Amsterdam Medical Student journal (AMSj) | Volume 12 by Amsterdam Medical Student journal

Amsterdam Medical Student journal

EDITION 12 | JUNE 2018

Index 2 Editorial 3

Subject 101 | Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: a good reason to get wet?

Solving statistics | Scatter plots

Interview | Prof. dr. Vermeulen

Trial and error | Taking a cheat sheet to work

Clinical image | From arterial blood gas to bedside diagnosis

Safety and efficacy of PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors in the treatment of cancer | S.L. Verhaart

Subject 101 | The complex pathophysiology of the HELLP-syndrome

Changing perspectives | Save your breath

Radiology image | A 76-year-old man with memory impairment

Expert opinion | Green leafy vegetables protective against cognitive decline?

Subject 101 | Calcium and phosphate homeostasis

27 Answers | Radiology image 29 Answers | Clinical images

AMSj Vol. 12 | June 2018

Editorial It could not be missed the last months; the introduction of the new General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) or in Dutch ‘Algemene Verordening Gegevensbescherming (AVG)’. Many fields, including our medical research field, are impacted by this regulation. Since the introduction of this regulation at the 25th of May, we have to be much more careful with our patient data. In this new regulation, privacy rights are strengthened and extended, and organizations have more responsibilities in the collection and processing data. The GDPR is all about ‘personal data’ and in medical research, we collect a lot of this type of data. All data that can be traced to a person is categorized as personal data. Also, patient data that is encrypted, for example with study number, is personal data as it is indirectly traceable to the patient. The GDPR does not apply on personal data that is completely anonymized and therefore no longer traceable to a person. But high demands are placed on anonymization and most of the research is therefore not anonymized and thus contains personal data.

the HELLP syndrome and Calcium and phosphate homeostatis are included in this edition. Furthermore, we present you an extra comprehensive radiology image. We hope you enjoy reading this 12th edition of AMSj.

Rens Kempeneers Student Editor-in-Chief (AMC)

But what kind of measures do we have to take for our research to make it GDPR-prove? Most important is that the patient is well informed about the research project and specific about data processing and his/her privacy rights. So, if you work on a research project or going to start a new research project: take some time to investigate the implications of all (new) regulations for your research. The website of AMC and VUmc medical ethical committee is very helpful. Also www.ccmo.nl provides you a lot of information. Do not let all the regulations keep you away from doing research. Performing and publishing research is still possible! In this new AMSj edition, S. Verhaart published a second part about the safety and efficacy of checkpoint inhibitors in the treatment of cancer. In continuation to the previous published part about CTLA-4 checkpoint inhibitors, she now reviewed the safety and efficacy of PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors. Three subject 101’s about respectively Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, June 2018 | AMSj Vol. 12

3 SUBJECT 101

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: a good reason to get wet? R.K. Feenstra and M. van Oijen

ICE BUCKET CHALLENGE

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) gained a lot of attention during the summer of 2014 due to the social media hype the “Ice Bucket Challenge”. In this challenge people were encouraged to splash a bucket of ice-cold water on their head to raise money for ALS research. This Subject 101 will briefly cover the current state of knowledge about ALS etiology, symptomatology, treatment options and the focus of current research.

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis is derived from the observed muscle atrophy (amyotrophy) and the observation of pathological lateral sclerosis in the corticospinal tract.1 ALS is characterized by degeneration and death of both upper and lower motor neurons. The underlying etiologic mechanisms seem multifactorial, both molecular and genetic, and are still not completely understood.2,3 A multiple hit model causing the malfunction of multiple cellular pathways could be an explanation for the heterogeneity of ALS manifestation.3 Two recent theories attempt to explain the spreading of the disease. In the first theory, a misfolded TDP-43 protein, which is found in almost all ALS patients, causes transcriptional defects, generates oxidative radicals and inhibits proteasomes. The misfolded proteins might spread to other cells in a prion-like way.3 In the second theory, alteration of TDP-43 concentration reactivates inherited retroviral genes and causes neurodegeneration.3

SYMPTOMATOLOGY

The mean age of onset is 58-63 year. The population-based lifetime risk of ALS is 1:350 and 1:400 for men and women respectively.4 ALS is inherited in a Mendelian pattern in 5-10% of the cases.2 Any voluntary muscle can be affected in ALS. The clinical manifestation is therefore heterogeneous.3 Asymmetric upper or lower limb weakness is the most common initial symptom present in 70% of the ALS patients.2 Upper limb weakness often in-

cludes hand weakness. In many cases this is associated with the “split-hand syndrome”: weakness and atrophy of the lateral thenar muscles. The medial muscles are often relatively spared.5 This phenomenon results in a decreased manual dexterity. Patients can experience a foot drop (impaired dorsiflexion of the foot) in the case of lower limb weakness.1 In 25% ALS has a bulbar onset affecting the muscles of the tongue and throat. This results in dysarthria or dysphagia.2 The presence of involuntary muscle contractions (fasciculations) in the tongue are highly specific for ALS. Fasciculations in other parts of the body should, however, be interpreted with care.2 Degeneration of respiratory and trunk muscles is an initial symptom in 5% of the patients.2 Less common patterns of presentation include emotional lability, weight loss, fasciculations in the absence of muscle weakness, cramps and frontal lobe dysfunction.6

DIAGNOSIS

Because of the absence of diagnostic tests, ALS diagnosis is mainly based on the observation of both affected upper and lower motor neurons and progression to other regions.2,3 Nerve conduction studies are indicated for the exclusion of ALS mimicking disorders like demyelinating motor neuropathies: motor nerve conduction is only affected in later stages of ALS and sensory nerve conduction remains unaffected during disease progression. Electromyographical examination can reveal typical signal fibrillations in the case of affected lower motor neurons in clinical still unaffected muscles.7

PROGNOSIS AND THERAPY OPTIONS

Average survival after initial presentation is 2 to 4 years.8 The main cause of death is respiratory failure due to the degeneration of trunk and respiratory muscles.9 The main aim of ALS management is multidisciplinary symptomatic care. This includes non-invasive ventilation to prevent nocturnal hypoxia and prevention of malnutrition.8

AMSj Vol. 12 | June 2018

Riluzole is the only agent that has any impact on survival. It delays neurodegeneration by inhibition of the excessive activation of the NMDA-receptor by glutamate (excitatory CNS neurotransmitter).10

EXPERIMENTAL THERAPIES

Multiple drugs showed promising results in preclinical research settings but failed to be effective in clinical trials. The agents that are currently in trial focus on reparation of damaged proteins, the stimulation of affected motor neurons by neurothropic factors (e.g. IGF-I), the stimulation of angiogenesis by VEGF, the downregulation of mutant genes and the activation of skeletal muscle troponin to regain muscle strength. This mostly concerns preclinical research.10 Future disease modifying agents might give a different response in different ALS subtypes. The identification of the different ALS subtypes is therefore necessary to initiate targeted treatments.3

SUBJECT 101 Neurol. 2016;12(9):526-538. Andersen PM, Borasio GD, Dengler R, et al. Good practice in the management of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Clinical guidelines. An evidence-based review with good practice points. EALSC Working Group. Amyotroph Lateral Scler. 2007;8(4):195-213. 10. Choudry RB, Galvez-Jimenez N, Cudkowicz ME. Disease modifying treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In: UpToDate. ; 2018:1-10. 9.

CONCLUSION

ALS is a heterogeneous disease resulting in a rapid decline of function and eventually death. It is difficult to diagnose due to the heterogeneous presentation and the absence of diagnostic tests. Currently, there is still no curative agent available. With the progression of (clinical) research and the increased positive attention for ALS curative therapies will hopefully be found in the near future. Until that moment people still have a solid reason to challenge people to get wet. â&#x20AC;&#x192;

REFERENCES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Kuks JBM, Snoek JW. Aandoeningen van de voorhoorncellen, zenuwwortels en perifere zenuwen. In: Klinische Neurologie. ; 2012:188. Kiernan MC, Vucic S, Cheah BC, et al. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Lancet. 2011;377:942-955. van Es MA, Hardiman O, Chio A, et al. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Lancet. 2017;390(10107):2084-2098. Logroscino G, Traynor BJ, Hardiman O, et al. Incidence of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis in Europe. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2010;81(4):385-390. Nalabothu M, Monigari N, Vellalacheruvu N, Elagandula J. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis presenting as typical split hand syndrome. BMJ Case Rep. 2014. Ferguson TA, Elman LB. Clinical presentation and diagnosis of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. NeuroRehabilitation. 2007;22:409-416. Eisen A, Swash M. Clinical neurophysiology of ALS. Clin Neurophysiol. 2001;112(12):2190-2201. Hobson EV, McDermott CJ. Supportive and symptomatic management of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Nat Rev June 2018 | AMSj Vol. 12

5 SOLVING STATISTICS

Scatter plots Dr. Birgit I. Lissenberg-Witte

This time there was no question about the statistics of a certain paper. Therefore, the editor asked me if I could elaborate on a specific type of figures for this edition of the AMSj: the scatter plot.

QUESTIONS

When can a scatter plot be used and when not, how should the plot be interpreted, are there any alternatives? And what kind of variables can be used, and can it include more than two variables?

ANSWER

With a scatter plot, values of two variables for all subjects in the study are plotted: one variable is plotted on the x-axis, the other variable is plotted on the y-axis. FIGURE 1A illustrates a scatter plot of the age and cholesterol of 182 subjects. The data is fictitious, that is it is simulated, for educational purposes only. The scatter plot gives some insight in the relation between the two variables, which is usually tested statistically by either a correlation coefficient, or a linear regression model. The estimated regression line is sometimes added to the scatter plot. This is usually done when the purpose of the study was to predict the outcome (or dependent variable, on the y-axis) using the determinant (or independent variable, on the x-axis).

The closer the points are to an imaginary line, the stronger the relation. This relation can either be positive or negative. If the points show an upward trend, the relation between the two variables is positive (at least if for both variables larger values mean higher/better), if the points show a downward trend, the relation between the two variables is negative. If there is no upward or downward trend, there is no relation between the two variables. To investigate and/or illustrate confounding or effect modification of the association between the outcome variable and the determinant, the points in the scatter plot are sometimes marked by a third (categorical) variable (the confounder or effect modifier). FIGURE 1B illustrates the relation between cholesterol and age for the same 182 subjects, but males and females have a different marker: blue dots versus red daggers, respectively. By only looking at the blue dots for the males, it seems that there is hardly any relation between age and cholesterol, while by looking at the red daggers for the females, it seems there is a relation between the two. The blue and red regression lines confirm this effect modification by sex. If a systematic difference between the blue dots andred daggers would be present, this would indicate confounding

FIGURE 1 Scatter plot of age and cholesterol of 182 fictitious subjects. A) all subjects together, line indicates the linear regression estimate. B) Separate for males (blue dots) and females (red daggers), lines indicate the linear regression estimate per sex. AMSj Vol. 12 | June 2018

6 SOLVING STATISTICS

by sex. A forth (categorical) variable could be added, by keeping the markers the same within groups of the third variable and the colour within groups of the forth variable. But this complicates the plot, which makes it more difficult to interpret from one glance, so I would advice to only include up to three variables in the scatterplot. A scatter plot can also be used to describe the relation between three continuous variables, resulting in a three-dimensional picture. SPSS can create such a plot, but only from a fixed angle, which does not provide a complete picture of the relation between the variables. In general, scatter plots are used to graphically display the relation between two continuous variables, but it can also be used to describe the relation between a categorical and a continuous outcome. FIGURE 2A shows the scatter plot relation cholesterol to sex. The points now form two vertical lines, and because many points overlap now, it is difficult to interpret the plot. Therefore, sometime a random jitter is added to the categories of the independent variable, to distinguish individual points. This is illustrated in FIGURE 2B. Then, finally, is there an alternative to the scatter plot? The answer to that question is short and simple: no, there is no alternative. Visualizing the relation between two continuous variables cannot be done via another type of plot.

Read a paper, but question the statistical analyses? Let us know via AMSj.nl or our Facebook page!

FIGURE 2 Scatter plot of sex (males at the left, females at the right) of 182 fictitious subjects. A) Without jitter. B) With random jitter. June 2018 | AMSj Vol. 12

7 INTERVIEW

Prof. dr. L. Vermeulen Interviewed by M. Ali and R.J. Molenaar

In October 2017 Prof. dr. Louis Vermeulen became the youngest professor ever at the AMC. He received a lot of media attention from outlets such as Medisch Contact, RTL and many others. Meanwhile, he is still in training to become a specialist in internal medicine. We were keen in interviewing the just 33-year-old professor about his success in research, his view on the medical curriculum and the future of medicine in general. But of course, we had to ask one question first: How does it feel to be professor but still in training? I do not feel any different since my new appointment and I collaborate with all my colleagues just the same. It is true that I know quite a lot about one particular area in molecular medicine, but there are so many more areas, and it is a privilege to be educated by experts in those fields. Did you always plan to become a doctor or researcher and what interested you during your studies? Can you elaborate on why you wanted to do both? I have always been interested in science and medicine, but the field I chose was also partly due to coincidence. During the first year of my studies I tried to combine physics and medicine and although that did not work out too well, I knew I was fascinated by science just as much as clinical medicine. I vividly remember Marcel Levi standing in front of the lecture hall asking who of us were interested in research upon which I decided send him an e-mail. Quite naively, I wrote that both cancer and HIV interested me. Hereupon he referred me to Prof. dr. Richel, head of medical oncology back then. As you might understand, I had no knowledge of the research group and specific topics they were into, it could just as well have been someone else. Then I might have been into HIV research right now! I do believe however, that virtually all fields of research become more interesting and fun as you delve deeper and learn more on specific topics and so they motivate you to continue your

CURRICULUM VITAE 1984 Born 2002 Graduation high school 2010 PhD thesis: cancer stem cells in colon cancer 2011 Graduation medicine, AMC 2011 Post-doc AMC/ Cambridge University (Wolfson College) 2014 Principal investigator, AMC 2015 AIOS (internist-oncologist), AMC 2017 Professor of molecular oncology (colorectal cancer), AMC Current position: internal medicine resident at AMC.

Prof. dr. Louis Vermeulen. Photo: Marc van den Broek

AMSj Vol. 12 | June 2018

8 INTERVIEW

efforts. Right now, I am very pleased that oncology was my choice all those years ago. Do you remember any life experiences or role models during your studies that inspired you to pursue your current goals in your clinical career and in research? I have never had any specific role model, but I have always been inspired when I met very skilled researchers or skilled clinicians as they always made the most difficult tasks seem easy. Of course, there are many such people, so I would say I have been inspired by lots of them. I do believe, however, that being too much in awe of any professor or clinician only limits you as no one is perfect, and no one was born with all their skill or knowledge. Understanding that these people have had to learn and improve is ultimately what makes you more critical of how you can improve yourself without underestimating your talents. What is your area of expertise? Why does this specialism or field of study interest you? My field of interest is the molecular oncology, specifically the characterization and treatment of colon cancer. My research ranges from stem cells to classification of different molecular subtypes within colon cancer for personalized treatment. This field interests me due to its central role within oncology. Despite the impression that molecular oncology might be a subdivision or a rather small field within cancer medicine, I believe we are truly at the forefront of oncology and our studies influence therapies and diagnostics across the field. In addition, it motivates me that we are privileged to help answer societal dilemmas such as the issues on cancer prevention and the rising costs of drugs. What are your current research interests? Within my research I mainly focus on two matters as I mentioned, cancer stem cells and cancer heterogeneity. In stem cells we are mainly interested in the process that turns healthy stem cells into cancer stem cells and which molecular signals affect their development towards such cells and towards ‘regular’, differentiated cancer cells. When these cells are fully differentiated they become sensitive to therapy, so we want to influence this process and find out which factors could be enhanced or inhibited to improve current therapies.

As for cancer heterogeneity, in my research group we are very focused on classifying tumors in groups to be able to predict treatment response despite all the patient differences. To do so, we have generated gene expression profiles of many colon cancers. Using a computer algorithm, these profiles were then clustered into different groups. These subtypes we have now studied in detail to determine why these groups are different, genetically, functionally and why these cancers respond differentially to therapies. We now aim to improve therapies and develop biomarkers to use the subtype classification in clinical practice.

‘‘To me, it would be like asking a chef to choose between desserts or main dishes while both are required for a proper meal.’’ What is the scientific finding or publication you are most proud of? That is a difficult question as your best publication should always be yet to come! Also, it depends how you classify this, as certain publications were a huge effort for me but have found relatively little interest, while others have become hugely cited while their efforts have been less. I am however very proud of the subtypes that we have been able to find within colon cancer as I mentioned earlier. This is a finding that is often cited and I am convinced that this strategy is becoming more relevant in clinical practice as we speak. Secondly, I am proud that we have been able to discover stem cells within tumors, and that we have shown how they are heavily influenced by the tumor environment. It was often believed that these stem cells were so capable by themselves, but we have been able to show how these cells were just as much dependent upon their microenvironment. What is your opinion on the usefulness of fundamental versus clinical research? I believe this debate is important due to the

June 2018 | AMSj Vol. 12

9 INTERVIEW

attention and funding towards ever more clinically useful research. In doing so we are in fact limiting ourselves in the long-term. Although clinical research is of course more relevant in the shortterm, it should be noted that one cannot do without the other and that there is no actual ‘versus’ or rivalry between fundamental and clinical research. It is much more a continuous spectrum and you will never meet a fundamental researcher who is simply interested in doing major fundamental discoveries without implementing their discovery in practice. The challenge is this major step to implementation, which has become rare; however once you succeed you will be set for the rest of your career. We should therefore judge fundamental research and clinical research in different terms as the long-term output of fundamental research is much more difficult to assess.

ing your own funds you are in fact your own boss. There are multiple such funds right now so my best recommendation would be to acquire such funding if you would want to study elsewhere, especially if you would like to study at top research institutes, where vacancies are in high demand. What is your opinion on publication pressure and how do you believe the necessity of research for getting into residency programs affects the value of the research published? I believe this is a very difficult question, multiple questions actually. I absolutely do not believe that a PhD is mandatory to succeed in clinical care, nor do I believe that being involved in research is required to be a good medical specialist. Instead it should be done by students who enjoy research or are gifted in research, while others can excel at their own talents; so that teams and specialties are well-rounded.

If you had to choose either career what would it be: Clinical care or research? That is an absurd question! I would be unable to choose either because I believe that, especially in oncology, research and clinical care are connected. To me, it would be like asking a chef to choose between desserts or main dishes while both are required for a proper meal.

As for the publication pressure, I think this is largely intrinsic to research since writing articles and publishing on your findings is a main task for researchers. A good example is how the IAS, the Institute for Advanced Study, was founded in Princeton almost a century ago with the very top researchers around the globe who were given unlimited funds but went on to achieve little. To me this proves how even the best researchers need a challenge to perform. Of course, too much pressure is not the answer! I would advocate a limited number of high-quality publications for researchers rather than a large volume. Also, we need to rethink how we should value the contributions of individuals in large research teams.

What would you advise to students interested in doing research abroad? I think there are multiple ways to work out something since there are often research groups here with contacts all over the world. When you are interested you could just inquire and come across the opportunity to learn new techniques elsewhere during internships and implement them here at the VUmc or AMC. I contacted a research group after I had attained a fund from the KWF, which gave me a lot of freedom in deciding what I wanted to study while I stayed in Cambridge. Usually, you would need to apply for a vacancy but by attain-

What do you think of current developments in the medical curriculum such as the sidetracks from biomedical sciences to medicine, the combined bachelors of medicine and biomedicine and the general intention of such developments to bring together clinical medicine and research? I believe that these developments are very useful as these subjects very much complement one another. For students interested in both these subjects such combinations present them with a great opportunity. Meanwhile, I also believe that if you are interested in subjects such as molecular oncology that these subjects are not mandatory to study in

‘‘I think the publication pressure is largely intrinsic to research.’’

AMSj Vol. 12 | June 2018

10 TRIAL AND ERROR

a master. I have never followed such courses and have learned such skills on the job. I would never discourage any student going into research because they lack such experiences if they are motivated. Similarly, I believe that specializing on a certain topic too early is a waste, as you will lack different, more creative, views and knowledge, which might allow you to standout in a research field. Studying immunology before going into oncology for example, despite the relatively small step, already gives many new insights that might come useful sooner or later. What do you think oncology will look like in 10 years? Will cancer be a curable disease? I believe that the biggest changes in 10 years have already been set in motion. The biggest development will be in how much smarter we become in the integration of all the -omics fields (blood tests, imaging, genetics). After all, we are already able to generate huge databases of data, which are now difficult to analyze and integrate per patient. In the future smarter algorithms will be able to integrate such information to decide therapeutic combination strategies, not just single therapies, during treatment. In doing so we will be able to recognize resistant cancer cell clones much faster, by blood samples or imaging. Such information might even allow us to keep certain cell lines or clones alive and in competition with other clones to direct therapy even more meticulously and to indeed make cancer a more chronic disease.

Taking a cheat sheet to work M. Wennekers and L.A.A. Gerbens

It was the first week at my final internship and we were doing ward rounds. As always, I had my little paper with a description of every patient in the ward with me as a quick reminder before seeing the patient. Afterwards, the resident told me that was the most unprofessional thing she had ever seen. Well, no notes for me anymore. The next day I tried to memorize all treatment plans of the patients. I totally messed up. “We will perform an X-ray, oh no, sorry, that was your neighbor.” and “This afternoon you’re good to go home, uhm no sorry, it would take at least two more days.” Although in the following days it got better, I was not feeling comfortable without my little cheat sheet. My struggling was not unnoticed and the next supervising resident advised me to just use a little notebook to write down some reminders. I was astonished and decided never to accept anything from one person if it meant it would make me feel uncomfortable. Now, my little paper with notes is back in my white coat and I feel confident again as a (semi) doctor. Of course it is not intended to read out everything from a paper to your patients, but secret notes do not make you an unprofessional doctor.

June 2018 | AMSj Vol. 12

11 CLINICAL IMAGE

From arterial blood gas to bedside diagnosis L.S.F. Konijnenberg and N.H. Sperna Weiland

QUESTION 1

CASE

A 37-year old man, with a medical history of obesity, insulin-dependent type 2 diabetes mellitus and asthma was admitted to the emergency room. For the last couple of days, he had been sick with fever, nausea, vomiting, weakness, and shortness of breath. He did not use any alcohol or party drugs. Today, when his girlfriend returned home, she met him in a confused state and called an ambulance. At the emergency room, physical examination shows decreased consciousness, a temperature of 38.4 degrees Celsius, blood pressure of 141/78 mmHg, heart rate of 116/min, and a respiratory rate of 31/min with SpO2 of 94%. Auscultation of heart and lungs revealed no abnormalities. The arterial blood gas is presented below (TABLE 1). Furthermore, X-ray revealed no infiltrate. Result

Reference range

7.1

7.35 - 7.45

3.7

4.7 - 6.0 kPa

9.8

Base exces

What represents the arterial blood gas? A. Metabolic acidosis without compensation B. Metabolic acidosis with partial respiratory compensation C. Respiratory alkalosis without compensation D. Respiratory alkalosis with partial metabolic compensation E. Combined respiratory and metabolic acidosis

QUESTION 2

What is the most likely diagnosis? A. Hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic non-keto-acidosis syndrome B. Diabetic keto-acidosis C. Lactate-acidosis D. Alcoholic keto-acidosis

Result

Reference range

Sodium

130

136 – 146 mmol • l-1

Potassium

3.8

3.6 – 4.8 mmol • l-1

22.0 - 26.0 mmol • l

Creatinine

119

64 - 104 µmol • l-1

-22.8

- 2.0 - 3.0 mmol • l-1

Ureum

6.9

3.0 – 7.5 mmol • l-1

PO2

15.3

10.0 - 13.3 kPa

Osmolarity

302

270 – 295 mOsm • l-1

0.94

0.92 - 0.98

Ketone

3.6

< 0.6 mmol • l-1

Anion-gap

36.1

7.0 – 16.0 mmol • l

Glucose

41.6

3.9 - 10.0 mmol • l-1

Lactate

6.7

<2.2 mmol • l-1

pH PCO2 HCO

Sat. O2

-1

TABLE 2 Blood test result

TABLE 1 Arterial blood gas analysis

Answer on page 29 AMSj Vol. 12 | June 2018

12 ARTICLE

Safety and efficacy of PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors in the treatment of cancer S.L. Verhaart1 1. Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT

B A C KG R O U N D Immune checkpoint blockade therapy is becoming more and more important in the treatment of cancer. Nowadays, nivolumab and pembrolizumab, both programmed death 1 (PD-1) checkpoint inhibitors, are FDA (Food and Drug Administration) approved in different types of cancer. The aim of this review is to outline the safety and efficacy of these checkpoint inhibitors. M E T H O D S A literature search on PubMed, Web of Science, Embase and the Cochrane Library was conducted. R E S U LT S 564 studies were found, of which 39 were included. In melanoma, nivolumab and pembrolizumab showed higher objective response rates (ORR), overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) when compared to other treatment options. Nivolumab showed an ORR of 40% and median PFS of 5.1 months in treatment-naive melanoma patients. In lung cancer, treatment-naive patients had also improved ORR (25% vs. 18%), OS (16.2 vs. 9.3 months) and PFS (6.0 vs. 3.0 months) when compared to pretreated patients. PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors show similar data in renal-cell carcinoma and urothelial carcinoma. Even better ORR are found in haematological malignancies and mismatch repair-deficient tumours, ranging from 31% to 87%. PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors give durable responses and can still be beneficial when progression occurs. Treatment related adverse events occurred in approximately 74% of patients and grade 3-5 adverse events in 14% of patients. These severe adverse events were mostly fatigue, diarrhoea and pneumonitis. C O N C L U S I O N PD-1 blockade is overall an effective therapeutic option for many types of cancer. However, the ORR is suboptimal, there are high costs and severe adverse events are possible. This underlines the merit of further research for potential biomarkers to distinguish responders from non-responders. Combination therapy is also very important in improving response rates and therefore should be optimized and personalized.

INTRODUCTION

The programmed death 1 (PD-1) checkpoint is part of the peripheral tolerance in the human body and can be misused by cancer.1 Peripheral tolerance consists of different mechanisms suppressing the immune cells in the periphery and its function is to avert autoimmune reactions. When a T-cell is activated by tumour antigen presented by antigen presenting cells, it goes into the periphery to search for this antigen.2 When the antigen is found and recognized on the tumour; the T-cell can start an anti-tumour immune response. However, the binding of PD-1 with PD-1 ligand is a form of peripheral tolerance. Tumour cells can take advantage of this system by expressing PD-1 ligand (PD-L1, PD-L2). When the T-cell approaches the tumour, it can be suppressed because the PD-1 on its surface binds to PD-L1 that is expressed by the tumour cell.3 This T-cell suppression can be thwarted by blocking PD-1 (see FIGURE 1).4 Cancer is associated with a high PD-1 expression on T-cells, this is a

hallmark of â&#x20AC;&#x153;exhaustedâ&#x20AC;? T-cells frequently occurring in patients with cancer.5

FIGURE 1 When activated, the T-cell is searching for the origin of the activating tumour antigen. The T-cell can induce an anti-tumour immune response when the TCR recognizes the tumour antigen presented in MHC when the PD-1/PD ligand axis is blocked by nivolumab or pembrolizumab. Abbreviations: MHC = major histocompatibility complex, TCR = T-cell receptor, PD-1 = programmed death 1, PD-L1/PD-L2 = programmed death-ligand 1 and 2

June 2018 | AMSj Vol. 12

13 ARTICLE

PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors are an upcoming and well-known treatment option for specific types of cancer. Research related to checkpoint inhibitors is getting more and more attention. The rapid development and upcoming popularity of these inhibitors give reason for a thorough review. Besides, they can cause severe adverse events (AEs) and are expensive (approximately 80.000 euros per patient per year), giving yet another reason for an in-depth assessment of their safety and efficacy. Nowadays, there are two types of PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors being FDA (Food and Drug Administration) approved. Nivolumab is approved for advanced melanoma (2014), advanced non-smallcell lung cancer (NSCLC, 2015), metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC, 2015), Hodgkin’s lymphoma and metastatic squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) both in 2016. In 2017, nivolumab was approved for advanced or metastatic urothelial carcinoma, metastatic colorectal cancer and hepatocellular carcinoma. This PD-1 checkpoint inhibitor is a fully human monoclonal IgG4 antibody against PD-1. It is given per infusion every 2 weeks. Another checkpoint inhibitor is pembrolizumab, a humanized IgG4 monoclonal antibody against PD-1. Pembrolizumab is FDA approved for advanced melanoma (2014), advanced or metastatic NSCLC (2015), metastatic SCCHN (2016), Hodgkin lymphoma (2017), advanced or metastatic urothelial carcinoma (2017), mismatch repair deficient (dMMR) solid tumors and PD-L1 expressing advanced or metastatic gastric or gastroesophageal junction cancer (2017). All these responsive tumour types have a relatively high mutational load. This is reasonable because T-cells need to distinguish “self” from “non-self” and only react upon foreign antigens. The occurrence of “non-self” antigens is higher in tumour types with a high mutational load.6 As PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors are a relatively new and upcoming treatment option, the aim of this review is to give insight in the safety and efficacy of PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors in different types of cancer.

METHODS

This review is in continuation to a previously published part about the CTLA-4 checkpoint inhibitors, published in the 11th edition of AMSj.7 Relevant articles were searched for in Pubmed, Web of Science, Embase and the Cochrane library. The research question was divided into two aspects: PD-1 checkpoint inhibitor [1] and cancer treatment [2], combined in the search as aspect 1 AND aspect 2. MeSH, free text terms, truncations, phrases, nesting, Boolean operators and filters were applied (see Supplementary Table 1). Empirical and fully accessible English articles mainly about the efficacy of PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors were included, considering clinical relevance. Studies of all sorts (trials, pooled studies, cohorts) of both prospective and retrospective nature were included. Exclusion criteria were combination therapies, predominant biochemical articles, phase I clinical trials restricted to safety and studies with less than 5 participants. The “snowball method” was used, meaning finding relevant articles throughout reviews, for the introduction and discussion section. The search was terminated on October 16th 2016. Since this was somewhat outdated, the snowball method was performed once more on May 3th 2018, to include more recent data in this review. Primary objectives were objective response rate (ORR), median overall survival (OS), median progression-free survival (PFS), AEs, AEs grade 3-4 and immune related adverse events (irAEs). Secondary objectives were response duration and responsive subgroups.

RESULTS

STUDY SELECTION

In total, 463 articles were found on PubMed and 15 articles on Web of Science, Embase and the Cochrane library. This search was also with respect to the previously published part about CTLA-4 checkpoint inhibitors. Thereof, 39 articles met the inclusion and exclusion criteria for this review. Because of feasibility, 19 of 39 articles were finally selected based on relevance, impact factor of the journal, publication date and methods. Of these 19 articles, 10 were focussing on efficacy and 9 on side effects. 19 additional articles were found by using the snowball method for the introduction and discussion section and to include more recent data.

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Number of subjects

Study type and method

Key findings ORR

PFS

Chen et al., 2017

210 relapsed/refractory Hodgkin Lymphoma patients

Phase I/II Pembrolizumab 200mg

69%

Overman et al., 2017

74 pretreated metastatic dMMR/MSI-H colorectal cancer patients

Phase II Nivolumab 3mg/kg

31%

14.3

Sharma et al., 2017

270 pretreated metastatic urothelial carcinoma patients

Phase II: Nivolumab 3mg/kg

20%

8.7

2.0

Balar et al., 2017

370 pretreated metastatic urothelial carcinoma patients

Phase II Pembrolizumab 200mg

24%

Herbst et al., 2016

1,034 pretreated NSCLC patients

Phase II/III, 1:1:1 Pembrolizumab 2mg/kg Pembrolizumab 10mg/kg Docetaxel

18% 18% 9%

10.4 12.7 8.5

3.9 4.0 4.0

Ferris et al., 2016

361 pretreated SCCHN

Phase III, 2:1 Nivolumab 3 mg/kg Standard single agent systemic therapy

13% 6%

7.5 5.1

2.0 2.3

Borghaei et al., 2015

555 pretreated NSCLC patients

Phase III, 1:1 Nivolumab 3mg/kg Docetaxel

19% 12%

12.2 9.4

2.3 4.2

Robert et al., 2015

418 treatment-naive melanoma patients

Phase III, 1:1 Nivolumab 3mg/kg Dacarbazine

40% 14%

NR 10.8

5.1 2.2

Weber et al., 2015

167 - 182 pretreated melanoma patients

Phase III, 2:1 Nivolumab 3mg/kg Chemotherapy

32% 11%

4.7 4.2

Brahmer et al., 2015

272 pretreated NSCLC patients

Phase III, 1:1 Nivolumab 3 mg/kg Docetaxel

20% 9%

9.2 6.0

3.5 2.8

Motzer et al., 2015

821 pretreated RCC patients

Phase III, 1:1 Nivolumab 3mg/kg Everolimus

25% 5%

25.0 19.6

4.6 4.4

Ansell et al., 2015

23 pretreated Hodgkinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lymphoma patients

Phase I Nivolumab 3mg/kg

87%

Hamanishi et al., 2015

20 pretreated ovarian cancer patients

Phase II, 1:1 Nivolumab 1 or 3 mg/kg

15%

20.0

3.5

TABLE 1 Main results of PD-1 inhibitor clinical trials, all patients have unresectable stage III or IV disease. Abbreviations: NR = not reached, ORR = objective response rate in percentages, median OS = median overall survival in months, PFS = median progression-free survival in months, dMMR = mismatch repair deficient, MSI-H = microsatellite instability-high, NSCLC = non-small cell lung cancer, SCCHN = squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck, RCC = renal cell cancer PD-1 BLOCKADE CLINICAL TRIALS MELANOMA

There have been many trials concerning the efficacy of PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors in melanoma patients. In a phase III trial (N=418) comparing nivolumab with dacarbazine, median OS was not

yet reached in the nivolumab group after a median follow-up of 8.9 months. However, in the dacarbazine group, the median OS was 10.8 months. PFS and ORR were also significantly better in the nivolumab group (both P<0.001), see TABLE 1.8 In another phase III trial for melanoma , Weber et

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al. (2015) compared nivolumab with chemotherapy of choice (N=167). The ORR was 31.7% vs. 10.6%, respectively. Median PFS was 4.7 months in the nivolumab group compared to 4.2 months in the chemotherapy group (N=182).9 Besides melanoma, a phase II trial with pembrolizumab has been conducted with 25 advanced Merkel-cell carcinoma patients. The ORR was 56%.10 NON-SMALL-CELL LUNG CANCER (NSCLC)

The second approval for PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors was for NSCLC. In a phase II/III study, pembrolizumab was compared to docetaxel in 1,034 NSCLC patients with PD-L1 expression on the tumour of 1% or more. Herbst et al. (2016) found that the median OS in the 2 mg/kg pembrolizumab group was 10.4 months compared to 8.5 months in the docetaxel group. Thereby, pembrolizumab was significantly associated with a higher OS (hazard ratio [HR] 0.71, 95% CI 0.58-0.88; p=0.0008). Median PFS did not significantly differ; 3.9 months for pembrolizumab and 4.0 months for docetaxel. However, in patients with 50% or more PD-L1 expression on tumour cells, median PFS was 5.0 months for pembrolizumab compared to 4.1 months in the docetaxel group (hazard ratio [HR] 0.59, 95% CI 0.44-0.78; p=0.0001). Thus, pembrolizumab is associated with longer PFS in this subgroup of patients.11 Borghaei et al. (2015) compared nivolumab with docetaxel in NSCLC in a phase III trial, showing a higher ORR (19% versus 12%, p=0.02) and OS (12.2 versus 9.4 months, HR 0.73, 95% CI, 0.59-0.89; p=0.002) for nivolumab. In this trial, the median PFS was not improved by the PD-1 checkpoint inhibitor when compared to docetaxel. But when stratifying for different PD-L1 expression levels (1%, 5% and 10%), nivolumab had significantly better OS and PFS when compared to docetaxel.12 Brahmer et al. (2015) compared nivolumab with docetaxel in NSCLC in another phase III trial (N=272) and found that median OS, ORR and median PFS were all significantly better with nivolumab therapy independent of PD-L1 status (p<0.001, p=0.008 and p<0.001, respectively).13 METASTATIC RENAL CELL CARCINOMA

Motzer et al. (2015) compared nivolumab to everolimus in metastatic RCC in a phase III trial show-

ing improved ORR and median OS (N=821). ORR was 25% for nivolumab vs. 5% for everolimus (odds ratio 5.98; 95% CI, 3.68-9.72; p<0.001) and median OS 25.0 vs. 19.6 months (HR 0.73; 98.5% CI, 0.57-0.93; p=0.002), respectively.14 Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck In SCCHN, another phase III trial compared nivolumab with standard single agent systemic therapy. Median OS was 7.5 months in the nivolumab group compared to 5.1 months with standard therapy (HR 0.70; 98% CI, 0.51-0.96; p=0.01). The ORR was 13.3% versus 5.8%, respectively. Median PFS did not significantly differ.15 METASTATIC UROTHELIAL CARCINOMA

Both pembrolizumab and nivolumab were assessed in patients with pretreated metastatic urothelial carcinoma (N=370 and N=270), their ORR were respectively 24% and 20%.16,17 HODGKIN’S LYMPHOMA

A phase I trial with nivolumab has been conducted for Hodgkin’s lymphoma patients (N=23). The ORR was 87% of whom 17% had a complete response.18 Pembrolizumab was also tested in patients with Hodgkin’s lymphoma in another phase I/II trial (N=210), the ORR was 69%.19 Armand et al. (2013) conducted a phase III trial with 66 diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) patients undergoing a stem cell transplantation. After the transplantation, 53% still had measurable disease. This group of 35 patients received pidilizumab, another PD-1 antibody. Their ORR to pidilizumab was 51%.20 MISMATCH REPAIR DEFICIENT SOLID TUMORS

In mismatch repair-deficient (dMMR) CRC (N=10), pembrolizumab was found to have an ORR of 40%.21 These results have been confirmed in a larger expanded trial with 25 dMMR CRC patients with an ORR of 56%.22 Recently, there has been a larger trial with nivolumab in dMMR CRC (N=74), with an ORR of 31% and median PFS of 14.3 months.23 The first two studies also investigated patients with dMMR cancers other than CRC. Le et al. (2015) looked at a group of 7 patients with an ORR of 71%.21 These results were confirmed in a larger expanded trial with 10 patients with dMMR non-CRC, including ampullary, pancreas,

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FIGURE 2 Adverse events of anti-PD-1 antibodies in percentage of patients with mean and standard deviation. Abbreviation: irAEs = immune related adverse event Data from: Garon et al., (2015) N=495, Gettinger et al., (2015) N=129, Hamid et al., (2013) N=135, McDermott et al., (2015) N=34, Ribas et al., (2016) N=655, Rizvi et al., (2012) N=117, Topalian et al., (2012) N=296, Larkin et al., (2015) N=313, Robert et al., (2015) N=277, Herbst et al., (2016) N=339, Borghaei et al., (2015) N=287, Nghiem et al., (2016) N=26

biliary, small bowel and gastric cancer. Their ORR was 50%.24 OVARIAN CANCER

Hamanishi et al. (2015) conducted a phase II trial for nivolumab in ovarian cancer (N=20) and found an ORR of 15%. All responses were durable and 10% had a complete response.25 TREATMENT BEYOND PROGRESSION

Studies also looked whether continuation of nivolumab after progression can still lead to benefit defined as change in tumour burden over time. In one of the previously named trials, 9 out of 28 (32%) patients with progression who continued treatment with nivolumab gained benefit.13 Just like ipilimumab, both nivolumab and pembrolizumab have durable responses. In a phase III trial, median duration of response for pembrolizumab was not reached after 13.1 months of follow-up. The median duration of response for docetaxel was reached at 6 months.11 Median duration of response was also not reached for the nivolumab group in another phase III trial. In this trial, the follow-up was 5.2 to 16.7 months. The median duration of response for the dacarbazine group in this

FIGURE 3 Grade 3-5 adverse events of anti-PD-1 antibodies in percentage of patients with mean and standard deviation. Data from: see figure 2.

trial was reached at 6.0 months.8 TREATMENT-NAIVE PATIENTS

Ribas et al. (2016) showed a higher ORR of 45% in treatment-naive patients compared to 33% in the overall population of a phase Ib trial with 655 melanoma patients treated with pembrolizumab. Treatment-naive patients had a median OS of 31 months and median PFS of 14 months, compared to 23 months OS and 4 months PFS in the overall cohort.26 Another phase I study with 495 NSCLC patients treated with pembrolizumab showed 6.0 months median PFS, 16.2 months median OS and 25% ORR in treatment-naive patients compared to 3.0 months, 9.3 months and 18%, respectively, in pretreated patients.27 Also, a difference in ORR between smokers (22%) and non-smokers (10%) was suggested.27 PD-1 BLOCKADE RELATED SIDE EFFECTS

Treatment related AEs occurred in approximately 74% of patients treated with anti-PD-1 antibodies,28 and irAEs occurred in approximately 18-41% of patients.11,26,29,30 However, in a small study irAEs occurred in 56% of the 34 patients.31 Common treatment related AEs were fatigue, rash, diarrhoea, nausea, pruritus, decreased appetite, hypothyroidism, arthralgia and nausea, see FIGURE 2 and FIGURE 3.11,12,10,26â&#x20AC;&#x201C;34 AEs grade 3-5 occurred in approximately 14% of patients. Common grade 3-5 AEs were fatigue, diarrhoea and pneumonitis. Treatment related death occurred in approximately 0.7% of patients. One of the PD-1 blockade

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related AEs is hypothyroidism. It occurred in 7% of patients and in 0.2% of the cases, it was grade 3 or worse. It is still unclear if discontinuation of hormonal replacement can be achieved on the long term.35 The main irAEs were pneumonitis and hypothyroidism. Pneumonitis can also be very severe. In many studies, treatment related deaths were due to pneumonitis.15,27,29,30

DISCUSSION

The aim of this review was to give insight in the safety and efficacy of PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors in different types of cancer. Pembrolizumab and nivolumab have proven to be effective in cancer types such as melanoma, NSCLC, RCC, SCCHN, urothelial carcinoma and Hodgkinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lymphoma. Clinical trials also showed promising results for ovarian cancer, Merkel-cell carcinoma and DLBCL. These findings might have clinical implications for the treatment of these cancer types. There are studies showing that checkpoint blockade therapies are effective in specific subtypes of cancer. For example: dMMR colorectal, ampullary, pancreas, biliary, small bowel and gastric cancer, all known for their high mutational load. Their first ORRs were surprisingly good. These findings are promising for the other mismatch-repair deficient cancer subtypes. This also improves the likelihood of the hypothesis of mutation-associated neoantigens contributing to an antitumour response. All these rapid evolvements show the scientific relevance of these checkpoint inhibitors and their societal importance for the treatment of cancer. Overall, an advantage of these therapies is that most responses are durable. However, the majority of patients is not responding. Approximately 20% of patients is responding to PD-1 checkpoint therapy, which is better when compared to CTLA-4 checkpoint therapy as has been evaluated in the first part of this review.7 It is also shown that treatment naive patients have more benefit from checkpoint inhibitors when compared to pretreated patients. As for progressive disease, checkpoint inhibitors can still be beneficial. When looking at the side effects, approximately 74% of patients had a treatment related AE and 14% a grade 3-5 AE. Most common were fatigue, diarrhoea and pneumonitis. irAEs occurred in 1841% of patients and most common were pneumo-

nitis and hypothyroidism. Treatment related death occurred in 0.7% of patients. When compared to CTLA-4 checkpoint inhibitors as discussed in part 1 of this review, PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors are having lower toxicity. There are some limitations to this review. Some articles were not accessible and only English articles were included. Besides of the 18 selected articles that were considered most relevant, some articles were excluded because of feasibility. A limitation of most of the used literature is that the follow-up period is not long enough to be able to tell something about the long-term survival and clinical benefit. The number of patients in the trials of new targetable cancer types was also restricted. Besides the option of combining CTLA-4 and PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors, there are other options for combination therapy. Blank, Haanen, Ribas, & Schumacher (2016) designed the immunogram, which could be used as a tool to assess factors that need to be addressed with another therapy to gain a better response to checkpoint inhibitors in individual patients. The seven parameters in the immunogram describe the different parameters of the cancer-immune system interaction. One of the parameters is immune cell infiltration.36 If this is suboptimal, this might be improved by combining checkpoint blockade with a peptide vaccine inducing peptide specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes which worked synergistically in a mouse model.37 Other option could be the combination of checkpoint blockade with tumour infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) therapy, T-cell receptor (TCR) or chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy. Also, chemotherapy and radiation therapy are thought to be immunogenic and capable to induce an immune response by causing release of tumour antigens.38 All these forms of combination therapy still need to be confirmed in clinical trials.

CONCLUSION

PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors are an important treatment option in many cancer types. They are effective in melanoma, NSCLC, RCC, SCCHN, urothelial carcinoma, Hodgkinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lymphoma and dMMR tumours. These inhibitors also seem to be effective in Merkel-cell carcinoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and ovarian cancer. The efficacy numbers

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do vary, with ORR ranging from 13% to 87%. Research should focus on predictive biomarkers and combination therapy to improve the response rate and thereby reduce overtreatment and treatment related toxicity.

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The complex pathophysiology of the HELLP-syndrome M.S. Haverkort and K.G.J.A. Voogdt

INTRODUCTION

The HELLP-syndrome is a complex and life-threatening pregnancy complication that occurs in 0,50,9% of all pregnancies.1, 2 The three defining characteristics are Hemolysis, Elevated Liver enzymes and a Low Platelet count. Two other trademarks are proteinuria and hypertension. The HELLP syndrome can occur self-contained during pregnancy or often in combination with preeclampsia. Although HELLP is a relatively rare complication of pregnancy, it is a major cause of maternal morbidity and mortality.3 In spite of the potential severe complications; there is no other known treatment for the syndrome other than inducing labour. Unfortunately, the exact cause and pathophysiology have yet to be understood.

SYMPTOMS, COMPLICATIONS RISK FACTORS

AND

Symptoms occur primarily during the second or third trimester and include oedema of face, eyes and feet, headaches, changes in vision, sudden nausea/vomiting, shortness of breath and upper abdominal pain. These symptoms are a result of the activation of the coagulation cascade, reduced portal blood flow to the liver and the release of anti-angiogenic factors into the maternal blood.4 These factors can lead to severe complications, including preterm labour, eclampsia, placental abruption, organ failure (particularly liver and kidney failure) and blood-clotting disorders.5 The perinatal outcome for the foetus are dependent on the gestational age and the severity of the maternal disease. Potential complications are malnutrition due to the utero-placental vascular insufficiency, growth retardation, disrupted haematopoiesis and a pro-inflammatory immune state.6 This includes neonatal thrombocytopenia, neutropenia, a reduction in T-regulatory cells and an increased cytotoxic natural killer cell profile.6 There is also an in-

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creased risk of developing hypertension, coronary artery disease and (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes as an adult.7 Risk factors for developing the HELLP-syndrome are diabetes, heart and vascular disease, impaired kidney function, multiparity, obesity, hypertension prior to the pregnancy, autoimmune illnesses and a maternal age above thirty-four. Female children are five times more likely to develop preeclampsia or HELLP during a pregnancy.8

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY THEORIES

As mentioned earlier, the exact cause of the HELLP-syndrome has yet to be discovered. Research has identified factors involved in the development of the HELLP-syndrome: a genetic predisposition, maternal immunological response resulting in the activation of the coagulation cascade and placental insufficiency. These three factors form the foundation of the various theories behind the pathophysiology of the HELLP-syndrome.4 A potential genetic cause was researched in multiple countries, including Iceland, Australia and the Netherlands. At least 178 genes and genetic abnormalities have been linked to preeclampsia or the HELLP syndrome, including a foetal homozygous LCHAD deficiency.9 The results of one Dutch study focuses on a long intergenic noncoding RNA (lincRNA) transcript on chromosome 12q23.2.10 This lincRNA is expressed in trophoblasts and influences a large set of genes in the cell cycle, particularly by activating the G2/M phase of the cycle while deactivating the G1/S phase. Its presence in trophoblasts could explain the placental origin of the HELLP-syndrome, in which there is a reduced invasion of extravillous trophoblasts into the maternal decidua. The placental dysfunction results in compensatory pathways in an attempt to increase the perfusion and transfer or nutrients, oxygen and waste products between mother and foetus. When trophoblasts cannot invade the maternal decidua, placental dysfunction occurs in the first semester which results in the release of anti-angiogenic factors into the maternal blood, including sFlt1. This is the foundation of another pathophysiological theory: an inflammatory response as the

SUBJECT 101

cause of the HELLP-syndrome. Anti-angiogenic factors fight against the formation of new blood vessels and trigger an inflammatory response in the vascular endothelium. This leads to elevated levels of activated leukocytes, inflammatory cytokines, TNF-Îą and active von Willebrand factor. The result is thrombosis in capillaries and arterioles, known as thrombotic microangiopathy. Hemolysis and reduced portal blood flow in the liver are a result of thrombotic microangiopathy. Fas ligand (FasL) is a member of the TNF protein family involved in the regulation of cell death.11 Its increased levels in the placenta damage hepatocytes and lead to periportal necrosis.4 Another immunological hypothesis states that the HELLP-syndrome could be a maternal immune rejection of foetal cells.8 This response could occur as a result of maternal immune cells coming into contact with foetal cells, leading to platelet activation and aggregation as well as arterial hypertension. Finally, there is a theory that the pathophysiology of the HELLP-syndrome is closely related to that of preeclampsia. Preeclampsia is another complication of pregnancy that results in maternal hypertension, proteinuria and oedema. Although the specific cause is unknown, it is associated with defective placental vascular remodelling during the 16th and 22nd week of pregnancy, which leads to inadequate placental perfusion and the release of soluble vascular endothelial growth factor-1 (sVEGFR-1/sFlt1), which then results in endothelial and placental dysfunction.8 Each of these theories contribute to the pathophysiology of the HELLP-syndrome. The most likely conclusion is HELLP-syndrome is caused by a combination of genetic, immunological and maternal factors. Ideally, exploring the etiology could provide new insights for the treatment and prevention.

REFERENCES

Khan H, Meirowitz NB, Pritzker JG. HELLP Syndrome [Internet]. HELLP Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology. Medscape; 2018. Available from: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1394126-overview Mol, B., Shuerman, F., van Lingen, R., van Kaam, A., Dijk, P., Kortbeek, L., van den Born, B., Mantel, G., Erwich, J. and Wolf, H. (2012). Richtlijn Hypertensieve aandoeningen in de zwangerschap. [online] Nederlandse

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21 CHANGING PERSPECTIVES Vereniging voor Obstetrie en Gynaecologie (NVOG). http://nvog-documenten.nl/uploaded/docs/Hypertensieve%20aandoeningen%20in%20de%20zwangerschap. pdf 3. Haram, K., Svendsen, E. and Abildgaard, U. (2009). The HELLP syndrome: Clinical issues and management. A Review. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 9(1). 4. Ulrich A, Heimdal K. Pathogenesis of the syndrome of hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count (HELLP): a review. European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology and Reproductive Biology [Internet]. 2013;166:117–23. Available from: http://www.ejog. org/article/S0301-2115(12)00449-6/pdf 5. www.medistart.nl, M. (2018). HELLP-syndroom Gynaecologie.nl. [online] Available at: http://www. gynaecologie.nl/zwangerschap/zwangerschapsziekten/ hellp-syndroom/ 6. Marins LR, Anizelli LB, Romanowski MD, Sarquis AL. How does preeclampsia affect neonates? Highlights in the disease’s immunity. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine. November 2017:1-8. doi:10.1080/14 767058.2017.1401996. 7. Lapidus A.M. Effects of preeclampsia on the mother, fetus and child. OBGYN.net. http://www.obgyn.net/ pregnancy-and-birth/effects-preeclampsia-mother-fetus-and-child. Published October 10, 2010. 8. Khan, H. and Meirowitz, N. (2018). HELLP Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology. [online] Emedicine.medscape.com. Available at: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1394126-overview#a5 9. Jebbink, J., Wolters, A., Fernando, F., Afink, G., Post, J. and Ris-Stalpers, C. (2012). Molecular genetics of preeclampsia and HELLP syndrome — A review. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease, 1822(12), pp.1960-1969. 10. Dijk MV, Thulluru HK, Mulders J, Michel OJ, Poutsma A, Windhorst S, et al. HELLP babies link a novel lincRNA to the trophoblast cell cycle. Journal of Clinical Investigation [Internet]. 2012;122:4003–11. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23093777 11. Volpe E, Sambucci M, Battistini L, Borsellino G. Fas– Fas Ligand: Checkpoint of T Cell Functions in Multiple Sclerosis. Frontiers in Immunology [Internet]. 2016;7. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037862/

Save your breath R.A.L. Beekman and M. Bijlsma

Burping baby? A 4-year-old with a chronic stomach ache? Thinking of lactose-intolerance? The lactose hydrogen breath test (HBT) is an inventive, non-invasive way to detect a low lactase. All your patient needs to do is take a deep breath and allow you to collect some exhaled air. The test seems reliable too. It showed high sensitivity and specificity in previous research.1 The lactose HBT measures hydrogen in exhaled breath, produced by metabolization of lactose in the so-called process of ‘colonic fermentation’. In the presence of sufficient lactase, lactose is absorbed in the duodenum. However, if there is little lactase in the duodenum (hypolactasia), lactose will be metabolized, or fermented, by the colon. A side product of this process is hydrogen, which is excreted via the lungs and detected by the lactose HBT. Colonic fermentation may be accompanied by stomach ache, flatulence and osmotic diarrhea. Despite promising test parameters, the relation between clinical signs of lactose-intolerance and test results proves poor. This mismatch arises because hypolactasia in children is rare. All babies are born with the capability to metabolize lactose in breast milk. Above the age of 2, this capability decreases, but only slowly. If hypolactasia does occur, this will only cause symptoms in a small group of patients with excessive lactose intake or comorbid gastro-intestinal disease. Thus, hydrogen breath testing has a very limited clinical use. Rather try if it is helpful to limit lactose intake, or search for another explanation for the gastro-intestinal symptoms.2

REFERENCES

Usai-Satta P et all. Lactose malabsorption and intolerance: What should be the best clinical management? World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther. 2012 Jun 6; 3(3): 29–33. Bindels PJE. (2013). Kindergeneeskunde. 8.9 Lactosemalabsorptie en lactose-intolerantie. Houten: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

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22 RADIOLOGY IMAGE

A 76-year-old man with memory impairment B.J.H. Verhaar and E.P. van Poelgeest

QUESTION 2

CASE

A 76-year-old man presents with progressive memory impairment and behavioral problems that have developed over the last four years. He has a history of atrial fibrillation and type 2 diabetes mellitus complicated by retinopathy and nephropathy. Except from impairments in multiple cognitive domains, interfering with daily activities, there are no abnormalities on physical and neurological examination.

QUESTION 1

What is the sequence of the MRI image shown below? A. T1 B. T2* C. Proton density (PD)

Which of the following characteristics can be seen on the MRI brain below? A. White matter hyperintensities B. Medial temporal lobe atrophy C. Superficial siderosis D. Lacunes

QUESTION 3

In addition to this characteristic, you notice several microbleeds. What is the most probable cause of this patientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s memory impairment? A. Vascular dementia B. Alzheimerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease C. Dementia with Lewy bodies D. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy

Answer on page 27 June 2018 | AMSj Vol. 12

23 EXPERT OPINION

Green leafy vegetables protective against cognitive decline? F. de Leeuw and K. Engelfriet

Morris, M. C., Wang, Y., Barnes, L. L., Bennett, D. A., Dawson-Hughes, B., & Booth, S. L. (2018). Nutrients and bioactives in green leafy vegetables and cognitive decline: Prospective study. Neurology, 90(3), e214-e222.

ABSTRACT

O B J E C T I V E To increase understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying the association, the individual relations to cognitive decline of the primary nutrients and bioactives in green leafy vegetables, including vitamin K (phylloquinone), lutein, β-carotene, nitrate, folate, kaempferol, and α-tocopherol was investigated. M E T H O D S This was a prospective study of 960 participants of the Memory and Aging Project, ages 58–99 years, who completed a food frequency questionnaire and had ≥2 cognitive assessments over a mean 4.7 years. R E S U LT S In a linear mixed model adjusted for age, sex, education, participation in cognitive activities, physical activities, smoking, and seafood and alcohol consumption, consumption of green leafy vegetables was associated with slower cognitive decline; the decline rate for those in the highest quintile of intake (median 1.3 servings/d) was slower by β = 0.05 standardized units (p = 0.0001) or the equivalent of being 11 years younger in age. Higher intakes of each of the nutrients and bioactives except β-carotene were individually associated with slower cognitive decline. In the adjusted models, the rates for the highest vs. the lowest quintiles of intake were β = 0.02, p = 0.002 for phylloquinone; β = 0.04, p = 0.002 for lutein; β = 0.05, p < 0.001 for folate; β = 0.03, p = 0.02 for α-tocopherol; β = 0.04, p = 0.002 for nitrate; β = 0.04, p = 0.003 for kaempferol; and β = 0.02, p = 0.08 for β-carotene. C O N C L U S I O N Consumption of approximately 1 serving per day of green leafy vegetables and foods rich in phylloquinone, lutein, nitrate, folate, α-tocopherol, and kaempferol may help to slow cognitive decline with aging.

BACKGROUND

As life expectancy rises worldwide, so does the prevalence of dementia. Consequently, there is a great need for knowledge regarding preventive measures. Nutritional intake is likely to influence cognitive health, but the specific role of different food items remains unclear. Two large prospective studies previously investigated the relation between several types of vegetables and cognitive decline.1,2 Both studies showed an association between green leafy vegetables (spinach, kale, collards and lettuce) and a slower rate of cognitive decline. The research discussed in this article aimed to identify the individual nutrients that may contribute to the underlying protective mechanisms of green leafy vegetables.

REVIEW

This is an elegant prospective cohort study investigating the relation between green leafy vegetable intake and cognitive decline. Strengths of this research include the large cohort and the annual follow-up visits (mean follow-up 4.7 years) to measure change in cognitive abilities over time by in-person administration. There are also some limitations in this study. The sample consists of well-educated participants in an open cohort study requiring organ donation after death for participation. In addition, 95% of the participants are Caucasian and all originate from the Chicago area. The results of this study might therefore not be applicable for persons from different origin or race. Further, supplement intake was not considered in this study as this study concentrated on food-derived intake. However, confounding by supplement intake is possible and might be interesting to take into account.

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CONCLUSION

This interesting work by Morris et al. is a step forward in unraveling the relation between nutritional intake and cognitive function in the aging population. Various promising nutrients rich in green leafy vegetables were highlighted and are of interest for further research. It would be of great interest to include blood levels of these nutrients in future studies to further elucidate the role of individual nutrients on cognitive decline.

REFERENCES

Kang, Jae H., Alberto Ascherio, and Francine Grodstein. “Fruit and vegetable consumption and cognitive decline in aging women.” Annals of neurology 57.5 (2005): 713-720. Morris, M. C., et al. “Associations of vegetable and fruit consumption with age-related cognitive change.” Neurology 67.8 (2006): 1370-1376.

SUBJECT 101

Calcium and phosphate homeostasis E.M. Corazolla and J.S. ten Kulve

Calcium and phosphate are necessary for many physiological processes, the most obvious of which is skeletal mineralization.1 The homeostasis of calcium and phosphate therefore plays an important role in diseases such as osteoporosis and rickets.2 Calcium and phosphate homeostasis are interconnected, as the regulating hormones and organs necessary for absorption, storage and excretion partially overlap. This may lead to confusion among students and clinicians alike. We therefore discuss a simple method to memorize the basics in this subject 101.

HOW IS THE STORY USUALLY TOLD?

There are four main hormones involved in regulating calcium and phosphate levels: parathormone (PTH), calcitriol (activated vitamin D), fibroblast growth factor member 23 (FGF23) and calcitonin. These hormones elicit effects on several organs; i.e. the kidneys, gastrointestinal (GI) tract and skeletal metabolism. A detailed overview can be found in TABLE 1. PTH is produced by the parathyroid glands.2,3 It induces an increased release of calcium and phosphate from the bones, an increased renal reabsorption of calcium and a decreased renal absorption of phosphate.4 It also stimulates vitamin D3 activation in the kidneys, leading to increased intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphate.3,5

ANSWER

Vitamin D3 is activated by a conversion in the skin, liver and kidneys into calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol).3 With regard to calcium and phosphate, calcitriol increases active absorption in the intestines and reabsorption in the kidneys, and increased activity of osteoblasts, thereby inducing FGF23 synthesis.2,4,5 Calcitonin is produced by parafollicular cells (C-cells) of the thyroid. It decreases plasma calcium by inhibiting osteoclast activity and formation.1 However, the decrease in plasma calcium

Vitamin D deficiency can lead to rickets (called osteomalacia in adults), a disease in which bones do not mineralise correctly. This causes skeletal malformations in children and pathological fractures in adults. Vitamin D deficiency is thought to be associated with a number of other diseases that are beyond the scope of this article.

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25 SUBJECT 101

leads to excretion of PTH which overrides the effect of calcitonin.6 Also, the decrease in formation of osteoclasts leads to a similar effect on osteoblast activity.6 Therefore, the effect of calcitonin is very limited in humans.1 FGF23 is produced by osteoblasts and osteocytes. It decreases renal reabsorption of phosphate, calcitriol production and PTH production.2,3,5,7,8

Fresh FGF23 is crazy about Flushing out phosphate and is the new kid on the block. However, like any new kid, we do not really understand how it works exactly. When the phosphate or calcitriol levels rise too much, FGF23 ensures renal excretion of phosphate and a downregulation of calcitriol and PTH synthesis.4,8 This leads to an overall decrease in serum phosphate.7

HOW TO REMEMBER THIS? A MNEMONIC APPROACH

With this in mind the effects of increased and decreased levels of these hormones in various diseases are logically deductible.

Instead of trying to remember the effects of hormones on this complex system, it can help to understand the role each hormone plays. We can illustrate this by personifying each hormone and asking ourselves how and when they need to help the body. Pragmatic PTH has the same attitude towards calcium as pragmatic people have towards money: you have it to use it. So when serum levels of calcium drop, PTH uses the body’s calcium “savings” from the bone, increases “income” in the GI tract and decreases “expenses” in the kidney to maintain a steady state. Overall, PTH leads to an increase in serum calcium and a decrease in serum phosphate.5,6 Conscientious Calcitriol makes sure that calcium and phosphate is put to good use, nothing goes to waste. It stimulates the intestines and kidneys to hold on to as much calcium and phosphate as they can, and stimulates osteoblasts, which use the minerals to increase bone matrix. To prevent dysregulation it stimulates FGF23-synthesis. Overall, calcitriol increases serum calcium and phosphate, and ensures that the increase is guided towards the skeletal metabolism.3 Insurgent Calcitonin has little power but gets in everybody’s way as much as possible. It especially vexes calcitriol by trying to get rid of phosphate and calcium. It focuses mainly on decreasing renal reabsorption of calcium and phosphate, and prevents the minerals from being released from the bones by inhibiting osteoclasts. These effects lead to a decrease in serum levels of both calcium and phosphate, which in turn will stimulate PTH release.4,5

WHAT EFFECT WOULD YOU EXPECT OF A VITAMIN D (AND THEREFORE CALCITRIOL) DEFICIENCY? (An-

swer on page 24)

LIMITATIONS

The personification of these hormones is of course not scientifically accurate. It is merely a tool to understand and memorize the principles of this regulatory system. It is also an oversimplification. There are a large number of other hormones, such as thyroid hormone, growth hormone, gonadal and adrenal steroids, and minerals, such as magnesium, which play a role in calcium and phosphate homeostasis. Nevertheless, this approach can help clarify the basic structure of a complex endocrine network.

REFERENCES

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

Shaker, JL and Deftos, L. Calcium and Phosphate Homeostasis. In: De Groot, L. J., Chrousos, G., Dungan, K. et al. (editors). Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText..com, Inc.; 2000- . Updated 2018 Jan 19 Blau, JE, and Collins, MT. The PTH-Vitamin D-FGF23 axis. Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders. 2015;16(2):165–174. Goltzman, D, Mannstadt, M, and Marcocci, C. Physiology of the Calcium-Parathyroid Hormone-Vitamin D Axis. In Vitamin D in Clinical Medicine 2018;50:1-13. Bergwitz, C, and Jüppner, H. Regulation of Phosphate Homeostasis by PTH, Vitamin D, and FGF23. Annual Review of Medicine. 2010;61(1):91–104. Lederer, E. Regulation of serum phosphate. Journal of Physiology. 2014;592(18):3985–3995. Hogan, J and Goldfarb, S. Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate Balance. In: UpToDate. https://www.uptodate. com/contents/regulation-of-calcium-and-phosphate-balance (08.03.2018) Jongh, RT De, Vervloet, MG, Bravenboer, N, et al. Chronische botpijn door verhoogde FGF23-productie ? Nederlandse Tijdschrift Voor Geneeskunde. 2013;157. Silver, J, and Naveh-Many, T. FGF23 and the parathyroid. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 2012;728:92–99.

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SUBJECT 101 26

PTH

Calcitriol

Calcitonin

FGF23

t serum Ca s serum P (inhibited by calcitriol and s serum Ca)

Produced by

Parathyroid glands

t serum Ca t serum P PTH Calcitriol (inhibited by s serum Ca, s serum P, FGF23)

Stimulus for synthesis / secretion

Metabolised to active form in skin, liver and kidneys

s serum Ca

s serum P Calcitriol

Parafollicular cells (thyroid)

Osteoblasts, osteocytes

Effect on

Ca t

Renal reabsorption s

Intestinal absorption P

s (via calcitriol)

Skeletal metabolism Osteoclast activity s = release of Ca and P s (effect mediated via osteoblasts) Osteoblast activity s = absorption of Ca and P s and bone matrix s

Osteoclast activity t = release of Ca and P t (directly and via inhibition of formation of new osteoclasts)

Calcitriol

s activation in kidneys

TABLE 1 Overview of hormones involved in calcium and phosphate homeostasis. Abbreviations: Ca = Calcium, P = phosphate, PTH = parathormone, FGF23 = fibroblast growth factor member 23

PTH

s (indirectly via low serum Ca)

Calcitonin

FGF23

t (indirectly via calcitriol)

(t small net effect)

Serum Ca

(t small net effect)

Serum P

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27 RADIOLOGY IMAGE

Answers B.J.H. Verhaar and E.P. van Poelgeest

Correct answers: 1B, 2C, 3D The T2*-weighted MRI-image shows cortical superficial siderosis in two locations (see arrows in the image at right), which can be described as linear hypointensities on the gyral surface. Superficial siderosis consists of hemosiderin depositions in the subpial (beneath the pia mater) layers of the brain and spine, and as such thought to result from subarachnoid bleeding.1 Another characteristic of this MRI is the presence of multiple cerebral microbleeds, which can be recognized as small round or oval hypointensities on a T2*-weighted MRI.2 Both these characteristics, superficial siderosis and cerebral microbleeds, are part of the Boston criteria for the diagnosis of cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA).3 CAA is a cerebrovascular disease in which the accumulation of beta-amyloid in the leptomeningeal and cortical vessels causes vascular fragility. As a result, these vessels are prone to bleed resulting in lobar hemorrhage, cerebral microbleeds or superficial siderosis on MRI imaging. For a CAA-diagnosis according to the Boston criteria, a patient must have clinical symptoms, such as lobar or cerebellar bleeding in the absence of hypertension, transient focal neurological symptoms (“amyloid spells”) or cognitive decline.4,5 For a ‘possible’ or ‘probable’ diagnosis of CAA, a patient older than 55 years must have lobar microbleeds with or without focal or disseminated superficial siderosis.3 The ‘possible’ or ‘probable’ diagnosis can only be confirmed by postmortem pathological examination of the brain. About 30% of non-demented elderly, and the vast majority (~90%) of patients with Alzheimer’s disease appear to have CAA on autopsy.6 CAA exists in sporadic and familial forms. Familial CAA is very rare and often has an earlier age of onset (typically in middle to late middle age). An example of familial CAA is hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis – Dutch type, which is also known as “Katwijkse ziekte”.7

When differentiating between other types of dementia on MRI, you could pay attention to the following characteristics: • Alzheimer’s disease: hippocampal atrophy, medial temporal lobe atrophy and parietal atrophy; • Vascular dementia: global atrophy, white matter lesions, lacunes and infarcts in areas needed for cognitive functioning; • Dementia with Lewy bodies: no specific characteristics on MRI. Therefore, most helpful in distinguishing this diagnosis on MRI is the absence of the specific patterns of other types of dementia. Often reported nonspecific characteristics in Lewy body dementia are a generalized decrease in cerebral volume and an enlargement of the lateral ventricles.8

REFERENCES

1. 2. 3.

8. 9.

Kumar N, Cohen-Gadol AA, Wright RA, Miller GM, Piepgras DG, Ahlskog JE. Superficial siderosis. Neurology. 2006;66(8):1144-1152. Cordonnier C. Brain microbleeds. Pract Neurol. 2010;10(2):94-100. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2010.206086. Linn J, Halpin A, Demaerel P, et al. Prevalence of superficial siderosis in patients with cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Neurology. 2010;74(17):1346-1350. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181dad605. Greenberg SM, Vonsattel JP, Stakes JW, Gruber M, Finklestein SP. The clinical spectrum of cerebral amyloid angiopathy: Presentations without lobar hemorrhage. Neurology. 1993;43(10):2073-2079. Charidimou A, Gang Q, Werring DJ. Sporadic cerebral amyloid angiopathy revisited: Recent insights into pathophysiology and clinical spectrum. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr. 2011:301308. Miller-Thomas MM, Sipe AL, Benzinger TL, McConathy J, Connolly S, Schwetye KE. Multimodality review of amyloid-related diseases of the central nervous system. Radiographics. 2016;36(4):1147-1163. van Rooden S, van Opstal AM, Labadie G, et al. Early magnetic resonance imaging and cognitive markers of hereditary cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Stroke. 2016;47(12):3041-3044. Kornienko VN, Pronin IN. Diagnostic neuroradiology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2008:1077. https://books. google.nl/books?id=uH0R1SX7b0IC. Verhaar B, Vernooij MW, Biessels GJ, Muller M. [Risk of vitamin K antagonists in cases of cerebral microbleeds]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2018;162(0):D1790. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Risico%E2%80%99s+van+vitamine+K-antagonisten+bij+cerebrale+microbloedingen.

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28 RADIOLOGY IMAGE

FIGURE 2A T2*-weighted MRI image of a patient with superficial siderosis (arrows) and multiple microbleeds. 9

FIGURE 2B Coronal T1-weighted MRI image of a patient with Alzheimer dementia with parietotemporal atrophy and decreased hippocampal volume (white circles). Case courtesy of A.Prof Frank Gaillard, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 22196

FIGURE 2C Axial MRI image (FLAIR) of a patient with vascular dementia with global atrophy and white matter lesions. Case courtesy of A.Prof Frank Gaillard, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 25641

FIGURE 2D Axial MRI image (FLAIR) of a patient with Lewy body dementia with dilatation of sulci in the frontal and parietotemporal regions, decrease in cerebral volume and enlargement of the lateral ventricles. Case courtesy of A.Prof Frank Gaillard, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 28774.

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29 CLINICAL IMAGE

Answers L.S.F. Konijnenberg and N.H. Sperna Weiland

QUESTION 1

Correct answer: B. EXPLANATION

The arterial blood gas represents a metabolic acidosis with partial respiratory compensation. See the step-by-step analysis below.

QUESTION 2

C This is not the correct answer. Lactate-acidosis is defined as metabolic acidosis with high lactate level without hyperglycaemia and ketonemia. However, lactate-acidosis can be seen as part of diabetic keto-acidosis or hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic non-keto-acidosis syndrome. D This is not the correct answer. Alcoholic keto-acidosis is defined as metabolic acidosis with ketonemia and a normal to slightly elevated glucose level. Patients seldomly present with hyperglycaemia.

REFERENCE

Correct answer: B.

EXPLANATION

Based on medical history and blood tests, the most likely diagnosis is diabetic keto-acidosis caused by an underlying infection in combination with poor intake, vomiting, and subsequently inadequate use of insulin.

Nyenwe EA, Kitabchi AE. The evolution of diabetic ketoacidosis: An update of its etiology, pathogenesis and management. Metabolism. 2016;65(4):507-521.

A This is not the correct answer. Hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic non-keto-acidosis syndrome (HHS) is defined as hyperglycaemia (>30 mmol • l-1) without ketonemia. The pH is usually within normal range. The severity of HHS is related to plasma-osmolarity. Hyperosmolar dysregulation can be accompanied by lactate-acidosis. B This is the correct answer. Diabetic keto-acidosis is defined as the combination of anion gap metabolic acidosis, hyperglycaemia and ketonemia. The increased lactate level might be explained by an increased anaerobe metabolism.

Step-by-step analysis 1.

pH (7.35 – 7.45): normal, mixed/compensated, acidosis or alkalosis?

pH 7.1 = severe acidosis.

PCO2 (4.7 – 6.0): respiratory acidosis?

PCO2 3.7 = decreased = no respiratory acidosis. Compensation.

HCO3- (22.0 – 26.0): metabolic acidosis?

HCO3- 9.8 = decreased = metabolic acidosis.

Base-excess (-2.0 – 3.0)

Base-excess -22.8 = base deficit (i.e. negative base-excess) = metabolic acidosis caused by either loss of HCO3- or neutralization of HCO3- by addition of acidic substances.

Anion gap (7.0 – 16.0)

(Na+ - Cl- - HCO3-): Loss of HCO3- or addition of acidic substances? Anion gap 36.1 = addition of acidic substances. AMSj Vol. 12 | June 2018

30 ARTICLE

Colophon Amsterdam Medical Student journal is a scientific medical journal with the purpose to enable medical students to publish clinical observations, research articles and case reports. The journal was founded by students from the Academic Medical Center (AMC) and the VU Medical Center (VUmc) in Amsterdam with the intention to provide education and development of academic skills for medical students. The entire journal is created and published by staff members and students from both faculties. ISSN 2589-1243 (print); 2589-1251 (online) CORRESPONDANCE info@amsj.nl WEB www.amsj.nl Like us on facebook.com/amsjournal Follow us on https://www.linkedin.com/ company/amsterdam-medical-student-journal

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SUBMISSIONS If you would like to publish your research in AMSj, please see our guidelines on www.amsj.nl EDITORS IN CHIEF A.V. de Jonge, M.A. Kempeneers, G.E. Linthorst, F. Daams BOARD S. Veldkamp, W.D. Krishnasing, I. de Brouwer, O. Moussa, J.M. Tettero, E.M. van Praag CONTENT EDITOR & NATIVE EDITOR T.R. de Back, M.E. Ribbink STAFF REVIEWERS S. Bossers, N.H. Sperna Weiland, G. de Waard, K.G.J.A. Voogdt, F. de Leeuw, E.P. van Poelgeest, J. Stiekema, J. Cloos, A. Emanuel, J. ten Kulve, L. Vogt, M.W. Bijlsma, N. Rol, M.C. Brouwer, J.W. Wilmink, R.J. Molenaar, S. Darma, M.U. Safroth, P.P. de Koning, M. Maas, R. van Bentum, K. de Wit, L.A. Gerbens, B. Lissenberg-Witte, H.R. Zoomer, L.D.J. Kuijper STUDENT REVIEWERS S. Rozemeijer, L.S.F. Konijnenberg, K. Ergin, M. Haverkort, K. Engelfriet, B.J. Verhaar, J.M. Tettero, J. Saris, E.M. Corazolla, R.K. Feenstra, R.A.L. Beekman, N.M. Rosenberg, E. Neefjes, M. Ali, B. de Jong, S. Hoeffelman, D.D.G. Simons, M. Kocyigit, T.L. Kortlever, M.M Wennekers

June 2018 | AMSj Vol. 12