FINAL MAJOR PROJECT: TYPEFACE DESIGN
ALEX ETTER/FINAL MAJOR PROJECT/IMPERATOR TYPEFACE/2020
01 002/103
1.Intro 2.Field of study 3.History 4.Focus 5.Case Studies 6.Literary Review 7.Conclusion 8.Personal Reflection 9.Bibliography
Introduction In this project I hope to accomplish the design and creation of a typeface as well as outcomes that showcase the design. I like the idea of taking something from the past and combining it with something more modern to give it a unique visual style. Before the project started, I had undertaken the 36 days of type challenge which involves creating different letters of the alphabet each day. This gives me some experience in crafting letterforms and gives me a good starting point for this project. This project is something I haven’t done before which makes it quite interesting for me as the only past experience, I have with type design is the first year project where we designed a modular typeface that was very simple and didn’t take a lot of thought or complexity. I do also have some knowledge of type classification and type anatomy from the other first year project which should help me make certain decisions for this project as this helped me to learn about things such as stroke stress and different forms of serif. My time at university has 004/103
showed me the kind of areas of design that I enjoy which includes Branding, logo design and typography. I decided to choose typography as the focus of my project as I particularly enjoy this, and I like the idea of having a project which can then be used in the future for other projects. I also think this project will allow me to explore various sections of design as I will have to not only design the typeface but also the outcomes for the project which will involve designing layouts, posters and motion graphics. This gives me a nice variety of formats to design for. I also like the fact that the project is open ended which gives me a lot of creative freedom in the direction that I want to take the project and the final visuals.
02 006/103
1.Intro 2.Field of study 3.History 4.Focus 5.Case Studies 6.Literary Review 7.Conclusion 8.Personal Reflection 9.Bibliography
Field of Study Modern typography has become commonplace due to several reasons including the digitisation of the graphic design industry as well as it being easier than ever to design type. Prior to the digitisation of the industry, type design was taught through apprenticeships and professional training by mentors in the industry. Another element that led to the democratisation of type design is that the software to design and edit type has become readily accessible through platforms such as Adobe CC, FontSelf and FontLab. There is also more information available about type design than ever before through both books and online sources which can assist a designer when creating type. Additionally, there are now dedicated degree programs that offer advanced knowledge in type design such as the MA Typeface Design course at the University of Reading. All these factors have led to more and more independent type designers and foundries being established and therefore a greater variety of typefaces. This also means that there has been an increase in wellcrafted typefaces as the resources 008/103
available allow even an individual designer with no prior experience to create a typeface that is balanced and legible. Something I personally find to be very helpful when designing type is to analyse existing typefaces and glyphs to see how they were constructed. Examining a character’s point placement as well as curvature can help to understand how it was built and why the designer decided to create it that way. This can be especially helpful with difficult characters such as S as it can be very hard to make it look balanced. This also enables you to discover typographic tricks and details such as the placement of stress in a character. Typeface design is an iterative process that involves continuously refining your type in increasingly smaller ways as it progresses. Large changes take place at the beginning of the design such as the basic structure and later fine details are edited to help improve legibility and aesthetic. It also involves reviewing your type by testing letters as you design to see if they work together. There are so many elements
to consider when designing a typeface that are all important as together, they add up to a successful typeface. For example, considering what factors create consistency within the typeface such as density and weight as well as the spacing of characters. It is also difficult to balance creating a typeface that is unique and interesting with its own personality while still ensuring that it is consistent and proportional. One of the most important aspects of designing a typeface is designing it for a brief, even a broad one so that it has parameters that must be met. This enables the typeface to fulfil a purpose and ensures that you will plan more effectively when creating it. Some of the decisions that must be considered include who the typeface is for? Is it for text or display or both? How many characters does it need? Determining what the typeface will do at the start will allow it to naturally develop the characteristics required to do so during the process. One of the most difficult skills to acquire, is the ability to know what changes need to be made to develop a typeface further, and to know which detail needs to be
modified to improve the type. “The student, balancing between the deep knowledge of the specialist and the broad curiosity of the generalist, must develop, largely on their own, their capacity to be conscious of past and emerging idioms, to see their own work in the context of developing styles, and – most difficult of all – to identify how their own personal style can coexist with the restrictions of utility and the conventions of genre” (Leonidas, 2010).
03 010/103
1.Intro 2.Field of study 3.History 4.Focus 5.Case Studies 6.Literary Review 7.Conclusion 8.Personal Reflection 9.Bibliography
History Although some argue that typography encapsulates everything from ancient cave paintings to Egyptian symbols, most claim that typography started with the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg. There were other forms of movable type that had been invented before Gutenberg such as wooden movable type by Bi Sheng in China and bronze movable type in Korea by Hua Sui, however these forms did not spread to the west. “One of the chief reasons for writing’s ubiquity as a communication tool is Gutenberg’s printing press, and more precisely, the moveable type that first allowed for the composition of single glyphs into longer lines of text.” (History and Evolution of Typography - FontfabricTM Blog, 2019). Gutenberg also developed Blackletter which was based off the existing Textura script common at the time. Because this script had condensed counters it worked well as movable type as it didn’t take up much space allowing for more characters per line meaning more type could be placed on each page. He used his press and his movable type to create the Gutenberg Bible or 42-line Bible, the first book to be printed this way. Gutenberg’s movable type owed its success to the durability of its leadbased alloy characters that allowed them to last a long time as well as offer a visual consistency across a typeface that lead to its eventual adoption across Europe. Printing began to spread first to Italy where printers Sweynheim and Pannartz were the first to open a press 012/103
with which they produced a book “printed in an early and interesting Antiqua type that would with time become roman” (Preece, and Wells, 2019). Not long after this Nicolas Jenson created the first Roman typeface, which was inspired by the inscriptions on ancient Roman buildings. Because “his letter forms, were based on straight lines and regular curves, this made them very clear and legible compared to the dense darkness of black letter” (Barrett-Forrest, 2013). This made this new style of type very successful and it too spread across Europe. By the 15th century, a man named Aldus Manutius developed a new typeface called italic which was slanted to fit even more characters on the page as a method to save money. It wasn’t until 1550 that it became used for a special function as it is today. There was a period of stagnation with one of the few notable contributions to type being in France where Louis XIII “ordered the creation of a commission charged with developing the design of a new type to be composed of letters arrived at on “scientific” principles” (Preece, and Wells, 2019). This typeface was developed using mathematical principles as opposed to being based on calligraphic scripts like the other important typefaces. It was called Romain du Roi and became very popular which led to other designers copying it. After this William Caslon developed the typeface named after himself that became very successful for its impressive level of legibility. The typeface became very popular
in the American Colonies where it was introduced by Benjamin Franklin so much so that it was used to issue the United States Declaration of Independence. This style of typeface came to be known as old style and was marked by its low contrast and fixed serifs. “Even more significant changes in typographical fashions were achieved about a quarter of a century later by John Baskerville in Birmingham. Baskerville, who taught calligraphy, introduced further variations in the spirit of Caslon” (Preece, and Wells, 2019). Baskervilles type was more original than that of Caslon’s with a greater emphasis on aesthetics and later became known as transitional. After these monumental typefaces more came with the advent of copperplate engraving techniques which “opened the doors to much wider variations in terms of stroke thickness, and as a result many modern typefaces achieved levels of contrast that were previously thought impossible” (History and Evolution of Typography FontfabricTM Blog, 2019). This resulted in the Bodoni and Didot typefaces that were characterised by high contrast and non-bracketed serifs. With advent of the Industrial Revolution a new style of type had appeared called Sans-Serif. “The heavy and highly decorated typefaces of the past now had competition in the face of the lineals (or linéales) — a group that incorporates all sans/nonserif typefaces with low to zero contrast between their thick and thin segments.” (History and Evolution of Typography 015/103
- FontfabricTM Blog, 2019). William Caslon IV was the first to produce a Sans-Serif printing type in England called Two Lines English Egyptian, however ““The first use of the word ‘sans-serif’ dates from 1832, when the British type-founder Vincent Figgins included it in his specimen book. Just two years later William Thorowgood released Seven Line Grotesque, which was the first lowercase sans-serif, and the first recorded use of the term ‘grotesque’” (History and Evolution of Typography - FontfabricTM Blog, 2019). The Sans-Serif style was widely adopted by Newspapers, stores and other institutions as it had a high degree of legibility and worked well at getting people’s attention especially for headlines and signage. Sans-Serifs further evolved into different classifications such as NeoGrotesque, Geometric and Humanist dominating typography into the digital age where they have become prolific.
04 016/103
1.Intro 2.Field of study 3.History 4.Focus 5.Case Studies 6.Literary Review 7.Conclusion 8.Personal Reflection 9.Bibliography
Roman Square Capitals Roman Square Capitals or Capitalis Monumentalis are one of the oldest forms of writing. “Boosted by the Roman Empire’s immense power and geographic spread, they set the stage for the entire Western type structure, later unfolding into writing styles of their own.” (History and Evolution of Typography - FontfabricTM Blog, 2019). Roman Capitals are also referred to as majuscules with Carolingian and Merovingian scripts being minuscules. At some point around the First Century BC Roman inscriptions made a dramatic change in appearance from being flat and monoline to the elegant geometric based forms that we now know as Roman Square Capitals. These letterforms were mostly used for inscriptional purposes with Latin cursive being used for everyday writing. When they were used in documents, they were called Latin Book Hand. Roman Capitals developed new letters either through modification of existing ones or through borrowing from other languages. “In the course of the evolution of the alphabet from the 018/103
old italic alphabet, G and Q developed from C, from the Greek alphabet the letters K,X,Y,Z were taken, the letter j developed from a flourished i, v and u split and the ligature of vv became w, the letter thorn þ was introduced from the runic alphabet but was lost in all languages bar Icelandic, additionally the letter s after the 7th century” (The History Of Type – Roman Square Capitals to Roman Cursive, 2012). Roman Capitals have a very distinct appearance and powerful presence which is why they are still such a popular style of type. They are characterised by their sharp lines, slight curves, mix of stroke widths, angled stress and precise serifs. The proportions of the characters also stand out as there is a lot of variety in their width. Eventually Roman Capitals evolved into a few different forms including “Rustic capitals, as well as the unicase uncial, which helped shape the Carolingian miniscule lowercase ovals with their distinctive ascenders and descenders” (History and Evolution of Typography - FontfabricTM Blog, 2019). Additionally, “An increasinglyliterate population had a growing
appetite for books, leading to some purely functional changes, such as letters becoming less wide in order to accommodate a faster writing style and save resources” (History and Evolution of Typography - FontfabricTM Blog, 2019). “Notable examples of square capitals used for inscriptions are found on the Pantheon, Trajan’s Column, and the Arch of Titus, all in Rome” (The History Of Type – Roman Square Capitals to Roman Cursive, 2012). Roman Capitals were “greatly respected by artisans of the Renaissance such as Geoffroy Tory and Felice Feliciano” (Garg, 2019). Trajan’s Column in particular has been used as a reference for many type designers including Edward Johnston, Eric Gill and Carol Twombly who created the Trajan typeface inspired by the inscription on the base of the landmark. This is because “it’s one of the very few examples of the highest level of Roman lettering craftsmanship of that period to survive in place and more or less intact, and as such has attracted the attentions of scholars 021/103
and enthusiasts down through the ages” (E J F Newsletter 5, s.d.). An American priest and lettering craftsman Edward Catich studied the Trajan inscription in detail and made a number of discoveries about subtle elements of the characters that weren’t immediately apparent. For example, “the vertical strokes were about twice as thick as the horizontal ones, and the height of the letters is about nine times the width of the vertical strokes ― proportions that he considered nearly ideal” (Garg, 2019). The biggest discovery he made was that letters were in fact drawn with a chisel brush at a 35-degree angles before being carved with a chisel which created the thicks and thins as well as the serifs. “The theory is reinforced by large brush lettering – ‘signwriting’, in effect – to be found on the walls of houses along the main thoroughfare of Pompeii, publicising political candidates and advertising gladiatorial combats” (E J F Newsletter 5, s.d.). He wrote two books to share his discoveries called ‘Letters Redrawn from the Trajan Inscription in Rome’ and ‘The Origin of the Serif: Brush Writing and Roman Letters’.
05 024/103
1.Intro 2.Field of study 3.History 4.Focus 5.Case Studies 6.Literary Review 7.Conclusion 8.Personal Reflection 9.Bibliography
The Designers Foundry The Designers Foundry is a type foundry established by Daniel McQueen in 2012. It aims to make typefaces that are of a high standard but still accessible to the average designer. The foundry has produced numerous typefaces and has worked for clients that include Pentagram, Apple and Netflix. The typeface that specifically attracted me to their work was Morion. This typeface was designed by David Einwaller and due to its initial release in 2017 gaining a great deal of online support, it was developed for a further 3 years and rereleased with six weights and italics. The typeface was designed to work for both display and text purposes with each character being designed for clarity and sharpness at smaller sizes. David describes Morion as being “A very versatile typeface that can shine within modern branding, now, better than ever.” (The Designers Foundry re-releases Morion, a typeface which works as a display and text-face at the same time, s.d.). The typeface was based on the combination of calligraphic elements and angular rigid serifs which presented a challenge in its creation however, after numerous revisions “it feels even more balanced and usable than ever.” (New Release Morion | The Designers Foundry, s.d.). 026/103
In looking at this typeface it has been useful to see the process for its design as I found out that the initial step in the creation of different weights was to create “a thin master to gain better control over the extremes.” (New Release Morion | The Designers Foundry, s.d.). Another step that was taken was to re-interpolate the original weight to help harmonise the contrast and serifs. It was also useful to examine a typeface whose proportions were based on Roman Capitals like my own. I find Morion to be a very attractive and well-designed typeface that balances elegance with a unique style that separates it from other serif type. This is exactly the kind of style that I aim to emulate. Small details such as the cut in the right leg of the R and the different serifs of each horizontal stroke on the E are elements that I would like to replicate in my own typeface. I also found Morion’s type specimen quite interesting as it takes a unique approach in that it focuses purely on the visual aspect of the letterforms than as to the meaning of the words themselves. This allows the reader to appreciate the typeface without the distraction of understanding the text.
Commercial Type /Classics Commercial Classics was formed by Paul Barnes and Christian Schwartz who also work together in another foundry Commercial Type. Commercial Type has created many typefaces for retail with one of the most notable being Guardian Egyptian. Commercial Classics focuses purely on recreating old typefaces which allows people to experience historical type. Commercial Classics aims to “to retain the qualities of the originals, with all of their charms and quirks, and to follow a path of faithfulness to the ideas and forms of the past, even when the forms sometimes never existed.” (Commercial Classics, s.d.). Brunel is a Commercial Classics typeface that is described as “Elegant yet hardworking, Brunel is the Anglo variant of the modern style defined by the continental masters, Bodoni and Didot.” (Commercial Classics » Catalog » Brunel Collection, s.d.). It is based on designs for Elizabeth Caslon from the eighteenth century that were then expanded on. Although I like the exceptionally high contrast of the hairline version in both Roman and Bold, I think I want my typeface to have slightly less contrast. I also want more emphasis on the serifs of my typeface than Brunel. Another typeface that I looked at that was designed by Commercial Type was Austin. This 033/103
typeface was developed for Harper’s & Queen magazine and is constructed from typefaces designed in the eighteenth-century by Richard Austin. I like the angular shape of Austin’s Serifs as well as the level of contrast in its strokes. A third typeface I found whilst looking through Commercial Type’s catalogue was Schnyder. This typeface was designed for T, the New York Times Style Magazine by Berton Hasebe and Christian Schwartz. It was derived from “Beaux Arts-era typefaces and a piece of pointed pen lettering from Switzerland that was very precise in its thick and thin strokes, but with organic and unusual structures for invidvidual letters and great variations in character widths from line to line.” (Commercial Type » Catalog » Schnyder Collection, s.d.). One of the notable elements of the typeface is that the “stem weights in each weight are identical across the widths, an unusual feature that allows the widths to be mixed freely in headlines, even within single words.” (Commercial Type » Catalog » Schnyder Collection, s.d.). I particularly like the way Schnyder’s W has overlapping central strokes. I think this style could work well as an alternate W for my own typeface. I also like the top left section of the N where the two strokes meet and the wide shape of the R’s Counter.
Colophon Colophon is a well-established, awardwinning type foundry that has worked with brands, agencies and individuals alike. They have studios in London and Los Angeles. They work to create tailored typographic solutions to suit the needs of their clients by taking an informed approach that elevates brands. Colophon’s “Self-initiated and commissioned work in type design is complemented by independent and collaborative initiatives in publishing, editing / curation, exhibition-making, and teaching, with a focus on local and international partnerships with institutions of all sizes.” (Foundry, s.d.). Their work varies from creating full typefaces, modifying existing type and creating logos and wordmarks. Their international work has led them to develop typefaces in several different languages including Cyrillic, Thai and Greek. Colophon aims to create fonts “that are composed with aesthetic and technological care, prompting a reputable library of new classics that couple typographic history with contemporary sensibilities” (Foundry, s.d.). They also host typefaces from influential third parties with varied design backgrounds. This allows them to offer a wide range of distinct and unique typefaces. When examining their catalogue, there were three typefaces that caught 038/103
my attention, the first being Burgess. This typeface is a reinterpretation of early drawings of Times New Roman Bold and Bold Italic. Although Times was supposedly created for the newspaper of the same name in 1931, it is believed by some type historians that this was based on an earlier design by an American industrial designer William Starling Burgess in 1904. The typeface has an elegance and weight that gives it a sense of formality and authority. I also like some of the typeface’s unique counters such as in the lowercase f and uppercase B. The second typeface that I looked at from Colophon was Brick. Its based off “the signage of three prominent pubs in London’s East End, The Jolly Butchers (Brick Lane – now closed), The Royal Oak (Columbia Road), and The Prince Albert (Acton Street),” (Foundry, s.d.), as well as drawing from the Art Deco and Nouveau movements. Fermín Guerrero “first discovered the vernacular of Brick Lane street during one of his visits to London, in 2015, while studying Typeface Design in Reading.” (Foundry, s.d.). Several years later the typeface begun to take shape. I love Brick’s aggressive, angular style of serifs and the level of contrast between horizontal and vertical strokes that give it a real sense of strength and solidity. The low waist also gives several of the characters such as the R a unique
quality to them. The third typeface I examined was Fortescue which was created in 2009 for artist Jake Spicer’s website and branding. The typeface was later commercially released in December 2009. It derives its name from an area in Devon where the artists career began. “Over the years Fortescue has been utilised in a variety of settings and applications, including GQ Magazine (Germany) where bespoke variants were produced.” (Foundry, s.d.). Colophon recently remastered and extended the typeface with more weights and OpenType features. It now has a text variant, a display variant and a Median that is in-between. I like the sharpness of Fortescue especially in the K, R and T. I also like the way the heavy serifs contrast with some of the thinner strokes.
Hoefler&Co Hoefler&Co are a well-known type foundry that create typefaces that are not only long lasting but help “shape the world’s foremost institutions, publications, causes, and brands” (Fonts by Hoefler&Co, s.d.). They boast an impressive library of almost 1500 typefaces that have been designed for a variety of situations be it print, digital or mobile. They’ve worked for numerous clients including Twitter, Wired, Wall Street Journal, Coca-Cola and Apple. They have been honoured by the National Design Awards and both the Smithsonian Institution and Museum of Modern Art feature their work in permanent collections. One of the typefaces that interested me whilst looking at their work was Quarto, a serif display type designed for titles and subheadings. “Quarto is a modern adaptation of the Van den Keere style, designed for use at sixteen point and above. We selected Van den Keere’s Two-Line Double Pica Roman of 1570–1573 as a foundation for the family, an arresting design marked by striking dramatic tensions” (Fonts by Hoefler&Co, s.d.). It has a fluid motion whilst still maintaining a rhythm and consistency that features sharp corners and geometric elements. Its unobtrusive serifs and descenders allow it to have tight tracking and leading which makes it great for headlines. I like the contrast
between the angles and curves of this typeface as well as the stress in certain strokes such as in M, K and E. The other typeface that I examined by Hoefler&Co was Requiem, a typeface inspired by a sixteenth-century writing manual. The Renaissance period brought a renewed interest in inscriptional lettering, especially Roman Capitals. Several writing masters of the time attempted to examine these letters, one of which being Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi who was a calligrapher at the Apostolic Chancery in Rome. “His writing manual Il Modo de Temperare le Penne (1523) includes one of the most elegant renderings of the classical alphabet, letters which were freed from the shackles of geometry and simply shown floating in a solid field of black. These letters served as the basis for Requiem’s Display Roman and Small Caps” (Fonts by Hoefler&Co, s.d). Something that had yet to be properly accomplished was a roman lowercase as the few writing masters that had attempted had lacklustre results. For this reason, Requiem’s lowercase is not based off a work of the past. I particularly like Requiem’s ultra-thin serifs and high overall contrast. The typeface has so many subtle elements that give it a distinct character and uniqueness. 044/103
Eliott Grunewald Eliott Grunewald is a Graphic designer based out of Lausanne who focuses on experimental typography that isn’t always legible, but instead acts almost like an image. He is currently working as a teaching assistant at ECAL university but takes freelance work at the same time. He is “More interested in display typefaces, for their expressiveness and ‘voices’; like type as an image more than the design of a text typeface,” (Eliott Grunewald on his type designs, 2019). I find this to be quite an interesting way of working as it removes so many restrictions and rules that you would otherwise have to follow when designing type. I like his work as it is unique and with the abundance of type designers today it feels like something you don’t see everywhere. He states that “Something illegible still has something to say, to show or to promote, I don’t feel that even if you cannot read the word, you cannot get anything from it” (Eliott Grunewald on his type designs, 2019). This way of thinking also allows type to be expressive in its own right without the reader having to interpret what the text means. I would be interested in exploring this kind of illegible type in a future project as it seems to have a lot of possibilities. Because Elliot designs his type for particular projects, he’s “Not really interested in the design 051/103
of typeface only for a type foundry market,” (Eliott Grunewald on his type designs, 2019). I think this is part of what adds to the uniqueness of his work as it is not simply created for profit but to provide something new and interesting. Elliot’s current project titled Epoxy is “An ongoing project based on the design of 3D type and lettering for ‘virtual’ environments” (Eliott Grunewald on his type designs, 2019). The goal of this project is to draw type directly in 3D instead of focusing on what the type could be used for. “Drawing a typeface in 2D, and then adding a design part for the third dimension is already nice, but it’s even better when you try to use that third dimension in an interesting way, more than just ‘extruding’ it. Then when it comes to the materiality and the design of a space or context where the lettering will be, it’s even more interesting” (Eliott Grunewald on his type designs, 2019).
Fatih Hardal Fatih Hardal is a Turkish Graphic designer who founded Mustard Studio in 2019. He specialises in brand identities as well as typeface design and has worked for clients including Adidas, Adobe, Sony and Sagmeister & Walsh. Hardal mentions that “Unfortunately, there’s currently no type foundries in Turkey, so this is what I’m working on” (Find hidden squares and experimental inktraps in Fatih Hardal’s FH Giselle, 2019). He recently released the typeface FH Giselle which was inspired by a poster by Armin Hofmann released in 1959 for the Basel Theatre. The posters strong use of contrast inspired Hardal when making the typeface. He commented “I’ve been studying inktrap characters. I thought that would be appropriate for Giselle, so I did an aesthetic inktrap experiment,” (Find hidden squares and experimental inktraps in Fatih Hardal’s FH Giselle, 2019). When working on new designs he likes to “look to past designs for examples, especially designs between 1940 – 1970. I admire them!” (Find hidden squares and experimental inktraps in Fatih Hardal’s FH Giselle, 2019). There are a number of qualities that FH Giselle displays that give it such a distinctive appearance. The huge contrast between strokes such as in the N, E and A gives it an unpredictability that 058/103
I admire and the way the ink traps almost cut right through the characters makes the typeface look very dynamic. The corners are cut at 45-degree angles which creates unique forms when multiple characters are aligned together. I also enjoy the way he presents his typefaces in such minimal ways, as the lack of noise really lets the type speak for itself. This is a tactic I aim to employ for my typeface when designing outcomes.
Leonhard Laupichler I took an interest in Leonhard Laupichler’s work when I saw a new typeface he had created called Arachne. This typeface caught my attention as it was a similar style to the kind of typeface that I wanted to create. I like the way It has small unique details such as the way that on the V and W the strokes don’t connect at their apex but slightly higher up. I also like the serifs as they are long, angular and very aggressive looking. Laupichler says “I was reinterpreting common elements of classicist typefaces, hence I chose to call it a new classicist typeface. Arachne’s strong character derives from the combination of soft strokes and sharp, pointy edges and it’s many eye-catching details” (Leonhard Laupichler, s.d.). He also mentions the way that combining different elements gave the typeface a lot of character, “The dynamic curves and special axis add a soft but also dynamic character to Arachne’s classicist features. It combines various contrasting elements: Classicist and modern, thick and thin strokes and dynamic but also 066/103
rigid shapes” (Leonhard Laupichler, s.d.). Whilst examining this typeface I also found that his bachelor’s thesis focused on showcasing typefaces that were produced by individual creatives as opposed to type foundries. The book, called NEW AESTHETIC showcases 98 fonts from 100 up and coming designers which allows the reader to see a diverse range of typefaces that vary from illegible to sleek and clear. Laupichler asked the designers to create a single poster to represent their fonts and put these at the start of the book to let the reader get a first impression of them. The aim of NEW AESTHETIC was to showcase “modern typeface design in all its facets; the design is bold, innovative and, most importantly, detached from the conventions of traditional Type Foundries” (Leonhard Laupichler, s.d.). This project was actually inspired by his work on his Arachne typeface. “When I was working on my own typeface Arachne, I got to the point where I had to find a way of presenting it, and I started thinking intensively about the character it reflected, the
emotions, pictures or colours I would associate with it,” (New Aesthetic is a type repository that puts feelings before function, s.d.). This is certainly something I will have to consider when creating my own outcomes after my typeface is complete to ensure that they reflect the visual style. He also mentions that “Typography has always been essential to graphic design. Designers do not only focus on making reading as enjoyable as possible, but also intend to create moods, reflect values and aesthetic impressions with their work. Typefaces hold the power to communicate more than just the words and sentences they spell” (Leonhard Laupichler, s.d.).
06 074/103
1.Intro 2.Field of study 3.History 4.Focus 5.Case Studies 6.Literary Review 7.Conclusion 8.Personal Reflection 9.Bibliography
Typographic Construction Type can be created using a variety of methods nowadays including creating a hand drawn sketch which is then scanned and digitised, drawn on a tablet using a stylus or designed entirely within a program. When it comes to the actual design of typefaces there are a large number of elements that have to be taken into account to ensure that a typeface is versatile. One of these being that each glyph must appear even and consistent to the rest of the glyphs in the typeface. Something else that must be considered is that unless the type has a specific function or is purely a display typeface, it should appear the same regardless of its size. This is because even a well-designed typeface when viewed in a large format can look very different at smaller sizes. “A typeface’s optical size is the scale at which it’s intended to be used. When a display face is redesigned for smaller sizes, its thin strokes are thickened, its gestures are amplified, its proportions are adjusted to favour small shapes (the entire lowercase usually gets substantially bigger), and additional white space is added wherever it can 076/103
help relieve congestion: counters are enlarged, apertures opened, and intercharacter fit is loosened” (Fonts by Hoefler&Co, s.d.). Something else that must be considered is the kerning and tracking of the type as the spacing around each character has a dramatic impact on its legibility and appearance. There are also a number of optical illusions that take place because of the way humans perceive shapes. This is why type is designed and spaced through optical methods as opposed to mathematically. An example of this is that rounded shapes such as O and C must be slightly larger than square or flat shaped characters such as T or F to enable them to appear the same size. This is called an overshoot and can also occur on letters that end with thin apexes such as N and M. Another example of this is that rounded characters are usually never perfect circles, instead they are made slightly wider to appear balanced. “Making a letterform appear equally balanced requires drawing it to be measurably smaller on top. These expectations about “natural balance” are at work in
letters like B, E, and S, which are visibly smaller above and larger below — and even in the letter H, which in order to appear symmetrical, needs a crossbar that’s just above center.” (Fonts by Hoefler&Co, s.d.). One of the most important typographic illusions is stroke width. For example, “The simple letter T conceals one of typography’s great paradoxes: that lines appear thicker when oriented horizontally than vertically. Type designers call this property “contrast,” and because it behaves differently in different directions, it’s said to be “anisotropic.” (Fonts by Hoefler&Co, s.d.). Because of this type designers modify the width of horizontal strokes to be thinner than vertical ones with angled strokes being a thickness somewhere in between. Something else that must also be considered is the fact that the Latin alphabet has a calligraphic bias which is a result of the shapes of our letters being derived from broad edged pens which produce thin upstrokes and thick downstrokes when held at an angle. Many typefaces feature these thick and thins for example if you look at the letter A “that its left leg is subtly lighter than its right, a necessary maneuver to satisfy our subliminal expectations about weight — all the consequence of ancient right-handed scribes.” (Fonts by Hoefler&Co, s.d.).
Typographic Expression It is well known that typography has the ability to affect the way we feel about a design, but it can also affect the content of what is written. In 2012 an experiment was run that aimed to empirically see if different fonts had an effect on the believability of a statement. The experiment was created by author and film director Errol Morris with the help of Cornell psychology professor David Dunning on the New York Times website and was made to appear as a simple quiz. The quiz was titled ‘are you an optimist or a pessimist?’ But was actually intended to find out how people respond to a passage of text written by David Deutsch in six different typefaces including Baskerville, Georgia, Computer Modern, Helvetica, Comic Sans and Trebuchet. “After polling approximately 45,000 unsuspecting readers on nytimes.com, Morris discovered that subjects were more likely to believe a statement when it was written in Baskerville” (LaBarre, 2012). The study found that “For every 1,000 respondents, almost five more people agreed with Deutsch’s statement when it was written in Baskerville than they did when it was written in Helvetica” (LaBarre, 2012). The results of the study show that type can certainly affect someone’s perception of the truth and asks the 081/103
question of whether a typeface could be designed to produce specific emotional effects? “This is partly what a type designer does, synthesizing fonts that work within certain parameters and constraints. But reproducing an emotional effect is harder to prove, which is why Morris’ experiment was such a novel idea” (Stinson, 2015). Dunning suggested that Baskerville was seen as more trustworthy because it is a very formal typeface. Pentagram Partner Michael Bierut who published the study in the 44th edition of the Pentagram papers said that “In a way, typefaces are the graphic equivalent of the human voice, and each voice has a specific timbre and accent” (Stinson, 2015). He went on to say that “In my mind, Baskerville speaks with a calm, confidence-inspiring English accent, sort of like Colin Firth. No wonder it’s so trustworthy.” (Stinson, 2015). This research shows that I need to keep in mind the kind of elements that evoke certain emotions when I’m designing my type to ensure that the end result has the correct expression.
Typography & Colour Like any other aspect of design, type and colour are closely linked. When they are used correctly together, they can complement each other and create a powerful design. There are many different colour spaces available with the main two being CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Key) and RGB (Red, Green and Blue). This is because colour can be additive or subtractive. Screens or anything else that emits light are additive whereas anything that is printed uses subtractive also known as reflective light. With additive colour different wavelengths create different colours with more light creating brighter and lighter colours. In contrast subtractive light is affected by the way pigments reflect wavelengths of light which in turn affects the appearance of the colour. For additive colour white is all the colours combined and black is none of the colours whereas in subtractive colour white is the absence of colour and black is the combination of colour. However, “The pigments we have available to use don’t fully absorb light (preventing reflected colour wavelengths), so we have to add a fourth compensating pigment to account for this limitation” (HamptonSmith, S, 2019). This is the K in CMYK which stands for key. RGB is only one of the many colour spaces available in the 082/103
additive colour system with the colour space that you choose affecting the range (or gamut) of colours available to you. When designing for print and using CMYK it is also important to consider the medium that is being used as the surface can dramatically impact the way the colour is perceived as well as legibility. Colour can have so many effects on a design depending on how it’s used. It can provide contrast, emphasise a specific area of a design or create hierarchy. Additionally, different colours can evoke different moods as they each have different associations. For example, red communicates “Power and energy, blue for trust and security, green for money and prosperity as well as environmental themes, and pink for femininity and romance. Because colours have different connotations in different cultures, it’s essential to research these when designing for various markets” (Type And Color Fonts.com | Fonts.com, s.d.). Colour is often the element of a design that is noticed first which is why it is such a powerful element of communication in design. It can be used to draw attention and help someone to understand content by breaking it up into sections which improves the quality of communication. “The proper use of color can enhance design in both obvious and subliminal ways. It can
promote a mood, influence a purchase, and help create an “experience� for the viewer� (Type And Color - Fonts.com | Fonts.com, s.d.). Contrasting colours work best together as they look visually interesting and also increase type legibility which is important as there is no point in creating a typeface only to ruin its legibility with poor colour choices. Colour also works best on typefaces that are bold without fine details like hairline strokes and thin serifs as these can become blurry if colour is applied poorly. Another element of colour theory that is important to consider is the number of colours used in a design as generally less colours are better. Too many colours or overuse of one colour leads to them fighting for attention and therefore they lose impact in a design. It is also important to maintain consistency within the colour palette and the way that it is applied to multiple designs to establish a relationship between them.
07 084/103
1.Intro 2.Field of study 3.History 4.Focus 5.Case Studies 6.Literary Review 7.Conclusion 8.Personal Reflection 9.Bibliography
Conclusion From my research I have established that I would like to create a serif typeface that is heavily based on the Roman Capital style. Examining typefaces from various sources including contemporary independent designers, type foundries and historical inscriptions has led me to the conclusion that I would like to create a typeface that combines styles from the past and future. Having some degree of modern influence will ensure that my typeface doesn’t become dated quickly whilst the historical element will give it a sense of authority. My research has helped me to identify specific elements and details from other typefaces that I would like to incorporate into my own typeface. For example, I would like the serifs on letters like E and F to be quite large and angular to make the typeface look aggressive similar to those of fonts such as New Eddy by Eliott Grunewald and FH Phemister by Fatih Hardal. Another feature I think will help give my typeface a distinct look is to keep the rounder characters such as O, G, C and Q as almost perfect circles. These features will give my typeface more character and help it stand out. My research has also helped me to identify a number of ways in which the construction of my type will need to be modified to look optically consistent such as making certain characters overlap the baseline and cap height as well as balancing stroke widths to look consistent. I want to create a typeface that embodies the strength and power of the Roman Capitals but refines them further to give them a sense of 086/103
elegance. This will hopefully result in a typeface that commands attention from the reader whilst still looking unique and interesting. Because I want the typeface to be powerful and bold, it will be a display only typeface to allow it to have a higher degree of contrast. In terms of usage I am aiming to make my typeface appropriate for luxury brands that need to look elegant and sophisticated such as in an editorial setting like magazine headings or for large format print materials such as a poster or packaging. I will create a poster and specimen sheet to showcase my typeface as well as a motion graphic that will be useful for showing my typeface on social media and my portfolio. I will also create a mock-up of a website where the typeface could be purchased. This will be useful as if I decide to sell my typeface then I will have a template that can be used. I would also like to have some kind of symbol or logo to pair with my typeface to give it a further sense of recognisability. I will continue to look at more examples of typefaces where necessary as my work continues and my experiments develop. I will also look at more potential outcomes as my work progresses to see if there are more possibilities for showcasing my typeface in an interesting way.
ABCDE FGHIJKL MNOPQ RSTUVW XYZ0123 456789
08 088/103
1.Intro 2.Field of study 3.History 4.Focus 5.Case Studies 6.Literary Review 7.Conclusion 8.Personal Reflection 9.Bibliography
Personal Reflection I feel that my Research was thorough as I looked at large number of typefaces, foundries and designers as well as finding information that was contemporary and historical. Research of both modern and historical sources was very important to this project as it informed a great deal of the decisions I made whilst working on my type. Information on typographic illusions was very helpful as well as information on the construction of Roman Capital letters. As part of my primary research I went on the university trip to summerset house where I saw a couple of different exhibits. There were some interesting concepts there such as the projector that shone light onto different layered screens to create patterns. I think it would be interesting to try something like this with type, maybe projecting different weights of type onto each screen. Seeing some of the exhibits that featured audio and video made me more conscious of looking into different forms of communication other than just static visuals. I also went to the London Film Museum which was hosting a James Bond exhibit. I found the posters to be quite inspirational as they consisted of very minimal layouts that were quite typographic. I also went to a couple of different graphic design shops and looked at the books which gave me some initial inspiration 090/103
for my research book layouts. I think that my primary research could be more extensive, but I feel that the opportunity to undertake more primary research was limited by the current circumstances. When creating initial research book spreads, I wanted to experiment with a variety of styles to just see if anything worked however I didn’t particularly like any of the outcomes. After researching existing work, I realised that I had a particular style in mind for my book that was minimal and focused on blocks of type as well as large images. This helped a lot to inform my next experiments where I created new layouts that I was quite pleased with. I think in the end the mix of the hard-square shapes of the justified text contrasts nicely with the rounded pictures. Before I began my project, I had already started a daily Instagram challenge called 36 days of type in which you create a different letter of the alphabet each day in a unique style. This gave me a good starting point for my project and provided an opportunity to try lots of different styles of type. Initially, I was split between the idea of creating something more traditional vs something that looked futuristic and technological. To see if these letters would work as a typeface, I created more characters in the same style. I didn’t feel that any of these initial
concepts worked though as they felt too gimmicky and would work better as single decorative pieces of type. This helped me to see that I wanted to create something more complex with more character. When I started to develop my first letterforms that were more similar to Roman Capitals, I realised this was the direction I wanted to take as I felt that they already had an interesting look to them that could be developed. I remember when I made the initial letterforms, I was quite happy with them, but looking at them now they look so primitive and simple compared to my finished typeface. When I decided that I wanted to create a typeface for my project, I knew from the outset that it would be a challenging task. Having said this, I was surprised by how much more complex it was than I had first thought. There are so many rules and strange modifications that must be made to a typeface to make it work optically that I was not aware of. Additionally, I think one of the hardest elements of creating a typeface is ensuring that every single glyph looks like it came from the same family. Creating consistency across such a wide range of characters is quite difficult but I think in the end I managed to for the most part. Another struggle when designing a typeface is trying to create something that looks unique as there are so many typefaces that exist
already, especially with the increasing number of independent designers and foundries now creating typefaces. To create something that stands out is quite a challenge which is why there were certain strange elements to my typeface at the start such as the notch on the serif of the arm of the E and F. I’m glad these were eventually revised as my type looks a lot more consistent and aesthetically appealing without them. I was very glad that I had Paul’s feedback to fall back to when I wasn’t sure of the direction to take my typeface in as there were many times where I wasn’t sure what changes needed to be made. His feedback helped me to refine my typeface and made me realise that it would be better to sometimes just create entire new iterations built from the ground up instead of modifying the existing type I had created. I feel like there is so much more to learn in terms of this topic and I am excited to continue to familiarise myself with type design. Overall, I’m pleased with the outcome of my typeface, I think it expresses the right kind of attitude that I wanted it to. I think its character comes from the contrast contained within it. It’s combination of hairline and regular strokes as well as gentle curves with aggressive serifs gives it real character. I think one of the things I’m happiest with is the different proportions for
each character as they take up vastly different spaces which is something the typeface takes from its Roman influence. It gives the typeface a nice flow especially in longer words that contain lots of different characters. I think my typeface could be improved by having slightly better balance between the characters that feature angles versus those who don’t. I think there is a minor discrepancy between them with the angled characters looking ever so slightly thinner. I also think some of the numerals could be slightly better balanced with small modifications to the curves. I’d also like to try having a more traditionally Roman looking G and C and maybe having the rounder versions as alternate characters. Although I am happy with my typeface, I would definitely like to recreate it in the future after I have gained even more knowledge about type design perhaps after taking a specialised course. I’d like to create an even better-looking version in the future with multiple weights, a lowercase, alternates and ligatures and maybe even a text option. I found it difficult at first to establish a style for my outcomes, I wanted to ensure that imagery and other elements didn’t overpower the type itself as I wanted it to take centre stage to allow it to express itself. I initially explored imagery and colour schemes that one would expect to be paired with
a typeface of this style but decided that it would look more interesting with a more futuristic treatment to contrast the type and help it stand out amongst other designs. I decided to pair my type with Neue Haas Grotesk as my typeface didn’t work as well at smaller sizes as it is a display type. I wasn’t sure what the text on the poster should be, but in the end, I decided it would be appropriate to have the Roman Emperors names to fit the theme and name of my typeface. I think I did a good job of referencing the types origins whilst still creating something that looked modern. I did this by applying a gritty treatment to the images of ancient Roman Ruins and using a futuristic colour pallet with the bright green/yellow giving it a contemporary feeling. I think these decisions allow the outcomes to reflect the typeface in that they balance the past and the present. I think that the Eagle Icon I created to accompany my type also does a good job of looking modern whilst referencing the past. I found it difficult to design the website outcomes and this made me realise that web design was definitely one of my weaknesses that I need to work on for the future. I find it quite difficult to create web layouts that don’t feel crowded and look balanced. Overall, I think that my final major project is my best piece of work I have 092/103
produced so far, and it is the one I am most proud of. It was very satisfying when I finished converting it into an OTF file and I finally got to use it as a working typeface. I spent a long time just typing different words to see what different combinations of letters looked like together. Looking back at my other projects I can see a huge difference in the quality of work as I have progressed through university. As someone who almost didn’t go to university, I’m very glad that I did as I definitely wasn’t ready to enter the industry when I finished college and looking at my work from back then makes me cringe. Going through university also helped me to settle on my individual style and establish a good process for my work instead of just jumping straight into designing like I used to. University has helped me feel prepared to be a Graphic Designer and enabled me to see the areas of design I enjoy and those I don’t which will undoubtedly help me in the future.
09 094/103
1.Intro 2.Field of study 3.History 4.Focus 5.Case Studies 6.Literary Review 7.Conclusion 8.Personal Reflection 9.Bibliography
Bibliography 1. ‘Something illegible still has something to say’: Eliott Grunewald on his type designs (2019) At: https:// www.itsnicethat.com/articles/ eliott-grunewald-graphic-designtypography-250119 (Accessed 17/05/2020). 2. Ben Barrett-Forrest (2013) The History of Typography - Animated Short. At: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=wOgIkxAfJsk (Accessed 14/05/2020). 3. Commercial Classics (s.d.) At: https://commercialclassics.com/ (Accessed 15/05/2020). 4. Commercial Classics » About (s.d.) At: https:// commercialclassics.com/about (Accessed 15/05/2020). 5. Commercial Classics » Catalog » Brunel Collection (s.d.) At: https://commercialclassics. com/catalogue/brunel (Accessed 15/05/2020). 6. Commercial Type » Catalog » Austin Collection (s.d.) At: https:// commercialtype.com/catalog/austin_ and_austin_news/austin (Accessed 15/05/2020). 7. Commercial Type » Catalog » Schnyder Collection (s.d.) At: https:// commercialtype.com/catalog/ schnyder (Accessed 15/05/2020). 8. E J F Newsletter 5 (s.d.) At: http://www.ejf.org.uk/Resources/ JRNarticle.pdf
9. Find hidden squares and experimental inktraps in Fatih Hardal’s FH Giselle (s.d.) At: https://www. itsnicethat.com/articles/fatih-hardalfh-giselle-graphic-design-061119 (Accessed 17/05/2020). 10. Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www.typography.com/ blog/inkwell-condensed (Accessed 15/05/2020). 11. Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www.typography.com/ blog/typographic-illusions (Accessed 15/05/2020). 12. Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www.typography.com/ fonts/quarto/overview (Accessed 12/05/2020). 13. Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www.typography.com/ fonts/requiem/overview (Accessed 12/05/2020a). 14. Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www.typography.com/ blog/the-new-hco-type-specimen (Accessed 12/05/2020b). ¬¬Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www.typography.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020c). 15. Foundry, C. (s.d.) About — Colophon Foundry. At: https:// www.colophon-foundry.org/about (Accessed 15/05/2020). 16. Foundry, C. (s.d.) Brick — Colophon Foundry. At: https://www. colophon-foundry.org/typefaces/
brick (Accessed 12/05/2020). 17. Foundry, C. (s.d.) Burgess — Colophon Foundry. At: https://www. colophon-foundry.org/typefaces/ burgess (Accessed 15/05/2020). 18. Foundry, C. (s.d.) Custom Typefaces — Custom Font Design — Colophon Foundry. At: https:// www.colophon-foundry.org/custom (Accessed 15/05/2020). 19. Foundry, C. (s.d.) Fortescue — Colophon Foundry. At: https://www. colophon-foundry.org/typefaces/ fortescue (Accessed 12/05/2020). 20. Garg, C. (2019) ‘Historia of Type — The Capitalis Monumentalis - Charchit Garg - Medium’ At: https:// medium.com/@charchitgarg27/ historia-of-type-the-capitalismonumentalis-b53da6863807 (Accessed 16/05/2020). 21. Garikayi, T. S. (2019) ‘Getting started in Typeface Design - Tapiwanashe Sebastian Garikayi Medium’ At: https://medium.com/@ tapiwanashegarikayi/getting-startedin-typeface-design-86a2b6076bb2 (Accessed 16/05/2020). 22. Hampton-Smith, S. (2019) ‘Colour theory: A jargonfree designer’s guide’ At: https:// www.creativebloq.com/colour/ colour-theory-11121290 (Accessed 16/05/2020). 23. HARDAL STUDIOTM (s.d.) At: https://hardalstudio.com/fhgiselle
(Accessed 12/05/2020a). 24. HARDAL STUDIOTM (s.d.) At: https://hardalstudio.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020b). 25. History and Evolution of Typography - FontfabricTM Blog (2019) At: https://www.fontfabric. com/blog/history-and-evolution-oftypography-fonts-timeline/ (Accessed 13/05/2020). 26. History and Evolution of Typography - FontfabricTM Blog (2019) At: https://www.fontfabric. com/blog/history-and-evolution-oftypography-fonts-timeline/ (Accessed 13/05/2020). 27. LaBarre, S. (2012) Are Some Fonts More Believable Than Others?. At: https://www.fastcompany. com/1670556/are-some-fonts-morebelievable-than-others (Accessed 16/05/2020). 28. Leonhard Laupichler (s.d.) At: https://leonhardlaupichler. com/newAesthetic.html (Accessed 15/02/2020). 29. Leonidas, G. (2010) At: https://ilovetypography. com/2010/03/25/a-few-thingsi%E2%80%99ve-learned-abouttypeface-design/ (Accessed 16/05/2020). 30. Morion Specimen | The Designers Foundry (s.d.) At: https:// thedesignersfoundry.com/souvenirs/ morion-specimen (Accessed
15/05/2020). 31. New Aesthetic is a type repository that puts feelings before function (s.d.) At: https://www. itsnicethat.com/articles/leonhardlaupichler-new-aesthetic-publicationgraphic-design-280819 (Accessed 15/02/2020). 32. New Release Morion | The Designers Foundry (s.d.) At: https:// thedesignersfoundry.com/news/ post/new-release-morion (Accessed 15/05/2020). 33. Preece, W. E. and Wells, J. M. (2019) ‘Gutenberg and printing in Germany’ At: https://www.britannica. com/technology/typography/ Gutenberg-and-printing-in-Germany 34. Stinson, L. (2015) Can a Font Make Us Believe Something is True?. At: https://eyeondesign.aiga.org/cana-font-make-us-believe-something-istrue/ (Accessed 15/02/2020). 35. The Designers Foundry re-releases Morion, a typeface which works as a display and text-face at the same time (s.d.) At: https:// www.itsnicethat.com/articles/thedesigners-foundry-morion-typefacegraphic-design-140220 (Accessed 15/05/2020). 36. The History Of Type – Roman Square Capitals to Roman Cursive (2012) At: https://mattwyles. wordpress.com/2012/11/09/thehistory-of-type-roman-square-
capitals-to-roman-cursive/ (Accessed 16/05/2020). 37. Type And Color - Fonts.com | Fonts.com (s.d.) At: https://www.fonts. com/content/learning/fontology/ level-2/type-and-color/type-andcolor (Accessed 15/05/2020). List of Illustrations pg5. Top Right - Brooke, E. (2019) Why funky ’70s-style fonts are popping up on brands like Chobani and Glossier. At: https://www.vox.com/thegoods/2019/4/10/18302108/noticed70s-fonts-serifs-chobani-fleshglossier-play (Accessed 14/05/2020). pg5. Bottom Right - Futura® Font Family | Fonts.com (s.d.) At: https:// www.fonts.com/font/linotype/futura (Accessed 17/05/2020). pg9. Felix, A. (s.d.) ‘Introduction to Typeface Design’ At: https://www. skillshare.com/classes/Introductionto-Typeface-Design/1462075950 (Accessed 17/05/2020). pg13. Print of Old lead type for letterpress printing (s.d.) At: https:// www.mediastorehouse.com/fine-artstorehouse/old-lead-type-letterpressprinting-12538225.html (Accessed 17/05/2020). pg14 Top Left - TypeRoom (s.d.)
William Caslon: 10 things to know about - TypeRoom. At: https://www. typeroom.eu/william-caslon-10things-to-know-about (Accessed 17/05/2020). pg14 Bottom Left - Identifont Baskerville (BT) (s.d.) At: http://www. identifont.com/similar?228 (Accessed 17/05/2020). pg19 Grant, A. (2015) Why Trajan, the World’s Oldest Typeface, Still Matters. At: https://eyeondesign.aiga.org/whytrajan-the-worlds-oldest-typefacestill-matters/ (Accessed 17/05/2020). pg20 Garg, C. (2019) ‘Historia of Type — The Capitalis Monumentalis - Charchit Garg - Medium’ At: https:// medium.com/@charchitgarg27/ historia-of-type-the-capitalismonumentalis-b53da6863807 (Accessed 16/05/2020). pg22 Top Left The First Roman Fonts — I Love Typography (2016) At: https://ilovetypography. com/2016/04/18/the-first-romanfonts/ (Accessed 17/05/2020). pg22 Bottom Left Construction of letters (2011) At: https://maxboam. wordpress.com/2011/07/31/ construction-of-letters/ (Accessed 17/05/2020).
pg23 Garg, C. (2019) ‘Historia of Type — The Capitalis Monumentalis - Charchit Garg - Medium’ At: https:// medium.com/@charchitgarg27/ historia-of-type-the-capitalismonumentalis-b53da6863807 (Accessed 16/05/2020). pg 27 Top Right - Morion Specimen | The Designers Foundry (s.d.) At: https://thedesignersfoundry. com/souvenirs/morion-specimen (Accessed 06/05/2020). pg27 Bottom Right - The Designers Foundry | Typefaces and Fonts (s.d.) At: https://thedesignersfoundry.com/ (Accessed 06/05/2020). pg28 Morion Specimen | The Designers Foundry (s.d.) At: https:// thedesignersfoundry.com/souvenirs/ morion-specimen (Accessed 06/05/2020). pg30 The Designers Foundry | Typefaces and Fonts (s.d.) At: https:// thedesignersfoundry.com/ (Accessed 06/05/2020). pg31 Morion Specimen | The Designers Foundry (s.d.) At: https:// thedesignersfoundry.com/souvenirs/ morion-specimen (Accessed 06/05/2020).
pg32 Top Left - Commercial Classics (s.d.) At: https://commercialclassics. com/ (Accessed 06/05/2020). pg32 Bottom Left - Commercial Classics (s.d.) At: https:// commercialclassics.com/ (Accessed 06/05/2020). pg34 Austin-collection.pdf (s.d.) At: https://commercialtype.com/ uploads/2700027/1491638266902/ Austin-collection.pdf pg36 Commercial Type » Catalog » Austin Collection (s.d.) At: https:// commercialtype.com/catalog/austin (Accessed 06/05/2020). pg39 Foundry, C. (s.d.) Brick — Colophon Foundry. At: https://www. colophon-foundry.org/typefaces/ brick (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg40 Foundry, C. (s.d.) Brick — Colophon Foundry. At: https://www. colophon-foundry.org/typefaces/ brick (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg42 Top Left - Foundry, C. (s.d.) Fortescue — Colophon Foundry. At: https://www.colophon-foundry. org/typefaces/fortescue (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg42 Bottom Left - Foundry, C. (s.d.)
Fortescue — Colophon Foundry. At: https://www.colophon-foundry. org/typefaces/fortescue (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg43 Top Right - Foundry, C. (s.d.) Fortescue — Colophon Foundry. At: https://www.colophon-foundry. org/typefaces/fortescue (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg43 Bottom Right - Foundry, C. (s.d.) Fortescue — Colophon Foundry. At: https://www.colophon-foundry. org/typefaces/fortescue (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg45 Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www.typography.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg46 Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www.typography.com/ blog/the-new-hco-type-specimen (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg48 Top Left - Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www.typography.com/ fonts/requiem/overview (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg48 Bottom Left - Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www. typography.com/fonts/quarto/ overview (Accessed 12/05/2020).
pg49 Top Right - Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www.typography.com/ fonts/requiem/overview (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg49 Bottom Right - Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www. typography.com/fonts/quarto/ overview (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg50 ELIOTT GRUNEWALD — TYPE DESIGN & GRAPHIC DESIGN (s.d.) At: http://www.eliottgrunewald.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg52 ELIOTT GRUNEWALD — TYPE DESIGN & GRAPHIC DESIGN (s.d.) At: http://www.eliottgrunewald.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg 54 Top Right - ELIOTT GRUNEWALD — TYPE DESIGN & GRAPHIC DESIGN (s.d.) At: http:// www.eliottgrunewald.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg54 Middle Left - ELIOTT GRUNEWALD — TYPE DESIGN & GRAPHIC DESIGN (s.d.) At: http:// www.eliottgrunewald.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg54 Bottom Right - ELIOTT GRUNEWALD — TYPE DESIGN & GRAPHIC DESIGN (s.d.) At: http:// www.eliottgrunewald.com/ (Accessed
12/05/2020). pg55 ELIOTT GRUNEWALD — TYPE DESIGN & GRAPHIC DESIGN (s.d.) At: http://www.eliottgrunewald.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg 56 ELIOTT GRUNEWALD — TYPE DESIGN & GRAPHIC DESIGN (s.d.) At: http://www.eliottgrunewald.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg57 Top Right - ELIOTT GRUNEWALD — TYPE DESIGN & GRAPHIC DESIGN (s.d.) At: http:// www.eliottgrunewald.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg57 Bottom Right - Eliott Grunewald (s.d.) At: https://eliottgrunewald. xyz/typefaces/marlfield (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg58 HARDAL STUDIOTM (s.d.) At: https://hardalstudio.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg59 Top Right - HARDAL STUDIOTM (s.d.) At: https://hardalstudio.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg59 Bottom Right - HARDAL STUDIOTM (s.d.) At: https:// hardalstudio.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020).
pg60 HARDAL STUDIOTM (s.d.) At: https://hardalstudio.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg62 Top Left - HARDAL STUDIOTM (s.d.) At: https://hardalstudio.com/ fhgiselle (Accessed 12/05/2020). pg62 Bottom Left - HARDAL STUDIOTM (s.d.) At: https:// hardalstudio.com/fhgiselle (Accessed 12/05/2020).
pg70 Leonhard Laupichler on Instagram (s.d.) [Instagram photo] At: https://www.instagram.com/ p/B-ZPCQcCaN6/ (Accessed 13/05/2020). pg72 Leonhard Laupichler (s.d.) At: https://leonhardlaupichler.com/ newAesthetic.html (Accessed 13/05/2020).
pg63 Top Right - HARDAL STUDIOTM (s.d.) At: https://hardalstudio.com/ fhgiselle (Accessed 12/05/2020).
pg73 Leonhard Laupichler’s Instagram photo: ‘ARACHNE Typeface WIP (s.d.) [Instagram photo] At: https://www. instagram.com/p/Bx29kPUCdvk/ (Accessed 13/05/2020).
pg63 Bottom Right - HARDAL STUDIOTM (s.d.) At: https:// hardalstudio.com/fhgiselle (Accessed 12/05/2020).
pg78 Fonts by Hoefler&Co (s.d.) At: https://www.typography.com/blog/ typographic-illusions (Accessed 15/05/2020).
pg64 HARDAL STUDIOTM (s.d.) At: https://hardalstudio.com/ (Accessed 12/05/2020).
pg80 Top Left - Wikipedia contributors (2020) Computer Modern. At: https://en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Computer_ Modern&oldid=951531601 (Accessed 17/05/2020).
pg67 Leonhard Laupichler (s.d.) At: https://leonhardlaupichler.com/ newAesthetic.html (Accessed 13/05/2020). pg68 Leonhard Laupichler (s.d.) At: https://leonhardlaupichler.com/ newAesthetic.html (Accessed 13/05/2020).
pg80 Bottom Left - Wikipedia contributors (2020) Comic Sans. At: https://en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Comic_ Sans&oldid=956390362 (Accessed 17/05/2020).
pg80 Top Right - Wikipedia contributors (2020) Helvetica. At: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index. hp?title=Helvetica&oldid=956219043 (Accessed 17/05/2020). pg80 Bottom Right - Wikipedia contributors (2020) Georgia (typeface). At: https://en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Georgia_ (typeface)&oldid=954339265 (Accessed 17/05/2020). pg83 Top Right - Hampton-Smith, S. (2019) ‘Colour theory: A jargonfree designer’s guide’ At: https:// www.creativebloq.com/colour/ colour-theory-11121290 (Accessed 16/05/2020). pg83 Bottom Right - Hampton-Smith, S. (2019) ‘Colour theory: A jargonfree designer’s guide’ At: https:// www.creativebloq.com/colour/ colour-theory-11121290 (Accessed 16/05/2020).