Archiprint June 2020 \\ Issue 16
AnArchi is proud to present to you the fifteenth issue of Archiprint:
EXPANDING PROFESSION II
Archiprint is the journal of AnArchi, study association for architecture at Eindhoven University of Technology. Archiprint explores the current architectural polemic and strives to contribute to this debate.
EDITORIAL Fenne Jansen
The previous edition of Archiprint,
under the same European regulations
‘Expanding Profession’, was based
and is a cultural change necessary? In Arch iprint 15, the questions emerging from Atelier Kempe Thill’s call for change were presented to internationally experienced professionals. Four interviews were conducted, with André Kempe (Atelier Kempe-Thill), Moriko Kira, Machteld Kors (UNStudio) and Birgit Rapp (Rapp+Rapp). The four interviewees where additionally asked to give their opinion about the architects’ profession. In regard to the above, Archiprint 15 meant to examine the differences in tender and building culture across the world through the experiences and opinions of various professionals in the field. Archiprint 15 concludes by shedding a light on the problems of the Dutch tender and building culture, which seem to not be directly caused by the EU regulations themselves as much as by the Dutch interpretation and implementation of them. It also examines how practitioners of the built environment function within the existing system, which is not likely to be changed easily. We asked architects
on Atelier Kempe Thill’s 2008 publication Naar een nieuwe Aanbested-
ingscultuur (Towards a New Tender Culture). In this manifesto-like work the firm promotes the need to change the current Dutch tender culture and attitude towards architecture in general. According to Atelier Kempe Thill, this attitude has negatively developed away from the innovationand opportunity-driven approach that was present during the thriving Dutch architecture years of the 1980s and 1990s. The firm states in its publication that the introduction of new regulations, imposed by the European Union, is the culprit of the attitude towards architecture in the Netherlands changing for the worse. The imposed regulations were meant to bring the countries of the European Union closer together, while stimulating their building cultures. As observed by Kempe Thill, this didn’t work out as intended for the Netherlands. So does the Dutch tender culture in fact differ significantly from other countries
4
from four different firms to enlight-
issue, working towards a thriving ar-
en us on the matter presented. They
chitecture climate for the Nether-
unanimously recognized the problems
lands, one that can compete with the
and in the interviews they shared with
successful era of architecture of the
us their individual ways of approach-
1980s and 1990s.
ing and dealing with them. Subsequently, we selected three of these ideas and especially the corresponding suggestions for how to change the Dutch building culture and profession. These three suggestions offered the greatest potential and highest feasibility to elaborate on in the following issue, Expanding Profession II.
Archiprint 16 elaborates on three of the proposals for change made in Ar-
chiprint 15. This is done by means of a what-if scenario approach for each article, which sets out the current problem as seen from the architect’s point of view, explores it by means of (historical) background research, examples and case studies, and argues for the change as proposed by the interviewed professionals in issue 15. The three proposals for a changing approach to the profession are: the reinstatement of the City Architect, a more active and mediating role in society of the professional in the built environment field, and a revision on the idea of the architect as a ‘master builder’, allowing for more responsibility in the post-design process. In essence, all three approaches originate from the same aim as proposed by the interviewees in the previous
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CONTENTS
I 2 3 4
REINSTATING THE COMPELLING CITY ARCHITECT An Examination of the Office of City Architect as a Guide towards a Thriving Architecture Climate
SOLVE FOR SOCIAL Shifting paradigms on the architect as a societal activist
SHIFTING RESPONSIBILITIES The role of today’s architect in construction
EDUCATION FOR INTEGRATION Concluding article
7
REINSTATING THE COMPELLING CITY ARCHITECT An Examination of the Office of City Architect as a Guide towards a Thriving Architecture Climate Nick van Garderen & Boris Koselka
In the conversation with AndrÊ Kempe in Archiprint 15 (December 2019), the Dutch Tender Culture, and, as a product of that the architecture culture of the Netherlands, was put up for discussion. The conversations with Kempe and other architects elaborated on the report Naar een Nieuwe Aanbestedingscultuur (2008) published by his firm, Kempe-Thill. Both in the report and the conversation, Kempe compares the Dutch tender and architecture culture with that of other European countries, paying specific attention to Belgium and its architecture climate. Within this comparison one of the most striking observations that Kempe makes is the positive influence on the architecture culture and climate in the country that a Chief Government Architect or Chieft City Architect could have. In the conversation published in Archiprint 15, Kempe specifically opts for the alteration of the current Dutch Chief Government Architect system towards one that more closely resembles the Flemish interpretation of that system. In the Netherlands, the Chief Government Architect and City Architects have had quite influential roles in the past in regard to the urban and architectural development of the city. The reinstatement of an influential City Architect is something that Kempe advocates w when it comes to the proper execution and usage of the full potential of this system in order to as he states, once again let Dutch architects excel. Both Belgium and the Netherlands to, ha adopted the system of the City Architect, yet in different ways, which have altered and have ev evolved over time. Following Kempe’s observations, one can wonder how the role of the Chief C City Architect should be positioned to obtain this desired flourishing of the Dutch architect an the enhancement of the architecture climate in the country? and
The Nature of the City Architect’s Office thxrough the Ages
City Architect morphed into the more
In order to decide how the role of
civil service nature that is seen in both
the City Architect should be defined,
the Netherlands and Belgium current-
it is perhaps interesting to shine a
ly. As late as the nineteenth century,
brief light on the emergence of the
the position of the City Architect was
City Architect in the first place. The
still considered to be heavily associat-
history of the City Architect in the
ed with the mastering of the various
Netherlands is one that is long and
traits of the architecture and con-
rich and dates back as far as the six-
struction professions and the ability
teenth century, when various cities in
to put those to practice. Publications
the Netherlands adopted a chief car-
for vacant City Architect offices from
penter, burdened with the task of the
the nineteenth century call for an in-
design of public amenities and spaces.
dividual ‘within this city, mastering
Examples of these early City Archi-
masonry and carpentry and capable
tects are Lieven de Key, who held the
of the drafting of budgets, construc-
office of City Architect in Haarlem
tion drawings and design brief speci-
from 1590 up until as late as 1610s,
fications’ 3 .
and Willem van Noort, who was the
The development of the City Archi-
first City Architect of Utrecht around
tect, from the practicing individual of-
that same time. At the time, the
fering his services for a specific period
office of City Architect was not only
of time solely to one city, towards the
in charge of designing and construct-
City Architect as a civil servant, is a
ing physical edifices, but was also an
process whose origin is dated by Wim
advisory body in regard to budgetary
de Wagt to the beginning of the twen-
and spatial decisions that were to be
tieth century with the adoption of the
made for the development and en-
Woningwet (Housing Act) 4 . This shift,
hancement of the public space. Old
states De Wagt, continued to develop
contracts show that the occupation
until after the Second World War. It
of the office held the dual character
is in the first half of the twentieth
of both advisory and practicing archi-
century that the Dutch City Archi-
tect1 . The core prospect of the office,
tects evolve more and more into urban
however, remained serving the city
planners and move away from being
government in its quest for qualitative
practicing architects. De Wagt states
urban development and public build-
that this shift is due to the increase of
ings 2 .It took a substantial amount of
bureaucracy that is demanded by the
time before the nature of the office of
national government for large urban
9
developments. Notable and memo-
regard to the urban and architectur-
rable architects that held office as
al developments of a city. This shift,
City Architects are Willem Dudok in
according to Max van Aerschot, is a
Hilversum and Cornelis van Eester-
product of the alteration of the role of
en in Amsterdam, both renowned for
the Dutch authorities, both national
their designs of large, coherent urban
and local 6 . As the Dutch governmen-
plans for the development of their
tal institutes became more focused
respective cities rather than for the
on outsourcing and small govern-
individual sites or buildings. This new
ment, the office of the City Architect
take on the role of the City Architect
became marginalized in comparison
is one that is followed through closely
with the well-known Dutch City Ar-
in various cities, but specifically in
chitects of the past. Former City Ar-
Rotterdam, where Willem Gerrit Wit-
chitect of Leiden Donald Lambert
teveen was followed by Lotte Stam-
states that the increase of bureau-
Beese and eventually Riek Bakker in
cracy, in addition to the marginalized
the 1980s. It is this development of
role of the City Architect, has result-
the profession, specifically Bakker’s
ed in the civil servant character that
take on the City Architect, that is
the office of the City Architect has
referred to by André Kempe (Kem-
become.
pe-Thill) and Machteld Kors (UNStudio) in their Archiprint conversations as vital for qualitative architectural projects and a thriving architecture scene. It is in this sense, ratified by the appointment of Max van Aerschot for
The office is now occupied with business opera ons and process management, rather than the original subject ma er at hand when the office of City Architect was first established and that was carried on through
the city of Haarlem (2008), that the City Architect is no longer occupied with architectural design in its purest sense, but rather with the integral
10
Kristiaan Borret and Belgium’s Traditional City Architect Approach
approach of guaranteeing qualitative
A different take on the role of the
(public) space. This is a shift that can
City Architect can be found across the
be seen as one from Stadsarchitect to
border, in Belgium. The City Archi-
5
Stadsbouwmeester .
tect in the country just south of the
The nature of City Architects cur-
Netherlands shows the office of City
rently active in most Dutch cities
Architect in a fashion that can best
is that of an advisor, a civil servant,
be compared to the major City Archi-
rather than a compelling authority in
tects in the Netherlands in the twen-
tieth century. A notable individual at
his nomination for the Flemish Archi-
the forefront of the City Architects
tecture Award. The jury praised the
and perhaps the more traditional
way he strengthened the office of the
take on the office in Belgium is Kris-
City Architect, the way he managed
tiaan Borret, former City Architect of
to streamline the various urban de-
Antwerp (2006-2014) and current City
velopment bodies of the local gov-
Architect of Brussels (2015-present).
ernment and the influential advisory
His take on the office was specifically
role he played in the city government,
hailed in the country when in 2012 he
both as a critic and as a supporter, but
was presented with the Award for Ar-
always involved in the gathering of
chitecture of the Flemish Community
architects, developers, municipality,
for his work as the City Architect of
citizens and other stakeholders, gen-
Antwerp. The Minister of Culture at
erating (public) support for projects
that time stated that he executed the
resulting in the qualitative increase of
office in such a manner that the archi-
the public space of the city. It is spe-
tecture executed in his city and under
cifically in the nature of advisor and
his supervision was instrumental in
drafter of commissions for the public
the creation of the public space of the
space or public buildings that Borret
city . The manner in which Flemish
sees the unique quality of the City
City Architects – specifically Borret
Architect and Chief Government Ar-
– function is mentioned by André
chitect. to this role as commissioner,
Kempe in Archiprint 15 as desirable
Borret argues that the City Architect
in creating a climate of architectural
is responsible for every inch of public
excellence in the Netherlands. But
space when it comes to assuring that
what exactly is different about how
quality is obtained and maintained
the Flemish City Architect and their
throughout the city. The Flemish
Dutch counterparts function?
offices of City Architects – specifical-
7
It is interesting to note in advance
ly Borret – believe no commission to
that, although introduced as differing
be too small or mundane. Any public
from their Dutch colleagues, Flemish
work, whether a kindergarten or city
City Architects partake in the same
hall, should be of equal importance
type of activities as the City Archi-
to the City Architect. Assuring archi-
tects in the Netherlands do. As a
tectural quality, quality of the urban
matter of fact, it was specifically Bor-
environment and general quality of
ret’s excelling role as a unifier and
life in the city is, according to Borret,
catalyst within the process of creating
not just reserved for the large, cul-
architecture that was fundamental to
tural or administrative institutions of
11
12
the city, or zondagsarchitectuur 8 , but
the Flemish City Architects, namely
also for the daily public spaces that
advising,
every citizen is confronted with and
stakeholders. Another task that the
makes daily use of within the city. It
office of City Architect is responsible
is specifically for these commissions
for is that of being a so-called ‘super-
that Borret increased the necessity of
charger’ of a thriving building culture,
tenders and competitions in order to
or qualitative architecture, within the
assure the increase of quality of the
city 9. The City Architect is expected
public space of the city: ‘Architectur-
to carry out all of these tasks in to
al quality is of importance for every
create and maintain a coherent urban
amenity in the city.That is why I set
development, while paying specific
up tenders for a very wide variety
attention to those projects that are
of commissions ranging from kinder-
of importance for the urban devel-
gartens to fire stations and parking
opment of the city. So how do the
lots to container parks.’ Perhaps it is
Flemish City Architects take on this
this take on what is the field of in-
supercharger role and what instru-
terest of the City Architect that sets
ments do they employ to obtain the
the Flemish offices apart from their
thriving building culture that Kempe
Dutch counterparts. Borret states
referred to as desirable in the quest of
that in order to let the architect excel,
for a different architectural culture in
to create good architecture, one not
Naar een Nieuwe Aanbestedingscul-
only needs a good architect, but also
tuur (2008)?
coaching
and
gathering
a good commissioner. It is specifical-
Borret defines the City Architect’s
ly the aiding of the local and national
ability to steer the organization of
governments in the preparation and
tenders of public works as his most
definition of commissions that the
dominant instrument. Through the
Flemish City Architect and Chief Gov-
creation of a tender setting in which
ernment architects excel, according to
the core value is the obtaining of ar-
Borret: ‘What is often overlooked is
chitectural quality and the bureau-
the necessity of a good commissioner
cracy is minimized, the Flemish City
and this is exactly what the City Ar-
Architects set out to stimulate the
chitects and Flemish Chief Govern-
architecture culture of their cities.
ment Architect have invested in the
Part of this is a minimization of rules,
past decades; the guidance and stim-
regulations and workload for both the
ulation of public commissioners.’
commissioner and the participants of
This, however, encompasses only
the tender as well as a fast processing
part of the tasks that are attributed to
speed. In addition to this the Flemish
City Architects and their Chief Gov-
interest in the development of the
ernment
assured
role of the City Architect in order to
that the tenders in the country have
improve the architecture culture in
become
transparent
the Netherlands. In 2017, the debate
and are open to a much broader and
on Dutch City Architects came to the
diverse set of architects and firms
forefront of current events when the
to participate than is the case in the
Amsterdamse Kunstraad (Amsterdam
Netherlands . But the influence of
Board of Culture), led by local and
the City Architect on the stimulation
national
of a thriving architecture culture does
Rottenberg, published its advice for
not stop at public works. Even in the
the city: De stad is nooit af (The city
privately commissioned and executed
is never finished)11 . In this advice the
projects, the City Architect manages
board expresses its concern for the
to weigh in and assure the quality of
position of culture in the ever-grow-
the architecture, public space and
ing city and specifically the position
urban development of the city through
of the urban and architecture culture
so called Kwaliteitskamer (Council
of the city. In the publication various
of Quality). According to Borret the
observations and recommendations
Kwaliteitskamer is, contrary to what
are made for both the long- and short-
is often practice in the Netherlands,
term development of the city, paying
not just to be employed after permits
specific attention to the cultural, or
are requested for the execution of a
local, component of Amsterdam. To
privately commissioned project, but
obtain a concrete vision on both a
as early as possible in the design stage
short- and a long-term vision for the
of these projects. The Kwaliteitskam-
development of the city, the Amster-
er in this case functions as an exten-
damse Kunstraad argues for an inte-
sion of the City Architect in order to
gral approach in which all facets of
assure a thriving architecture culture
the quality of urban and architectural
and individual projects of great excel-
development are taken into account.
lence.
In order to achieve and safeguard this
Architect much
have
more
10
public
heavyweight
Felix
approach, the board argues for the
The Demand for a Traditional City Architect
reinstatement of the office of City
AndrĂŠ Kempe and his atelier, with
tute with its own budget and horizon.
their report Naar Een Nieuwe Aan-
This interpretation of the tasks and
bestedingscultuur (2008), were far
position of the office of City Archi-
from the only ones to put forward
tect closely resemble that of the City
Architect as a semi-autonomous insti-
13
Architects in Belgium and the City
ly established Subcommittee Inte-
Architects of the past. The Amster-
grated Spatial Quality (SIRK), in their
damse Kunstraad argues that this
eyes, had taken care of business for
interpretation of the office, which
the past 50 years. Within that current
has been absent since 1967, assures
network of committees,
that the City Architect will be able to act as a constant factor throughout the four year cycle of councils and boards and safeguard spatial quality. Although the board’s recommenda-
the opponents of the reinstatement of the office fear that a City Architect would become nothing more than ‘a lonely and hated figure’13
tion was adopted in 2018, the debate about the office of City Architect in
14
Amsterdam, but more widely in the
and that the majority of the Dutch
country as a whole, was only just be-
cities had coped the last decades
ginning.
without such a figure. Supporters of
The debate night on 27 June 2018
the reinstatement of the office, on the
in a packed Zuiderkerk in Amsterdam
other hand, emphasized the amount
showed that the office of City Archi-
of projects that had been put on hold
tect as a semi-autonomous and heavily
or were terminated completely due to
influential institute was far from un-
a lack of constancy and long-term in-
disputed12 . Both supporters and op-
vestment due to the quickly rotating
ponents of the reinstatement of the
offices of councilors and aldermen.
traditional interpretation of the office
The supporters argued, in light of
were widely represented, but no one
that observation, for the need of an
dared to draw the final conclusion as
individual that, in the long term, could
to whether this approach was neces-
work on the integral development of
sary, let alone vital for the enhance-
the city in a compelling and authorita-
ment of Dutch architecture culture,
tive manner without burdening these
so dearly argued for by Kempe-Thill.
continuously
Various guests who were opposed to
and interests in the committees and
the idea pointed out that Amsterdam,
boards of the city that are dependent
and other cities, had not suffered ar-
on the way the political winds blow.
changing
individuals
chitecturally since their last City Ar-
One of the supporters of the office
chitect (Christiaan Nielsen in the case
present that night was Jeroen de Wil-
of Amsterdam) had departed, as other
ligen, City Architect for Groningen. In
institutes such as the Committee for
contradiction to the opponents of the
Spatial Quality (CRK) and the recent-
idea, De Willigen expressed a more
positive outlook on the reinstatement
pants of the office in Belgium.
of the traditional office. While he rec-
This role is specifically acknowl-
ognizes that there are already meas-
edged by Borret when he notes that
ures in place to ensure the spatial
his time as the City Architect of
quality of developments and insti-
Antwerp was spent mostly on coach-
tutes that can advise on spatial ques-
ing, stimulating and uniting stake-
tions, he notes different aspects of
holders in regard to the spatial, social
City Architects that sets them apart
and economic urban development of
from the committees referred to
the city 15. It is this active, semi-au-
priorly, namely spreading knowledge
tonomous functioning that sets this
and connecting social and economic
traditional interpretation of the office
problems to spatial solutions. He de-
apart from all those committees that
scribes a lot of his own work as a City
have been instated in Dutch cities
Architect as akin to lecturing and ed-
after the silent retreat of the many
ucating these committees, councilors
City Architects the country used to
and alderman. De Willigen recalled
boast. While cities may not current-
that when he first took office in Gro-
ly suffer from a lack of knowledge
ningen and was asked by the responsi-
within their municipal systems, their
ble Alderman for Economic Develop-
current committees do differ from
ment what he as a designer and holder
City Architects, as heavily debated
of the office of City Architect of Gro-
that evening in the Zuiderkerk. Most
ningen could provide the city with, his
notably, these committees do not
answer was: ‘The knowledge to keep
have a form of policy in place nor do
your hands off of everything.’ De Wil-
they have specific compelling author-
ligen describes a lack of curiosity and
ity, which gives them no clear goal to
knowledge in regard to spatial influ-
achieve or action to initiate in regard
ences on social and economic devel-
to the long-term development of the
opment of the city as a traditional but
city as a spatial entity or the architec-
simultaneously recurring reason for
ture climate of their city.
the existence and importance of the City Architect14 . The role of the City Architect as educator and guardian
Towards the New City Architect
of the urban development of the city
As discussed in the previous Arch-
as an integral product of spatial, eco-
iprint, the architecture culture of the
nomic and social factors is one that is
Netherlands is currently not at peak
found in the traditional approach to
level and certainly not at the front of
the office and echoed by the occu-
the class when it comes to the archi-
15
tecture cultures and climates across
cific attention to the semi-autonomy
Europe. Building forth upon the ob-
of the office and the knowledge and
servations of AndrĂŠ Kempe in the pre-
motivation for not only spatial but
vious edition, this examination of the
also cultural, economic and social de-
office of City Architect sheds a light on
velopment of the Dutch city for those
how this office might be of influence
who hold the office. In that sense the
on the enhancement or regeneration
reinstatement of this type or interpre-
of the Dutch architecture culture and
tation of t he office of City Architect
climate. Though some Dutch cities
is one that pays close attention to that
still employ the office or an iteration
of their counterparts in Flemish cities.
thereof, in a certain form, the major-
It is a reinstatement of the traditional
ity of the Dutch cities over time has
City Architect as a guardian of the de-
gradually swapped these institutions
velopment of the city and the defend-
and offices for less influential and in
er and preserver of the architecture
some cases more political committees
climate and culture within his or her
to oversee the spatial development of
city, as seen in the great City Archi-
the city. The office of City Architect
tects of past centuries in the Neth-
should, as discussed both by oppo-
erlands, that can propel the Dutch
nents and supporters of the office,
architecture culture and climate once
not merely be seen as a chairman or
again to the top of the class, not only
an embodiment of a chairman of these
in Europe but perhaps even the world.
committees or tasks they are burdened with. Their uniqueness, and in that sense their necessity or vital importance in the recovering of the architecture culture and climate of the past in the Netherlands, lies in their power as compelling and authoritative institute that is well aware of the fact that the urban development of the city is not only a matter of spatial development, but just as much one of cultural, economic and social development. The reinstatement of the City Architect throughout the Dutch cityscape, as suggested by Kempe, is therefore to be executed with spe-
16
1. ‘Resolu e tot benoeming van Lieven de Key tot stadsbouwmeester’, (3 July, 1593). Noord Hollands Archief, Toegang 3993, inventaris 1328. Publishing on the Internet, Available HTTP: h ps:// n o o rd - h o l l a n d s a rc h i e f. n l / b ro n n e n / archieven?mivast=236&mizig=210&miadt=236&miaet=1&micode=3993&minr=2219530&miview=inv2, (accessed on 20 May 2020). 2. N. De Vreeze, M. Van Aerschot.. Stadsarchitecten en Stadsbouwmeesters. Amsterdam: Architectuur Lokaal (2010). 3. J. G. C. van Slyph, Adver sement issued by the mayor and secretary of the City of Maastricht (27 January, 1819), Publishing on the Internet, Available HTTP: h ps:// forum.mestreechonline.nl/imgcache/9770. png, (accessed on 20 May 2020). 4. W. de Wagt,. Timmermeester, Opzichter of Architect (Haarlem, 1993) 5. Stadsarchitect etymologically and in its func oning refers to an architect dedicated to only one city and designing public works for that specific city. The city in that sense is the sole employer of that architect. Stadsbouwmeester on the other hand refers etymologically and in its func oning to the mastering of all facets of construcon and the supervising and coordina ng thereof. The shi from Stadsarchitect to Stadsbouwmeester thusly resembles one from a prac cing designer to a guiding and coordina ng official. 6. N. De Vreeze, M. Van Aerschot, Stadsarchitecten en Stadsbouwmeesters (2010), Amsterdam: Architectuur Lokaal. 7. Joke Schauvliege, Persmededeling, Vlaams Minister Milieu, Natuur en Cultuur: Krisaan Borret ontvangt Vlaamse Cultuurprijs voor Architectuur 2012-2013 (12 October 2013)Buildings dedicated to ins tutes of a sacred or important nature within society. 8. See: J. Van Cauwenberghe, Voormalig Antwerps Stadsbouwmeester Kris aan Borret blikt terug (August 26, 2014), Publishing on the Internet, Available HTTP: www.architectura.be (accessed on 31 May 2020). 9. Peter Vanden Abeele, Stadsbouwmeester, Samen Stad Bouwen (2017), Publishing on the Internet, Available HTTP: h ps://stad. gent/nl/wonen-verbouwen/stadsbouw-
meester (accessed on 20 May, 2020). 10. K. Borret, Bouwmeestersnota 2015-2019, 2016, Brussels. 11. Amsterdamse Kunstraad, De stad is nooit af. Amsterdam, May 2017. 12. J.J. Berg, Gezocht: Hoofdstedelijke Stadsbouwmeester met/zonder Wi e Jas (17 July, 2018), Publishing on the Internet, Available HTTP: www.archined.nl (accessed on 20 May, 2020). 13. F. van der Molen, Stadsbouwmeester wordt eenzame en gehate Figuur (25 June, 2018), Publishing on the Internet, Available HTTP: www.gebiedsontwikkeling.nu (accessed on 20 May, 2020). 14. J. De Willegen,. Een Stadsbouwmeester voor Amsterdam, Pitch van Jeroen van Willigen (29 June, 2018), Publishing on the Internet, Available HTTP: www.dezwartehond.nl (accessed on 20 May, 2020). 15. J. Van Cauwenberghe, Voormalig Antwerps Stadsbouwmeester Kris aan Borret blikt terug (26 August, 2014), Publishing on the Internet, Available HTTP: www.architectura.be (accessed on 31 May, 2020).
17
SOLVE FOR SOCIAL Shifting paradigms on the architect as a societal activist Fenne Jansen & Bob van der Vleugel
In Archiprint 15, Expanding Profession, Japanese architect Moriko Kira wraps up the interview with a plea for the importance of the voice of the people in the field of the built environment and how this voice should be heard and mediated by professionals. According to Kira, the era of big, dominating, top-down interventions by the government is over. The time is ripe for small bottom-up interventions, initiated by the people, to become as important as the government’s big top-down ones. According to her, architects and urban designers play a very important role in this change. In the first place, they can create consciousness among people about their living conditions. The next step would be to use their expertise as professional players in the field to inform the people about what they themselves can do to improve these conditions. The architect or urban designer plays both a facilitating and a mediating role, between people as well as between communities and greater powers. For this role to be taken on thoroughly, social awareness as well as responsibility among professi in tthe built environment field is required. This expansion of the profession professionals could lead to a sshift of focus in the disciplines, from the design of buildings and space to influencing the design process to solve problems in society.1 Kira even captures this socially active tak ta take on the profession in the term of ‘privatized’ rijksbouwmeester (Government Architec Architect), and according to her this is exactly what many communities are curntly in need of. of Architects and urban designers should try to enrich their professions, rently ot just by being more socially aware, but by being more socially active, in order to make not eal improvemen improvement in humanity’s living environment. Accordingly, the questions that arise real improvements are among others ar are: How does architecture influence society, and how does society influarchitectu ence architecture architecture? And what is the role and the accompanying responsibilities of the built environment prof professional in society? And, subsequently, why and how should a socially tak on by these professionals? active role be taken
An Alliance between Two Disciplines
product, the form and aesthetics of buildings, but also the design process.
The two-way relation between the
Just like these kind of alliances in the
professional field of the built envi-
past, a similar relation between the
ronment and society can be best ap-
field of architecture, planning and
proached by starting with the defini-
behavioural sciences has been de-
tion of society as being ‘a large group
veloped. 4 The behavioural science of
of people who live together in an or-
sociology, which has been recognized
ganized way, making decisions about
as an academic discipline since the
how to do things and sharing the work
early nineteenth century5 and can be
Through-
defined as ‘the study of the develop-
out time, architecture and urbanism
ment, structure and functioning of
can be seen as a representation of
human society’6 , seems to be of par-
society, with the built environment
ticular interest of the profession of ar-
reflecting the successes, values but
chitecture. Robert Gutman, a trained
also deterioration of civilizations. By
sociologist and key figure in bringing
studying the residences and buildings
the social sciences into architecture
that comprise the fabric of the city
education and practice7, devotes his
we can learn about civilizations long
writings to this ‘alliance’ between the
before our time, and combined with
disciplines of architecture and soci-
the contemporary research on the en-
ology. In ‘The Questions Architects
vironment and psychology, captured
Ask’, Chapter 22 of his book People and Buildings (2009), Gutman writes about how the developing alliance shapes itself in the rising attention of many architects given to the determination of people’s needs before diving into the design process. But also in the enlarged efforts of involving sociologists and psychologists in projects. 8 Gutman states in his writings about architecture and society published in The American Sociologist (1975) that it is most prominently in architecture education that the two worlds of sociology and the built environment, the sociological and architectural/urban
that needs to be done’.
2
in the field of sociology, we are trying to understand the effects of architecture on people today. 3 Architecture has always reacted to scientific development. In the Renaissance new insights in the field of mathematics had a major impact on architecture, the engineering sciences played a significant role in the Gothic revival of the nineteenth century, and the Modern Movement in architecture was greatly influenced by developments in environmental control technology. In each of the examples mentioned above, science influenced not only the end
19
design profession, congregate. This
chitects in the sociological field.11 So-
congregation expresses itself in pro-
ciologist and urban developer Richard
fessional titles like ‘professor of the
Sennett clarifies this dimension of the
behavioural sciences in design’ or ‘lec-
built environment in his book Building and Dwelling: Ethics for the City12 by stating that what is often regarded as ‘a city’, is in fact formed both by its material existence and its facilitation of a place-dependent culture. The alliance between architecture and sociology has become more recognized and widespread among modern architects and urban designers of the twentieth century. This has, however, led to a rather remarkable reaction of laying emphasis on the formal aspects of buildings. The built environment discipline therefore still has to acknowledge its affinity with social needs and should do so by shifting focus from the formal towards the mere opera-
turer in social architecture’. Besides, it is very common for sociologists to connect architecture education with sociology departments. This often results in courses on the sociology of architecture or planning, or, together with architects, in architectural programming or design methods. That the interweaving of the sociologic with the field of architecture mainly happens on an educational level can be partly explained by the fact that sociological knowledge turns out to be difficult to present, relate and integrate in the design aspect of the practice in particular.9 However when looking at the current all-encompassing built environment discipline, the use of sociology is barely limited to an educational level but stretches into practice. Especially in the United States, real estate developers of large suburban complexes sought the help of sociologists in the formulation of
The inevitable social nature of architecture has been characteris c for the discipline ever since the first buildings where planned and designed, resul ng in every architect, in some sense, to be a student and cri c of society.
their site plans and decisions concerning community facilities. Besides, town planning architects tend to
tional level.13 In his book ‘People and
consult sociologists regarding urban
Buildings’ of 2009, Gutman states
renewal schemes.
that the inevitable social nature of
10
20
The fact that it is impossible to
architecture has been characteristic
think of buildings without consider-
of the discipline ever since the first
ing the human activities they serve,
buildings where planned and de-
sheds light on the rich interest of ar-
signed, resulting in every architect, in
some sense, be ing a student and critic
Sociologists have been consulted
of society.14 The science of sociology,
in the primary stages of the develop-
which tries to understand the func-
ment of many new communities and
tioning and the structure of society
planned unit developments in the
and to set out the principles that drive
United States. The same collabora-
group behaviour, was acknowledged
tion between architects and sociolo-
as an academic discipline in the early
gists has been utilized for British and
Subsequently it
Scandinavian New Towns that were
is no wonder that once the science of
planned, developed and built after the
sociology was introduced, architects
Second World War. Sociologists most
started to recognize and turn to this
often act as advisors in the design of
discipline for guidance and advice.
new housing and communities. This
The rise of sociology in architecture,
again has to do with the fact that the
however, cannot fully be explained
interest of architecture in sociology is
by acknowledging the natural ambi-
based on the principle that conceiv-
tion of architects to casually interpret
ing buildings or communities apart
human purposes and motives as this
from the human activities they serve
has always been intrinsic to the pro-
is impossible, and human activities are
fession. It is important here to realize
ultimately best served in the housing
that the acknowledgment of sociol-
sector. The knowledge and advice of
ogy by architects also reflects the
sociologists is most often used when
emphasis on designing buildings that
the client takes an active role in con-
are responsive to the individual needs
trolling the shape of the project, the
of their users of a particular time. It
architect or planner is a staff member,
also generates the recognition among
and the sociologist is either a staff
architects
member as well or is acting as a con-
nineteenth century.
15
that
modern
complex
building types, which demand effi-
sultant. Furthermore, a clear pattern
cient and high levels of services and
can be seen in the difference between
inhabit groups that are sensitive to
the use of sociology by traditionally
rapid changes in organization, can be
trained architects and design profes-
designed and realized only by deter-
sionals that originate from the city
mining comprehensive design briefs in
planning field. This is mainly because
advance.
unless the architect is willing to focus
16
on the operational aspects of architecture and designing, communication between him or her and a sociologist is usually limited. While the urban
21
planning tradition has tended to step
like architects must at least strive to
away more from formal and aesthet-
make the craft of architecture more
ic aspects and focus on the social
all-encompassing by having some of
aspects of design.17
them devote themselves to social re-
Unfortunately, it is not uncommon
search.
19
that those who do find themselves in a position to involve a sociologist in a project are not fully aware of the division of intellectual labour in the social sciences. The other way around is also true, because of the lack of recent tradition of sociology dealing with
Sociologists should explore the possibility of the discipline to be more adequate in the context of professional issues whereas architects must at least strive to make the cra more all-encompassing by devo ng themselves to social research.
the built environment, not all sociologists are able to address the questions raised by developers, architects or
Designing for the Dual City
even users. Yet there are projects in
A major obstacle for sociology to
which the knowledge and expertise of
become a fully integrated part of the
a sociologist is structurally asked for.
architectural profession, according to
Still these kind of alliances are devel-
Gutman, is that architects and urban
oping only gradually and as Gutman
designers are not always aware of
states in The Questions Architects
the true nature of the cities they are
Ask: ‘I don’t think it is seriously pro-
designing for. If architects and ur-
posed that architecture will ever be
banists should assume the role of an
anything other than a highly skilled
‘privatized’ rijksbouwmeester, to be
and subtle craft, no matter how so-
socially actively involved with their
phisticated it becomes as a profession,
environments, as Moriko Kira sug-
or that sociology will ever abandon
gested, they must first be aware of
its status as a learned, scholarly en-
the social nature of those cities. The
He subsequently mentions
work of sociologist Richard Sennett
that sociologists should continue to
can be regarded as an important step
explore the possibility of the socio-
in bridging the gap between the be-
logical discipline to be more adequate
havioural sciences and the practice of
if there are (more) sociologists who
architecture. Following Gutman’s ob-
are able to apply their knowledge in
servation that built environments can
the context of professional issues and
never be seen separate from human
by doing so, occasionally experience
activity, Sennett presents the city as
the burden of decision making. Just
being two cities at the same time: the
terprise.’
22
18
ville (here called ‘material city’) and
tects and urban designers in respond-
the cité (here called ‘cultural city’).
ing to these crises that living in cities
Explaining the way in which cities and
started to become somewhat com-
architecture come to follow these two
fortable, rather than merely practical.
concepts helps in understanding that
Their large-scale plans recognize the
there is more to our cities than their
need for a system and unity in the
physical existence sometimes seems
fragmented urban fabric that resulted
to suggest.
from urbanization: organic city growth had proven to be unsuccessful in fit-
Senne presents the city as being two ci es at the same me: the ville (‘material city’) and the cité (‘cultural city’).
tingly accommodating the masses. Cerdà’s plan for unified urban expansion and Hausmann’s plan for unified urban restructuring transcended the scale of the individual problems and started to fight poor living conditions
Material City
on a city-wide scale.
The city that is under direct control
After the pioneers of design ac-
of architects and urban designers is
tivism identified and started solving
the material city. Material cities are
emerging urban issues, younger gen-
the places that are physically there,
erations of architects, most prom-
observable and tangible. Thanks to
inently represented by the CIAM,
their direct manipulability, the ma-
stood up and actively engaged in pro-
terial city can be used as a tool for
viding the city with a fitting image and
actively shaping the life in cities. In
a new urban way of living. The CIAM
the early years of rapid urbanization,
built on the belief of its predecessors
due to industrialization in the nine-
that top-down interventions on a
teenth century, problems arose of
city-wide scale are best suited to ap-
which it was not entirely clear which
proach this matter, and even pulls this
professionals
20
to the extremes. 22 Its Athens Charter
Key figures such as urban designers
of 193323 marks a huge step from an
Hausmann and Cerdà saw how their
intervention-based method of fixing
knowledge of city planning could
existing cities to a carefully planned
solve the emerging issues, and they
and controlled building practice. The
took on challenges related to urgent
CIAM’s preference for clarity and
problems with waste management,
order made architecture into a highly
epidemics and military control. 21 It is
scientific practice, with the Charter
thanks to the pro-active role of archi-
as its elaborate handbook. Using ex-
could
solve
them.
23
tensive field observations and current
Cultural City
insights in sociology, the CIAM con-
During the second half of the twen-
structed its own doctrine of how in-
tieth century, several architects and
terventions in the material city must
urban designers actively engaged in
be made to change cultural cities for
making the architectural profession
the better. Buildings were not a goal
an all-encompassing endeavour once
in themselves for modernism: rather,
again. Their efforts were all geared
they were employed as a means to
towards reviving the cultural city, the
effectuate the societal progress that
system of people and societies that
the CIAM considered essential to city
should be brought in sync with its
development.
material presence. The implemented actualized
means to achieve this synthesis varied
the discussion on the liveability of
from societal design practices to ac-
cities both physically and socially,
tivism in society itself.
Although
24
modernism
the Modern Movement has often
As a serious attempt to bring culture
been criticized for its authoritarian
and history back into the design
and paternalistic views. The reduc-
process, a group of CIAM-members
tive and forcedly simplified terms in
known as Team 10 put modernism’s
which society was described, a nec-
fixed and rigidly designed architec-
essary precondition for the CIAM’s
ture to the test. Team 10 wanted to
standardized
component-wise
make city-making an ‘organic process’
construction of buildings and cities,
once again. 26 Although this collective
largely neglected the present cul-
rejected the CIAM’s primary intention
tural city from the design process.
24
of creating perfect and highly control-
This realization also grew at that time
lable cities, the team acknowledged
within the Modern Movement itself,
the modernist notion that large-scale
causing prominent younger members
development is a requirement for
of the CIAM like Aldo van Eyck to
the architect to have any leverage in
move away from Le Corbusier’s for-
achieving societal progress. 27 Team
malism. 25 The eventual absence of
10’s resulting approach to architec-
the cultural city in the works of mod-
ture was aimed at leaving existing
ernism undermined the credibility of
structures in the city intact, while
its architecture; a new movement of
adding vast new construction on top
architect-activists arose around the
of this historical layer. 28
and
mid-twentieth century, with the goal
Team 10’s rather abstract super-
of reviving the attention for sociology
position of large-scale buildings on
in architecture.
historical fabric is an ironic outcome
of a process that was geared towards
was essential for any effective inter-
reviving the city of individuals. 29 A po-
vention in the built environment’. 32 In
tential cause for the eventual deteri-
this sense, Geddes can be considered
oration of both the CIAM’s and Team
an early predecessor of Gutman.
10’s designs could be their newly in-
Geddes’s sociology inspired both a
troduced ‘relationships between the
new wave of activism and the interest
primary urban elements streets, open
in a broader and more inclusive ap-
The activist
proach to spatial design. Jane Jacobs,
approach towards a better society
American publicist and city activist,
resulted for both the CIAM and Team
is a prominent urban designer-activ-
10 in the introduction of radically new
ist who emphasized the importance
tools for shaping urban spaces, on an
of the cultural history of a place. In
unprecedented scale. Incomprehen-
her writings, she brings to the public
sion of these new spatial relationships
attention how complete neighbour-
from society’s perspectives largely
hoods and communities are swiped
explain why both movements did not
away to accommodate the premises
fully succeed in realizing their societal
of democracy and health – premises
objectives.
that are based on nothing but theo-
space and buildings’.
Another
30
century
retical and technical fantasies about
reaction to modernism advocated a
mid-twentieth
ideal cities. 33 Jacobs created a move-
more conservative approach to cities.
ment of dissatisfied urban dwellers,
Instead of striving for universality and
who protest the authority and powers
fixing all of the city’s problems, this
of urban planners and architects, and
movement approached cities from
often successfully so.
their local culture and accepted the
The passionate activism of Jane
This
Jacobs generated awareness both
approach could be regarded as a new
in society and among profession-
appreciation of Patrick Geddes, a so-
als for the importance of the cultur-
ciologist who stated: ‘The recognition
al city. She succeeded in mobilizing
of local culture and norms and their in-
the people and giving them a voice,
teractions with the built environment
making it unavoidable for design-
wholeness of cities as they are.
31
ers to overlook them. 34 An alliance
Barke about Geddes: “the recogni on of local culture and norms and their interac ons with the built environment was essen al for any effec ve interven on in the built environment”
between architecture and sociology became self-evident, and many architects started to closely study society in order to harmonize the cultural city and the material city in their designs.
25
Urban theory brought new insights
Current Practice
in architecture by involving the dis-
From the 1960s onward, sociolo-
ciplines of sociology and psychology
gy has become part of the everyday
in spatial production, for example in
practice of an increasing number of
Kevin Lynch’s now fundamental 1960s
architects. Social activism and soci-
study on how people actually read an
etal involvement in the design process
interact with their surroundings. Ar-
currently presents itself in the form of
chitects and urbanists themselves
both spatial design and writings. The
also started to study and theorize
professions of architecture and soci-
how the material city and the cultur-
ology seem to have formed not only
al city could and should coincide; Jan
an alliance, but to actively focus on
Gehl’s Life Between Buildings 35 sets
bridging the gap between the two
the tone for active engagement of the
worlds, just as Robert Gutman pro-
architect in the local and site-specific
posed.
culture that is to be designed for.
The professions of architecture and sociology seem to have formed not only an alliance, but to ac vely focus on bridging the gap between the two worlds, just as Robert Gutman proposed.
The embodiment of sociology in architecture, effectuated by a dual practice of theorizing and designing, is strikingly illustrated by the practice of Dutch architect Herman Hertzberger. As an architect with roots in the Structuralist movement, Hertzberger sees space as a central element in mediating between ‘what has always been true for all people everywhere on the one hand and what is more temporary, more local and more individual on the other’. 36 His incorporation of universal and individual
26
aspects in architecture result from
be mentioned as an important figure
close observations of society and in-
in applying scientific techniques and
dividuals in society, which he incorpo-
insights from the social sciences to
rates directly in his architecture, but
make designers aware of the social
also in his several books in which he
dimension of cities they are design-
shares his observations with others in
ing for. His elaborated writings trans-
the field. His books Space and Learn-
late the innumerable developments
and Space and the Architect ,
in society and the built environment,
among others, describe how insights
which are often hard to fully grasp and
from sociology and psychology find
explain, into a very concrete descrip-
their way into the practice of archi-
tion of cities that readily present ar-
tecture and, even more importantly,
chitects with clear-cut insights in how
how spatial design directly affects
cities and society shape each other.
how people interact with each other
Vice versa, architects come up with
and their environment. Theory and
new approaches to design that bring
practice have developed in parallel in
societies together in ways that have
Hertzberger’s work.
never been deemed possible before.
ing
37
38
Although Hertzberger’s work aims
Projects vary from creating better
to bridge the division between sociol-
living conditions in Chilean slums by
ogy and architecture with an approach
building qualitative ‘half-houses’ 39 to
from both the scientific and the prac-
raising awareness for what people
tical side, an even larger number of
themselves could do to easily improve
present-day researchers and prac-
their community using popular games
titioners contributes to active en-
like Minecraft.40 Projects like these
gagement of society from their own
define new ways for designers and so-
respective disciplines. From the side
cieties to interact, in order to shape
of sociology, Richard Sennett should
new improved ways of living together for the future.
27
A Mutual Responsibility
tioning, in particular, how we could
Reviving society’s role in the crea-
educate prospective sincerely socially
tion of good architecture and cities,
concerned architects and truly archi-
as Moriko Kira proposed in Archiprint
tecturally learned sociologists?
15, is a task that both built environment professionals and sociologists should take responsibility for. Since,
macy:
Ar-
according to Gutman, every architect
chitecture’s Rela onship with Public Pol-
should be, in some sense, a student
icy’, Design Intelligence (2000), h ps://
and critic of society, social awareness
www.di.net/articles/design-diploma-
seems not so much to be lacking as is,
cy-architectures-relationship-with-pub-
to some extent, the dealing with the
lic-policy/,
accompanying societal responsibility. For the cultural and material city to
accessed
30
April
2020.
2. Cambridge Dic onary, ‘Society’, Cambridge Dic onary
(n.d.),
h ps://dic onary.cam-
be united into one harmonious whole,
bridge.org/dic onary/english/society,
the separation between sociology and
cessed 4 May 2020.
ac-
spatial design should actively be over-
3. George Vangelatos, ‘How Does Architecture
come by efforts from both sides to ap-
Impact Society? A High-Level Look’, HCM
proach the other, as complex problems
Architects (n.d.), h ps://hmcarchitects.com/
in contemporary cities result from the
news/how-does-architecture-impact-socie-
discrepancy between the cultural city
ty-a-high-level-look-2019-10-18/, accessed
of sociologists and the material city of architects. Bridging the gap between sociology and the built environment
30 April 2020. 4. Robert Gutman, People and Buildings (New York: Routledge, 2009), 337-369.
field begins by raising awareness on
5. Ashley Crossman, ‘The History of Sociolo-
the dual character of the city, among
gy Is Rooted in Ancient Times’, ThoughtCo
both architects/urban designers and
(2019), h ps://www.thoughtco.com/histo-
sociologists.
ry-of-sociology-3026638, accessed 4 May
Simultaneously, in order for the
28
1. Richard Swe , ‘Design Diplo
2020.
professionals of both disciplines to
6. Lexico, ‘Sociology’, Lexico (n.d.), h ps://
not only seal the gap between them
www.lexico.com/en/definition/sociology,
but team up, mutual understanding of
accessed 4 May 2020.
both disciplines by both disciplines is
7. Staff, ‘Robert Gutman, sociologist devoted
needed. One should subsequently un-
to the study of architecture, dies at age 81’,
derstand the need for a careful con-
Princeton University (2007), h ps://www.
sideration of both architecture and
princeton.edu/news/2007/11/29/rob-
sociology education curricula, ques-
ert-gutman-sociologist-devoted-study-ar-
chitecture-dies-age-81, accessed 5 May 2020. 8. Gutman, ‘People and Buildings’, op. cit. (note 4). 9. Robert Gutman, ‘Architecture and Sociology’, The American Sociologist 4 (1975), 219228. 10. Gutman, ‘People and Buildings’, op. cit. (note 4). 11. Gutman, ‘Architecture and Sociology’, op. cit. (note 9). 12. Richard Senne , Building and Dwelling: Ethics for the City (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2019). 1-2. 13. Gutman, ‘Architecture and Sociology’, op. cit. (note 9). 14. Gutman, ‘People and Buildings’, op. cit. (note 4). 15. Crossman, ‘The History of Sociology’, op. cit. (note 5) 16. Gutman, ‘People and Buildings’, op. cit. (note 4). 17. Gutman, ‘Architecture and Sociology’, op. cit. (note 9). 18. Gutman, ‘People and Buildings’, op. cit. (note 4). 19. ibid. 20. Richard Senne , Building and Dwelling: Ethics for the City (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2019), 21-25. 21. Jan Gehl, Ci es for People (Washington DC: Island Press, 2010), 110-111. 22 Le Corbusier, The Athens Charter (New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973), 99-100 23 ibid. 24. Richard Senne , Building and Dwelling: Ethics for the City (London: Penguin Books Ltd,
2019), 74-76. 25. ibid. 26. Spiro Kostof, The City Shaped. (London: Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1999), 89-93. 27. Alison Smithson, Team 10 Primer. (London: Studio Vista Ltd., 1968), 74-95. 28. Spiro Kostof, The City Shaped. (London: Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1999), 89-93. 29. ibid. 30. Anna-Johanna Klasander, ‘Challenges of the modernist urban landscape: On urban design and (sub)urban space’. Nordisk Arkitekturforskning 18-1 (2005), 37-46. 31. Spiro Kostof, The City Shaped. (London: Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1999), 89-93. 32. Michael Barke, ‘The Importance of Urban Form as an Object of Study’, in: Oliveira, Teaching Urban Morphology (2008), 11-30. 33. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Ci es (New York: Random House Inc., 1961), 3-25. 34. Richard Senne , Building and Dwelling: Ethics for the City (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2019), 78-80. 35. Jan Gehl, Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space (New York: Island Press, 2011). 36. Herman Hertzberger, ‘Social Space and Structuralism’, OASE Journal for Architecture 90 (2013), 19-22. 37. Herman Hertzberger, Space and Learning (Ro erdam: nai010 Publishers, 2008). 38. Herman Hertzberger, Space and the Architect (Ro erdam: nai010 Publishers, 2010). 39. Alejandro Aravena, ‘Elemental Interview’. In: Perspecta 42 (2010), 85-89. 40. Block by Block Team, About Block by Block. h ps://www.blockbyblock.org/about.
29
SHIFTING RESPONSIBILITIES The role of today’s architect in construction Tomasz Dudek & Ananda Jaganathan
The term architect has been around since antiquity. However, it was much later, in the sixteenth century, that architecture was recognized as a profession. Despite the profession having evolved, it is still trying to find a place in the post-design process, namely in the inspection and construction of buildings. Architects have been master builders since medieval times. Given that they also had the knowledge and skills of structural designers, carpenters and other necessary building trades, they were able to undertake both the design and construction of a project. Over time, the growing complexities of projects have led to the dissolution of these roles, forcing the architect to shift and adapt to the changing nature of the social, economic and environmental circumstances. This article stems from the conversation with Brigit Rapp on the Knowledge and Responsibility of the architect. There, she recounts her firm’s experience in the Belgian village of Houthulst, where the culture of ‘Master builder’ allowed architects to have more influence on design decisions and consequently bring more quality to the proje project. In this article, we delve further into understanding this multifaceted version of the arch architect, and in the process try to understand their implication or lack of implicat implication on the residing building practice. The question that arises is: What is the to role of tod today’s architect and architectural practice in the execution of the project? w And to wh what extent can we consolidate the existing roles of the building practice?
Conflicting Roles Nowadays, the majority of designers
Education
released
a
report
are typically inadequate in performing
underlining the disjunction between
construction
services
theoretical and practical knowledge
and do not have a high enough
and the conflicting objectives of the
knowledge of construction techniques
academic and professional realms. 3
management
This
As much as the education system
absence of knowledge is also reflected
has emphasized specialization, the
in
where
architectural practice has followed
design studios are approached as
promptly. Material scientists, product
separate milieus or different cultures
engineers,
depending
disciplines.
and influential contractors have all
Salvadori argues that ‘the potential
claimed parts of the fully developed
differences between architectural and
design delivery process. This has
engineering students are recognized,
been
magnified, and made more rigid by
losing authority in every field of the
the difference in their education’.
2
design and decision-making process.
While ateliers have been designed to
In the twenty-first century, the role
simulate the workings of professional
of the architect has been reduced to
practice, they fall short in capturing
formulating the appearance and form
their complexities and limitations,
of a building. Over the past decade,
particularly those to do with structural
the profession has been stimulating a
and building physics details and the
strong affection for the image, which
economic drawbacks of a design.
while
This has been coupled with many
vision digresses from communicating
different
education
the
followed
by
to control the entire process.1 architecture
education,
on
their
the
programmes, separation
in
managers,
accompanied
displaying physical
developers
by
the
architects
architectural
capabilities
of
the
In fact, most schools
architecture.4
licensing and insurance requirements,
of architecture have developed a
and,
subjective,
eventually,
the
disconnected
story-telling
approach
professional organization. It makes
that is supported by aesthetic images
lucid the conflict in roles of the
and icons that are detached from the
architect as an artist and the architect
building process.
as a technician. A conflict that is
The
constantly depicted in architectural
stages
very
works of the nineteenth century that
a
lack a sense of unity. In 1995, the
compartmentalization
National Institute of Architectural
built
exist
building
fact
that
while
different conceiving
demonstrates
environment
of
the
different disciplines,
31
giving rise to a counterproductive
both in carpentry and stonemasonry
professional
and gain experience on an actual
environment.
Each
professional group seems to operate
construction
with a different set of terminology,
entire building crew. The very basis of
software and process, amplifying the
the profession was the mastery and
consequences of this fragmentation.
knowledge of materials and building
Different aspects of the project are
processes that were gained during a
first broken down in the conceptual
long formal apprenticeship. There was
stages and assigned to specialized
no division between the designer and
teams. They are then once again
the builder. A person that underwent
congealed into a whole. With this
such
said, we are witnessing ‘a historical
effectively manage construction and
evolution where architects become
architectural design. Consequently,
more and more distanced from the
the titles of the medieval architect
forces that govern the production of
were drawn from words such as
buildings today’.4
magister operis – the master of works. 5
a
The
Looking Back at History approach,
suggesting
modern
with
was
able
concept
profession
the
of
to
the
developed
in the Renaissance. While some form
a
of the profession of the architect
change towards an architect who
had been around, a concept of the
primarily possesses good knowledge
architect as a designer independent
of materials and the building process.
from the builder began to be defined
This is reminiscent of the shift in the
as an integral and mandatory part of
conception of the profession between
the
the late Roman period and the Middle
architecture was hardly differentiated
Ages. The Vitruvian Ideal, in which the
from other building trades and it was
theoretical realm of the profession
Alberti who changed the perception
was as important as the knowledge of
of the architect by publishing the
building technology, was replaced by
theory of architecture. 6
the medieval concept of the architect
32
along
traineeship
architectural
Birgit Rapp favours the master builder
site
construction
During
the
process.
Before,
Renaissance,
most
as a master builder. The conception
professionals were in fact artisans,
of the master builder differed greatly
trained to do manual work with no
from the Vitruvian ideal: for him,
knowledge
exhaustive training in the liberal arts
of
was not the case. To become a master
principles of architecture. In contrast,
builder, one had to be skilled usually
the opposite kind of professionals of
the
of
theoretical
profession,
aspects
antiquity
and
those times could be characterized
Further
distinctive
changes
to
within
the
as highly trained in the liberal arts,
the
skilful in geometry, but only capable
Industrial
of designing ‘a shadow of a real
new materials and technologies and
building’.7
buildings grew in complexity. The
profession
came
Revolution.
It
brought
The true architect, as Kostof points
craftsmen struggled to deal with new
out, was a man who combined two
developments such as multi-storey
sides of the profession, a scholar
buildings, ventilation systems, central
who combined theoretical knowledge
heating and so forth. And therefore
and practical experience. What was
new
essential and defined the architect
that reason, the architectural studios
as a professional was the set of
grew in number of experts to follow
relationships
one
emerged.
For
possessed,
up with complex needs of the modern
both on a professional and social
world. Walter Gropius, among many
level. With knowledge ranging from
others,
theory
architect
about the nature of the architecture
was a mediator between the patron,
profession and its relation to society
the workman, the administrator and
in the age of the industry in numerous
officials of the building programme. As
writings. For him, the practice of
can be observed, almost all celebrated
architecture should include as many
Renaissance buildings were a result
professionals as the job required and
of the cooperative effort. Alberti,
‘all the efforts to be coordinated by
Bramante and Raphael were some of
the architect, who would be primus
the greatest architects, but also first
inter pares (a first among equals; the
of all scholars who sought help from
senior or representative member of
masons, builders and joiners, because
a group) rather than magister operis.9
none of them on their own could deal
The schism between the designer and
with the growing complexity of the
the builder was very well established.
buildings, problems of structure and
The architect’s task was still to
building technology.
design, but his or her desires would
to
that
specializations
practice,
the
be
As Kostof summarized: ‘The prac ce of architecture during the fi eenth century was a coopera ve enterprise, presided over certainly by a responsible director, who relied in a variety of ways on a number of experts.’8
expressed
coordinated
and
his
thoughts
compromised
by the competing demands of other professionals.
Following
Gropius,
Kostos says: ‘Specifically, the new architect was to seek out society’s needs, identify and propose solutions for them, bring together the necessary
33
skills, and operate as a member of a
only one of many small bits assembled
team all of whose contributors would
along the way by any number of
see their roles in the same light.’
construction
10
coordinators.13
The
lack of interaction or communication
Fragmentation of the Profession and Production
among professionals in this network
The fragmentation of the production
involved blurred. And as architecture
process and, thus, the industry, is
firms become progressively stratified,
inevitable as the profession continues
the role and the responsibility of the
to diversify. New technologies and
architect becomes more ambiguous.
construction experts,
techniques
which
necessarily
for
means
Integrated Practice
Especially
One of the answers to how to deal
with complex questions at hand, such
with the consequences of the ongoing
as
fragmentation
the separation of roles.
11
34
call
makes the responsibilities of those
sustainability
and
affordability
of
the
profession
of housing, design groups focus on
was found in integrated practice.
multidisciplinary
This
teams,
involving
method
creates
a
working
built environment. This has resulted
interdisciplinary team of architects,
in firms growing in size and being
engineers, contractors and owners
further divided into smaller teams
work together. It often integrates
involved in different stages of the
design, construction and maintenance
design process. The norm nowadays
and has proven to be extremely
seems to be an architect with 15 to 20
beneficial.14 During an annual AIA
consultants and a contractor with 40
(American
to 60 subcontractors.
conference Christopher Windener15
12
environment,
dynamic
experts outside the field of the
Institute
of
where
an
Architects)
The architect was once at the top of
expressed his feelings about the next
the chain of command in construction.
generation of architects. He believes
Today, although still a key player,
that ‘the architect is still the principal
the architect has lost some of her
agent for the construction process
influence in the industry. Architecture
and will be able to eventually reinstate
historian Andrew Saint characterizes
the master-builder concept to reduce
this shift in the role of the architect
litigation and simplify the source of
from a subtractive process, in which
responsibility’. However, Windener
the architect was in charge of the
was not the first to talk about this
whole ball of wax, to an additive
issue. The United States has already
process, where the architect’s role is
experienced
outstanding
examples
of this kind of practice since the
teamwork, and the social motivation
beginning of the twentieth century.
of architecture, all were present.’17
The key example is Skidmore, Owings
In
the
Netherlands,
numerous
and Merril (SOM), established in 1939
examples including several key clients
in Chicago by two architects and an
such as the Netherlands Government
engineer and still thriving as one of
Buildings Agency and the Netherlands
the biggest practices in the United
Ministry of Infrastructure and the
States.
Environment
From the beginning, SOM executives
traditional
have
projects
moved to
from
Integrated
aimed at success and recognition
Practice Design Delivery (IPD). The
for themselves and the profession
most common is Design-Build (DB)18
in representing architects’ skills and
where the contractor is responsible
services by using the very old ethic
for both the design and realization risk
of anonymous Gothic builders – the
and has a say in the design process.
master-builder system. However, they
This practice has many benefits as
were not merely after success: ‘We
the designer can benefit from the
were after leverage to influence social
early contribution of constructors.
and
conditions.’16
However, in the current Dutch DB a
Both working methods and building
contractor or professional developer
technology
and
leads the consortium in which the
similarities between the practices
architect is just a member of the joint
of Gothic builders and the modern
venture. In this system, the architect
construction industry are hard to
is not at the centre of the whole
find. However, as Kostof points out
design process. Most design decisions
in the SOM office’s programme, there
are not taken by the architect, which
is a great resemblance to Gropius’s
is contrary to the experience of
writings on the practice and society
Rapp+Rapp, where more influence on
in the age of industry: ‘The analogy
the design from the architects’ side
of the Gothic builders, anonymity,
brought more quality to the project.
environmental were
different
Several architects have concluded that ‘over the past few years, the architect’s influence on the quality of the result had declined, and that the architect’s role had been reduced to that of a specialist in the design team’.19 35
The
studies
dissatisfaction
with
and the
general
make use of this opportunity. Only
current
a few are exploring the Design-Lead
situation have shown that there is a
Design-Build
willingness of architecture firms to
developed
play an important role in the project
(a master-builder contract). It is an
led by the architect or designer.
example of DLDB and it reinforces
20
and a
one
of
them
bouwmeestercontract
In the Design Lead Design-Build
the central position of the architect
(DLDB), which Birgit Rapp advocates,
in the entire process. Here, the
the architect stands behind both
architect
design and realization. The architect/
for the quality but also the budget
designer can guarantee prices related
and the schedule. In the conference
to the quality and can avoid changes
paper Integrated Project Delivery:
or irrelevant discussions about the
The Designer as an Integrator, the
changes. Moreover, ‘the architect can
analysis of two projects conducted by
manage the original ambitions during
an anonymous architecture company
the later stages of the project’. 21
with bouwmeestercontract proved to
is
not
only
responsible
On the other hand, it has to be noted
be extremely beneficial. Among many
that risk management is an important
benefits, it mentions the intense and
issue, especially the organizational
direct contract with the architect
and financial risks that cause problems
that end-users and subcontractors all
in DLDBs. In the Netherlands there
experienced as a positive. Moreover,
are only ten firms that are big enough
these two projects met with the
to bear these risks, in most DBs the
general satisfaction of both the client
contractor has final responsibility.
and the architect. 23
22
For comparison, the Design-Build Institute of America states that in
36
Dealing with Responsibility
the United States, only 17 per cent of
In retrospect, given the growing
DBs are led by a designer or architect/
complexity of projects, reinstating
engineer. As Birgit Rapp concludes in
the traditional idea of a master
her interview: more influence on the
builder is not possible. However, the
design comes with more responsibility.
building industry can learn from an
A significant number of firms are
simplified integrated process of the
considering the integrated practice
master builders. As discussed, the
design delivery (IPD), since the decline
integration of the practice brings both
in the number of projects in the Dutch
economic and qualitative benefits
construction industry. Nevertheless,
. . . Especially the lead design built
Dutch architecture firms are reluctant
(DLDB) projects show great potential,
with the architect at the centre of this
buildings in the world was because
integration. For architects it offers a
the concept grows and matures during
possibility to have more influence on
realization.’ The reiterated role of
the design and consequently bring
contemporary ‘master builders’ must
more quality to the project. Among
be to harness knowledge, whether
many benefits , it especially optimizes
innate or external, to enhance the
the price/quality ratio and allows for
design.
constant and direct contact with the
The best way to approach the
architect, which greatly facilitates any
restructuring
of
design changes. However, with more
architecture
is
influence comes more responsibility
involvement of the architect through
and this has to be covered with the
the
knowledge to handle all associated
that schools of architecture need
risks. To deal with such an immense
to fill the gap in the knowledge of
scope of knowledge the architect
architects. Education needs to first
should have a set of professional
be approached from an integrated,
relationships – successful projects
multidisciplinary approach. It needs to
are a cooperative effort. The idea
reflect an integrated practice in which
is
that
an
architect
must
education
the to
practice improve
system.
It
of the
seems
know
both the knowledge of an architect is
when he or she must shift his or her
expanded and a collaborative process
responsibilities. On the one hand, a
is imperative.
good professional must know when his or her knowledge can play a
1. Chad B. Jones, The Role of the Architect:
central role in guiding and managing a
Changes of the Past, Prac ces of the Pres-
project. On the other, he or she must
ent, and Indica ons of the Future (Provo,
know when his or her knowledge is
2006).
sufficient to be marginally involved in
2. Mustafa Pultar, Building Educa on: From
the process and to follow the advice
Fragmenta on to Integra on (Ankara, 1999).
of other professionals.
3. Ibid., 1.
It is not just the experience of Rapp+Rapp
that
continuous
involvement
shows
4. Ibid., 1.
that
the
5. Pieter Stoutjesdijk, Digital Design and Fabri-
of
the
ca on for Ul mate Challenges (Del , 2013),
architect in the building process can
26-50.
yield fruitful results. Frank Lloyd
6. Spiro Kostof, The Architect: Chapters in the
Wright said: ‘The original plan may be
History of the Profession (Oxford University
thrown away as the work proceeds – probably most of those for wonderful
Press, 1977), 61. 7. Ibid., 334
37
8. Bk. I, fol. iv, a paraphrase of Vitruvius as cited in ibid., 125. 8. Spiro Kostof, The Architect: Chapters in the History of the Profession (Oxford University Press, 1977), 106. Ibid., 335 9. Ibid., 334-335 10. Ibid., 1. 11. Ibid., 1. 12. Andrew Saint, Architect and Engineer: A Study in Construc on History (Construc on History Vol. 21, 2005-6), 21-30. 13. George Elvin, ‘Principles of The Integrated Prac ce in Architecture’, Journal of Architecture and Planning Research 27/4 (2010), 287-300. 14. C.R. Widener, ‘The Next Genera on Architect: Using CM to Take Control of Design and Construc on’, paper presented at the AIA Conference in Springfield, Ohio in 2000, as cited in: Chad B. Jones, The Role of the Architect: Changes of the Past Prac ces of the Present, and Indica ons of the Future (Provo, 2006). 15. Alexander Nathaniel Owings, The Spaces In Between: An Architect’s Journey (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973). 16. Spiro Kostof, The Architect: Chapters in the History of the Profession (Oxford University Press, 1977), 326. 17. H. Wamelink, A. v. Doorn, J. Koolwijk, ‘Integrated Project Delivery: The Designer as Integrator’, conference paper (Del , 1-2012). 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid. 21 Ibid.
38
EDUCATION FOR INTEGRATION Nick van Garderen & Boris Koselka In the previous issue of Arch-
1980s and 1990s.
environment, such as government
In the previous edition of Arch-
officials and city planners. The
since atelier Kempe-Thill’s 2008
iprint , Kempe-Thill’s observations
exploration of the architecture
Naar een nieuwe Aanbestedingscultuur (Towards a New Tender Culture), there have been no substantial changes regarding the problems with Dutch tender regulations. André Kempe, in his interview in Archiprint 15, linked this to the deteriorating standard of the architecture culture and climate in the country over the past decades. Since the tender regulations are based on uniformly set EU regulations, altering these might not be the first choice when it comes to reshaping the current architecture culture and climate in the Netherlands. When it comes to a thriving and successful architecture climate, the 1980s and 1990s of Dutch Architecture are often mentioned, featuring firms such as UN Studio, OMA, Mecanoo, MVRDV and Neutelings-Riedijk. The question now is how to adapt the current architecture climate so that it functions similarly to that of the innovative and optimistic building climate in the Netherlands of the
were discussed in conversations
climate in Archiprint 15 did not
with practitioners active not only
possess the scope to improve the
in the Dutch field, but specifical-
complex system of European reg-
ly with experience in other coun-
ulations or the Dutch interpreta-
tries as well. We are well aware
tion thereof. Neither did the pre-
that the tender culture and the
vious issue set out to put forward
architecture culture and climate
suggestions for how to alter these
as a whole is a product of various
regulations in order to achieve
constituents, but in the previous
change in the architecture climate.
issue we accessed the problem
Rather, Archiprint 15 set out to
explicitly from the point of the
obtain the point of view of the
architect.
conversations
practicing professional, the archi-
with André Kempe, Moriko Kira,
tect, in regard to the architecture
Machteld Kors and Birgit Rapp
culture and climate in the Nether-
showcased that the Dutch build-
lands and the functioning of the
ing culture is not necessarily in
profession in the existing system.
disarray, but that there certainly
But during the conversations, the
is a gap between the Dutch and
interviewees put forward various
other architecture climates, which
suggestions about how to trans-
are considered to be much more
form
flourishing. The creativity and
climate in the Netherlands to one
innovation attributed to these
more reminiscent of the frequent-
cultures is thought to have come
ly praised 1980s and 1990s. This
from a variety of different takes
issue of Archiprint , as a contin-
on not only the uniform EU regu-
uation of the previous edition,
lations, but also on the profession
did set out to explore possible
of ‘architect’ in general and on
changes that could be made in
certain specific professions in the
order to once again achieve a
field of construction and the built
more thriving architecture culture
iprint, the conclusion was that publication
The
the
current
architecture
39
40
and climate. Similar to the previ-
vironment that has changed dras-
gap. To transform the architec-
ous issue, the nature of the pro-
tically since the previous century,
ture climate back into one that is
fession and the changes that the
with society and the projects in
thriving, the role of the architect
profession could undergo are spe-
the built environment becoming
must be changed within the very
cifically observed. From all the
more and more complex, the role
profession itself. Whether a gov-
ideas that were brought forward
of the architect must also change.
ernment, city or private architect,
by the interviewees in issue 15,
This complexity requires of the
each has to make a contribution
three notable suggestions stood
architect a reappraisal of his or
to move the architecture culture
out: the reintroduction of the
her own role as a so-called ‘master
of the Netherlands to where we
compelling and authoritative City
builder’, someone who harnesses
want it to be. However, before the
Architect, the increase of a more
knowledge, whether innate or ex-
level of influence attributed to
sociological approach towards the
ternal, to enhance the design and
the architect in the past can be re-
profession, and the revaluation of
the process of design within the
turned to the architects of today,
the profession of architect as a
existing system of rules and regu-
a change of attitude, knowledge
‘master builder’. It is interesting to
lations. In the ever-growing com-
and awareness must be made in
note that each of these different
plexity of projects and society
regard to their contribution to and
ideas deals with the reappraisal
as a whole, this also requires the
influence on the building process-
of how the architect functions.
architect as master builder to be
es and even society as a whole.
Whether on a governmental or on
aware of this complexity, not only
A reinstatement of a more tradi-
an individual level, each of these
on a technical building level but
tional take on the architect, in all
three suggestions boils down to a
also on a more sociological level.
its facets, can only occur if the in-
reassessment by architects them-
The architect must become the
creased complexity of the building
selves of how the architect should
leader of the built environment,
process and the built environment
function. Though some alterations
the individual who has the capac-
naturally and inherently becomes
might require a slightly different
ity to bridge the gap between so-
part of the attitude of the individ-
take on an institutional level, the
ciology and architecture, between
ual practitioner. In order to ac-
majority of the observations put
society and the built environment
complish this, a change of attitude
forward in each of these articles
– whether an individual architect
from the very start of every archi-
suggests that changes can and
working on a single plot or a single
tect’s career is necessary: which
should come from within the field
building, or a team working at the
can only be achieved by the ed-
itself, whether these are changes
scale of the city and the govern-
ucational system. It seems inevi-
of attitude of the individual archi-
ment. An awareness of the power
table that schools of architecture
tect or changes of attitude in the
that can be harnessed within the
need to step up if the call is to be
contribution the individual archi-
architect’s role and the influ-
answered for an integrated prac-
tect can make in regard to their
ence the architect can have both
tice in which both the knowledge
work on governmental or educa-
on the individual project and on
and attitude of the architect is to
tional levels. In a professional en-
policy, is necessary to bridge this
be expanded in general.
BIOGRAPHIES Ananda Jaganathan (1999) studies
Fenne Jansen (1999) studies Archi-
Architecture at Eindhoven University
tecture at Eindhoven University of
of Technology. Her earliest memo-
Technology and is the current Manag-
ries of architecture come from Indian
ing Editor of Archiprint. She grew up
temples and has grown alongside the
in an inspiring environment with her
urban-scapes of Mumbai.
grandfather being an engineer and aunt being an interior architect. While
Bob van der Vleugel (1997) studies
following in their footsteps, she is de-
architecture at Eindhoven University
veloping her own architectural vision .
of Technology. He strives to combine his interests in psychology, sociology
Nick van Garderen (1995) is Master
and technology within the domain of
graduate
architectural theory and design.
Design and Engineering at Eindhoven
in
Architectural
Urban
University of Technology. With interBoris Koselka (1995) studies Archi-
ests both in Urbanism and Architec-
tecture at Eindhoven University of
ture, he opts for a combined track
Technology. During his studies, he
of Urban Design and Architectural
was part of the 10th board of AnArchi
Design within the faculty.
as the Managing Editor of Archiprint. Tomasz Dudek (1997) studies Architecture at Eindhoven University of Technology. With a small background in Civil Engineering , his interest spans now art, culture and technology.
41
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Photographer: Hennie Raaijmakers
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Friends of Archiprint
Archiprint - Expanding Profession II June 2020 // Issue 16 Eindhoven ISSN 2213-5588 Journal for architecture, created by students and graduates of the Department of the Built Environment, Eindhoven University of Technology and study associa on AnArchi. Editor-in-chief Nick van Garderen
Managing editor Fenne Jansen
Editors Ananda Jaganathan, Bob van der Vleugel, Boris Koselka, Fenne Jansen, Nick van Garderen, Tomasz Dudek Writers Ananda Jaganathan, Bob van der Vleugel, Boris Koselka, Fenne Jansen, Nick van Garderen, Tomasz Dudek
Advisory commi ee Bernard Colenbrander, Jacob Voorthuis, Julie e Bekkering, Hüsnü Yegenoglu Design Fenne Jansen Cover design Ananda Jaganathan Copy editor D’Laine Camp Prinঞng Meesterdrukkers, Eindhoven Publisher AnArchi Ver go, Groene Loper 6 5612 AZ Eindhoven The Netherlands archiprint@anarchi.cc
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SHIFTING RESPONSIBILITIES Tomasz Dudek & Ananda Jaganathan