s Travel Guides. To learn more about the West Point Foundry Archaeology Project, visit the Web site www.westpointfoundry.org.

A narrow block of ice cut from the face of an ice patch reveals the multiple layers of preserved caribou dung hidden within. Radiocarbon dating of the dung provides the chronology for ice patch research.

GOVERNMENT OF YUKON

A stunning collection of ancient organic artifacts has been recovered from melting ice patches in northwest Canada.

By Catherine Dold

Researchers examine an arrow shaft complete with projectile point and fletching. fall • 2004

Prehistory Defrosted

SHEILA GREER

Student Robert Fox of Kwanlin Dun First Nation scans the ground looking for exposed hunting artifacts. The dark material on the rocks is preserved caribou dung.

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fragments of a feather,” says Hare. Interesting, yes, but Hare’s first impression was that “it couldn’t be very old, because it’s made of wood and sinew.” And everyone knows those materials don’t survive the elements for very long. Radiocarbon dating, however, revealed that the stick, a hunting tool, was some 5,000 years old. “That was a complete surprise to us,” says Hare. “That’s when we realized we had something important and very old at this ice patch.” “It was very exciting, but at the same time we thought we were dealing with a very isolated situation,” Hare recalls. “The following year, 1998, we scraped together some money and did a bit of surveying. We found that it wasn’t just the one ice patch. We found a second patch with a very finely made stone projectile point lying at its edge.” Then came the 1999 field season. “It was an unbelievable summer of discovery,” says Hare. “It was a very hot summer with significant melting in the alpine. Daily, there were new discoveries. Dozens and dozens of artifacts were coming into the lab here on a daily basis.” Now, after several summers of fieldwork (some of which had maddeningly little melting of ice), Hare and his colleagues have collected 146 artifacts from 18 different ice patches. Primarily hunting tools, the artifacts range from approximately 100 to 9,500 years old, and they are revealing a detailed portrait of hunting in southwestern Yukon.

The remarkable story of the ice patch discoveries started quite by accident one September day back in 1997. Gerald Kuzyk, a wildlife technician with the Yukon government, and his wife were out hunting when they stumbled across a large ice patch that sported mounds of caribou dung at its edge. Kuzyk knew that no caribou had been seen in that part of southwestern Yukon in almost 70 years, so back at the office he told another caribou biologist about his odd find. On a return visit to the site the men confirmed that yes, this was caribou dung in a most unexpected place. Even more unexpected, while walking along the edge of the ice, they found a small stick with what looked like string wrapped around it. They showed the stick to Yukon Heritage Branch archaeologists. “We quickly determined that it wasn’t string, but finely made sinew, and underneath the sinew were

Sitting at altitudes of 5,200 to 7,000 feet, the Yukon ice patches are found in rocky mountainous areas of little vegetation, often in a basin on the north side of a slope. The largest patch is about a half-mile long and 250 feet high, but none are large enough to flow, as glaciers do. In each patch, white layers of ice formed of thousands of years of winter snows alternate with dark layers of caribou dung, left behind during thousands of years of summer visits by the animals. The white and black layers of ice and dung don’t represent single years, like tree rings; instead, most are compacted “super layers” of many years of deposits. The largest of the ice patches have a hundred or so super layers. While Hare and the other scientists originally thought that the ice patches couldn’t possibly be more than a couple hundred years old, dating of base layers of dung shows that at least some of them are more fall • 2004

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he “smell of success” is how archaeologist Greg Hare describes the odor that wafts out of his ice patch research sites in Canada’s Yukon. “It’s a really pungent smell of decaying organics that hits you right in the back of your nose,” he says. “When you get that really strong smell there’s a good chance you’ll find some artifacts.” The source of the odor? Not the artifacts Hare is finding, but the mountains of caribou dung that surround them. Yes, caribou poop. Hare and his colleagues are finding a rich cache of artifacts in a most unusual and unexpected place—a number of large ice fields that are melting each summer and revealing layer upon layer of ancient caribou poop, along with the tools of the people who hunted those caribou as far back as 7500 B.C. Preserved in ice for centuries, the emerging artifacts include much more than the usual assortment of stone tools. Hare and his colleagues are finding artifacts made of wood and sinew and leather, organic materials that normally decay quickly, and rarely, if ever, survive the ages to tell tales of past peoples. “It’s a strong smell,” Hare says of the caribou dung These dart shaft fragments were aroma, “but it’s one recovered from an ice patch. The that we’ve all come shafts are often found in fragments. to appreciate. We The shaft segments in the foreground are go looking for the about 9,500 years old, the oldest smell.” Newly ex- artifacts found on an ice patch. posed and hence, aromatic, dung, he explains, often means newly exposed artifacts.

Archaeologist Greg Hare examines some of the largest darts recovered from melting MARTEN BERKMAN

alpine ice patches in southern Yukon. The average length of the throwing darts is about 78 inches. The longest dart (in the foreground) measures 88 inches. It was recovered in 14 segments over four different field seasons.

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fields that are close to their offices in Whitehorse, watching for signs of melting. Sometime in July, they’ll fly around the perimeter of those ice patches, taking measurements to track melting. If they are indeed melting, they’ll helicopter a crew into some of the 72 ice patches they’ve identified as having deposits of caribou dung, focusing first on those that have already disgorged artifacts. Once on the ground, the crew simply walks around the newly melted areas, looking for items. The artifacts they have collected so far present a remarkably precise history of hunting in southwestern Yukon. The oldest artifacts are representative of the “throwing dart” (atlatl or spear throwing) hunting method. They’ve found more than 40 complete and partial wooden Wildlife technician Loralee Laberge examines one of a series of ancient stone hunting blinds overdart shafts, some of them composed of looking a nearby ice patch. Caribou may have been driven from the ice patch towards the blinds two pieces of wood spliced together and where they were intercepted by hunters armed with throwing darts or arrows. fastened with sinew. They’ve also found more than a dozen projectile points, most made of stone, than 9,000 years old. Seventy-two such ancient ice that seem to fit into the slots found at the ends of the dart patches, spread out over 15,000 square miles are now inshafts. Two of the points, in fact, were found still attached cluded in the Yukon Ice Patch Research Project. to shafts. The hunters relied on this hunting technology Long ago, Hare explains, caribou probably flocked to for at least 8,000 years, says Hare—radiocarbon dates of these ice patches to escape the summer heat and bugs. the pieces range from 9,500 to 1,200 years ago. The hunters followed them, and with a variety of projecAround A.D. 700, however, the hunters made an tile systems, killed them for food. The hunters then did their primary processing of the meat there on the ice. abrupt shift into a new hunting method. The bow and They didn’t stay overnight, however; there are no signs of arrow made its first appearance, and within just two genshelters or food caches, and all of the ice patch sites are erations it completely replaced throwing darts. Thirty arwithin a few hours’ walk of known campsites. tifacts of bow and arrow technology have been found at “There has always been a tradition of fall hunting in the ice patches, including a dozen complete arrow shafts, these areas,” says Hare. “But what we’ve seen here, this phe17 arrow points made of antler (some still attached to nomenon of caribou on ice being such an attraction for shafts), and three pieces of a bow. They date from 1,300 hunters, is a revelation. It was almost like going to the suyears old, a bit older than the newest throwing dart artipermarket to get your meat.” Inevitably, the hunters left fact, to as little as 100 years old. some of their tools behind on the ice. Like the annual dung Such clearly delineated transitions in technology are deposits, the tools were quickly frozen in place and thus prerarely seen in archaeological records, notes Hare. Indeed, served for centuries. Now, as the ice patches melt and shrink the ice patch artifacts provide the best evidence ever seen in in size, revealing wide rings of caribou poop at their edges, North America of the shift to bow and arrow technology, the tools that the hunters left are at last emerging. Having he says. Also noteworthy is the clear shift at the same time been frozen for all that time, they suffered little or no decay. from stone points to points made exclusively of antlers. “If we find them quickly after they melt out,” says A number of other items have also been found at the Hare, “it’s like finding an artifact that was made only last ice patches: many animal remains, a small leather object year. The wood has been remarkably well preserved with a drawstring, dated to A.D. 600, and a carved through time.” Further preserving such ancient pieces in wooden stick, dated to A.D. 800. The leather object and the lab, he says, really hasn’t been difficult at all. “Things the stick are remarkable in that, like the wooden hunting are wet when we find them. We bring them into the lab, tools, they are organic and had they not been frozen, they put them in freezers and monitor the moisture content as would have deteriorated long ago. they slowly freeze dry. It takes maybe six months to get to “We are dealing with almost a whole new data set,” non-saturated wood.” Hare says of their ice patch findings. “Typically we work Each summer, Hare and the others monitor a few ice with stone tools. All of a sudden we have the opportunity

MARTEN BERKMAN

to look at the organic components of hunting technology. It’s really quite a remarkable opportunity.”

Many of the artifacts were found by members of the local First Nation groups (Canada’s term for Native Americans), the likely descendents of those ancient hunters. The ice patches are located in the territories of six different First Nations, and those groups have been involved in the research from the beginning. Every research crew that explores an ice patch includes a First Nation representative, for example, and several First Nation students each year attend a summer science camp that introduces them to the ice patch research and the scientists. “The science camps expose youths to science going on in their traditional territories,” explains Sheila Greer, an archaeologist who works for the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations. “The ice patches are an ideal opportunity— it’s incredible science, right in their backyard. It directly informs them about their history and culture. It provides that emotional link, a hook to get youth interested.” Greer explains that any science discussed at the camp always includes a western definition as well as a traditional First Nation perspective. “If we have a biologist at the camp talking about bear biology, we will also have a First Nation elder there talking about human relationships with bears.” Kids at the camp also visit ice patches and help look for artifacts, make replicas of the atlatl and bow and arrow hunting technologies, and conduct oral history interviews with First Nation elders about the traditional role of caribou. “We’re not necessarily training future scientists,” notes Greer. “We’re training people who are comfortable with science.” The fact that many of the artifacts found are complete, recognizable tools also helps to capture the interest of First Nation people, says Hare. “They can directly identify with a lot of these artifacts. These are complete tools—arrows and feathers and sinew. It’s quite a bit different from looking at stone fragments and flakes.” The ice patch discoveries are also proving a

boon to wildlife managers. The researchers have found the remains of more than 700 large and small animals on 35 different ice patches—caribou, birds, bison, moose, sheep, wapiti, and goat—some of them more than 8,500 years old. Studying those remains helps biologists to more fully understand long-term trends in wildlife populations, such as the current downward swing in caribou numbers. Caribou were much more abundant in the area in the recent past, according to historical records and First Nation oral history, says Yukon caribou biologist Richard Farnell. In the near future, he adds, wildlife biologists might have to decide whether to intervene to boost the herd numbers or take a chance of letting them recover on their own. The caribou remains found in the ice are helping to reinforce the idea that this current decline is probably a natural ecological phenomenon, a trend that has persisted american archaeology

This wooden artifact dates to approximately A.D. 800. It’s about nine inches long and has a square hole at one end. It may have been used as a very small throwing board or possibly a hunting device used to startle small game.

Many artifacts recovered from the ice patches are very well preserved. This arrow still retains its fletching, sinew, and antler projectile point. As with many of the artifacts, it was decorated with ochre paint. The arrows recovered from the ice patches all date within the past 1,200 to 1,300 years.

Different types of projectiles are shown here. At the top is a wooden dart foreshaft with hafted stone point. It is about 5,000 years old. The middle artifact is an 8,000-year-old bone point, slotted for use with microblades. The bottom artifact is a delicately carved arrow point made of caribou antler. It is about 350 years old.

over hundreds of years, rather than a “modern” problem. In addition, information gleaned from the remains and the dung about diet and habitat usage may teach biologists about just how ancient caribou used the area, with lessons for managing the current herds. And genetic studies that compare ancient remains to current herds might help them to determine if the current herds contain any valuable genetic lines that should be preserved. “If the current herds extirpate, will there be a big effect on the biodiversity of the species?” asks Farnell. “Should we spend lots of money to recover them, or just let them come back later on their own? This project really 25

SARAH GAUNT

for the future of the Ice Patch Research Project? “Some of these ice patches have been around for 9,000 years, so I don’t want to be alarmist and say they will be all be gone within ten years,” says Hare. “But we have to be ready to respond if it’s going to be a good melting year. It’s a tremendous opportunity we have here to look at areas of the past that really haven’t been explored in the same way before.” There are likely to be many more sites out there as well, says Hare. “We’ve got all of northern British Columbia, northern Alberta, and the Northwest Territory that haven’t been looked at at all.” Champagne and Aishihik First Nation archaeologist Sheila Greer (standing in the center) and other

CATHERINE DOLD’s article “This Very Old House” appeared in the Spring 2004 issue of American Archaeology. She has also written for the New York Times, Discover, and Smithsonian.

helps us get our heads around natural processes. We’re learning that we live in a real dynamic world.” The animal remains are also helping local people to understand more about the natural fluctuations of wildlife populations, says Farnell. People often want to see wildlife numbers held steady, he says, but that is not necessarily a natural state. The fact that the ice patches were previously used by many more caribou, as well as other species, is helping people to understand how populations expand and contract naturally.

The treasures unearthed at the ice patches are helping scientists to more fully understand the history of people and wildlife in the Yukon. But one question still looms: Why are the ice patches melting? No one is sure. “At the beginning we thought it was global warming,” says Hare. “But after three to four years when nothing was melting, and the ice was increasing in size, we thought maybe there is another phenomenon at play.” Comparisons with historical photos show that, overall, the ice patches are smaller than they were 100 years ago. But within those years were periods of both melting and of growth. Indeed, there was also a warming trend some 5,000 and 6,000 years ago during which no new ice accumulated. “We’re kind of sitting on the fence” on the global warming question, agrees Farnell. “The ice patches are dynamic. They were way bigger and are naturally decreasing. But on the other hand, why are we finding artifacts that are being exposed for the first time in 7,000 years? It might be a sign of rapid global warming. If we lose these ice patches altogether it’s got to be something that has seriously departed from the natural climatic variability of the last 7,000 years.” And what might a continued warming trend mean 26

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researchers address a group of Yukon First Nation students about ice patch research.

These arrow points were made from caribou antler. Most of these points are barbed on one or both sides with conical prongs.

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The World Wide Web of Antiquities Archaeologists and law enforcement officials are grappling with the problems of antiquities trading on the Internet.

MAXWELL MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY, UNM

CARL STEEN

CREDIT

By Elaine Robbins

rchaeologist Jonathan Leader jolted out of his reverie and stared at the computer screen, where some items were being offered for sale on eBay. Leader clicked one at a time on the six high-quality photos—a breastplate, buttons to an overcoat, belt buckles, a cartridge box, shoe leather. As he read the descriptions of the items, he suspected that they were looted from a Civil War burial. It wasn’t the first time that Leader, the state archaeologist of South Carolina, found pieces of his state’s heritage for sale on the Internet. In fact, he has followed the Internet’s impact on cultural resources from its beginnings. “When I first came to South Carolina in 1989, there were already ListServes where people were swapping material for sale, discussing where to go dig them up, setting up flea markets,” he says. After watching with growing alarm, he decided to take action. Joining forces with the lead archaeologists from the South Carolina Department of Transportation and the State Historic Preservation Office, he formed a sort of archaeological SWAT team. On weekends the threesome descended on gun shows and flea markets. Whenever they heard a dealer publicly claim that artifacts came from burials or public lands, they filed a complaint. Although they got few convictions in South Carolina, their presence had a chilling effect. “The dealers started shifting to on-line,” he recalls. “So we started monitoring eBay once a week. I would do a search for ‘dug,’ ‘excavated,’ and ‘relic.’ I was finding an average of 300 hits under these key words for South Carolina alone.” american archaeology

A wide variety of artifacts, including items like this prehistoric polychrome ceramic bowl, are bought and sold on the Internet.

some of whom traffic in illegal artifacts. Type “arrowheads,” “Anasazi pottery,” or “Civil War artifacts” into a search engine, and you’ll get thousands of responses for dealers who specialize in everything from Caddo pottery to Clovis points.

SOLD IN CYBERSPACE

According to Interpol, the international law enforcement agency, art and antiquities trafficking is the fourthlargest illegal activity in the world, after drug dealing, money laundering, and arms trading. Since the rapid rise of the Internet in the late ’90s, much of that trafficking has shifted to the Web. While experts acknowledge the problem, the actual volume of Internet trafficking is hard to measure. One reason is that most sites offer a hodgepodge of legal and illegal items. When students at Indiana University attempted to count the number of antiquities for sale on eBay, for example, they found approximately 4,000 items that were categorized as such. “About 60 to 65 percent are immediately obvious as not antiquities,” says archaeologist Kaddee Vitelli, who directed the study. “They include books on ancient art, tourist items, and reproductions, antiques, and collectibles. So maybe 1,400 to 1,600 items on any given day are potentially of archaeological origin. Closer examination reveals that some of these are, in fact, offered as reproductions. How many of the remainder are authentic is anyone’s guess.” Indeed, experts say that the Internet is littered with fakes. “Hobbyists can make stone tools that are virtually indistinguishable from prehistoric ones,” says Ann Early, the state archaeologist of Arkansas. Even for an expert, it’s often difficult to tell a real arrow point or chipped-stone tool from a fake. The certificates of authenticity offered by many sellers are no insurance against such fraud. But these facts rarely stop eager buyers. “Unfortunately,” says Early, “human beings often become so passionate about collecting something—whether it’s marbles or Mercedes or Indian pots—that good sense sometimes gets lost in the excitement of acquiring something that is attractive and special. It’s like buyer’s hysteria. But when you buy a mink coat out of the back of a pickup truck, you’re risking a lot.” The on-line commerce may be just the tip of the iceberg. “Many of the dealers do a lot of their business off the fall • 2004

MAXWELL MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO

Although many of the items offered were obvious fakes, they found about 50 to 100 authentic South Carolina artifacts for sale each year. “Most were from the Civil War,” he says. The items included “buttons, belt buckles, bullets, personal effects, wedding rings, slave tags.” By exploiting the demand for artifacts, archaeologists say the Internet has hastened the devastation of archaeological sites. “A lot of Southwestern sites are beginning to look like moonscapes,” says Alex Barker, chair of the ethics committee of the Society for American Archaeology. “Is it new? Well, no. There’s been looting going on since the beginning of Southwestern archaeology. Some would argue that’s the way it started. But because the prices commanded by some of the artifacts are getting ridiculous— certain kinds of Southwestern vessels are being sold for thousands of dollars—it is driving looting in a way that it might not have done if it was less lucrative.” Looters now hit once-overlooked sites throughout the country because they know they can find buyers for even mundane objects. “We’re seeing a lot of the same looters, but I think we’ve added a lot more of them because of the Internet,” says John Fryar, who investigates cultural resource cases as a special agent for the Bureau of Indian Affairs. “We’ve seen all different types, from the mom-and-pop types to the commercial looters. We see a lot of local people who claim this is their God-given right to do this.” This trend has popularized what was once a secretive, word-of-mouth business. Before the Internet, collectors had to show up at weekend artifact shows and flea markets—or visit Park Avenue dealers or elite auction houses. Now anyone with a taste for antiquities can purchase Mimbres pottery or Civil War belt buckles from the comfort of his home.While the big on-line auction sites are the most visible manifestation of this trend, some archaeologists say that a greater threat is the proliferation of Web sites of private dealers,

Civil War items, such as these buttons, are in demand. In one Internet transaction, a belt buckle taken from pri-

CARL STEEN

vate land in Virginia sold for $3,000.

Internet once the contact is made,” says Early. “People are invited to call or e-mail if they have special requests or things of special interest to them. So the impact of the Internet buying and selling is not just that is has made the market for local artifacts global, but that it provides linkages between people who may continue to buy and sell off the Web site itself.” Therefore the extent of the traffic may be significantly greater than it appears to be. Internet trafficking is posing a challenge to state and federal law enforcement effort, experts say. According to Tim McKeown, the head of the National Park Service’s Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) program, of the 21 cases convicted under NAGPRA since the law was enacted in 1990, none involved Internet commerce—this despite the fact that Native American human remains show up with disturbing frequency on eBay and other sites. “The problem is there’s not many people out there investigating and prosecuting these types of crimes,” says Fryar, who is investigating about a dozen Internet-related cases. “We just don’t have the manpower.” When hundreds of artifacts from the world’s oldest civilization started showing up for sale on the Internet after the U.S. invasion of Iraq, it served as a wake-up call to the FBI. However, investigators are challenged by the speed of Internet transactions. “It’s a brave new world, investigativewise,” says Lynne Richardson, Art Theft Program manager at the FBI. “An item will go up for sale, and in a few days it’s gone.” Her department has just begun working with the agency’s Cyber Division to find new ways to investigate these types of cases. “Whether it’s stolen computers or stolen artwork, we’re going to have to find ways that we can respond quickly to these sorts of things.” Circumstances make these cases hard to prosecute. The primary law, the Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) of 1979, requires proof that an item offered for sale was stolen from federal or Indian lands. Items taken from private land must be done so without the permission of the landowner and then be offered for sale in other states and countries. (Offering cultural items for sale via the Internet constitutes such a violation.) This is difficult to prove short of catching a looter in the act. NAGPRA, by contrast, doesn’t have such arduous provenience requirements. It is illegal to offer for sale Native american archaeology

American human remains regardless of where they’re taken from. If cultural items taken from federal or Indian lands are offered for sale, that’s also a violation of NAGPRA. But if these same items are taken from private land and offered for sale, the act may violate ARPA, as well as other federal laws concerning mail and wire fraud, or state laws, but not NAGPRA. “There almost has to be a statement saying, ‘We potted this off some geezer’s land without his knowledge, and we’re pretty sure it’s from this tribe, and we sure hope they don’t find out about it,’ ” says Barker regarding the difficulty of convicting someone who has taken archaeological items from private land. “Unless you have a statement that’s that direct, it’s very difficult to get any kind of legal action.” For example, when the South Carolina Civil War burial items showed up for sale on eBay, the seller wrote about how he paddled his canoe in the middle of the night, stole onto private property, and started digging in a spot where he knew a battle had taken place. Although Leader alerted the South Carolina State Law Enforcement Division, which prepared a case, a lawyer told them that the only way to successfully prosecute would be to catch the looter in the act. The way some courts are interpreting ARPA poses another challenge. In 2000, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in San Francisco overturned the felony plea of a man who had been convicted under ARPA for taking a human skull from a national forest in Alaska. The court determined that, in order to convict the man under ARPA, the prosecution had to prove the man knew or should have known that the skull was at least 100 years old, the age at which the law deems it an archaeological resource. “ARPA was never designed as a specific intent crime,” complains Fryar. “Now we’re having to get into people’s minds to find out if they think this thing is over 100 years old or not.” He adds that the statute of limitations under ARPA is five years, which is too short given that sometimes these crimes are discovered years after they’ve taken place. Though ARPA has shortcomings, it also has teeth. Due to the Internet’s global nature, anything illegal sold on it automatically becomes an interstate sale of stolen property—a federal violation under Section 6C of ARPA. “If I steal a pot from state trust land in Arizona, I have violated state law by stealing it,” explains Martin McAllister, managing partner of Archaeological Resources Investigations, a Missoula-based consulting firm. “Now if I offer it for sale on the Internet, I’m also in violation of federal law.” ARPA decrees that personal property used to carry out the crime, such as vehicles and computers, can 29

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MAXWELL MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO

25 million items available on the site at any give time, and 31/2 million new listings are added every day,” says eBay spokesperson Hani Durzy. “So it would be impossible for us to Title: Palette Catalog #: 2495 completely eliminate anything that might fall under the illegal category Catalog from ever appearing on our site.” InNorth America stead, eBay says it depends on law Description enforcement officials to alert them Stone Palette when illegal artifacts are offered for with incised edges sale on their site. “We’re not experts over here. We don’t have a core comCulture Group petency in Native American artiHohokam facts,” says Durzy. While eBay has been unresponsive when archaeoloDate gists point out suspect offerings, it A.D. 800-1100 has been quick to pull a questionable Price listing when contacted by law en$750 forcement officials. It also cooperates with investigators when they request information about buyers and sellers. But archaeologists want the aucAdd to Cart tion sites to do more. While eBay posts its policies on “Artifacts, GraveSearch for Similar Related Items, and Native American Crafts” on its site, most buyers never see those policies unless they search Antiquities can be found on Web sites ranging from eBay to those specializing in certain types of artifacts. for them. “We’d like to at least get to the point that when antiquities are being advertised, there’s the statement that says, ‘Here are also be forfeited to the government or tribe that is victimthe things you should be concerned about,’ ” says Barker. ized by the crime. Some experts advocate that the auction sites require proof In 2002 the Federal Sentencing Commission promof legal ownership of the items being sold. ulgated new sentencing guidelines that increased the Barker urges a war on two fronts. While law enforcechances of violators going to jail. “I think it’s just startment needs to shut down the Web sites of illegal dealers, ing to have an impact,” states an Assistant U.S. Attorney the SAA hopes to continue to educate the Internet aucwho has prosecuted both ARPA and NAGPRA cases. “I tion sites. It also endeavors to educate the buying public think they’re effective,” he says of the laws governing anand local law enforcement officers, many of whom aren’t tiquities, but he also thinks they should be made aware of antiquities laws. stronger. Legislation is pending in Congress to increase There is also the issue of self-education. “Archaeolothe penalties under these laws up to 10 years for a felony gists have to understand what it takes to prosecute a case,” offense. Currently, a felony offense under ARPA carries Early notes. There is much more involved than merely ina maximum penalty of two years under ARPA and five forming law enforcement officials of a violation. “It doesyears under NAGPRA. n’t do any good to call the cops if the prosecutor isn’t on board,” she adds, meaning that archaeologists have to supAUCTIONING OUR PAST ply evidence sufficient to win a case in court. A few years ago the Society for American Archaeology, “Are we, as a community, doing enough?” asks along with the Society for Historical Archaeology and the Barker. “The answer is no. Now we need to figure out American Anthropological Association, launched an educawhat tools we’ve got and how much will we’ve got in the tional campaign to halt illegal antiquities sales. Their first community to do something about it.” move was to ask Amazon and eBay to curb the sale of illegal archaeological items on their Web sites. Their efforts met with little success. While eBay’s official policy prohibits ELAINE ROBBINS, a former executive editor of Texas Parks & Wildlife magsales of illegal artifacts and grave-related items, the comazine, has written for Sierra, Modern Maturity, Organic Style, and other napany argues that it can’t possibly police its site. “There are tional magazines.

THE BEGINNING OF MAYA CIVILIZATION? THOUGH

ARCHAEOLOGISTS HAVE LARGELY IGNORED IT, THERE

ARE INDICATIONS THAT THE PIEDMONT REGION IN SOUTHERN

GUATEMALA PLAYED A SEMINAL ROLE IN THE MAYA’S DEVELOPMENT. AN INVESTIGATION OF CHOCOLÁ, ONE OF THE REGION’S MAJOR SITES, COULD DETERMINE JUST HOW INFLUENTIAL IT WAS.

JERRY RABINOWITZ

BY MICHAEL BAWAYA

Women walk down Mound 1 at sunrise in Chocolá. Smoke rises from cooking fires in the homes below. Archaeologists believe that, centuries ago, Mound 1 was part of an area where administrative functions took place.

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JERRY RABINOWITZ

Excavators work at Mound 15. The flat stones in the foreground cover an underground canal that the Maya built. Archaeologists consider water management to be an indicator of complex social organization.

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he most pressing questions about Maya studies are to be answered down here.” “Down here” is the piedmont region of southern Guatemala and archaeologist Jonathan Kaplan is certain that a wealth of information is secreted in the mounds in and around the small, unassuming village of Chocolá. Approximately 8,000 people live in this impoverished, ramshackle town found in the strikingly beautiful piedmont region that’s silhouetted by towering volcanic peaks. On average, the residents, many of whom descend from the Maya, make $1,500 to $2,000 a year, according to Kaplan, who has received several proposals of marriage from women wanting to escape to the comforts of the U.S. Chocolá has virtually no infrastructure and no formalized political system. The pace of life is slow. People move about languidly in the summer’s heat; they are more likely to be carrying a machete than a cell phone. Countless underfed dogs roam the streets, piles of garbage foul the landscape. “This town is really in crisis mode, like much of the Third World,” says Kaplan. Some of the locals have welcomed him, while others are convinced that, like the invading Spaniards centuries ago, he and his crew are here to dig for gold. Hundreds of years ago the region seemingly knew better times. A number of archaeologists surmise that Maya culture may have taken shape in the piedmont re-

gion. “Most of the examples of the earliest Maya writing appear here,” Kaplan says. The oldest stelae have been found here. “Ethnohistory tells us that the best cacao was grown here,” he adds. It’s believed that Chocolá was part of an extensive trade network. There’s an abundance of water and evidence of prehistoric irrigation. It was, he states, a “breadbasket.”

A CREW OF ROUGHLY 30 PEOPLE IS

working in a clearing in the jungle, an area known as Mound 15. Kaplan, a tall man with close-cropped reddish hair and beard, is raving about an underground canal covered by a series of flat rocks that the crew is excavating. “It’s a big old plumbing system,” he explains. What appears to the untrained eye to be nothing more than a line of flat rocks a few feet below the surface is to Kaplan a marvel of prehistoric engineering and artistry. “Look at this,” he says. “That’s beautiful.” The canal is remarkable not only for its artistry, but also for what it suggests about the former occupants of Mound 15. “Hydraulics is a really important indicator of complex social organization,” Kaplan notes. “Control and management of water is an indicator of certain kinds of developments in social organization. Generally, it involves some kind of corporate labor to build, to manage, to maintain, so you have to have some kind of a bureaucracy.”

JERRY RABINOWITZ

(From left) Federico Paredes Umaña, Felipe Carrillo, Gustavo Camey, and Jonathan Kaplan, look at sherds in the laboratory. A considerable amount of Kaplan’s time is spent explaining his work to Chocolá’s residents. Community leaders Carrillo and Camey support Kaplan’s project.

american archaeology

CHARLOTTE HILL COBB

Mesoamerican trade consisted of cities exporting the raw materials and finished goods that they specialized in. Cities that produced highly desired goods gained power and wealth from trade. Jonathan Kaplan believes that the cacao trade played a crucial role in Chocolá’s development just as obsidian, another product in great demand, played the same role in the development of Kaminaljuyu, the region’s most powerful city.

Adjacent to the canal, workers are excavating what’s believed to be a residential structure. Mound 15 is one of more than a dozen known mounds in an area the archaeologists have named the North Group. They suspect this area was inhabited by Chocolá’s elites. “It’s higher up. They have a view of the site,” Kaplan explains. This was advantageous for self-defense. “The water is cleaner up here,” he adds. The archaeologists have identified two other areas of mounds, the Central and South groups. The Central Group is thought to have been an administrative area. The mounds here are Chocolá’s tallest, and their pyramidal shape indicates religious or public functions. The South Group was apparently the home of the common people. Having dug several trenches of varying depths, the workers have exposed a number of cobbles that may have been the foundation of the structure as well as what appears to be a floor. Kaplan thinks it’s too big a house for a commoner, which reinforces the notion that the North Group was an elite neighborhood. The shape and layout of the house indicate that it could be from the Early Classic period, around A.D. 400. He assumes the house and 34

the canal are related, though he has no proof of the relationship. In an attempt to obtain proof, he’ll have samples from the house and the canal dated by radiocarbon and by luminescence, a technique that identifies the time a surface was exposed to light and was therefore in use. If the site is as old as Kaplan suspects—he thinks it could be as early as 1200 B.C. and extending to as late as A.D. 1500—evidence such as the canal would show that Chocolá “was organized in quite complex fashion quite early.” He assumes that the elite possessed “a whole support population to keep the complex organization going.” They didn’t busy themselves with such tasks as laja building. Kaplan, who is trying to determine the level and nature of social organization at Chocolá, wonders aloud as to how the elites managed the lower classes. “I think there’s always coercion mixed with suasion,” he theorizes. Surprisingly little research has been done in the piedmont region despite the indications that seminal developments occurred here. Archaeologist Karl Sapper visited Chocolá in the early 1900s, but he didn’t excavate the site. The first to do so was Robert Burkitt, who excavated a small portion of the site in the 1920s for the University of fall • 2004

Figurines and sherds recovered by PACH are laid out on a table in the laboratory. All of the artifacts recovered by the project are from the Middle and Late Preclassic periods, approximately 900 B.C. to A.D. 200.

Pennsylvania. Archaeologist E. M. Shook, who first saw the site in the 1940s and conducted a very limited excavation some 30 years later, suggested to Kaplan that he should investigate the site. Kaplan, who is affiliated with the University of New Mexico and the Museum of New Mexico, studied under the renowned Mesoamericanist Michael D. Coe at Yale. For 10 years he worked at Kaminaljuyu, a major Maya site in what is now Guatemala City. Kaplan was having difficulties conducting an investigation in Guatemala City, and he thought that if Chocolá, which is roughly three hours by car from Guatemala City, was well preserved, it might yield answers to questions posed by his Kaminaljuyu investigation. He began the Chocolá Archaeological Project (in Spanish, Proyecto Arqueológico Chocolá, therefore the acronym PACH) in 2000 when, visiting the site for the first time, he conducted preliminary reconnaissance. Kaplan co-directs the project with Juan Antonio Valdés, a prominent Guatemalan archaeologist who has directed investigations at many Maya cities, including Tikal, and written numerous articles and books. They are searching for evidence of the beginnings of the Maya city-state; in

There is reason to believe that Chocolá was once an important city. It is now a JERRY RABINOWITZ

small, impoverished, struggling town.

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“This is a research enterprise,” says archaeologist Jonathan Kaplan. “But in order to do the research, I inevitably find myself drawn into issues of salvage archaeology and am therefore dealing with the town and the officials and tr ying to explain to them the value of this. In order to do the research we have to save what’s here.” Many of Chocolá’s residents suppor t PACH, showing the archaeologists ar tifacts and leading them to mounds. But other residents are suspicious of the archaeologists’ intensions. To the latter group, according to Kaplan, the project echoes the European conquest of the Americas. “We’re taking this information,” he states, explaining their thinking. “We’re writing the history. We’re deciding what’s important and what’s not.” Consequently, Kaplan and Valdés are going to great lengths to prove that PACH’s goal is cooperation, not conquest. “I want to collaborate with the people here so that they’re a full partner in this,” Kaplan says. “They will help determine the meaning of this.” The archaeologists often meet with townspeople and local politicians to explain their endeavor and win suppor t for it. It could be said that the archaeological project has of necessity given bir th to another project—an ambitious public relations/economic development ef for t. When describing this ef for t, Kaplan talks of land swapping, museum building, town beautifying. Thus far it’s mostly talk, but he appears determined to walk it. Many of the mounds are covered by coffee groves, which can damage the archaeo- Approximately 200 people attended a town meeting during which PACH staff logical resources beneath the ground. If the explained the importance of their project. farmers build their homes on the mounds, the construction poses a greater threat to these resources. So Kaplan is enlisting the help of politicians to engineer land swaps whereby the farmers exchange their plots for others that don’t threaten the mounds. In addition to dealing with matters of real estate, he’s also become an economic developer of sorts. He enter tains the notion of transforming the town from bedraggled to beautiful by cleaning up the trash. That, with the addition of exposed structures and a museum in which to display the site’s ar tifacts, could make Chocolá a tourist attraction. In the meantime, PACH likely ser ves as one of the town’s largest employers, with several dozen workers on the payroll. Archaeologist Anne Kraemer is conducting a limited ethnographic sur vey to gauge people’s opinion of PACH. “What I’m looking at is seeing how the community is af fected by archaeology and how this project is af fecting the community,” she says. “This project is dif ferent than a lot of projects that come into Guatemala.” For the most part, the responses are favorable, though some people are concerned that PACH, and the jobs it’s brought, will suddenly end. “These people want jobs and money,” Kraemer observes. “They’re ver y excited about the project.” —Michael Bawaya

fact, they are searching for the origins of Maya civilization itself. Kaplan and Valdés have a five-year agreement with the Guatemalan government (the standard agreement is one year) and the cooperation of a local agricultural collective to conduct archaeological research on its land. “We don’t know where Chocolá stops,” says Valdés. He’s conducting a regional survey to help determine the site’s length and breadth. In 2003 the PACH crew, trying to define the site’s dimensions, mapped 65 mounds, the highest of which were approximately 75 feet. They also identified a great network of natural springs manmade irrigation systems distributed throughout the site. Thirty-eight monuments were recovered or located, cre36

ating a Chocolá sculptural corpus that reveals the level of artisanship as well as communal beliefs and social/political organization. Previously, only one monument had been identified. The crew also located many lithic and ceramic scatters. A large percentage of the recovered ceramics dates to the Middle Preclassic period (900–600 B.C.). The dates are determined by comparing them to similar ceramics that have been dated. “There are not too many hard dates in this region,” notes Federico Paredes Umaña, referring to dates produced by methods such as radiocarbon and luminescence testing. “You can date by relative dating, but you need some hard dates to begin with.” The small, bare-bones lab is fall • 2004

JERRY RABINOWITZ

MORE THAN AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT

the very picture of low technology. The sherds are cleaned, bagged, and tagged here, and then sent to Guatemala City for analysis of their style, color, and contents. Paredes Umaña, who directs the work at PACH’s laboratory, is busy creating a classification system, known as a typology, that will cover Chocolá’s ceramics, sculptures, and architecture. Upon creating the typology, he can then compare it with those of sites in the nearby highlands and the Pacific coast to better inform researchers as to Chocolá’s, and the region’s, occupation dates. is leading several other archaeologists through a cornfield in the South Group. The corn stalks are perhaps eight feet high and so dense that it’s virtually impossible to see beyond them. They stumble through the cornfield and then come upon a narrow trail that leads through a coffee grove. They periodically check each other’s backs for stinging caterpillars. There are several types of these, the worst of which, a fat brown one, will “make you sick as a dog for about 24 hours,” Kaplan warns. Numerous sherds litter the trail. Kaplan and Valdés examine a pile of rocks presumably made by a farmer clearing the grove. Kaplan points to a flat stone that he surmises was once part of a structure. The archaeologists suspect that common people once resided here. They collect samples of the sherds to take back to the lab. Kaplan gets in his small pickup truck, on loan from an archaeologist friend, and drives off toward Area 35, another section of the South Group where his crew is working. He drives slowly along the dirt road, swerving to avoid

Dave Monsees operates a gradiometer in a cornfield that apparently was once a residential area. The archaeologists are hoping to find a midden here that will help them to date the site.

PACH

JERRY RABINOWITZ

BRANDISHING A MACHETE, KAPLAN

This very large storage pot of unrecognizable style was found in a ritual deposit almost exactly below the center of a structure on Mound 15. It was set beneath three large cobbles that probably had symbolic significance. The pot was surrounded by five more cobbles that presumably represented the five sacred directions: the four cardinal directions and verticality.

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big rocks and deep ruts. He curses at the sudden thumps of undetected rocks pounding the truck’s underside. Though Chocolá is a large site being investigated by a large crew, PACH doesn’t own a single vehicle to transport the workers from place to place. Money is tight. “We’re just barely scraping by,” he says. He estimates that PACH’s operating expenses are about $15,000 a month, approximately one third of what he could easily spend to conduct a thorough investigation. Area 35 is a series of low house mounds now covered by corn and coffee beans. “We think it’s a common residential area as well as a workshop area,” says Kaplan. Dave Monsees is 37

PACH

pacing through the cornfield, closely checking the readings from his gradiometer, a remote sensing machine. Monsees, a retired National Institutes of Health official, is searching for underground disturbances that could be archaeological resources. There are indications that this was a heavily populated area and consequently Kaplan hopes to find a midden here. “More people, more trash,” he says matter-of-factly. An intact midden would be immensely helpful in developing a chronological occupation of the site. Gradiometry is “cheaper and faster” than doing test excavations, Monsees says. He’s been interested in archaeology since junior high. He became interested in gra-

Archaeologist Federico Paredes Umaña did this drawing of a Chocolá monument. PACH has recovered or located 38 monuments. These monuments inform the archaeologists about the Maya’s artistic abilities as

Juan Antonio Valdes, the co-director of PACH, studies portions of the underground canal system on Mound 15. Chocolá gets plenty of rain, and the archaeologists surmise that the canal diverted water to the structure for domestic use, and it also diverted excess water away from the structure in order to protect the cobble and earth architecture.

diometry when, while working as a volunteer on a project in Italy, he noticed that the gradiometer operator was in great demand by the archaeologists. Monsees saw his chance. He spent $22,500 on a gradiometer and took a class to learn how to operate it. Now he works for hire on projects in the U.S. and abroad. “I can do archaeology and have fun for the rest of my life,” he states. Monsees’s wife, Caroline, who is also working at the site, shows Kaplan an obsidian core she’s found. Chocolá’s former residents utilized large amounts of obsidian. “It’s called the steel of the New World,” Kaplan says of the hard but brittle volcanic glass. “It was so widely used, it had so many purposes.” He believes that Chocolá obtained its obsidian from Kaminaljuyu in exchange for cacao. There are four themes guiding Kaplan’s research, one of which is that the city, with its abundance of water and rich volcanic topsoil, produced large amounts of high quality cacao that played a vital role in its development. According to Valdés, ethnohistorical historical accounts state that the best cacao came from the Chocolá region. Ethnohistoric accounts from shortly after the Spanish conquest state that Mesoamerican trade consisted of cities exporting the raw materials and finished goods that they specialized in. Therefore Kaminaljuyu, which controlled large obsidian fields, traded it to Chocolá and nearby Abaj Takalik for their cacao. The greater the desire for a product—cacao and obsidian were in demand throughout Mesoamerica—the greater the power of the city producing the product. fall • 2004

JERRY RABINOWITZ

well as their social and political organization.

PACH’s three other themes are: 1) Interaction between the Olmec, a culture that predates the Maya, and proto-Maya people; 2) How and why urbanism developed so early in this region; 3) Core-periphery relationships between the region’s dominant and secondary cities. The Olmec-proto-Maya mingling may have resulted in important advancements. “The two groups exchanged material goods and also ideologies and intellectual innovations,” he observes. “There was something that happened that was very, very dynamic down here.” As for the development of urbanism, Chocolá was constructed on a hill that afforded views of the surrounding land and people. The elite occupied the highest ground in the north, and possibly used their vantage point to control the movement of the lower class. The crew has mapped more than 80 mounds arranged in plaza groups on a north-south axis. Chocolá may have been a ceremonial center from which astronomical observations were made. There are caves to the east of Chocolá where rituals were, and still are, performed. In examining core-periphery relationships, the archaeologists are analyzing how the southern area’s largest city, Kaminaljuyu, interacted with great secondary cities such as Chocolá.

PACH lab technician Victor Gomez holds a small ceramic vessel that was recovered near the canal on Mound 15. The film container next to the

JERRY RABINOWITZ

vessel holds a sample that will be used to obtain a radiocarbon date.

This curious monument is found in the neighboring town of Santo Tomas

Kaplan will not go so far as to say the germination of Maya culture occurred exclusively in this region. He mentions other large, early cities in the northern Petén jungles, such as Tikal, that were involved in “synergistic processes” contributing to this development. But he argues that the “core elements of Classic Maya civilization” are here in the Southern Maya Zone. “Everything we dig up here, everything we find is basically new,” he states. “So it’s going to contribute a huge amount of information to understanding Mesoamerican civilization in general if we do this properly.” Doing it properly, among other things, means engaging the people who now occupy Chocolá. Toward that end an old Toyota minivan with a loudspeaker on its roof cruises the streets to announce a town meeting PACH is hosting. Kaplan, Valdés, and other crew members later address the crowd of perhaps 200, informing them of the project’s ambitions and accomplishments. They emphasize their purpose is to share resources, not to take them. But figuratively speaking, the archaeologists believe they are indeed digging for gold.

de Leon. The torso is part of a monument taken from Chocolá. Someone affixed a mismatched head to the torso.

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MICHAEL BAWAYA is the editor of American Archaeology. 39

L E G E N D S

O F

A R C H A E O L O G Y

The Father of Southwestern Archaeology A. V. Kidder’s landmark work at Pecos Pueblo established a new scientific methodology. chaeology (now the School of American Research). For six weeks, Kidder and two other Harvard students conducted an archaeological survey of sites in the Four Corners area of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. Later that summer they joined Hewett at Mesa Verde in Colorado, where they mapped some of the cliff ruins, and then conducted excavations at the prehistoric site of Puye on New Mexico’s Pajarito Plateau. In the process, the medical student made his mark in this emerging field, becoming one of the first of a generation of new archaeologists to take careful notes and approach the study of archaeology in a more scientific way. “This impressive introduction to Southwestern archaeology determined the direction of Kidder’s life,” says biographer and archaeologist Richard A. V. Kidder, dressed in a white suit and Panama hat, visits Pecos Pueblo after it was reconstructed. Woodbury. Kidder returned to Harvard that fall, switched his major to anthropology, and lfred Vincent (“Ted”) Kidder was born in graduated in 1908. The following summer, he toured arMarquette, Michigan, in 1885. As a young chaeological sites in Greece and Egypt with his parents, man, he frequently read, and was fascinated whose friends, the Appletons of Boston, joined them. The by, archaeological reports, but the desire for a Appletons’ young daughter Madeleine and Ted met and successful career prompted him to pursue a fell in love, marrying two years later. Harvard medical degree. Taking a break from his increasKidder began graduate work back at Harvard in 1909, ingly tedious medical studies in the summer of 1907, Kidstudying under the direction of several leading archaeoloder volunteered for an archaeological expedition led by gists, including Egyptologist George Reisner, who taught Edgar Lee Hewett, director of the School of American Ar-

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By Tamara Stewart

modern archaeological field techniques such as the new systematic excavation method known as “stratigraphy.” The analysis of pottery design and decoration, which Kidder studied under George Chase, proved to be a very useful skill in his later work at Pecos. In 1914, he received his Ph.D. from Harvard with a dissertation in Southwestern ceramics, a topic that continued to fascinate him throughout his life. At that time, Kidder was one of only six American students to receive an advanced degree in archaeology and the first student to write a dissertation on Southwestern archaeology.

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EXCAVATIONS AT PECOS PUEBLO The year after receiving his doctorate Kidder began work at Pecos Pueblo in New Mexico, where he was appointed leader of the Peabody Southwestern Expedition at Pecos. Trustees of the Phillips Academy of Andover, Massachusetts, backed by the Robert S. Peabody Foundation for Archaeology, had decided to sponsor long-term excavations at a Southwestern Pueblo Indian site. Kidder, believing that investigations at Pecos, which was occupied from prehistoric through historic times, might speak to the prehistory of the entire Southwest, chose this site as the focus of the expedition. He was particularly interested in the connections between prehistoric settlement at Pecos, the Galisteo Basin to the east, the Rio Grande pueblos, and the major archaeological sites Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde to the north. Fieldwork at Pecos ran from 1915 until 1929, with a two-year hiatus during which Kidder served in World War I. Kidder, Madeleine, and their five children stayed close to the pueblo ruins in an old adobe house at the adjacent Forked Lightning Ruin (now part of the Pecos National Monument), while the work crews camped nearby. The Kidders’ famous 1911 vintage Model-T Ford known as Old Blue was a common sight out in the field, as it was used to portage groceries and other necessities to the workers. The remains of Old Blue can still be seen at Forked Lightning Ruin, parked in a grove of trees near a plaque that marks the graves of Ted and Madeleine. Nels C. Nelson of the American Museum of Natural History applied the stratigraphic approach to his archaeological research in the Galisteo Basin of north-central New Mexico between 1912 and 1914, marking a major scientific turning point in Southwestern archaeology. Derived from geology, the basic concept is that the youngest material is found on the top, with each underlying layer representing an older deposit, thus making it possible to assign a relative date to the various levels. Following Nelson’s lead, Kidder and his workers dug carefully into the immense refuse heap at Pecos, noting each visible stratigraphic layer and labeling each artifact according to the layer it was found in. The oldest artifacts were in the deepest layers. Unlike Nelson and other American archaeologists, Kidder defined the stratigraphic layers american archaeology

Workers dig a stratigraphic profile at the site. Experimental back then, stratigraphic profiling is now standard archaeological procedure.

in accordance with the earth’s natural layers, rather than marking them off in arbitrary, uniform increments. He also laid a grid over the excavation area that, in combination with the stratigraphic profiles, allowed the workers to note the positions of artifacts both vertically and horizontally, in space and time. Following the excavations, Kidder directed his crew to backfill the exposed rooms in order to protect them from the elements. Like stratigraphy, backfilling has become a standard archaeological practice. Kidder paid particular attention to the thousands of ceramic sherds discovered in stratigraphic layers at Pecos. With the help of Madeleine and his assistants, who undertook the immense task of cleaning and sorting the sherds, Kidder defined eight major pottery types based on the details of their attributes such as decoration, color, finish, thickness, and shape. His careful stratigraphic excavations allowed him to determine the pottery types’ place in the site’s chronological sequence, enabling him to “crossdate” Pecos artifacts with those from other Pueblo sites. Kidder realized early in his career that a multidisciplinary approach to archaeology, which is now widely prac41

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1680, and rebuilt in the early 18th century following the Spanish reconquest of New Mexico. Disease epidemics and repeated invasions by Apaches and Comanche greatly reduced the Pecos population until, in 1838, the remaining few moved northwest to join relatives at Jemez Pueblo. In 1924, Kidder published An Introduction to the Study of Southwestern Archaeology, with a Preliminary Account of the Excavations at Pecos, which provided the basis for the Southwestern cultural chronology that became formalized as the Pecos Classification. Considered a classic, the volume represented the first regional archaeologiJessie L. Nusbaum (left) and Kidder are seen above Spruce Tree House at Mesa Verde in this photograph taken in 1908. cal synthesis formulated for any part of the New World, and it was especially significant for its concept of Southwestern culture ticed, was the only way to achieve a broad understanding areas and groups, including discussions of the modern of the past. When some 200 burials were recovered from pueblos and their prehistoric counterparts. Pecos’s massive trash midden during the first field season, Kidder invited physical anthropologist Earnest A. Hooton of the Peabody Museum to join the research team. THE FIRST PECOS CONFERENCE Hooton stayed two months and brought ten years’ worth Kidder invited other Southwestern archaeologists to join of material to analyze back at the Peabody Museum. He him at Pecos in the summer of 1927 in order to discuss published his landmark book The Indians of Pecos Pueblo: archaeological issues and to develop a classification system A Study of Their Skeletal Remains in 1930,which provided that would identify the cultural development of Southdetailed information about the prehistoric peoples’ life western peoples. By this time, Kidder had ceased work at span, health, and diet. Hooton was one of several rethe main ruins of Pecos and had begun investigations at searchers specializing in other fields of science that connearby Forked Lightning Ruin, a smaller, older site imtributed to Kidder’s Pecos endeavor. mediately ancestral to the settlement of Pecos. As work progressed at the site, a clearer picture of About 40 archaeologists participated in the first Pecos Pecos Pueblo began to emerge. The site’s strategic location Conference, arriving from all over the Southwest to join between the Great Plains that stretch to the east and the the informal three-day gathering. With input from his fertile Rio Grande Valley to the west was a major factor in colleagues, Kidder formulated the Pecos Classification, the its prehistoric rise to prominence as a trade center. Once well-known Basketmaker through Pueblo prehistoric culinhabited by some 2,000 Pueblo people and surrounded ture period classification that is still applied to the northby a high stone wall for defense, Pecos brought together ern Southwest. The first meeting was so successful, it has Pueblo farming communities of the northern Rio Grande continued, with the occasional interruption, as an annual and the nomadic hunting tribes of the plains. With the argathering of Southwestern archaeologists to this day, held rival of the Spanish to the region in the late 16th century, at different venues for three days in late summer, always a mission was built just east of the pueblo in 1618. The returning to its birthplace every fifth year or so. Spanish mission was destroyed in the Pueblo Revolt of The initial conference “laid a foundation for a tradi-

tion in Southwestern archaeology, which Kidder himself referred to as the ‘Pecos Clan Spirit,’ and many of us have benefited from the friendships which were cemented on that occasion,” recalled archaeologist Odd Halseth in Richard Woodbury’s book 60 Years of Southwestern Archaeology: A History of the Pecos Conference. The 1920s were an exciting time in Southwestern archaeology. The famous 1927 discovery of a projectile point embedded in an extinct species of bison near Folsom, New Mexico, dramatically changed the face of New World archaeology. All of a sudden prehistory on this continent stretched back much farther than had been previously thought. The development of tree ring dating by astronomer Andrew Ellicott Douglass two years later allowed for the absolute dating of Southwestern archaeological sites, a major breakthrough that grounded Kidder’s relative chronology in real time. During the Pecos Conference in 1929, archaeologists viewed aerial photographs of Southwestern archaeological sites including Pecos Pueblo that were taken by aviator Charles Lindbergh at Kidder’s suggestion. Woodbury states: “Lindbergh’s work presaged coming decades in which aerial photography and, eventually, infrared remote sensing technology, would provide detailed data on sites from the air.”

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TURNING TO THE MAYA

Following his retirement from the Carnegie, Kidder remained active in archaeology, teaching briefly at the University of California, Berkeley before retiring to his Cambridge home. In 1958, nearly 30 years after the completion of fieldwork at Pecos, Kidder published his summary of the work, titled Pecos, New Mexico: Archaeological Notes, lauded for its scientific detail and literary style. Just a few years prior, Southwestern archaeologists of the American Anthropological Association had established the A. V. Kidder Award, a prestigious award presented every third year “for eminence in the field of American archaeology,” recognizing Kidder’s great contributions to the scientific advancement of the field. In 1986, the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala Department of Archaeology was established with funds from the Alfred V. and Madeleine Kidder Chair in honor of Kidder. In a statement memorializing the death of A. V. Kidder in 1963, Halseth described him: “He was the sparkplug, even though his methods of seeking and getting cooperation were always low-voltage. His personality as well as his scholarship disarmed any rebel in camp, and though no one could be more generous and kind, his integrity of purpose and judgment never was compromised.” TAMARA STEWART is the assistant editor of American Archaeology and the Conservancy’s Southwest project’s coordinator.

By this time, Kidder had shifted his research focus to the Two biographies of Alfred V. Kidder have been written: Maya region of North America, inspired by his lifelong Alfred V. Kidder, by Richard Woodbury, Columbia Unifriend Sylvanius Morley. A leading scholar of Maya hieroversity Press, 1973; Alfred Vincent Kidder to the Developglyphs, Morley had begun a long-term research program in ment of Americanist Archaeology, by Douglas Givens, Unithe Maya region in 1914 with the Carnegie Institution of versity of New Mexico Press, 1992. Washington. Kidder first visited Morley’s project at Chichén Itzá, Yucatán, in 1925 as a consultant to the Carnegie. The following year he became a research associate with the Carnegie, and in 1927 accepted the position of director of Carnegie’s entire archaeological program. Until his retirement in 1950, Kidder directed intensive excavations at the sites of Chichén Itzá and Uaxactun in the Yucatán, and Kaminaljuyu in Guatemala. These were among the first major archaeological investigations to employ a team of specialists in the fields of physical and social anthropology, ethnology, linguistics, environmental studies, geology, and geography, Kidder (lower right) surveys trenches in the north midden at Pecos in 1915. He’s again dressed in a suit, which among others. was standard attire for the professional staff at the dig. american archaeology

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Woodland Site Donated by Concerned Landowner Having never been excavated, the Giesey site could offer a wealth of information about its inhabitants.

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JOE NAVARRI

he Loyalhanna Creek attracted Native Americans throughout time. With the inception of horticulture in western Pennsylvania, the fertile flood plains became home to many Native Americans. The creek’s banks are littered with archaeological sites from its headwaters to its confluence with the Conemaugh River. One of those sites is Giesey, which stretches across 10 acres. Giesey has been inhabited for the last 6,000 years. The Native Americans who lived Archaeologist Dick George at the Giesey site. No formal excavations have yet been done at the site. It has tremendous there practiced horticul- research potential. ture, caught fish and fresh water mussels, and hunted elk and deer. Most of the During the Woodland period horticulture was pracartifacts found at Giesey are from the Woodland period. Ar- ticed, the population grew, and lifestyles changed. Pottery chaeologist Bob Oshnock described the site as primarily an became important. Native Americans started building Early-to-Middle Woodland village in a mountain valley. mounds throughout the Ohio River Valley, some of “The site represents a setting in the uplands where prehis- which were utilized for burials and others for ceremonial toric people exploited the resources of the mountain region,” traditions. The prospect of revealing information about Oshnock said. He believes Giesey “should eventually yield this time of great change makes Giesey all the more immuch information of even early prehistoric occupations.” portant. The site’s research potential is great, as no formal excavations have been conducted there. Its alluvial soils also suggest the possibility of deep and stratified archaeological deposits that are undisturbed. Cordelia S. May is donating the Giesey site to the Conservancy to ensure its permanent preservation. For many years May has championed environmental and historical preservation. Many similar sites have been lost to modern agriculture and development. Western Pennsylvania is now home to five Conservancy preserves and, with the help of people like May, we hope to acquire more sites throughout the state.—Joe Navari

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Explaining Mississippian Expansion

The John Chapman site could answer questions about why the Mississippians moved north.

CHRIS LORD

n the extreme northwestern corner of Illinois, the Apple River meets the Mississippi. The surrounding area combines the wetlands formed at their confluence with the scenic beauty of the hills and ridges. In the past, this area drew generations of Native Americans who left a rich archaeological legacy of habitation sites. This area contains a handful of sites related to the Mississippian metropolis of Cahokia over 350 river miles to the south. The Apple River region has one of the clearest examples of contact between the Late Woodland cultures of the upper Midwest and the more elaborate Mississippian Culture of the greater Southeast. Data from Apple River sites have fueled much discussion about the nature of the Mississippian expansion. They have also figured prominently in debates about the origins of the post-Mississippian cultures of the Midwest. In researching these issues, most archaeologists focused on the Mills site, a substantial Mississippian settlement. Sadly, the Mills site seems to have been largely destroyed by erosion, deep plowing, and the construction of farm buildings. Fortunately the John Chapman site, located about three miles upriver from Mills, remains in good condition. This site is an example of a Mississippian frontier town that should provide information about the spread of Mississippian Culture. Archaeologists generally agree that Cahokia and its immediate environs, the American Bottom, were the source behind the spread of Mississippian Culture northward, but there is little agreement about how it took place. University of Illinois archaeologist Thomas Emerson ties the appearance of Mississippian frontier towns to political changes in the American Bottom, where a number of elite groups were vying for power. At about A.D.1050 one elite group at Cahokia triumphed over the others. Around this time Mississippian frontier towns like Mills and John Chapman appear in distant regions. Emerson hypothesizes that they were founded by elite groups that lost the political struggle in the American Bottom and chose to leave it. In 2003, archaeologists from

american archaeology

This aerial photograph shows the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign crew excavating the site. The researchers recovered conch shells and fine pottery that may have been obtained from Mississippian centers south of John Chapman.

the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign investigated the John Chapman site. They identified about 12 house patterns and 140 pit features. “There are a number of locales where Mississippian peoples intruded into a Late Woodland Culture area and ‘hybridized’ the cultures,” said archaeologist Phillip Millhouse, “but it’s only at the John Chapman site where we have captured the moment where the people are living both the Mississippian and the Woodland Cultures.” —Paul Gardner

Conservancy Plan of Action SITE: John Chapman CULTURE & TIME PERIOD: Mississippian A.D. 1050–1300 STATUS: Threatened by encroaching commercial and residential development and agriculture. ACQUISITION: The Conservancy has optioned the property and has until August 31, 2005, to raise $218,300 to complete the purchase. HOW YOU CAN HELP: Please send contributions to The Archaeological Conservancy, Attn: John Chapman Project, 5301 Central Ave. N.E., Suite 902, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517

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Getting a Glimpse of the Adena

bout 2,000 years ago, a hunting/gathering/gardening culture, known to archaeologists as the Adena people, lived in the Silver Creek Valley of central Kentucky. They exploited the area’s native wild plant and animal resources and grew domesticated plants in their gardens, such as squash, goosefoot, and sunflower. Adena society was made up of small, dispersed social groups that did not recognize overt distinctions in social status. The Adena made stone spearpoints and ceramic vessels, and crafted, among other things, engraved stone tablets, copper ear spools, mica crescents, and elbow and platform pipes for use in their rituals. These kinds of artifacts have been found in the burial mounds they built from approximately 500 B.C. until about A.D. 200. The Conservancy has saved a well-preserved Adena mound through its establishment of the WilliamsMorgan Archaeological Preserve. Adena mounds, which generally range in size from 20 to over 80 feet in diameter, served as the final resting place for male and female individuals. Adena groups returned to the same mounds year after year to bury their newly dead and pay homage to their ancestors. Thus, over time, some Adena mounds grew to be quite large. Adena people intentionally built their mounds away from their residences and at the boundaries of neighboring communities. The mounds were therefore the final resting places for the dead of several different groups. Consequently, they served as important social focal points; periodic visits to a mound provided groups with an opportunity to interact with both the dead and the living. Objects placed with the dead, manufactured from materials found in other regions such as copper and mica, show

The Adena produced beautiful artifacts like this human-effigy pipe from the Adena Mound in Chillicothe, Ohio.

that Adena groups participated in long-distance trade networks. Many Adena mounds were in-

vestigated in Kentucky during the Depression as part of the Works Projects Administration (WPA). Numerous artifacts were recovered during these investigations that were made available for study; however, partially due to the fact that archaeological methods were much less advanced at that time, many questions still remain about Adena ritual. The Williams-Morgan Archaeological Preserve encompasses the mound itself as well as a few surrounding acres that may contain information about off-mound rituals. Sara Morgan donated this land to the Conservancy in honor of her late brother David J. Williams III. Williams was a long-time supporter of the Conservancy who wanted this site preserved for the benefit of future generations. This preserve is the Conservancy’s third in the Silver Creek watershed. The other two, Bogie Circle (an Adena ceremonial circle) and Round Hill (an Adena mound), are roughly the same age as this new aquisition: approximately 1,800 years old. Because of their close proximity, this section of Silver Creek may have served as a sacred Adena mortuary area and could reflect continuity in the ritual use of this place over many generations. Well-preserved Adena mounds such as this one can give us a better understanding of this fascinating culture. —Joe Navari

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OHIO HISTORICAL SOCIETY

The Williams-Morgan Archaeological Preserve offers researchers an intact Adena mound.

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The Conservancy Acquires Early 17th-Century Iroquois Village

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European glass trade beads recovered from the site provide important clues to the area’s chronology.

MARIAN E. WHITE MUSEUM, SUNY BUFFALO

hen the Europeans arrived in eastern North America they brought trade materials such as glass beads and metal objects that became highly prized by native peoples. The Europeans mainly traded glass beads for furs. These beads were manufactured in Venice, France, Holland, and elsewhere. Because glass bead styles were produced over known and limited time periods, beads recovered from 16th- and 17th-century sites are very useful for providing chronological ordering of sites such as those located in the Niagara Frontier region of western New York State, south and east of present-day Buffalo. Thousands of glass trade beads recovered from early historic Iroquois village sites in the Niagara Frontier region are giving archaeologists a clearer picture of the chronology of such sites as well as the nature of trade relationships. Last spring, the Conservancy acquired an early 17th-century Iroquois village rich in glass trade beads from developers of the subdivision that surrounds the site in a bargainsale-to-charity transaction. First discovered in 1979 during a pipeline survey conducted by the State University of New York at Buffalo, the seven-acre Smokes Creek site is located in a rapidly developing area of Orchard Park, New York. The Smokes Creek site, located less than three miles from another contemporaneous Iroquois village, has been dated between 1610 and

american archaeology

In addition to a wealth of beads, Smokes Creek has yielded other types of artifacts, such as stone tools, an iron ax, and this pipe stem.

This bead, shown from the front and side, was recovered during initial testing at the site in 1980.

1630 based on its bead assemblage. An excavation in 1992 revealed a wide variety of glass beads numbering nearly 1,000, including eight types previously unknown to researchers. Archaeologists also found brass beads and pendants, marine shell objects, an iron ax, and a large quantity of stone material and tools, including numerous scrapers probably used to work hide. “In the 16th and early 17th centuries, two contemporaneous Iroquoian villages are believed to have been located just south of present-

day Buffalo,” explained William Engelbrecht, a retired professor of archaeology from Buffalo State College, who is familiar with the site. “Every 10 to 20 years these communities moved, resulting in a series of village sites scattered across the landscape. Geographical proximity suggests that Smokes Creek is one such village site.” The Iroquois’s frequent movements are attributed to soil and wood depletion, or the result of increasing warfare with the Seneca to the east. —Tamara Stewart 47

N E W P O I N T- 2

The DePrato site is a well-preserved example of cultural change in Louisiana.

JESSICA CRAWFORD

a cq u i s i t i o n

STONE ARTIFACTS OF TEXAS INDIANS

Preserving Evidence of Cultural Transition

DePrato's location on a high natural levee beside Black Bayou prevented flooding while allowing easy access to the wildlife and transportation routes provided by the bayou. Mound 3 (the low rise on the left) and Mound 4 (the low rise on the right) are shown here along the curving bank of Black Bayou.

. W. Dickeson was a medical doctor from Pennsylvania with a passion for archaeology. Over the course of seven years, from 1837 to 1844, Dickeson traveled throughout the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys excavating many mounds. In 1843, he visited the plantation of William Ferriday in Ferriday, a town in eastcentral Louisiana. Dickeson was immediately taken with the beauty of the mound site now known as the DePrato site. His diary contains poetic descriptions of the setting he encountered as he viewed

the “great tumuli of a lost and unhistoried people.” At the time of his visit, there were eight mounds at DePrato. Dickeson partially excavated three of them and his notes mention several layers of mound construction containing hearths, arrow points, pieces of mica, clay pipes, pottery, and burials. The Conservancy recently purchased the DePrato site, at which five mounds remain. This site contains an impressive continuum of occupation from the Troyville Culture (A.D. 400 to 700) through the Middle Coles Creek

Culture (A.D. 700 to 800). The earliest occupation is the Troyville village area. The Troyville Culture marks the beginning of a change in mound construction from conical to larger, flat-topped, pyramid mounds. It’s believed they served as civic or religious structures. The Troyville type-site (the site for which the culture is named) was a large mound site of almost 400 acres located not far from DePrato at the confluence of the Little, Black, and Ouachita Rivers. Unfortunately, the Troyville site has been almost completely destroyed; however, the fall • 2004

N E W P O I N T- 2

DePrato site is contemporaneous with the Troyville site, and some of the people who lived there are likely the same people who built and used the now destroyed Troyville site. The Troyville occupation at DePrato is overlaid by an Early to Middle Coles Creek occupation. This culture, named for a creek near Natchez, Mississippi, is widely distributed throughout the Lower Mississippi Valley. It is during this occupation that archaeologists believe the mounds at DePrato were constructed. Very little is known about the nature of the transition from the Troyville to the Coles Creek Culture, and DePrato promises to be an excellent source of information. According to Louisiana regional archaeologist Joe Saunders, DePrato is one of the region’s best preserved examples of the Troyville-to-Coles Creek transition. At first glance, the DePrato Site may not resemble an important multi-mound complex. The site is

located on an old natural levee deposit of the Mississippi River near the confluence of two bayous. Due to flooding, two and a half feet of alluvium covers the site. Consequently, the five mounds appear smaller than they originally were and the archaeological resources remain virtually untouched by modern activity such as road construction and farming. Investigations indicate the site has a layer cake stratigraphy, which means the different occupations may be separated by alluvium from flood events. Such conditions on archaeological sites are rare and offer researchers an opportunity to link artifacts and archaeological features, such as pits, hearths, or post molds to different occupations. This is also helpful in the analysis of changes in village organization during the three time periods. In addition, DePrato has excellent floral and faunal preservation that can provide valuable data concerning the diets of the site’s occu-

a cq u i s i t i o n pants and any changes through time. The DePrato family has owned the site since the early 1900s. The current owner, Lloyd “Buddy” Paul, Jr.’s mother Martha DePrato Paul grew up on this land and was fully aware of its archaeological importance. Under Paul’s ownership, the meticulously maintained site has been placed on the National Register of Historic Places. Paul and his wife, Betty, are both educators, as was Martha Paul. With over 50 years of teaching among the three of them, they are well aware of the research potential of the DePrato site. By selling the site to the Conservancy, Buddy continues his family’s tradition of education. —Jessica Crawford

POINT Acquisitions Smokes Creek

★

★ The Protect Our Irreplaceable National Treasures (POINT) Program was designed to save significant sites that are in immediate danger of destruction. american archaeology

DePrato

C O N S E R V A N C Y

STEVE KOCZAN

Field Notes

Archaeologist Kristin Kuckelman of Crow Canyon Archaeological Center and Sandy and Larry Tradlener prepare detailed drawings of a stabilization area located in one of the six linear masonry wall features at Bement Archaeological Preserve. The area was backfilled after the documentation phase was completed.

Bement Stabilization Complete SOUTHWEST—The Conservancy has recently completed the stabilization of the Bement Archaeological Preserve near Cortez in southwestern Colorado. The preserve is in excellent condition and stabilization was needed at only a few places where masonry walls were exposed and subject to erosion. Staff from Crow 50

Canyon Archaeological Center and Conservancy site stewards provided valuable assistance documenting and backfilling the stabilization areas. Bement is a very unusual archaeological site. The site was first occupied between A.D. 750 and 900 during the Pueblo I period. It was apparently abandoned and then reoccupied between A.D. 1000 and 1150 during the Pueblo II period. Seven

architectural units have been identified. Six of them consist of the typical multi-room architectural features frequently found in the region. One may even have a small circular tower. However, the seventh architectural unit is quite different and archaeologists are puzzled by its organization. It consists of six masonry walls that were constructed parallel to one another. They are oriented fall • 2004

north to south and are approximately 50 feet long. There do not appear to be any cross walls connecting the six parallel walls, whose purpose is unknown. Some have suggested that this may be some type of community center for the region. Regardless, this preserve will clearly provide an interesting research opportunity in the future.

tor of the Laboratory of Anthropology at the Museum of New Mexico, states, “Dr. Roth’s research questions are directed at the most pressing current issues before us for the Late Pithouse period in southwestern New Mexico. She and her team will no doubt contribute much needed data and add significantly to our understanding of the site.”

Research Continues at La Gila Encantada

San José de las Huertas Preserve Expands

SOUTHWEST—La Gila Encantada, a pithouse village near Silver City, New Mexico, is revealing its long-kept secrets to researchers from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Archaeologist Barbara Roth and her crew of students are continuing fieldwork started in the summer of 2003. They mapped all surface features and artifacts that year in preparation for the 2004 field school. Twenty-eight surface depressions were identified and it is possible that additional, buried pithouses are present. A small cobble pile, possibly representing two small Classic period pueblo rooms, was located at the southern end of the site. This year’s excavations are focused on three pithouses and their associated extramural areas. This four-acre preserve contains a village from the Late Pithouse period (A.D. 550–1000). The goal is to collect data on Late Pithouse groups in an upland setting away from the Mimbres River for comparison with settlements along the water to see if there are measurable differences in social organization, mobility, and dependence on agriculture. Household organization, mobility strategies, and subsistence patterns are all areas Roth is investigating. Chris Turnbow, assistant direc-

SOUTHWEST—A 14-acre easement has been donated to the Conservancy by Susan Blumenthal. Included within this easement are features and structures associated with San José de las Huertas, a Spanish Colonial village and adjacent Cottonwood Pueblo, an Anasazi Pueblo II settlement, in central New Mexico. Blumenthal’s easement expands the Conservancy’s Las Huertas preserve to roughly 40 acres. Today the village walls of Las Huertas are visible as low mounds. Remnants of agricultural fields as well as portions of an irrigation system lead off towards Las Huertas Creek. Areas of stone-lined terraces that may be associated with the agri-

american archaeology

cultural activities of the San Jose de las Huertas settlement line the Blumenthal property along the creek banks. Additional investigations into these features have the potential to add to our understanding of the inhabitants’ agricultural practices. Cottonwood Pueblo is a 15- to 20-unit roomblock centered around a small plaza. Excavations done by the property owner prior to the 1970s revealed a small portion of the roomblock interiors. Finds from these investigations show the formation of the pueblo to be a series of construction phases with rooms rebuilt and reused directly on top of previous occupations. It is likely that 50 percent or more of this roomblock is still intact and will provide future researchers with intriguing clues into the daily lives of the pueblo’s inhabitants. Several smaller structures are adjacent to the pueblo roomblock. A small three-room structure in excellent condition is nearby. A large circular depression that may be the trace of a large, shallow pit structure is found in association with four isolated rooms at yet another location on the property.

Reviews Ancient Mexico & Central America: Archaeology and Culture History By Susan Toby Evans (Thames & Hudson, 2004; 608 pgs., illus., $70 cloth; www.thamesandhudson.com)

In Ancient Mexico & Central America, Susan Toby Evans has produced a monumental sur vey of the prehistoric cultures of Mesoamerica, the region between nor th-central Mexico and Costa Rica. The Olmec, Maya, Toltec, Aztec, and others produced the most sophisticated cultures of the New World, rivaling in many ways those of Europe and China, only to fall to the invading Spaniards in 1521. Over the past 50 years, archaeologists have made giant strides in understanding these great cultures. They have decoded much of the writing and iconography. Calendrics and numbers have been figured out. Economies and trade are better understood. Complex politics and religions are being unraveled. Numerous excavations in the jungles and arid plateaus have yielded mountains of new information. Evans, a professor of anthropology at Pennsylvania State University, has brought all of this knowledge together in this wonderfully produced volume. Writing in a flowing narrative that avoids technical terminology, the author tells the stor y of Mesoamerican civilization. There are 459 illustrations, 80 in color, to supplement the text. Numerous timelines, charts, and maps keep the reader in context. Many of the most important sites, like La Venta, Monte Albán, Teotihuacán, Palenque, and Tenochtitlan, are explored in depth from their earliest origins to their fall. Thirty-three specific topics, including colossal stone heads, the ball game, metalworking, and child-raising, are explored in special boxed features. Ancient Mexico & Central America contains so much information it might overwhelm the casual reader, but instead it is organized in such a friendly manner that it is a pleasure to read and easy to understand. The publisher, Thames and Hudson, has produced an outstanding series of books on archaeology suitable for the interested layperson. This may well be the best so far.

Early Art of the Southeastern Indians: Feathered Serpents & Winged Beings By Susan C. Power (University of Georgia Press, 2004; 288 pgs., illus., $40 cloth; www.ugapress.org)

The prehistoric people of the southeastern United States produced some of the richest and most sophisticated Native art. Cultures we know as Mississippian, Caddo, Hopewell, Adena, and Poverty Point thrived in the eastern Woodlands and collected exotic materials from great distances to turn into elaborate works of art. Author Susan C. Power, a professor of art at Marshall University, traces the development of this rich artistic tradition from its origins in the archaic period some 6,000 years ago to the European conquest. We are introduced to an extraordinary assemblage of objects described and pictured, many in color, in this tome. Some are clearly ceremonial, others probably functional, including pipes, figurines, ceramics, beads, and copper objects. Of course, perishable items are rare, which skews our sample. The most complex works according to Power were linked to powerful leaders (mostly male) who wore bold ensembles consisting of symbolic colors, sacred media, and complex designs. Four large ceremonial centers are the focus of much of this art—Etowah in Georgia, Spiro in eastern Oklahoma, Cahokia near St. Louis, and Moundville in Alabama. Early Art of the Southeastern Indians is a visual journey through time that demonstrates the exemplary abilities of master artists and craftsmen. Their remarkable achievements delight the senses and give us a brief glimpse into their symbolic world. fall • 2004

The Seminole Wars: America’s Longest Indian Conflict By John and Mary Lou Missall (University Press of Florida, 2004; 304 pgs., illus., $30 cloth; www.upf.com)

Three Seminole wars in Florida lasted from 1817 to 1858, the longest, bloodiest, and most costly of all the Indian wars fought in the United States. They were of major concern to the entire nation and often had international implications as the United States struggled with the European powers for control of the continent. In fact, the Seminoles were allies of both Britain and Spain and hostile to the young, expanding republic. General Andrew Jackson, fresh from his victory over the British at New Orleans in 1815, led the first conflict, which was part of the plan to drive Spain from the Florida Territory. The second took the lives of 1,500 U.S. soldiers and countless Indians over seven years. The third war was fought on the eve of the Civil War in an attempt to remove the surviving Seminoles from their homes in the Everglades. Unlike the Plains wars, the Seminole wars were soon forgotten, an embarrassment in their brutality. While the government side is well documented, there is little from the Seminoles. Clearly there is a role for archaeologists to help document this tragic episode in American history. Surely, this well-written history will not be the last word on one of America’s darkest eras. Shovel Bum: Comix of Archaeological Field Life By Trent de Boer (AltaMira Press, 2004; 129 pgs., illus., $23 paper; www.altamirapress.com)

Half the “fun” of being an archaeologist in America is the experience of fieldwork. Shovel bums endure weeks of flea-bitten motel beds, greasy roadhouse food, temperamental vehicles, and long stretches of boredom to practice that most romantic of intellectual endeavors—archaeology. Underpaid and unappreciated they have struck back at the archaeological bureaucracy that never gets its hands dirty with this collection of comix. Developed by Trent de Boer while on assignment in Arkansas and supplemented by his friends and colleagues, Shovel Bum takes a humorous look at the trials and tribulations of American field archaeologists. Some of the episodes will have you in stitches; others will have you in tears. It’s all great fun (in retrospect) for old hands and an education for aspiring archaeologists. —Mark Michel american archaeology

Reviews

Artifact: The Hunt for Stolen Treasurers Board game from Outset Media, 2004 ($30 at www.boardgames.com)

Bored with Trivial Pursuit and Clue? Ar tifact is an enter taining strategy game that sends players around the world to recover missing treasures. You are in charge of Interpol’s Ar tifact Recovery Team. Your mission is to discover the location of missing ar tifacts and return them to their countries of origin. The stories are based on true events and filled with interesting information. From Armenia to New Zealand, you search the world for lost and stolen ar tifacts. You must exchange information with other team members, retrieve information from the database of stolen ar t, and use secret informants. Good training for a growing worldwide problem. Challenging and fun. Ages 12 and up. 2–6 players. Optional rules for ages 3–12.

T H E

A R C H A E O L O G I C A L

C O N S E R V A N C Y

Viva Veracruz VERACRUZ When: January 13–23, 2005 Where: Veracruz How much: $2,495 per person

Join us in Mexico’s oldest port city, Veracruz, for an exciting look at the Olmec, Totonac, Huastec, Maya, Aztec, and Spanish cultures that have dominated the region for thousands of years. You’ll visit Zempoala, a Totonac town conquered by the Aztecs, where Cortés lived during the first months of the Spanish invasion. At El Tajín, one of the great cities of Mexico, you’ll find its famous architecture and its numerous ball courts. You’ll also visit the immense city of Cantona, which prospered after the collapse of Teotihuacán. You’ll then visit Tres Zapotes, where the discovery of the first great Olmec head sculpture in 1869 set off specu-

BETSY GREENLEE

($295 single supplement)

The Pyramid of the Niches at El Tajín has 365 niches, one for each day of the year.

lation about lost tribes from Africa. John Henderson, a leading scholar on the cultures of Mesoamerica, will lead the tour.

Monuments of Mesoamerica AZTECS, TOLTECS, AND TEOTIHUACÁNOS

When: March 15–24, 2005 Where: Mexico City and surrounding area How much: $2,395 per person

Teotihuacån was once one of the great cities of the New World.

Thousands of years ago, cultures that have long since vanished from Central America constructed magnificent temples and pyramids. Today these monuments of the Aztecs, Toltecs, and Teotihuacános remain a testament to the fascinating people that built them. This tour takes you to a number of sites including those once inhabited by the Olmec, a culture known throughout the region for its art style. You’ll also visit the monuments of the Aztec, a civilization that witnessed the arrival of the Spanish. You’ll explore Teotihuacán, once a great urban center with a population of 200,000. John Henderson, professor of anthropology at Cornell and author of The World of the Ancient Maya, will lead the tour. fall • 2004

MARK MICHEL

($250 single supplement)

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Patrons of Preservation The Archaeological Conservancy would like to thank the following individuals, foundations, and corporations for their generous support during the period of May 2004 through July 2004. Their generosity, along with the generosity of the Conservancy’s other members, makes our work possible. Life Member Gifts of $1,000 or more Betty Annis, New Mexico Richard Berg, California Bill Caruth III, Texas Donna Cosulich, Arizona Phyllis J. Guiden, Florida Peter M. Klein, Wisconsin Mr. and Mrs. Joe R. Klutts, Louisiana Derwood Koenig, Indiana Mary L. Lewis, Colorado Ronald J. Pierce, Pennsylvania Jane M. Quinette, Colorado Caryl Richardson, New Mexico Melvin V. and Giulia Simpson, New York Catherine Symchych, Wyoming

Dr. and Mrs. J. L. Foght, Illinois Mr. and Mrs. R. M. Hart, Colorado David and Sue Knop, California Mrs. Pat McCreery, California Lawrence K. and Kathleen M. Peterson, Colorado Gavine Pitner, North Carolina Robert A. Robinson, California Richard Salamon, Oklahoma Ian and Talmadge Silversides, North Carolina Rosamond L. Stanton, Montana Dee Ann Story, Texas

Anasazi Circle Gifts of $2,000 or more Anonymous J. E. and Memorie Loughridge, Florida Joe and Dolly Rollins, Mississippi Pete and Christine Adolph, New Mexico Rosemary Armbruster, Missouri Carol M. Baker, Texas Dorothy Beatty, California Carol Condie, New Mexico Helen S. Darby, California

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A PLAN FOR THE FUTURE

To ensure that America’s past will always have a future, the Conservancy established a leadership society in 2002, the The Archaeological Conservancy Living Spirit Circle. It consists of a dedicated group of members who have included the Conservancy in their will or trust, or have made a life-income gift such as a charitable gift annuity to support archaeological preservation. This elite group has grown to over 60 members and is an essential component of the Conservancy’s success in identifying and preserving America’s most endangered archaeological resources. They have made

Foundation/Corporate Gifts of $15,000–$25,000

an important investment in protecting America’s past. Planned giving allows you to specify how your assets will be distributed after your lifetime. This can be done by simply adding an amendment including the Conservancy as a beneficiary to your existing will. It can stand as a lasting memorial to you or a loved one. The preservation of America’s archaeological resources depends on the continued support and generosity of members like you. By joining the Conservancy’s Living Spirit Circle today, you can ensure our nation’s cultural heritage for years to come.

fall • 2004

BOOKS Coyote Press P.O. Box 3377 Salinas, CA 93912 Specializing in Archaeology, Rock Art, Prehistory, Ethnography, Linguistics, Native American Studies and anything closely related. We stock thousands of new books and reprints, used and rare books, and the back issues of many journals. Browse or shop online at our newly redesigned e-commerce website: WWW.COYOTEPRESS.COM E-mail: coyote@coyotepress.com Proud sponsors of: www.californiaprehistory.com

Make your mark in time. Some Conservancy members think the only way to help save archaeological sites is through membership dues. While dues are a constant lifeline, there are many ways you can support the Conservancy’s work, both today and well into the future. And by supporting the Conservancy, you not only safeguard our past for your children and grandchildren, you also may save some money.

Atkeson Pueblo, AZ Conservancy preserve since 1983

Place stock in the Conservancy. Evaluate your investments. Some members choose to make a difference by donating stock. Such gifts offer a charitable deduction for the full value instead of paying capital gains tax.

Give a charitable gift annuity. Depending on your circumstances, you may be able to make a gift of cash and securities today that lets you receive extensive tax benefits as well as an income for as long as you live.

leave a lasting legacy.

A great place to live 800 years ago.

Many people consider protecting our cultural heritage by remembering the Conservancy in their will. While providing us with a dependable source of income, bequests may qualify you for an estate tax deduction.

JERRY JACKA

A great place to preserve today.

Yes, I’m interested in making a planned-giving donation to The Archaeological Conservancy and saving money on my taxes. Please send more information on: ❏ Gifts of stock

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American Archaeology Magazine | Fall 2004 | Vol. 8 No. 3

Articles inside

Expeditions

Reviews

Field Notes

point acquisition

point acquisition

new acquisition

new acquisition

new acquisition

THE FATHER OF SOUTHWESTERN ARCHAEOLOGY

THE BEGINNINGS OF MAYA CIVILIZATION

THE WORLD WIDE WEB OF ANTIQUITIES

PREHISTORY DEFROSTED

UNDERSTANDING 19TH-CENTURYINDUSTRY

Letters

Events

Lay of the Land