Virtual World WebQuests

Anderson, C. Virtual World WebQuests: Principle elements of research supported learning experiences within virtual learning environments (2008) Educators are beginning to integrate virtual worlds, which have gained popularity in recent years, into instruction. This curriculum seeks to answer the question: What are the principal elements of research supported learning experiences within virtual learning environments? After review of virtual world platforms a curriculum is constructed making use of principle elements derived from literature on related topics. The author concludes that virtual worlds are best used with constructivist teaching methods, must include exploration as an essential activity, and must utilize social interaction.

VIRTUAL WORLD WEBQUESTS: PRINCIPLE ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH SUPPORTED LEARNING EXPERIENCES WITHIN VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

By Carl Anderson

A capstone submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Education.

Hamline University Saint Paul, Minnesota December 2007

Primary Advisor: Dr. William Keilty Secondary Advisor: Dr. Bernie Dodge Peer Reviewer: Cara Hagen

Copyright by CARL ANDERSON 2007 All rights reserved

To my daughter: I hope you find your school experiences engaging and enchanting.

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AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This capstone project would not have been possible without the enduring patience and personal sacrifice of my family. I especially want to thank my wife who at many times must have felt like a single parent. I would also like to thank my capstone committee for their time, advice. All of the anonymous avatars in Active Worlds who assisted me with all my navigation, construction, and programming problems also deserve special thanks.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS..................................................................................................iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... iv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1 My Early Experience With Computers ........................................................................... 1 Philosophical dilemma. ............................................................................................... 2 Renewed interest ......................................................................................................... 2 Questions Surface About the Use of Virtual Worlds ...................................................... 5 Unexpected frustrations............................................................................................... 6 Questions......................................................................................................................... 6 Overview of Capstone Chapters...................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................... 8 Brief overview of literature review ................................................................................. 8 Digital natives, immigrants, & tweeners......................................................................... 9 Digital age literacy .................................................................................................... 10 Digital Teaching Machines. .......................................................................................... 12 Digital games............................................................................................................. 14 What games teach...................................................................................................... 14 Motivation ................................................................................................................. 16 Gender differences .................................................................................................... 19 Students with disabilities........................................................................................... 19 iv

Why games? .............................................................................................................. 20 MMORPGs, VR, VLEs, and virtual worlds ................................................................. 22 Educational applications of virtual worlds................................................................ 23 Telepresence & avatars ............................................................................................. 26 VR addiction ............................................................................................................. 28 Cost and appropriateness for instruction................................................................... 28 Summary ................................................................................................................... 29 Learning Environments ................................................................................................. 30 Inquiry and skepticism .............................................................................................. 40 Argument against constructivism.............................................................................. 42 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 42 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 45 Reflective Practice......................................................................................................... 45 Approaches to Curriculum Development...................................................................... 47 Learning objectives ................................................................................................... 48 Assessment .................................................................................................................... 49 Formative assessments .............................................................................................. 50 Summative assessments ............................................................................................ 50 Activities ....................................................................................................................... 51 Instructional role of the teacher................................................................................. 52 Discourse strategies in VLEs .................................................................................... 52 Participants .................................................................................................................... 54 Three-Dimensional Pedagogical Agents....................................................................... 55 Wandering ................................................................................................................. 56

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Software Evaluation ...................................................................................................... 56 Limitations ................................................................................................................ 57 Software evaluation criteria ...................................................................................... 57 Virtual feng shui........................................................................................................ 58 Data collection........................................................................................................... 60 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 61 CHAPTER FOUR: THE CURRICULUM ...................................................................... 62 Virtual World Platform Evaluation ............................................................................... 62 Appropriateness............................................................................................................. 63 Avatar selection......................................................................................................... 66 Presence..................................................................................................................... 66 Ability to build .......................................................................................................... 67 Two-dimensional web integration............................................................................. 69 System requirements ................................................................................................. 70 Summary ................................................................................................................... 71 Virtual World WebQuests............................................................................................. 71 Virtual real estate acquisition.................................................................................... 72 Building Objects........................................................................................................ 73 The integrated internet browser................................................................................. 74 Linear Perspective and Renaissance Art ................................................................... 74 Greek and Roman Architecture................................................................................. 78 Magnum Opus ........................................................................................................... 79 Summary ................................................................................................................... 81

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CHAPTER FIVE: EVALUATION.................................................................................. 83 Secondary Questions ................................................................................................. 84 Achievement.............................................................................................................. 85 Motivation ................................................................................................................. 85 Curriculum ................................................................................................................ 86 Summary ................................................................................................................... 86 Professional Growth...................................................................................................... 87 Curriculum Evaluation .................................................................................................. 90 The platform.............................................................................................................. 90 Learning objectives ................................................................................................... 91 Assessment ................................................................................................................ 91 Constructivism .......................................................................................................... 92 Wandering ................................................................................................................. 92 What would I do differently...................................................................................... 93 Summary ................................................................................................................... 93 Integration Plan ............................................................................................................. 94 Limitations .................................................................................................................... 96 Possible Implications..................................................................................................... 97 APPENDIX A: STUDIES DONE SHOWING VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONEMNTS ARE NOT SUITABLE FOR DIRECT INSTRUCTION.................................................................... 99 APPENDIX B: MINNESOTA ACADEMIC STANDARDS: VISUAL ARTS 6-12 .. 106 APPENDIX C: SECOND LIFE..................................................................................... 110 APPENDIX D: KANEVA ............................................................................................. 116 APPENDIX E: MOOVE................................................................................................ 122

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APPENDIX F: ACTIVE WORLDS .............................................................................. 128 APPENDIX G: ACTIVE WORLDS EDUCATION ..................................................... 136 APPENDIX H: DIGITAL SPACE TRAVELER 2.03 .................................................. 144 APPENDIX I: HABBO HOTEL ................................................................................... 146 APPENDIX J: THERE................................................................................................... 148 APPENDIX K: LINEAR PERSPECTIVE AND RENAISSANCE ART ..................... 152 APPENDIX L: IMPRESSIONIST ARTIST PROFILES .............................................. 178 APPENDIX M: GREEK AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE ....................................... 206 APPENDIX N: MAGNUM OPUS ................................................................................ 224 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 238

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1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION For the past ten years I have devoted my career to working with students using real world hands-on experiential learning. I have been teaching art and working as an artist in various communities across Minnesota for nearly a decade. In that time I have tried to ground myself, and my practice, in what is fundamental to any art form, the material and the conceptual ideas. I have prided myself in finding new and experimental ways of working with clay or paint and getting students excited about that kind of work. Out of a reverence for the physical and concrete I have tried to avoid the use of the computer or computer technologies except where they are absolutely necessary. I have tried to limit my use of the computer to digital imaging, word processing, research, and to create slide presentations. Most of my work with computers has been limited to using the machine as a teaching aide and not as a learning tool for my students.

I had not always had this reluctance to use technology. In fact, when I was younger I saw the computer as a life saving tool. I even once thought I was going to become a computer programmer. In this chapter I will explain how this all changed. I will also explain how a student project peeked my interest in how to use three-dimensional virtual environments to impact student motivation, behavior, and learning, especially for those deemed at-risk. Ultimately, the question this capstone seeks to answer is: What are the principal elements of research supported learning experiences within virtual learning environments?

My Early Experience With Computers My interest in computer technologies came at a young age. In 1985, when I was in third grade, my family purchased our first personal computer. It was the Apple IIe and my life was forever changed. From first grade I was something of an enigma to my teachers. I was placed in a resource room for part of the school day where my classmates ranged in mental and academic abilities from severely mentally challenged to having dyslexia or behavior issues. My problems had to do with my inability to write legibly. I could draw beautifully and could write numbers legibly enough but when it came to writing words or sentences my hand did not want to cooperate. I have since learned that what I have is a condition called dysgraphia but I was never diagnosed. The personal computer opened doors for me and allowed me to cope with my disability. If

2 I could type I could write. Soon I was mainstreamed totally and placed in the highest-level reading and math classes.

My interest in the personal computer grew and by the time I was in high school it was clear to me that my future career would involve computers in some way. I soon began to learn how to program simple video games and graphic displays. I began my undergraduate studies in 1995 as a computer science major. I did very well in my classes and was on track to having my degree when I encountered a philosophical dilemma from which I have not fully recovered.

Philosophical dilemma. One day, in the middle of my junior year of college, I was sitting in the computer lab working on a machine language program, which would allow the mouse to move an object around the screen when I noticed a student in the seat next to me behaving oddly. He was interacting with the machine as if it were a person. It was then that I had a revelation that this was not an isolated phenomenon; more than 20% of the students in the computer science department lab were appearing to be having the same experience. I asked the student next to me what he was working on and he said he was talking with his friend online. They were engaging in some sort of role-play in an online virtual environment, though the graphics were quite crude, that revolved around a Dungeons and Dragons theme. He said his friend’s name was hbot25. When I asked how long he has been online using this program he replied that he started shortly after lunch. It was now 11:00 pm. He then proceeded to tell me about hbot25 and spoke of him as if he were a real, in the flesh, person. However, he did not know any real information about hbot25 nor did I think a very interesting life story could be flushed out of this individual either. It occurred to me that many of my classmates were creating online personas that were more interesting than their own real identities and in some way letting their online personas take over as their primary lives. I dropped computer science as my major. I did not even complete the one additional course needed to declare it as a minor, and ran the other direction. I took my minor, art, as my major and never looked back.

Renewed interest: Learner-centered peer teaching. My interest in computer technology resurfaced in the spring of 2006. I was teaching at a small area learning center in a first tier suburb of an upper Midwest

3 city. In this school I taught at-risk students. Most of my students were never successful in the mainstream high school and so we were encouraged to try innovative strategies with them in an attempt to strike an academic cord. In February of 2006, I read an article by Mel Levine (2003), Celebrating Diverse Minds, which made me look at teaching and learners in a new light. In this article Levine speaks about the power of empowering students to become experts and focusing on their strengths instead of weaknesses, especially for special needs and at risk students. I wanted to incorporate this mindset into a method of teaching I could use to increase motivation and self esteem in my students. I offered a class inspired greatly

by Mel Levin’s charge that every student should be an expert at something. In this class students took turns teaching for one-week intervals on a topic of their choosing. I planned out a very loose set of activities. First, we spent a week doing metacognitive reflection, a series of activities meant to get students to understand more about how they think and learn. Second, I gave all the students a week to research and prepare lesson plans, design activities, and create assessment tools. Then we spent the remainder of the course taking turns teaching. When I felt it necessary, I took a turn teaching, when things were steering in a less than appropriate direction, I redirected them, but for the most part my participation in the class was as a co-learner. I followed along, sat among the other students, did the assignments and collaborated on class projects.

In the first week of metacognitive reflection the students made three lists: a list of qualities present in their own positive learning experiences, a list of qualities present in their own negative learning experiences, and an agreed list of things to include in everyone’s lesson plans. One item of conversation resulting from this week’s activities revolved around technology. Students were complaining that they could not use their cell phones, iPods, or access MySpace at school. We had a lengthy discussion as to why these technologies were banned at school. We then all agreed to make finding at least one way of incorporating a new technology in a way they have never seen a teacher use before a part of our lessons.

The result of this challenge was amazing and provided for me the greatest learning experience I have had while teaching in quite some time. It opened the door to many great web resources I did not know existed, I came away with practical uses for cell phones and iPods in the classroom, and as a result of

4 watching my students teach with these tools I found a deeper understanding of constructivist learning environments. Activities included learning about other cultures through video streaming, scavenger hunts using camera phones, checking for understanding using text messaging, podcasting, and creating community using social networking software.

One student, however, took this assignment in a direction I would never have imagined. On Monday he took us into the computer lab and had everyone log onto a web-based massive multiplayer online roleplaying game (MMORPG) called Runescape. That day he told us to create accounts and just become accustomed to how the game worked. Runescape is a massive online world set in the middle ages. It is free to play and players can customize avatars, chat with other users from around the globe, trade items, and collect money, weapons, and objects by completing tasks.

On Tuesday he gave us directions to go to a predetermined location in the virtual world. The online world is so massive it took most of the hour for us all to get there. Wednesday came and we were all already in the same virtual place. From there he proceeded to deliver a tutorial on how to use Adobe Photoshop. This student used a virtual character in a virtual environment to get over the anxiety he had talking to the class. I was in awe of his ingenuity and in awe of the possibilities this type of environment might have for teaching.

The following fall I decided to offer this class again. This time I had an entirely different group of students. We followed the same procedure and the students more or less came up with the same conclusions with regard to the metacognitive reflection activity. Instead of wanting to find new ways of using technology in the classroom, this class all decided that they wanted to find a way to make class more like a video game since they felt video games were what held their attention the most. Some students organized activities around games. We did a lot of activities like scavenger hunts and making board games. One student in this class, without knowledge of last spring’s class, delivered his instruction using Runescape. This time the student developed a reward system where students were awarded coins, weapons, spells, and other items that could be used in the game. Students giving favorable answers to questions posed in the virtual environment were awarded with these items. However, while students in the spring course were all very cooperative

5 students in this class exhibited quite a bit of off-task behavior. Many of these students had histories of severe off-task behavior in traditional classrooms. To an outside observer it would have appeared that all students were diligently and attentively on task. What I observed as a participant in this Runescape activity was that many of these students’ avatars ended up wandering away from the group. This was a source of great frustration for the student leading class. At one point the student stood up, pounded his fist on the table, and said, “If you are not going to take this seriously we will just do worksheets!”

This second occurrence of the use of MMORPGs in peer-teaching experiences left me with a couple of serious questions. After the first time a student used this game to deliver instruction I wrote it off as a curiosity, a fluke of ingenuity. With the second occurrence, I am led to believe that MMORPGs and other virtual worlds should be looked at seriously for their educational potential. This second occurrence also raises questions about the ability of this program to focus a student’s attention. How do MMORPGs, virtual learning environments (VLEs), and virtual worlds affect student behavior? How do we increase student ontask behavior and increase student achievement using VLEs? Questions Surface About the Use of Virtual Worlds Many of the students in both classes had long histories of discipline issues and distracting behaviors, but when I looked up from the computer screen in both classes everyone appeared to be engaged. I wonder if the disembodiment of placing oneself in a virtual environment caused these students to focus more or if they were just finding ways to be off-task within the virtual world. The second experience with Runescape appears to confirm the latter. What was different between the two experiences that lead to one group to be on task and the other to misbehave within the digital environment? Then my experience in my undergraduate computer science class came to mind. The only things that appeared to have changed were the technology grew more advanced and now there was a real-world practical purpose for using such an environment. To take this one step further, the second student had gone ahead in his own time and collected many items through game play.

On Thursday he gave a quiz where he awarded students who gave correct answers coins, weapons, and other

6 objects he had collected. This made the instruction even more like game play. The rest of the week we spent capturing screen shots of the game and editing them in Photoshop to demonstrate what we had learned.

Unexpected frustrations. There were some obvious downsides I observed to using Runescape for this kind of learning. People from all over the world log on to this game to role-play. Players are granted the ability to kill, rob, or fight other characters. Occasionally, while giving a lesson, one of our classmates was stabbed by a passing knight or thief. They subsequently had to fight their way back to our meeting place, missing out on much of the lesson. Passers by would join our conversation not knowing its context and provide unwelcome feedback. However, for the most part these were isolated incidents that just added to the fun of the experience.

Questions This experience made me wonder what the possibilities are with using virtual, game-like environments as learning environments. Can a content-rich course be developed and taught using virtual worlds? Will students with behavior issues only transfer these issues to the virtual environment? Will the game-like platform of the experience increase motivation or will the student become bored with the game once its novelty wears off? Will the disembodiment caused by virtual environments cause an otherwise poor student to excel? While the above mentioned questions will be pursued, ultimately this capstone focuses on the question: What are the principal elements of research supported learning experiences within virtual learning environments?

Overview of Capstone Chapters Existing literature on the topic of digital natives, game-based education, VLEs, and learning theory are reviewed in chapter two. Chapter three outlines my methodology for evaluating virtual world platforms for their use as a VLE and the framework for writing curriculum to be used in this environment. It also describes tools I used to create this learning experience. In chapter four I present the results of the software evaluation

7 giving rich description of the virtual world I choose to use. The curriculum will be laid out with both student and teacher instructions, performance objectives, assessments, and activities. Chapter five is on how well this curriculum makes use of the principal elements of research supported learning experiences within virtual learning environments.

8 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW Brief overview of literature review Drawing from studies done using both fully immersive virtual reality (VR) and desktop VR it is clear that motivation will persist with virtual learning environments (VLEs) even after their novelty wears off.

Structuring coursework in a game-like format will add to student motivation but it may also have other benefits for learning as the immediate feedback games provide are ideal for formative assessment. Research has also shown that some students thrive in VLEs who would not normally fare well in a traditional classroom. Content-rich curriculum can be developed using virtual worlds but it will require the teacher to make a pedagogical shift. This shift will necessitate a move away from reliance on heavy direct instruction to a more constructivist learning environment where students work at their own pace and instruction is tailored to the individual. This might mean that students in a classroom are not all working on the same thing at the same time. The struggle for the teacher will be to ensure that all students meet content standards in their use of this tool.

This chapter begins by examining how digital technology has changed learners and created a cultural divide separating learners into Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants. The first part of this chapter seeks to identify what it is we need to know about the cognitive and social differences between these two groups to design effective learning experiences. I explore what the literature says about digital games, edutainment, and learning. Literature involving various forms of VR or virtual worlds is discussed as well as design implications for education. A description of how learning environment theory and constructivist pedagogies relate to this topic is included.

My experiences with students using Runescape as a learning environment left me with many questions. Most significant of which, and the research question this capstone seeks to answer, is: What are the principal elements of research supported learning experiences within virtual learning environments?

Review of literature on the subjects of VR, VLEs, massively multiplayer online games (MMORPGs), digital natives, and game-based learning answers many of my secondary questions and provide context for

9 understanding my chief research question. To gain a deeper understanding of this phenomena I explore how digital technologies have influenced the way our younger generation think and learn and how these technologies might be applied to learning situations. Most of the literature regarding VLEs advocate for the use of constructivist methods. I explore constructivism toward the end of the chapter to help frame the direction of chapter three as constructivist methodologies will influence my work greatly. The major sections of this chapter include: 1. Digital natives, immigrants, & tweeners; 2. Digital teaching machines; 3.

MMORPGs, VR, VLEs, and virtual worlds; 4. Learning environments; and 5. Constructivist learning and VLEs. Digital natives, immigrants, & tweeners A growing number of educators, psychologists, sociologists, and brain researchers are coming to the conclusion that today’s young people are fundamentally different than generations of people who came before them (Cross, 2006; Eshet, 2002; Foreman, 2004; Gee, 2005; Graetz, 2006; McHale, 2005; Prensky, 2005a; Prensky, 2005b; and Prensky, 2006). Marc Prensky (2001) uses the term “Digital Native” to describe the younger generation and “Digital Immigrant” to describe those who were born before the rise of the Internet.

He asserts that the Internet, and other digital media, fundamentally changed how our children think and therefore teachers and parents need to adjust methods of instruction to better reach them. “[T]here is a strong case to be made that our children’s brains have actually been physically changed by their digital environment and experiences” (Prensky, 2006, p. 28). Their formative experiences with digital technology have resulted in an expectation of immediate feedback and interactive learning experiences (p. 36). Therefore, learning experiences within VLEs should support user interaction and the ability to provide real-time performance feedback.

In addition to Digital Natives and Immigrants, Cross (2006) identifies a third category: tweeners.

Tweeners typify those who fall somewhere between the Digital Native and Immigrant classifications.

Tweeners can be Immigrants who have successfully adapted to the new digital environment or Natives who have, as a result of the digital divide, been digitally deprived. Tweeners are of particular importance in the

10 crossover to a digital society. They act as the interpreters as they can sympathize with both Immigrant and Native needs. Many of the younger teachers and professors entering school and university systems fall under the classification of Tweeners. Paul Gee notes that Tweeners see teaching, technology, and intellectual research as being much more tightly related than previous generations of teachers (Foreman, 2004).

However, if Selwyn’s (2006) estimates are correct, only one third to one half of today’s secondary students fit Prensky’s description of a digital native. In fact, issues of digital equity and access have caused students to fall into a wide spectrum of digital literacy. Factors contributing to this divide include economic disparity, difference in access, and difference in school pedagogy. Trotter (2007, June 26) reports that disparities between economically deprived and economically rich school districts can be seen in the levels of technology and access but also in how teachers use technology with students. This is especially apparent in surrounding educational uses of Web 2.0 tools. According to Trotter, schools in rich districts are utilizing the educational potential of Web 2.0 far more than those in poor districts. Schools in poorer districts tend to spend their technology money on educational software that engages students in, “skill and fact drills rather than creative, constructivist experiences more often available to white or middle-class children” (¶ 15).

Therefore, when we talk about students in our schools today being digital natives we must remember that not all natives are equally fluent in their native language.

Digital age literacy. Prensky (2006) argues that our traditional school system is inadequately educating our children. Natives become bored when traditional pedagogical methods fail to present information as quickly as they expect it. He explains that Immigrants tend to process things more linearly while Natives processes things more laterally. Multi-tasking comes more naturally to the Natives. They are used to drawing upon multiple sources of information in seemingly random ways. They also place more importance on images than text where Immigrants place more emphasis on text (p. 29). It can be concluded then that if one were to plan curriculum and instruction for an audience of Digital Natives that environment should be rich in imagery to support text and ideas.

11 Prensky’s assertions that Natives read differently than Immigrants are verified by Eshet (2002). Eshet attributes this shift to the prevalence of hypertext media, the invention of the cut and paste function on computers, and digital graphic interfaces such as Microsoft Windows. The graphic icons used by software designers like the trashcan icon or the rotating hourglass make use of common metaphors (Pasarelli, 1994, as cited by Fialho, 1995). Eshet (2002) predicts these technologies will ultimately result in an evolution in written communication that is more graphically oriented. To survive well within this environment, Eshet contends, one must develop a sort of “photo-visual literacy.” To test this theory Eshet devised an experiment involving subjects of three age groups consisting of Natives (Children), Tweeners (College Students), and Immigrants (Adults) who were given literature and a subsequent exam. One of these texts used a more traditional text-based interface and the other used a more graphic hypermedia interface. The studies showed that young people and people with dyslexia performed better with the more graphic interface while the adults performed better with the more traditional linear text. Most interesting was that with the more graphic hypertext interface the weakest performing group was the adults. Immigrants’ preference for linear reading and thinking hinders them when using a hypertext interface. Eshet concludes that these results may suggest that exposure of learners to rigid, linear learning methods harm their cognitive flexibility and affect their ability to cope with ill-structured problems (¶ 12).

The cognitive shift in the information processing abilities of Digital Natives, argue Green & McNeese (2007), is due largely to electronic games. “Within a gaming environment, graphics are dominant and text is often complementary. As a result, game players have developed their visual intelligence because in order to succeed, they must look at icons first” (¶ 14). They contend that this change in how people learn necessitates a change in how teachers present information. These findings by Green & McNeese (2007) and Eshet (2002) suggest that if one has a message that needs to be conveyed to both Immigrants and Natives it would be best to have separate content delivery methods. For instance, while the curriculum students see might be hypertext and rely heavily on visual imagery, the teacher instructions should probably be more linear and traditional.

12 Woodal (2000) points out students, especially at-risk students, who are used to television, iPods, cell phones, video games, and other forms of digital media, will prefer multimedia to the book-andchalkboard pedagogy of the Immigrants. Notar, C. E., Restauri, S., Wilson, J. D., & Friery, K. A. (2002) explain that these devices have, as opposed to common belief, increased the Digital Native’s attention span.

Students have become accustomed to a high level of interest and sustained engagement. “Children and adults playing sophisticated games will persist past our usual concept of tolerable frustration to achieve a goal in a game” (¶ 6). This affirms Prensky’s (2006) claim that kids do want to be engaged and are engaged when playing video games. According to Prensky the games kids play not only engage them but teach them valuable lessons in the process. If our school system does not find a way to engage students in this way, our kids will find someplace else to get their real education (Prensky, 2005a). Students are becoming agitated with the traditional classroom when they have other, sometimes more efficient, ways of learning.

Chris Dede (2000a) recognized this problem and predicted that before 2010 devices capable of multisensory immersion will be present in both rich and poor homes in both urban and rural areas. Now, in 2007, with the production and sales of the Nintendo Wii, we are starting to see this come to fruition. “To compete with the captivating, but mindless types of entertainment that will draw on this power, educators will need beautiful, fantastic, intriguing environments for learning” (¶ 32). Very soon, students entering college will be unimpressed by lecture style chalk and talk teaching methods, and multiple choice assessments. Dede (N.D.) predicts this will drive profound changes in education toward more instances of distributed learning. A pedagogical shift will soon be necessary not solely for student motivational needs but also for fiscal reasons.

Digital Teaching Machines.

If Clayton Christiansen (2005) is correct, this shift in pedagogy will be more driven by economics. He points out that the cost of schooling a child is and has been rising at a rate higher than the rate of inflation across the rest of our economy. This has meant ever-increasing class sizes and fewer and fewer options for students in our traditional schools. Our school systems’ largest cost overhead, point out Parkinson & Hudson (2002), is teacher salaries. The inability of revenue sources to keep up with inflation has resulted in greater

13 student-staff ratios, fewer contact hours, and a diminished quality of education. Christiansen’s (2005) argument highlights an argument made by B. F. Skinner more than thirty-seven years earlier. Both Christiansen and Skinner (1968a) assert that education must become more efficient to cope with the fiscal demands of today’s economic environment. Teachers and schools must find a way of educating more students with fewer teachers. “In any other field a demand for increased production would have led at once to the invention of labor saving capital equipment. Education has reached this stage very late, possibly through a misconception of its task” (Skinner, 1968a, p. 29). I believe VLEs could be one answer to this problem.

Skinner proposes that this solution can be found in teaching machines. The incorporation of machines can increase teacher productivity much in the same way robotics has increased the productivity of factory workers. Teachers can pass content delivery tasks on to programmed machines as well as use machines to assist with assessment. With today’s technology, teaching machines can be developed that require students to be active in their learning, not mere passive receivers of information (Skinner, 1968a, p. 30). Teaching machines should allow students to compose their answers and not be simple delivery mechanisms for multiple choice exams.

Skinner notes that studies have shown that the time it takes for a teacher to correct a traditional test and get it back to a student, sometimes days later, is too long for behavior to be appreciably modified (Skinner, 1968a, p. 30). Teaching machines can give immediate feedback. These machines must allow students to pass through a sequence of steps scaffolding understanding (pp. 33-34). Consequences for not acquiring desired understanding must be built in to supply motivation (p. 5). The programmer of such machines will most certainly need to have knowledge of how students learn and how behavior is modified (p.

50). Skinner (1968b) believes the programmer is better positioned to excite students about learning than the traditional teacher. He argues that our traditional school system’s aversive techniques have not turned out appreciable numbers of self motivated life-long learners. Therefore, teachers need to be more like programmers.

14 For instruction to be intrinsically motivating, Malone & Lepper (1987) argue, educators sometimes need to create toys that challenge learners to engage in activities in which they would not normally want to participate. Examples of this might be games, manipulatives, or learning objects. At other times educators need to create tools, such as text editors, that eliminate tedious and unnecessary activities that get in the way of learning. Such tools eliminate factors that hinder pre-existing intrinsic motivation (p. 235). In designing learning activities within a VLE educators must take into consideration when a toy is needed and where tools are most effective. For some learning tasks such a toy might be a digital game or a simulation and tools might be wikis, blogs, WebQuests, videocasts, podcasts, or RSS feeds. The VLE in itself can be both a toy and a tool depending on how it is used to achieve curricular goals.

Digital games. Skinner’s (1968b) teaching machines sound much like today’s video games. Games have come a long way since Skinner wrote about teaching machines in 1968. Today’s game and computer systems allow players the ability to interact in complex ways with objects and environments, provide immediate feedback, and explore three-dimensional virtual worlds. Prensky (2006) points out that for desired changes in cognitive functions in the brain to occur, some researchers believe it takes sharply focused attention for one hundred minutes a day, five days a week, for five to ten weeks. Most video games take that kind of commitment. Our learning experiences in schools should engage students to focus just as strongly on curricular tasks.

What games teach. Games teach visual selective attention, enlightened trial and error, situational awareness, multitasking, parallel processing, and collaboration with others, says Prensky (pp.8-9).

Additionally, Green & McNeese (2007) claim that game play helps improve reflexes, coordination, tactile reasoning, logical thinking, persistence, and analytical skills. “Game cultures promote various types of information literacy, develop information seeking habits and production practices (like writing), and require good, old-fashioned research skills, albeit using a wide spectrum of content” (Squire & Steinkuehler, 2005).

Squire & Steinkuehler also speculate that using game-based pedagogies may help develop the sort of digital age literacy described by Eshet (2002). Gee (as cited by Squire et. al., 2005) adds that in addition to pushing

15 boundaries of interactivity, simulation, artificial intelligence, and virtual world design, they also teach students practices, literacies, and cultural knowledge. In addition, according to surveys by Beck & Wade (as cited by Squire, Kurt; Giovanetto, Levi; Devane, Ben; Durga, Shree, 2005) games teach cultural values such as entrepreneurship and promote acquisition of expert knowledge. Games serve many functions, according to Maushak (2001), such as tutoring, amusing, skill development, improving self-esteem, and adjusting attitudes.

Games draw upon a wide variety of methods to teach these concepts, skills, and values. Citing examples from Bradsford, Brown, Cocking, Gee, & Sqire, Sqiure et. al. (2005) explain that games teach through immersion and by providing spaces where knowledge is useful. Through immersion, games model expert problem solving and provide structured cues for problems so that players can build upon prior understanding. They note that these are also features common in all effective learning environments. Games also teach by promoting students to examine different perspectives and alternatives (Shaffer, 2006).

However, Healey (1998, as cited by Okan, 2003) fears that electronic stimulation threatens selective attention. Sherry Turkle (2003, as cited by Squire et. al., 2005), while a pioneer in the field of computer mediated instruction, cites a similar concern. She wonders if games like Sim City are inadvertently fostering misconceptions such as, “raising taxes always leads to riots.� We know relatively little about the consequences game play has for cognition and there are very few studies that shed light on the topic (Squire, 2004 as cited by Squire et. al., 2005). Dede, C. (N.D), while supporting the use of technology for instruction, cautions against too heavy a reliance on it for instruction. He contends that technology mediated instruction should supplement but not replace traditional face-to-face interactions in real settings.

Squire et. al. (2005) and Prensky (2006) both recognize the culture surrounding games as a major source of how games teach as well. It is common for games to have fan sites where gamers share information through blogs, sharing screen shots, hints, links to related information, and providing feedback to each other.

These online communities introduce players to content area terminology, increase in curricular content, and provide a framework for learning more about topics such as history, math, science, art, etc. Prensky explains,

16 “One of the hallmarks of a good game is that it creates a game community. To play this game, players have to get information from other sources. They have to explore. They have to communicate” (Foreman, 2004). It would be nice if students had this kind of enthusiasm for school.

So, what is it about games that make them so engaging? In a study done by Malone & Lepper (1987) they found that ten factors contribute to the engagement level of video games: 1. explicit goals; 2. score is kept; 3. audio effects; 4. elements of randomness; 5. pace; 6. quality of visual effects; 7. competition; 8. variable difficulty level; 9. cooperation; and 10. fantasy (p. 226). Games ought to contain elements of suspense, competition, drama, and cooperation, say Baranich & Currie (as cited by Green & McNeese, 2007), and edutainment games should additionally include the use of knowledge acquisition, and intellectual skills.

In high quality digital games the educational component is hidden, according to Gee (as cited by Green & McNeese, 2007). As opposed to a book or a lecture, games are nonlinear. They encourage exploration through rewards and allow players to experience multiple perspectives. They encourage creativity and more than one correct answer or way of doing something. They should provide interactive feedback to choices the player makes (Schaller & Brunnell, 2003; Squire et. al. 2005; Prensky, 2006). “Removing choice from gamebased environments renders them somewhat meaningless and threatens to nullify exactly that which makes them engaging” (Squire et. al., 2005, ¶ 40). Should elements of instruction within VLEs require the motivation digital games bring, educators should develop and evaluate software according to these recommendations.

Motivation. Perhaps the most obvious argument for the use of digital games in education is the effect they have on motivation. If students find our learning environments enchanting, they will be more motivated to learn. Malone & Lepper (1987) found that given a choice, most students would choose to receive instruction in a game format rather than drill and practice (p. 227). Malone & Lepper distinguish between two different types of intrinsic motivation: individual and interpersonal. Factors contributing to individual motivation include: challenge, fantasy, curiosity, and control. Factors contributing to interpersonal motivation are: cooperation, competition, and recognition (p.224).

17 For an activity to utilize challenge to be intrinsically motivating, “it must provide goals such that goal attainment is uncertain” (p. 232). Uncertainty can be created through variable difficulty levels, multiple levels of goals, hidden information, or randomness. Frequent, clear, constructive, and encouraging performance feedback must also be given. Such feedback must also build a learner’s self-esteem. Malone & Lepper identify two distinct types of curiosity contributing to intrinsic motivation: sensory and cognitive.

Sensory curiosity involves visual and audible elements of a learning environment while cognitive curiosity is sparked by inconsistency, incompleteness, and parsimony (pp. 235-37). Learner control is also important.

Students need to be allowed to make choices, however they found that perceived control is more important than actual control (p 238). Malone & Lepper observed that game scenarios or fantasies that were directly related to the content were more intrinsically motivating than those whose fantasy elements were not an actual part of the game play (p. 240). Fantasies are also more effective when imaginary characters possess elements with which the learner can identify (p. 241). Certain fantasy scenarios are likely to motivate some students more than others. Therefore, they suggest that if instructional designers provide a choice to learners to play a game under different fantasy scenarios they are likely to have broader appeal (p. 241).

It is important to note that no single quality is universally motivating for all students (Malone & Lepper, 1987, p. 280). Some students may find elements of a particular game off-putting. Malone & Lepper also caution that games can backfire by reducing intrinsic motivation in the subject once the “bells and whistles” of the computer are removed (p. 261). Caution must be used in the decision to supplement traditional instruction with games and if so what games are chosen so that student interest in the subject matter remains after the games are removed.

Heightened motivation, declares Notar et. al. (2002), creates an emotional component that increases retention. It also increases the amount of time a student is engaged. They suggest that with the use of rich learning activities that promote active learning, namely authentic assessments and constructivist pedagogies, transfer of knowledge is more likely to occur. Activities need to be related and should be considered building

18 blocks for future activities. In a distance learning scenario the use of VLEs would help facilitate active learning through authentic tasks as well as increase motivation.

Maushak (2001) notes that since learning occurs with repetition there is a need for educators to motivate students to perform tasks with repetition. She feels educational software can capture and hold a student’s attention if it is disguised as games. “Past research has suggested that games improve student motivation, affective and cognitive learning” (¶ 8). This notion is upheld by Squire et. al. (2005). They found, in a study using the computer game Civilization III, that having students work in pairs could further increase engagement. Collaborative game play provided students with someone to discuss strategy and reflect. It also reduced tendencies for players to internalize their mistakes. Students who participated in the study done by Squire et. al. (2005) did so by choice. They worry that if students were required to play, as in part of a course for credit, that mandatory participation could diminish a game’s motivational benefits.

Therefore, it would often be beneficial to give students a choice of methods to receive instruction whether it be a choice between different games or an option to learn through reading, discussion, or lecture. This is especially important since no two students will find any learning task or game intrinsically motivating for the same reasons.

The worries that Squire et. al. (2005) express about requiring game play for course credit are affirmed by studies done by Deci, E., Benware, C., & Landy, D. (1974). Deci et. al. discovered that there was a negative relationship between the amount of extrinsic reward received for an activity and the amount of intrinsic motivation he had for performing the activity. When a person receives high rewards for doing something they were initially intrinsically motivated to do their intrinsic motivation diminishes (¶ 7).

Therefore, if VLEs are to be utilized for instruction they should be presented to students as a choice and not a requirement. Requiring a student to learn course content through the use of a specific technology tool will diminish the intrinsic motivation provided by that tool. Should the student be intrinsically motivated by the content the student would best be served by not introducing the VLE. If the student is not motivated by the

19 content, having the VLE as an option will likely provide some intrinsic motivation to learn the content mediated through the VLE. Gender differences. Gender preference appears to play a role in how intrinsically motivating students find VLEs. Squire et. al. (2005) found the multiplayer game format amplified motivation for male students but most female participants were uninterested by this form of play. However, they speculate that disinterest was due to the competitive and male gendered nature of the game they used in their study. Funk, J. B., Bermann, J. N., & Buchman, D. D. (1997) also found gender differences affect game preference. Girls showed a stronger preference for educational games and cartoon-like fantasy games where boys preferred more realistic human or sports violence games. Their study showed a decrease in interest in educational games with both boys and girls with increased ages. Providing students with a choice of activities could improve the intrinsic motivation of VLEs. Students with disabilities. Dede, C. (2000a) describes how, through the use of avatars in VLEs, disabled students can experience and participate in things not physically possible for them in a normal classroom. In a sense, avatars free learners from the corporeal confines of their physical bodies. Dede, C. (N.D.) views avatars as a tool that will one day reshape how educators conduct distance learning. With this platform educators can engage students in both synchronous and asynchronous interaction.

VLEs might also improve learning for individuals with autism or other learning differences. People with autism, explain Strickland, Marcus, Mesibov, & Hogan (1996), often have sensory perception problems and think in visual patterns. VLEs allow educators to limit the sensory information for learners and provide a medium for teaching concepts through visual cues. Moore, D., Cheng, Y., McGrath, P., & Powell, N. J. (2005) note that many people with autism have a natural affinity for the controlled environment provided by the computer. A VLE provides a place where social communication impairment can be circumvented and communication with others established. Lannen, T., Brown, D., & Powell, H. (2002) also found VLEs support learning for students with other learning difficulties.

20 Why games? Allen & Main (1974) observed that when students, especially at-risk students, play challenging games they are more likely to develop a positive self image and see themselves as people who can handle tough situations. Educational gaming, they found, also has a profoundly positive effect on absenteeism. They identify three key components of any learning environment that makes use of games for instruction. For games to be effective they should pose problems, elicit cooperation, and foster competition.

These three components are also components of effective constructivist learning environments.

Games allow players to have experiences they would not normally have and learn new concepts in an experiential way. Players are allowed to explore “what if” scenarios without real world consequences.

Information learned through games, argues Shaffer (2006), is retained better because it is, “tied to a particular epistemology” (p. 55). They also empower players by giving them powers they would not normally have such as flying or the ability to move through walls. Game play provides challenge and competition without risk (Schaller & Bunnell, 2003; Bergen, 2000).

Green & McNeese (2007) note that when people are having fun, they are more likely to pay attention and participate enthusiastically in learning activities. The element of fun reduces stress levels resulting in students being more receptive to learning. They also identify that with digital games, students must demonstrate organization skills, test their knowledge, and interact in experiential ways with course material.

“Through puzzles, conquering enemies or creating viable digital cities and theme parks, students are strategizing, analyzing, and using prior knowledge to solve problems. The key is finding games that fit into the curriculum” (¶ 12).

How to incorporate games in education. Prensky (2006) recognizes that students see games marketed as edutainment as inferior products to their more complicated and entertaining “real” games. Most of these games are little more than “drill with graphics” or “mini-games,” or “mini-simulations.” He argues that educators are working backwards in their attempt to use games to teach. “A far better strategy, in my view, is to take the games your kids already play, and look inside them for what is educational” (p. 184). If we examine what is appealing about games like Halo and Grand Theft Auto we have a better chance of designing

21 edutainment worth playing. Games need to be developed that strongly engage students while at the same time provide curricular learning for use both inside and outside of school.

The biggest obstacle, Prensky admits, is that the curriculums games that teach well are not easily aligned with the curriculum teachers are mandated to teach. He also identifies the digital divide as being an obstacle in the short run (p. 191). Most schools do not have the resources to let each student have their own computer or game console. He recommends projecting games in front of the classroom and having students either take turns or direct the teacher in play. Students could also work in pairs or small groups.

Squire et. al. (2005) feel educational gaming is best implemented through after-school enrichment programs. “We envision a network of centers, their participants playing cooperatively and competitively online and continuing to generate and develop gaming expertise” (¶ 44). They suggest, due to the complexity of many of today’s games, that groups be started with a very small teacher-student ratio and more students added as students become more acculturated into the game’s rules and structures. Students who have been with the program for some time can act as facilitators as well. They propose something of a pyramid scheme in setting up these game centers. They also suggest creating non game player roles for those participants who become frustrated or disengaged from primary game play activity. The same could be done with curricular VLEs where one school starts using a networked VLE for instructional purposes then branches out and brings other schools on board. Such a technology could allow students in distant locals to take specialty classes from teachers not available while maintaining a physical presence through the use of avatars.

Randy Hinrichs, Marc Prensky, and J. C. Herz advocate having students build their own curricular video games. By having students create their own games they are learning about computer programming while simultaneously exploring the curricular content the game is supposed to teach. This kind of activity is a form of peer-teaching. J. C. Hertz, “Any teacher knows that you learn by teaching, and when you have to create a scenario that is then used by some other person, you have to explain it, and in the course of explaining it, you yourself learn” (Foreman, 2004). It might then be advantageous to, instead of playing curricular games, ask the students to create games for content they would not otherwise be motivated to learn.

22 Drawing from the literature on game-based learning it can be concluded that if a virtual learning environment is to be used to implement instruction, increase student on-task behavior, and improve learning it will need to make use of the strategies present in video games. By making the learning environment more game-like it will keep students on-task. The immediate, objective feedback games give will ultimately improve instruction by delivering corrective methods at the optimal moment. In the creation of a game-based VLE alternate activities will need to be developed to keep frustrated or differently motivated students engaged. Attention will need to be paid to gender preferences. While the games kids already play are incredibly engaging, the work and expertise required to modify them to fit particular curricular needs is beyond the ability of most teachers. Instead, there are a wide variety of networked virtual environments that may be easily edited and used to suit the learning needs of a student.

MMORPGs, VR, VLEs, and virtual worlds The experience described in Chapter 1 using Runescape involved a MMORPG. This game uses a virtual world as it’s platform and a loosely defined code of conduct for it’s players. Game play in this, and most other MMORPGs, is more controlled by the imaginations of players than by the constructs of the game.

Its power resides in the connectivity it allows with other users around the world. Other similar MMORPGs include Toontown, Everquest, Lineage, Dark Angel of Caelot, Star Wars Galaxies, City of Heroes, World of Warcraft, Club Penguin, and Gia Online.

Some of these MMORPGs exist as three-dimensional interactive virtual worlds. Virtual worlds do not have to be games, Active Worlds, OnLive! Traveler, There, Adobe Atmosphere, and Second Life are a few examples of thriving virtual worlds that are not games (Dickey, 2005a). They may be loosely defined as roleplaying platforms but where the roles have not been directed or defined. Their purpose is to provide users with a place to construct their own virtual creations and explore what others have done.

While most people think of VR as being totally immersive, these programs still fall under the category of VR. These virtual worlds are sometimes referred to as “fish take VR” or “desktop VR” (Heim, 2000).

While complete sensory immersion is still out of financial reach of most school systems desktop VR is. So,

23 how can desktop VR be harnessed to captivate today’s digital natives in ways their video games do? How can online networked virtual worlds improve learning?

Educational applications of virtual worlds. Dickey (2005a; 2005b) recognizes that there is a need for examination of how virtual worlds such as Active Worlds and Active Worlds Education (AWEDU) might be used for teaching and learning. Experiential studies using VR and Desktop VR have turned up some interesting results. From the results of studies (see Appendix A) it is clear that this medium is not ideal for traditional lecture style pedagogies. VLE technologies are more suitable for use in more open-ended constructivist settings.

In exploring computer technology’s potential for teaching art appreciation Iurgel (2003) proposes an approach described as “interactive storytelling.” With any virtual learning experience the participant is constructing a story based on their experiences. Interactive storytelling allows users to experience a simulated context from which to understand the purpose and meaning of artworks. This approach can be applied to other content as well. This type of role-play, hypothesizes Schaller & Brunnel (2003) might appeal to students with a strong accommodating learning style. In other words, if I am going to teach art history using VLEs, or any other technology, I should be careful to provide a context for the study of artifacts. If, for example, I want students to learn about the art of Ancient Rome a VLE resembling Ancient Rome might be more appropriate than one resembling a lunar landscape or night club.

Networked VLEs, argue Childres (2006), provide educators with opportunities for cooperative learning while simultaneously providing real-world simulation experiences. These collaborative learning experiences provide a foundation for new and exciting models of teaching and ways of learning. Dede (N.D.) views these new technologies and collaborative teaching methods within networked VLEs as the future of distance learning. Someday soon students will be able to log on to a VLE from home and have a simulated and stimulating school experience more powerful than what was originally available in the traditional classroom.

24 Multi-user VLEs support collaborative learning through discourse tools such as text chat and by engaging users in interactive word building tasks. Dickey (2005a; 2005b) discusses how artificial environments like Active Worlds are ideal for educators to create constructivist-based interactive collaborative learning experiences. She recognizes that a critical component of any learning environment is support for discourse between learners. If VLEs are to be effectively used for collaborative learning they must provide some form of synchronous communication between users. Peterson (2006) found in a study of English language learners who used computer mediated communication that interaction of text in real-time led to increased output and enhanced motivation. It also fostered a learner-centered environment with opportunities for collaborative work. Chen et. al. (2005) explain that cooperative inquiry enhances learning by providing real-time feedback through reflection. Developing VLEs that are networked and allow users to interact in real time is then crucial.

Childress (2006) predicts that as they become more realistic and easy to use MMORPGs will become the medium of choice for educators engaging students in cooperative learning. MMORPGs are highly social environments and since they have such a loose system of rules for game play they can be easily modified to fit educator’s instructional needs. They also allow learners to experience real-world experiences that have never been possible online before. Childress feels this kind of software has great potential to reshape online learning providing an improved method of facilitating synchronous communication and instruction. To relate this to my students that I described in chapter one, their experience in Runescape would have been more appropriate if they had been trying to teach topics involving castles, Medieval Europe, or economic.

VLEs, identify Salzman & Dede, C. (1999), support peer teaching, Vygotskian tutoring, and apprenticeship as pedagogical strategies. Adding a social dimension to a VLE, “helps students most motivated when intellectual content is contextualized in a social setting� (p. 21). Learner motivation is high even when novelty wears off. This can be attributed to constructivist pedagogy, challenge, curiosity, fantasy, and beauty. They also contend that immersion may make important concepts more memorable and in so doing help the learner to construct more accurate mental models.

25 In a study titled, Summer Students in Virtual Reality, Bricken, M., & Byrne, C. M. (1992) conducted seven weeklong sessions where students were taught how to use three-dimensional modeling software. They worked in groups to construct their own virtual worlds. At the end of each week the participants were videotaped while exploring their creations using a head-mounted display. Afterward they were surveyed about their experience. The findings revealed that students were intensely focused during immersion. Most striking was the level of enthusiasm the survey results revealed. This study also revealed that boys tended to prefer goal-oriented construction methods where girls preferred process-oriented methods.

In the design of learning experiences involving VLEs it is important to articulate both goals and process to maximize motivation according to preference.

Bricken, W. (1990) proclaims that the characteristics of VR are the same as those of good teaching.

VR allows the teacher to create programmable environments from which curricula can be embedded in experiential ways. He identifies three areas of learning theory as being particularly relevant to VR: experiential education, constructivism, and social learning.

Students can be given a virtual world with which to create and care for where they can demonstrate understanding of curricular content by creating and imbedding models, sculptures, creatures, etc.; something of a three-dimensional immersive portfolio. These effects on motivation and the power of experiential learning are supported by work done by Jelfs & Whitelock (2000). They add that in the design of VLEs past learner experience with virtual environments needs to be considered. Therefore, there exists a need to examine the video games kids play.

Chen et. al. (2005) explored the use of VLEs for drivers training in Malaysia. They found their use to be an effective way of teaching situational driving skills. VLEs allow the learner to take multiple viewpoints.

Learners can see scenarios from a first person perspective then view the same from a third person perspective or even a bird’s eye view. “Having multiple perspectives of the world can encourage diverse ways of thinking” (Chen et. al., 2005, ¶ 20). VLEs allow users to experience dangerous situations without risk of actual harm and to see the consequences of various decisions (Chen et. al., 2005; Kim & Snong, 1997). With

26 this method of teaching the learner has no choice but actively participate. With this level of engagement teachers can, points out Bergen (2000), focus more of their time on curricular learning outcomes and less on classroom management issues.

Lant (2002) notes that many educators insist that bodily presence in a real learning environment is a precondition to learning. Many worry that with the growing popularity of distance learning we will loose our reverence for the physical and understanding of its place in learning. Dreyfus (as cited by Lant, 2002) asserts that we can no better do online what we can do in person. He worries that with online learning that learning becomes too decontextualized. “Disembodied interactions,� says Dreyfuss, are insufficient to real learning.

He does see the value of technology in education however. Instead of pure distance learning or autonomous constructivist learning environments, a hybrid model is preferred. Dreyfus views technologies such as VLEs as best used within the conventional classroom to support what is already being done. In our development of virtual communities, suggests Heim (1998), we need to supplement primary communities rather than replace them with virtual ones. Our notions of community are still largely dependent on pre-technological notions.

Telepresence & avatars. Potential for learning with any VLE, according to Taylor (1997), can be attributed to presence or telepresence. However, to evoke a sense of presence, a user must be able to navigate and perform within the world to a degree where they can suspend disbelief. This is why, explains Hedden (as cited by Winn, 2003), people can spend uninterrupted hours completely engaged in video or computer games.

Hedden proposes that challenge, curiosity, and fantasy are the actors working to achieve this effect. Research conducted by Winn (2003) has confirmed Taylor’s theory linking levels of presence to learning. These studies have also shown a positive relationship between presence and enjoyment. However, while studies done by Slater & Wilbur (as cited by Moreno, 2002) showed no relationship between presence and learning there is no evidence that presence in any way hinders learning in VLEs. Most writers and researchers on the subject of presence in VR focus on the visual and manual interactive features of these environments. However, Jelfs & Whitelock (2002) and DiPaola (2003) cite the use of sound as an important contributor. DiPaola pioneered the use of sound within virtual worlds with the

27 creation of Onlive! Traveler, an online multi user virtual world where users are represented by oversized heads instead of full body avatars. Onlive! Traveler made use of stereophonic sound to inform the user as to which direction within the virtual world external sounds were originating. Virtual distance from a sound source was inversely proportionate to volume giving users an auditory sense of space. DiPaola observed that the auditory nature of Onlive! Traveler made avatars unnecessary. Users did not take advantage of their avatars capabilities since they could communicate with speech. One might conclude from DiPaola that if a world designer wants users to truly experience a world through avatars some limits on voice communication must be included. However, DiPaola’s finding of how audio affects presence indicates a need to include sound within educational VLEs to increase student engagement. This is affirmed by Malone and Lepper (1987).

While most studies on the effect of presence on learning or the ability for VEs to evoke a sense of presence have been conducted with fully immersive VR, Peterson (2006) found that Active Worlds, a desktop or “fishbowl” virtual world, was capable of achieving presence in learners. Of the seventeen learners who responded positively to Peterson’s study all attributed their sense of presence to the use of avatars. Avatars, explains Peterson, establish this sense of presence by helping users adapt to the graphical form of the virtual world.

Heim (2000) notes that the term “Avatar” originated in Sanskrit. It is a word that meant “to come down into.” An example of this can be seen in the Bhagavad-Gita when Krishna takes human form. For our purposes an avatar is a virtual representation of self within a virtual world. Avatars allow learners to have a physical presence and interact in meaningful ways with objects and environments within virtual worlds.

Altun (1998) found that some VR users, to sustain interpersonal relationships while chatting, wanted to see the person they were chatting with, even if this person was a mere virtual representation. Active Worlds’ avatars provide an additional means of communication through nonverbal gestures such as waving or kicking and emotional cues such as looking sad or jumping for joy. Heim (N. D.) describes the use of avatars as transformative. Users animate avatars much in the same way a puppet is animated by the puppeteer.

28 Emocations, which are ways of showing emotions with abbreviated text (e.g. :), ;), grr, :P, etc) or actions an avatar can perform such as crying or jumping for joy, appear to be important for the establishment and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. Avatars support community building in virtual worlds (Heim, 2000; Childress, 2006; and Peterson, 2006). Therefore, in the selection or creation of a VLE avatars are an important attribute. Special attention needs to be paid to what kinds of avatars different programs offer, what their features are, and what capabilities do they have for nonverbal communication.

VR addiction. Bruckman (1992, as cited by Dede, C., 1995) in studying multi-user dungeons (MUDs), a text-only environment and precursor to today’s VEs, found that for some the psychological fascination can lead to addictive behaviors. Factors contributing to this addiction are the ability to have interesting conversations with people any time of day or night, the ability to assume perceived magical or super human powers (such as the ability to fly or modify one’s environment), and the time it takes to master communication and learn the social structural rules of these environments. These factors, Dede, C. (1995) admits, can often be uncorrelated with desired learning. Heim (1998) adds that the high-speed dynamics and aggressive tempo of these technologies cause a disharmony to exist between the physical self and the digitally trained mind. Personal identity is split between the actual self and the virtual self. The more we involve ourselves in virtual worlds the less connection we have to our physical bodies. The perceived omniscience, enhanced by the hypertext nature of computer mediated environments, according to Heim, compels users to let their online or virtual personas occupy more of their time (Nixon, N.D.). It is then also important, in the selection of appropriate VLEs for students, that care be taken to avoid environments that are potentially addictive and socially isolating.

Cost and appropriateness for instruction. Green & McNeese (2007) note another argument against the use of VLEs and other digital technologies in education is today’s over emphasis on the use of said technologies rather than focusing on how they can be employed to improve learning outcomes. Winn (2002, as cited by Dickey, 2005a) reports that one of the strongest arguments against the use of VLEs in education is that the software and equipment are too expensive and the technical skill required to successfully employ such

29 methodologies are beyond the abilities of most educators. Dickey (2005a) adds, that for these technologies to be realized, both cost and ease of use must come within a range attainable for k-12 and post secondary educators.

Follows (1999) points out that ideal learning environments are often impractical for schools due to cost, time frame, or risk. The cost of creating, maintaining, and using VLEs is decreasing at an incredible rate.

Most desktop versions even allow users to explore for free. Learning environments of this nature, Follows argues, encourage students to create cognitive maps, make concepts more concrete, and facilitate deeper understanding and integration of knowledge.

With the cost of technology declining, perhaps the greatest obstacle in the way of VLE usage in the classroom is the technical aspects of its use. Peterson (2006) indicates that researchers using Active Worlds reported users had difficulty with the technical aspects of using the virtual world. There is definitely a learning curve involved with the application of a VLE by teachers. Teachers who use VLEs will most likely need special training.

Summary. It is clear that the utilization of VLEs will require a pedagogical shift. For learning to be effective in such environments learning activities will need to be collaborative, experiential, and open ended.

It is also clear that for a VLE to be effective special attention needs to be paid to the relevance of a particular VLE’s physical and functional attributes including visual components of the environment, objects placed in the environment, ability to manipulate the environment, physical attributes of avatars, and avatar nonverbal capabilities. The virtual environment must support learning objectives. VLEs should also incorporate sound to increase motivation. In most cases, a VLE is most effective when it supports multiple users so that it can accommodate collaborative learning and discourse Therefore a networked VLE is crucial. Benefits of utilizing VLEs include increased motivation, better retention, and fewer classroom management issues. As with any learning environment, attention needs to be paid to how a VLE will affect learners. Teachers need to be mindful of both cost benefit and elements that might lead a student toward social isolation within virtual

30 worlds. The appropriate virtual environment will result in increased retention of information due to increased motivation.

Learning Environments Lant (2002) writes, “It is the mental, the digital, the unembodied that frees us and enables us to learn” (¶ 6). She finds our traditional classrooms stifling and oppressive and describes the potential the internet provides for distance learning as a vehicle from which to free our minds from our bodies. VLEs provide freedom from the confines of seating arrangements, time and space boundaries, and force-fed instruction.

They provide educators with opportunities to create learning environments where every element is controlled and geared toward learning.

Enchantment. Any learning environment, explains Graetz (2006), contains vast amounts of information that has little or nothing to do with actual instruction that can affect learners emotionally, cognitively, or behaviorally. For example, inadequate light, extreme temperatures, or loud noises can hinder learning for most students. In most brick-and-mortar schools many of these conditions are beyond the control of teachers.

A teacher can at best try to minimize distractions, but since every student has different learning needs perfect learning environments are impossible to create. With VLEs the teacher can control everything.

The learner’s unique view and understanding of the world affects their experience of a learning environment. Winn (2003) refers to this personal construction of reality as the learner’s Umwelt. Umwelts are problematic in traditional classrooms, Winn explains, because there is no way to prove one Umwelt is more real than another. With a VLE everything can be controlled. The design of a VLE or other artificial environment is programmable, creating a control amongst a sea of variables. Winn argues that all learning is essentially a physical activity. The activity of learning is embedded in the learner’s environment. Learning is thus an adaptation of the learner to a new environment. Research involving VR technologies has illustrated this theory of learning. VLEs are then beneficial to education because they provide a universal Umwelt from which to engage learners. Winn also verifies that learning in this context is by necessity active and authentic.

Salzman et. al. (N.D.) affirm that learners and their environments are inseparable. They add that factors such

31 as prior knowledge, individual learner characteristics, and the type of learning experience also effect cognition. One might not be able to create a universally experienced umwelt because everyone’s perspective will be different but VLEs at lease give the teacher the ability to filter out much unnecessary environmental clutter. What a student brings to class, both physically and mentally, will ultimately affect one’s umwelt.

Graetz (2006) recognizes that the cognitive differences and educational expectations of Digital Native have made today’s students disengaged from traditional learning environments. He thinks the digital devices today’s students bring to class will be the factor driving pedagogical shifts in education. He sees traditional schools moving away from chalk and talk methods toward more cooperative group work and constructivist methods of instruction. This change will allow teachers to utilize the power of the digital tools such as cell phones, laptops, personal digital assistants, and mp3 players students bring to class. He is critical of traditional classrooms and admits that they are perfectly suited for students expecting to sit, face forward, and listen. However, these environments generally are not enchanting. He predicts that as distance learning becomes more and more common the boundaries between physical and virtual classrooms will bur. He challenges educators to find ways of making these new learning environments enchanting for students.

Utilization of VLEs would most definitely meet this challenge.

Privacy issues and harassment. In Educating for Character: How Schools Can Teach Respect and Responsibility, T. Lickona (1991) states that, “Left to its own devices, the peer group often ends up being ruled by the worst tendencies in children. Domination, exclusion, and put-downs become the prevailing social norms” (Lickona, 1991, p.90). This can be amplified in VLEs where learners often feel a greater sense of anonymity. In examining online distance learning environments Heim (1998) has noticed that the perceived anonymity associated with the text-only education most institutions offering online courses provide has caused learners to feel an unhealthy sense of power. He describes the experience of online education as more direct mind to mind than traditional face-to-face learning experiences. This loss of physical barriers, he contends, causes respect for other learners and respect for instructors to erode. While online courses create a

32 sense of intimacy between thoughts, a sort of hive mind, they also hide us from one another. It is easy to make statements within an online learning environment or post material with total anonymity. This has led to numerous documented cases of harassment within online learning communities. He speculates that the use of avatars in distance learning might restore a sense of respect for others within the learning environment (p.16). This is another reason to consider the use and selection of avatars in VLEs. Schaller & Brunnel (2003) note that the use of VLEs poses a particular problem for school-age audiences. Since a level of anonymity, or at least perceived anonymity, exists there are risks of inappropriate communication and threats to privacy. This is especially true in unsecured VLEs where users can come from anywhere in the world. With such an environment, the teacher has very little control over what is exchanged or who students meet. Green & McNeese (2007) assert that teachers need to act as monitors in these situations because discipline issues of sexual harassment and inappropriate language usage have occurred in these environments. Machanic (1998) adds, with these technologies the potential exists for stalking.

Machanic is most concerned with how avatars physically interact with one another. She attributes most of her concern to the super human powers VLEs afford users such as the ability to beam to remote locations, fly, or occupy the same virtual space as another user. This can be particularly disconcerting if a VLE is successful at creating a sense of presence. These concerns necessitate the presence of the teacher within the VLE and the creation of a VLE code of conduct (Âś 14). It will also be necessary to prepare students prior to entering VLEs much in the same way teachers prepare students before going on a field trip.

Synthetic constructivist environments provide a safe, anonymous opportunity to experiment with a new persona based on a learning-centered lifestyle explains Dede, C. (1995). The student with a fear of being wrong, or who avoids learning situations where they risk failure, is more likely to take educational risks in these environments. The VLE’s ability to mask a user’s true identity can be quite beneficial in establishing an environment where students are not punished for wrong answers. In fact, risk taking is not only encouraged but it is also rewarded within most of these environments. The perceived anonymity afforded by the use of avatars, notes Green & McNeese, (2007), presents a problem as well. They suggest teachers act as monitors

33 to avoid cyber-bullying or harassment. Dede, C. (1995) recommends educators develop a rhetoric or guidelines for user interaction in avatar mediated VLEs to avoid negative user behavior. This is especially important if school-age children are using multi-user VLEs. While a VLE might encourage a normally shy person to speak out it can also encourage usually polite people to “flame” at others. This perceived anonymity can cause people to hurl insults or speak out in ways that would be socially inappropriate in a faceto-face setting. This disinhibition, according to Dede, C. can be both troublesome and a potential lever for learning in constructivist paradigm.

Summary. VLEs offer educators many potential benefits. Students are likely to find these environments engaging, enchanting, and motivating. They also help focus student attention on elements related to learning objectives and facilitate learning that is more direct mind to mind. However, such benefits also yield some major concerns regarding student safety. Teachers using VLEs need to prepare students prior to their use. This is true of traditional classrooms as well but since a VLE is often open to individuals outside the physical classroom, student behavior expectations must address not only how they treat other students but also how to protect oneself from harassment from others. Since VLEs best support constructivist learning activities where the student has more control, it might be beneficial to have students help teachers develop these behavioral guidelines.

Constructivist Learning and VLE Jonassen, Howland, Moore, & Marra (2003) point out that nearly a century’s worth of research in the implementation of learning technologies have proven that machines can do no better job of delivering instruction than teachers. This has long been an argument against the integration of technologies in education.

“Unfortunately, educators have almost always tried to use technologies to teach students in the same ways that teachers had always taught” (p. 10). They argue that if we view learning technologies as tools students learn with, not from, then our approach to teaching must also change. They believe that the most meaningful learning activities, both in and out of school, require people to solve problems experientially. In trying to

34 solve problems, students spend more time and become more invested in their own learning.

Ultimately they develop deeper understandings and construct their own knowledge (p. 25).

VLEs, and any other computer-based microworld, support experiential learning. Jonassen et. al.

(2003) believe that technology-supported, constructivist, problem-based learning rely on the interest and curiosity of the learner. They argue that successful technology enriched learning environments require students to regulate and control their own learning through authentic tasks and assessments (p. 191). These environments should not rely too heavily on direct instruction. Environments reflecting more programmed instruction, directing learners within the environment, might not support constructivist goals. Constructivist activities need to be open-ended and provoke research and design (pp. 210-225). Teachers present within VLEs would act more like coaches than instructors.

In brain research using VR, Mikropoulos (2001) found that participants had significant differences in the frontal area of the brain. This indicates that the use of VR requires higher order cognitive processes outside the visual area. From readings of eye movement it was concluded that participants were more attentive when navigating through virtual worlds. Also revealed is cognitive evidence of the motivational power of VLEs. The increase in motivation coupled with the heightened level of attentiveness explains how VLEs assist in knowledge construction.

Youngblut (1998, as cited by Chen et. al., 2005) found that almost all educational applications for VLEs supported constructivist learning. This approach is appropriate, according to Willis (1995, as cited by Chen et. al., 2005), when designing curricular strategies employing newer technologies because it allows the merging of design and development steps. This happens in rapid prototyping within the information technologies industry where parts of a project are often conceived, produced, and evaluated during the instructional design process. Because the technology is relatively new, this model of instruction is appropriate. According to constructivism, learning is more than conditioning or acquired knowledge, rather, knowledge is constructed (Chen et. al., 2005). This model of instruction encourages learners to make mistakes or wrong predictions. Through testing these predictions or making mistakes learners construct new

35 understandings by modifying prior knowledge. This approach is often also referred to as discovery or experiential learning. Through experimentation and practice learners discover principles and patterns guiding the constructs of an environment.

Dickey (2005a) believes VLEs such as Active Worlds and Adobe Atmosphere are best suited for learning guided by a constructivist perspective. For the construction of knowledge, learners should have opportunities to explore and manipulate their environment. Most VLEs support both. They also provide discourse opportunities between users that foster collaboration. These environments, according to Dickey, allow the learner to externalize understanding through creation and demonstration (¶ 6). However, the platform teachers choose to use should be informed by the target learners and intended educational purpose.

Dede, C. (2000a) views the most important issue for the evolution of school curriculum not as the acquisition of faster and more powerful learning technologies but rather how these devices can help students extract meaning from complexity. The computer allows information to be transmitted almost automatically and enables collaborative, guided construction of meaning. For Dede, C. (2000a) the inclusion of VLEs into the classroom follows a natural progression and evolution in education. As we shift more toward a constructivist view of learning and as technology improves, the development of VLEs will be of utmost importance (¶ 25).

Dede, C. (1995) notes the limitations of computer technology in the mid 1990s forced educators who were using technology enhanced constructivist approaches to learning to focus on how digital technology could mediate already existing social interactions between learners. He predicted that with the increase in computing power and speed of network communications this technology would shape our learning environments into something quite unlike the traditional classroom model. “Like Alice walking through the looking glass, learners can immerse themselves in distributed, synthetic environments, becoming "avatars" who vicariously collaborate and learn-by-doing using virtual artifacts to construct knowledge” (Walker, 1990 as cited by Dede, C., 1995). Now, in 2007, technology has advanced to a point where educators should be

36 looking for ways technology can mediate and facilitate new an innovative ways for learners to socially interact.

Dede, C. recommends that as VLEs are modified and used for instruction we need to consider what constitutes an effective constructivist learning environment and what kind of pedagogies fit well in that context. He notes that centralized, top-down planning does not work in these environments because learners prefer to design their own culture and artifacts. More time and consideration should be paid to learning objectives and appropriateness of the VLE for instructional purposes than spent planning sequenced learning activities.

Solomon (2002, as cited by Green & McNeese, 2007) suggests that traditional classrooms do produce better mastery of recalled information but technology-intensive constructivist classrooms produce improved questioning and problem solving skills. The choice of what type of pedagogy to use should depend on the desired student outcomes. In other words, it is potentially beneficial to move between traditional and constructivist approaches.

Follows (1999) views constructivist VLEs as a much more versatile pedagogy capable of reaching far more learners than the traditional classroom. Traditional classrooms, which rely heavily on lectures, are best suited for students who are concrete, sequential, non-active, and verbal learners. Information in VLEs is provided through a wide variety of delivery mechanisms such as observation, listening, and reading. Students are allowed to control how and when information is used. In so doing, they are able to construct their own conceptualizations and knowledge structures. Constructivist VLEs accommodate a much wider range of learning abilities and strategies, argues Follows, enhancing the learning outcomes compared to traditional forms of teaching.

Winn (2003) explains how constructivist VLEs support learning. He argues that within this type of learning environment what students learn cannot be preplanned or shaped in any significant way from topdown objective planning. Instead of traditional objective assessment, learning is contextualized. Through the learner’s embodiment, “embeddedness�, and adaptation, VLEs provide a viable framework for learning. He

37 stresses the social nature of learning, “Knowledge is not constructed in a vacuum, but through the negotiation of meaning within groups of people” (¶ 5). Computer mediated instruction provides students more opportunities for collaborative learning, according to Maushak (2001). Through collaborative problem solving and exploration of authentic problems, they construct their knowledge together based on mutual interpretations. Hyerle (1996) says we only need to give the kids the right tools and the right problems to improve learning. A learner-centered classroom environment can be achieved by the teacher moving to the sidelines. With this type of teaching the teacher acts more like a coach. He has found this method to improve student achievement.

Caine & Caine (1991) propose that brain research indicates that our traditional school settings neglect the predisposition of the brain to search for how things make sense and construct meaning from experience.

They support a constructivist approach to education. This approach makes use of the brain’s natural tendency to search for patterns and relationships between new information and existing knowledge. They stress that educators need to connect new learning with what students already know through experiential and immersive learning environments and propose that curricular content is inseparable from the context it is used. The National Research Council (NRC) (2000) contends that, “Teachers who are learner centered recognize the importance of building on the conceptual and cultural knowledge that students bring with them to the classroom” (p.134). NRC supports the use of diagnostic teaching as an important step in identifying that knowledge. They identify a key strategy for diagnostic teaching is “to prompt children to explain and develop their knowledge structures by asking them to make predictions about various situations and explain the reasons for their predictions” (p. 134).

Caine & Caine (1991) argue that instead of focusing on surface knowledge through drill and kill techniques, educators ought to bring their students to formulate deep understanding of the big ideas governing phenomena. The constructivist approach is well suited, says Caine & Caine, to learning experiences supporting transfer of knowledge (p. 134). Three approaches they recommend are project or problem based learning, immersive learning environments, and storytelling. They liken immersive learning environments to

38 learning a foreign language by immersing oneself in a foreign country or learning medicine through practice in a residency program. Immersion is enhanced when it is multi-sensory. Although most video games, they admit, do not support the goals of education they are an excellent example of immersive learning.

VR and desktop VR would then also fit under this definition but they also support project or problem based learning and storytelling.

While not physically immersive, storytelling allows the learner to imaginatively be placed in situations where they can, through empathy or sympathy, have experiential learning experiences. Storytelling is a particularly helpful way of acquiring knowledge and deep understanding of meaning. It does so through use of metaphors. Metaphors, Caine & Caine argue, are at the root of all understanding (p. 93). We come to understand our world through the use of metaphors. They force us to analyze and synthesize new information and contextualize it within our own umwelt. The learning potential in story telling can be and has been harnessed using MMORPGs and other game based learning environments.

Problem or project based learning presents another powerful constructivist method of teaching. Joel Greenberg (1990, as cited by Brooks & Brooks, 1993, p. 36) identifies four criteria for defining a good problem for use with problem or project based learning. A good problem: 1. demands the student to make a testable prediction; 2. makes use of inexpensive equipment; 3. is complex enough to elicit multiple approaches to the problem; 4. and benefits from group effort Brooks & Brooks (1993) add to this list that a good problem poses a question relevant to the learner.

Both Brooks & Brooks (1993) and Caine & Caine (1991) support a holistic approach to school curriculum. Rather than teaching individual elements one piece at a time, constructivist teachers structure curriculum around primary concepts; clustering problems, questions, and discrepant situations around broad concepts. This is done, says Brooks & Brooks, because students are more engaged when problems and ideas are presented holistically. “It is more effective,” they contend, “to permit budding writers to invent their own

39 spelling and publish their material for others to read and for themselves to re-read than to teach the rules of grammar and conventional spelling and then ask students to put the skills together into an original piece of writing” (p. 49). The former stifles the creative process. In art this is similar to the approach of teaching the elements and principles of design and then asking students to create art using them. It is better to have them create and steer them toward new ways of thinking or creating from where they have been. This approach is consistent with Caine & Caine’s (1991) assertion that teachers need to connect to a learner’s prior knowledge and ground learning in experiences that are relevant to the learner. Creativity, Deci & Ryan (1987, as cited by Caine & Caine, 1991, p. 71) contend, is facilitated by “autonomy, greater interest, less pressure and tension, more positive emotional tone, higher self-esteem, more trust, greater persistence of behavior, change, and better physical and psychological health.” Traditional approaches to teaching of writing or art, inspired by behaviorist learning theory, have not adequately established these conditions.

Behaviorist teaching methods, point out Brooks & Brooks (1993), section information into separate, parallel strands of unrelated data. For example, in our traditional school system the subjects of science, social studies, and language arts are seen as separate entities. Constructivist pedagogies, on the other hand, seek to find connections between disciplines. Therefore, it might be more effective to structure art lessons around interdisciplinary learning activities.

Caine & Caine (1991) note that for optimal learning to occur, learners must have a relaxed nervous system. They must also feel safe to take risks. Learning is enhanced when motivated by intrinsic means.

They point out that one way to motivate learners more intrinsically is to offer them opportunities to be creative. Both Caine & Caine (1991) and Brooks & Brooks (1993) agree that the teacher’s chief responsibility is to create learning environments that permit students to take responsibility for their own learning. This is opposed to the behaviorist tendency to try to control student behavior.

While intrinsic motivation may be necessary for optimal learning, There are instances when extrinsic rewards are necessary (Covington, 2000; Malone & Lepper, 1987). Even in a constructivist pedagogical system there are times when we must coax students or direct them toward desired learning outcomes. Often

40 an extrinsic reward is necessary for this to happen. However, according to Covington, learning for its own sake is inhibited by offering rewards. Traditional behaviorist learning systems are laden with peer comparison and mandated curriculum. Intrinsic motivation is enhanced when students are afforded choices and when assessment is referenced to a standard model and not a peer comparison. Extrinsic rewards, agrees Lowman (1990), decrease intrinsic motivation. He argues that rewards should not be given for tasks students already find intrinsically rewarding. Doing so decreases the intrinsic value these tasks have for students. He proposes that a delicate balance must be found between the use of extrinsic and intrinsic motivators for students. While a VLE might be more intrinsically motivating than a traditional classroom, there may still be times when extrinsic rewards are necessary.

Prensky (2006) notes that most Digital Immigrants think of learning as hard work that can not or should not be fun. This is perhaps due to the necessity in behaviorist teaching methods to rely on rewards and punishment as extrinsic motivators and deemphasize intrinsic motivation. He points out that society has finally outlawed painful, and often harmful, practices associated with education such as beating and hazing and sees no reason why schools shouldn’t outlaw painful learning practices as well. While extrinsic motivators will not entirely go away, educators need to find ways to motivate students intrinsically in learning. One way to do this is to give more control of the learning experience back to the learner.

Inquiry and skepticism. A major criticism Brooks & Brooks (1993) have of the behaviorist approach to teaching is the authoritative position most teachers using this model establish. “When a teacher arranges classroom dynamics so that she is the sole determiner of what is ‘right’ in the classroom, most students learn to conform to expectations without critique, to refrain from questioning teacher directives, to seek permission from the teacher to move about the room, and to look to the teacher for judgmental and evaluative feedback” (p. 102) Addressing this issue, Ellen Langer (1987) points out that when a teacher presents information authoritatively they promote mindlessness by not encouraging learners to question what is said. To avoid mindlessness in learners, teachers should present information conditionally. Doing so will suggest to students that the information must be verified.

41 Langer contends, “Our teaching should consist of guiding, rather than governing, student learning”( ¶ 11). NRC (2000) supports this statement, Children are problem solvers and through curiosity, generate questions and problems: Children attempt to solve problems presented to them and they also seek novel challenges…Adults play a critical role in promoting children’s curiosity and persistence by directing children’s attention, structuring their experiences, supporting their learning attempts, and regulating the complexity and difficulty of levels of information for them (pp. 234-235).

A useful framework for teachers to take advantage of this natural curiosity is the six facets of understanding provided by Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe (2005). The six facets include: explanation, interpretation, application, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge. By engaging students in activities within these categories teachers can tap into that natural desire to explore and inquire about the world and not let learning become mindless. Using the six facets learners can be encouraged to validate information and be skeptical. NRC (2000) supports the use of teaching strategies that elicit the kind of engagement the six facets invoke, “Transfer is effected by the degree to which people learn with understanding rather than merely memorize sets of facts or follow a fixed set of procedures” (p. 55). Allowing students to learn through inquiry can help them develop a healthy skepticism about their world. NRC (2000) states “Expertise in a particular domain does not guarantee that one is good at helping others learn it” (p. 44). They go on to argue, “[E]xpertise can sometimes hurt teaching because many experts forget what is easy and what is difficult for students” (p. 44). Therefore, it would be advantageous for teachers within VLEs to establish a less authoritative tone, and utilize the six facets of understanding to engage students in activities that call into question the validity of information they are presented with.

Smith, J. P., diSessa, A. A.,&Roschelle, J. (1993, as cited by Barab, S. A., Hay, K. E., Barnett, M., & Squire, K., 2001) proposes that immersive learning environments are particularly suited for this kind of inquiry and skepticism. They contend that learning becomes multigenerational when learning experiences are shared and learners are viewed as contributors rather than recipients of knowledge and information. Barab et.

42 al. (2003) argue that conceptual information and activity are inseparable in authentic contexts and rich immersive learning environments. This is to say that with an authentic assessment doing is knowing.

It is clear that constructivist pedagogy is appropriate for learning in a VLE. Learner-centered project or problem based learning has powerful implications for learning transfer and cognitive development. This approach also allows educators to overcome the difficulty of delivering direct instruction through lectures that VLEs impose. It calls for much more customization of the learning experience and allows the teacher to focus more on assisting students individually. Constructivist VLEs allow students great control, interactivity, and ownership. However, the use of constructivism, video games, or VLEs all require a large frame-breaking shift for educators. With any change there are valid arguments both for and against it.

Argument against constructivism. Brooks and Brooks (1993) point out that a common criticism of constructivism is that it allows the child’s interests to take priority over standard objectives. How are we to know that children are really learning what others value? Okan (2003) affirms this concern when it comes to adapting computer technology into education. It is noted that many have concern that new technologies risk learning being seen as fun and entertainment. Learners who become accustomed to learning with multimedia, video games, and the internet risk developing attitudes toward learning that may result in unrealistic or harmful expectations for instruction to be fun. Not all required learning is fun. It is not always fun to learn how to pay bills or do your taxes but these are required skills. Instructional designers who create computer mediated curriculum and the teachers who employ them in the classroom need to understand that motivating students is more than just making learning entertaining.

Summary What are the principal elements of research supported learning experiences within virtual learning environments? Literature on the subjects of Digital Natives, Immigrants, and Tweeners, digital games, VR, distance learning, learning environments, and constructivism shed some light on the subject and help explain issues I encountered when my students, described in chapter one, used Runescape as a learning environment.

It also provides some insight into how one might effectively utilize VR for educational purposes. Research on

43 these topics makes it clear that VLEs do not appropriately support traditional forms of instruction.

In fact, a fairly large pedagogical shift is needed for their inclusion. This shift will require students to take a more active role in their own education within a constructivist framework. It will also force teachers to be more like coaches than instructors, guiding students through authentic tasks and authentic assessments.

The apparent differences I observed between the two instances, described in chapter one, of my students using Runescape, can be attributed to a couple factors. Most notable was how this VLE utilized motivational factors to promote active involvement in learning tasks. In the first instance, where no extrinsic motivation was provided, the students were more on-task. The literature on motivation and digital games indicates that such an environment is intrinsically motivating for most students. There was no need to provide extrinsic motivators to engage students. The learning activities this student had the other students do utilized the virtual environment more as well. In the second instance, were rewards were provided for correct answers, proved to fail because the student instructor used this platform to deliver instruction in a traditional manner. Also, the rewards provided were unnecessary and perhaps undermined the intrinsic motivation these students already had using the VLE. Extrinsic motivators are most effectively used when a student is not intrinsically motivated by the learning tasks at hand. If one were to use a particular VLE for an extended period of time, to a point where the novelty wears off, extrinsic motivators will become more necessary to sustain active involvement. The second factor contributing to this disconnect was the nature of use. The first student had students exploring the world taking screenshots to be used in a digital imaging lesson. With this task students had a practical purpose for being within this environment. With the second instance the virtual environment was an unnecessary obstacle to the desired learning objectives. It would have been more effective for this student to carry out the lesson without the VLE and give away candy or some other reward for correct answers.

So, if a teacher were to utilize a VLE for instructional purposes one could derive from the literature some instructional best practices. First, activities within the VLE must relate the VLE to performance objectives. Second, extrinsic motivators should only be utilized once the VLE proves not to be inherently

44 intrinsically motivating. Third, students need to be allowed to explore and interact with the world.

Activities need to involve students wandering purposefully. Fourth, a teacher cannot simply set students loose within a VLE, they must first prepare them for entry by establishing a code of conduct and then enter the VLE with them to monitor behavior, provide guidance, and facilitate dialogue.

There are a number of considerations that must be made in the selection or creation of a VLE. Learning objectives need to be kept in mind in the development of or selection of an environment just as they are in a traditional setting. Teachers should choose environments that support instructional goals and reduce distractions. One needs to consider what it is that we want students to do within the environment and choose a platform that fits those objectives. Research has shown some elements and functions to be especially beneficial. It is important for a VLE to make use of avatars but special consideration needs to be made to both the visual appearance of those avatars and their ability to convey nonverbal information. It is also beneficial if sound is included within the environment, especially if that sound is an interactive component.

The ability of students to manipulate the environment also contributes to its effectiveness.

In chapter one I described my own experience with technology, the disillusionment my first encounter with VLEs left me with, and how two student projects renewed my fascination with digital tools. In this chapter I explored what the literature on Digital Natives, Immigrants, & Tweeners, digital teaching machines, MMORPGs, VR, VLEs, virtual worlds, learning environments and constructivism has to tell us about the use of virtual environments in education. Chapter three describes how I plan on evaluating existing virtual worlds for appropriation as a VLE, gives a framework for how I will structure a curriculum within this environment, and describes the roles teachers and students will play within such a learning environment.

45 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY What are the principal elements of research supported learning experiences within virtual learning environments? Chapter two explored what the literature tells us about the cognitive and social differences of Digital Natives, Immigrants, and Tweeners, how their instructional needs are different, the aspects of digital games and how they apply to education, the educational implications of virtual learning environments (VLEs), aspects of effective learning environments, and constructivism. This chapter describes my methodology for constructing a curriculum that makes use of this technology to teach concepts in the art curriculum. This chapter will demonstrate a need for an alternative pedagogy based on prior classroom experience and reflective practice. Learning outcomes, based on academic standards, will be identified and assessments created following a model inspired by Understanding By Design. A method for evaluating virtual world software will be explained. This method will be used to find the appropriate platform to use as the virtual environment for my curriculum. Literature from authors who have experimented with VLEs, gamebased education, computer mediated instruction, distance learning, and constructivist classrooms will be reviewed for curriculum and teaching strategy suggestions. From these suggestions I will construct a curriculum framework for the use of VLEs as a teaching tool.

Reflective Practice York-Barr, Sommers, Ghere, and Montie (2001) believe that student learning is linked to staff development. They contend that learning only occurs through active reflection. Through reflective practice educators can stay challenged, effective, and alive in their work. In reflecting upon my practice I identify two areas that require growth: approaches to specific curricular content, and use of technology to improve learning. For five years, from 2000 through 2005, technology had mostly been used as a teaching aide and not a learning tool in my practice. While I had students do Internet research and use application programs like Adobe Photoshop and Microsoft Word I had not utilized the full power of the technology to engage learners.

David Warlick (2005) describes the problems most educators face with students using the internet as a research tool:

46 The tendency of most educators (and other professionals) is to simply replace old tools with new ones, resulting in little fundamental change in process or goal. Hence, we walk into classrooms and media centers where students are searching on the Internet for information that they previously looked up with an encyclopedia -- perhaps taking more time and frequently ending up with less valuable information (Âś 1).

The introduction of the WebQuest to my practice has been the greatest influence on how I view the roll of technology in assessment. Felix (2001) describes WebQuests as web activities designed to involve students experientially in learning. They employ authentic assessment and are strongly rooted in constructivist learning theory.

When designed well, I have found WebQuests provide learners with experiences that fall into the six facets of learning and are open ended enough to allow for optimal student choice without being ambiguous.

WebQuests also take the emphasis off the teacher and put it squarely on the learner. The WebQuest is a way a teacher can increase their presence in the learning process. WebQuests are interactive, and through text, embedded video or audio, and images, without physical presence the teacher can deliver content and instructions. I have found this frees the teacher to focus on how the students are doing along a continuum instead of just assessing student work after instruction has been delivered.

I have been using WebQuests extensively with my students this past year. From that experience I derived that they will be an effective medium to engage students in activities within a VLE as I can write in them tasks to carry out within the VLE but also bring in other web resources. Merging wikis, blogs, survey tools, and other Web 2.0 tools with a WebQuest will provide a further area for learner interaction with the VLE and a source for assessment. These tools will also provide a vehicle for merging other forms of technology.

The altered approach WebQuests provide for using the Internet as a teaching medium has made me think about how other forms of technology could be used for assessment. The computer is not the only technology available to us and not the only technology students have exposure to. Most of my students have cell phones,

47 iPods, digital cameras, video game systems, and/or personal digital assistants. Some of these devices have always been seen as educational distractions. I want to find creative ways of utilizing these technologies for assessment and learning. The incorporation of these devices will help blur the lines between the virtual and the real. I plan on developing performance tasks that require students to use some of these devices in conjunction with the VLE to help blur the lines between the virtual world and the real world.

The other area I would like to focus on for growth are pedagogical methods for teaching art history topics deemed important by review of art textbooks and state standards. The Minnesota Academic Standards Arts K-12 (2003) list two academic standards for both middle level and high school level visual arts and media arts: creation and performance, and artistic interpretation (see Appendix B). These standards and benchmarks will guide this curriculum development process by establishing appropriate goals and objectives.

I find I am very good at motivating students to learn about topics that interest me. My enthusiasm seems to be contagious. The fear I have with this is that I may inadvertently be creating situations that are not as learner-centered as they are teacher-centered. However, my enthusiasm has motivated many students to go on and learn more on these topics. The art history topics I feel I do quite well with are post-modern art, Dadaism, Southeast Asian Art, Pop Art, Abstract Expressionism, and the art of Ancient Rome. The art history topics I feel could be improved upon, based on student performance and motivation, are American Indian Art, Impressionism, Ancient Egyptian Art, Ancient Greek Art, Medieval Art, Renaissance Art, Regionalism, Cubism, and architecture. I believe that the inclusion of a technology enhanced constructivist approach to dealing with these topics will result in a better learning environment for my students. VLEs, WebQuests, and Web 2.0 tools will pick up where my own personal interests and motivation leave off resulting in increased motivation for both my students and myself. The first step in developing these tools is to identify the learning objectives necessary for the implementation of this curriculum.

Approaches to Curriculum Development Wiggins & McTighe (2005) support a “backwards� design approach to curriculum development with their curriculum framework Understanding By Design (UbD). With this approach it is necessary to start with

48 performance objectives, relate them to content standards, and then decide how understanding or mastery of these objectives will be assessed. Once we know what we are to teach and how we are to know if desired learning objective have been met, we can look for activities that meet those needs. They identify six approaches to learning that they call the “six facets of understanding.” The six facets include: explanation, interpretation, application, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge. I will aim to create assessments and learning activities that fall within these six facets in the development of this curriculum.

Learning objectives. In identifying learning objectives Wiggins & McTighe recommend “unpacking” the standards to find the underlying understandings. These underlying understandings they call “enduring understandings” (EU). They also suggest the use of “essential questions” (EQ) to guide student inquiry and focus their instruction. Ultimately, in wrestling with the problems EQs pose, students should be led to discover the truth in EUs. EUs and EQs ought to be both overarching and topical. The nature of overarching EUs and EQs promotes transfer of learning and is quite suitable for a constructivist classroom environment.

The specific nature of topical EUs and EQs guide the learning toward desired content area topics.

The Minnesota Standards for Visual Arts provide a vague framework for the study of art. Their lack of specific benchmarks for topics leaves the field of study wide open to individual teacher interpretation.

However, from these standards can be identified some major EUs and EQs that can be applied to any unit of instruction. For the development of more unit-specific EUs and EQs, I will look to art textbooks, district curriculum guides, and other state standards. The following list contains some broad, overarching EQs that I have used in my previous courses that apply to any lesson: What is Art? Where does meaning come from?

What determines why something is good or bad?

What is culture?

What is essential to each art form?

How can art be a weapon or tool?

49 What function does art hold?

These EQs all apply to both Minnesota content standards for Visual Arts. Their use determines how the standard is addressed. The following list contains the broad, overarching EUs I have used: Art can help us understand the world around us.

People are usually resistant to new ideas.

Sometimes it is necessary to destroy something to preserve it.

Art always has an audience.

Effective communication requires skill.

Art is a reflection of culture.

Art is an illusion.

Art is interpretive.

These EUs and EQs have provided a framework for all lessons in art I teach. In the development of this curriculum I will continue to apply these as they have been effective in my own practice. Kim & Song (1997) suggest that learning objectives in a VLE should be the same as those used with traditional classroom instruction. They offer five suggestions for the creation of VLEs: 1. provide divergent learning outcomes; 2. focus on learner-centered control; 3. provide a high level of user interaction; 4. follow principles of instructional design; and 5. consider constructivism. I will apply this framework for the development of this curriculum. In addition to the overarching EUs and EQs, EUs and EQs for each lesson will be developed that are aimed at more specific learning targets.

Assessment Wiggins & McTighe (2005) argue that when we think like an assessor we first identify the desired outcome then identify what kind of evidence will show us learners have achieved the desired understanding.

Only then can we begin to plan activities. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998) propose that classroom instruction and activities ought to be interactive. Teachers need to be tuned in to what their students needs are and adapt instruction to the individual. This can be done through what they call formative assessment.

50 Formative assessments. Formative assessments can come in many forms. They can be class discussions, peer reviews, critiques, games, or any host of other activities that provide the learner with immediate or near immediate feedback. Black & Wiliam argue that while most school reforms focus on standardized tests and accountability that are largely summative in nature it is through improvement of formative assessment that student achievement is increased.

Childress (2006) notes that in distance learning situations where chat rooms are used to facilitate class discussions interaction tends to resemble a group of people sitting around a table in a classroom. This forum provides little visual feedback that could enhance formative assessment in discussion strategies for students.

The use of a three-dimensional world for this type of assessment adds the visual element sometimes necessary for group or peer exchange to be completely effective. The ability for students and instructors to interact with objects within these environments provides many other sources for formative assessment. The fact that these objects can be programmed offer the potential to provide users with the kind of real time feedback that is provided by video games. It is therefore important to study the way video games provide feedback to users.

Fortunately, much of this work has been done already and laid out for educators by authors like Prensky, Gee, and Squire. I will look to their work for suggestions on how to apply video game theory to learning environments.

Summative assessments. I intend to develop rubrics for project-based summative assessments that students can use to self-assess their work. In these self-assessments students will be required to defend their assessment results. They will use a four point scale as to force the student to not take a neutral position in their assessment. Wiggins & McTighe (2005) support the use of rubrics as an assessment tool for both formative and summative assessment. Rubrics work as formative assessment tools because they allow a student to self-assess. Good rubrics provide exemplars of performance for students to view. They also provide an objective method for teachers to assess student work. This can be very important in a subject like art where much assessment has traditionally been subjective. Jonassen et. al. (2003) suggest developing rubrics collaboratively with students so that proficiency levels are internalized and expectations are clear.

51 Therefore, I intend to develop both set rubrics and a template and corresponding directions for guiding students to create their own rubrics collaboratively with teachers for some assessments.

The National Research Council (NRC) (2000) supports the use of student self-assessment. They argue effective learning requires students have the ability to assess their own work as well as the work of their peers.

This can be done quite effectively through the use of rubrics. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick (2004) also address the need for educators to teach students to be self-managing, self-monitoring, and self-modifying in their article, Launching Self-Directed Learner. They support the use of rubrics and other assessment tools and strategies that require the learner to, “reflect on their experiences and evaluate, analyze, and construct meaning.�

Activities Wiggins & McTighe (2005) use the acronym WHERETO to identify elements necessary in effective learning activities. With effective activities students know where (W) the unit is headed and why. This can be significantly influenced by the use of EUs and EQs. The lesson also provides a hook (H) to bring in their attention and equips (E) students with the necessary tools, info, and/or knowledge to meet the learning objectives. It is also necessary to provide opportunities for students to rethink, revise, reflect on (R) and evaluate (E) their work. Learning activities ought to be tailored (T) to individual student needs, talents, and learning styles. These activities must also be organized (O) so as not to distract learners from performance objectives.

Salzman & Dede (1999) suggest that learning experiences using virtual worlds be spread out over multiple sessions. It takes users time to acclimate themselves to new environments. This acclamation will result in some loss of instructional time. This is supported by the experience with my students using Runescape. My curriculum will require students to visit the VLE multiple times.

One drawback to the use of Runescape I noticed with my students was the irrelevance of the environment to the content my students were trying to teach. This may have resulted in the off-task behavior observed in the second experience. This is supported by Dunning (1998) who points out interactive

52 experiences in VLEs work best when there is a logical link between the landscape and the subject.

For this reason, when evaluating software and planning activities I will have to survey existing virtual worlds for spaces that will support my learning objectives. This will also be a factor when creating objects to inhabit these spaces.

In designing objects for these spaces, according to Okan (2003), more importance should be placed on the cognitive interaction users have with these objects than their professional appearance. Task demands, learner prior knowledge, and cognitive abilities should guide the nature of these objects and spaces. Form follows function. Learner experience in most VLEs is enhanced by the ability to communicate and interact with others. Di Blas (2003) notes that without something to do or someone to interact with users of threedimensional worlds can become bored and unmotivated. He suggests using a VLE that allows discourse. I will also employ video game strategies to my learning activities to further increase motivation. These game strategies will require users to interact with the virtual environment as well as each other.

Instructional role of the teacher. Shaffer (2006) contends that having students explore rich computer environments without guidance is a bad way to learn. He argues that the incorporation of VLEs should involve the teacher just as much as the traditional classroom. Teacher presence, either in the VLE or in the real environment while students are engaged in the VLE, is important because without support there is a human tendency for students to, “look for patterns and develop creative but spurious generalizations� (p. 68).

While much of the instruction with this project will be led by curriculum and performance tasks provided digitally the teacher will need to be there to ask guiding questions, check for understanding, assure that students are not off-task, facilitate discourse, and monitor cyber behavior.

Discourse strategies in VLEs. Di Blas notes that performing activities with others in shared VLEs has proven to be frustrating. However, he contends that the power of multi-user virtual environments lies in the potential for this to happen. VLEs allow users to transcend time and space to collaborate from disparate locations. Once the technical obstacles have been overcome and user interaction protocols have been established these environments can be a powerful tool for collaboration. He also notes that one drawback to

53 most VLEs is the absence or limited potential of nonverbal communication. What would normally be communicated nonverbally has to be explicitly stated. It is then important to draw student attention to this and establish a method of communicating in text, or through emocations, what would otherwise have been communicated through nonverbal cues.

Dickey (2005a) has concluded from multiple instructional experiences with the VLE Active Worlds that the constraints given by text-based chat as a discourse tool makes this virtual world unsuitable as a primary medium for lecture/discussion style classes. She suggests a constructivist approach. While Active Worlds and other VLEs are not very supportive of lecture style teaching methods they do support collaborative learning. Childress & Braswell (2006) offers some suggestions for how to facilitate cooperative discourse within VLEs. For partner activities they suggest a process they refer to as “Think/pair/share� where students are presented with problems to consider, then are paired up with a partner and share ideas or solutions. This works well because it cuts down confusion caused by large group text-only discussions. For group activities they suggest a round table or jigsaw format where a clear order and procedure is given for who speaks when. For example, we might have ten participants, each are assigned a number and are allowed to respond in numeric order. This also cuts down confusion but allows for multiple participants to partake in discussion. It also forces participation from otherwise apathetic students. Heim (2000) adds that these exchanges ought to be playful or fun so they do not revert to resembling simple text versions of regular classroom discussions. For activities involving class discussions a discussion procedure will then need to be established between teacher and students.

Drawing from the suggestions of other practitioners who have experimented with this technology and in trying to make the greatest use of the technology for enhanced learning, the activities I plan will have collaborative components to them. These might involve finding someone within the virtual world with which to discuss ideas, or engaging students in group discussions. To make use of the interactive potential with the visual environment these activities will also require learners to actually do something within the environment.

54 What they do will be largely determined by the interactive potential provided by the software I choose to house this curriculum.

Machanic (1998), as mentioned in chapter 2, notes the potential problems that can occur with regard to user misuse of discourse tools in VLEs. To avoid “flaming,” “one-upping,” or silencing of dissenting opinions she recommends that teachers establish clear protocols for user interaction. To avoid, or at least reduce instances of harassment I will develop a set of behavior guidelines for students and instructions for teachers on how to monitor virtual behaviors.

If the goal of a VLE is to empower users by letting free thought dominate over social restrictions, Kolko (1999) argues, responsible design of avatars is of utmost importance. She explains that knowing the gender of one’s conversational partner in cyberspace automatically delimits the conversation. She contends that this alone prevents any real or meaningful conversation to take place. When designing or choosing an avatar it is important to consider what you want to communicate to others about yourself. “When a programmer decides which gestures to render, then, she is deciding not what to communicate, but what possible messages to allow; such decisions dictate the communicative potential of the space” (¶ 17). She notes that most users and designers first instinct is to represent physical bodies that conform to stereotypes. She recommends the use of avatars that convey little about a person’s actual physical identity such as androgynous animal avatars or avatars modeled after inanimate objects. Avatar appearance will need to be a consideration when choosing a VLE platform.

Participants Researchers have defined the personality characteristics of users who benefit from virtual environments. Students who are shy, reflective, or more comfortable with emotional distance are likely to benefit from any VLE according to Dede, C. (1995). However, not all students in a classroom fit this profile.

As educators we have to work with diverse populations of students. Therefore, I am proposing that this curriculum be used in hybrid with face-to-face methods. For example, four units of a course might use this curriculum but between each lesson is a lesson taught traditionally. In doing so, students from both ends of

55 the personality spectrum will be addressed. In a distance learning situation these face-to-face sessions could be done through video-conferencing or synchronous secessions within the VLE. This curriculum might also be used in an online or distance learning situation where students never really meet in person. I hope to develop a program diverse enough to accommodate multiple settings with students in eighth through tenth grade. This curriculum will be a living entity in that the more people use it the more powerful it becomes. If, for instance, I found four other art teachers to have their students use it at the same time my students were, they could benefit from collaboration with each other. Also, users will be able to help construct portions of this environment. In so doing they leave behind exemplars for others to see.

Research done by Sherry Turkle and Seymore Pappert (1990) on computer programming strategies provides further insight into how computer based learning environments might affect learning. They contend that the multimedia aspect of computer mediated instruction, namely the graphics, sounds, text, and animation can appeal to learners who chiefly relate to the world through movement, intuition, and visual impression. All of which are key components of VLEs. They introduce what they call computational objects as pedagogical tools and propose they provide the greatest potential for learning in a computer-mediated environment.

Through these tools, which can be as simple as an icon moving across the screen, abstract concepts are made concrete.

Three-Dimensional Pedagogical Agents Rather than starting from scratch and creating a whole new virtual world I plan on creating threedimensional pedagogical agents and placing them within an already existing virtual world. These objects will be like treasure chests loaded with curricular content including activities, resources, and assessments. Making use of an already existing virtual world takes advantage of the traffic that these worlds receive. The interactivity with others not in the classroom provides an outlet for students to bounce ideas off of and to involve others in their learning.

Both Di Blas (2003) and Moreno (2002) argue that instructions given to participants in VLEs are best given through audio or spoken word rather than text. For this reason Di Blas recommends a format similar to

56 that of Onlive Traveler. Providing students with both visual graphic and text information can cause a cognitive overload, says Moreno. Studies, as described by Moreno, have shown that when spoken explanation accompanies pictorial information adding identical text actually hurts student learning.

Therefore, in designing these pedagogical objects I will make use of spoken instructions whenever possible.

Those spoken instructions will be different from text that appears to the user. To accommodate the deaf and hearing impaired, text instructions and materials will be included.

Wandering. As described in chapter one, when my students used Runescape as a learning environment, quite a bit of off-task wandering took place. This can be expected in any environment that provokes a learner’s sense of curiosity. According to constructivist principles, this is not always a bad thing.

The problem is whether or not this wandering is purposeful. I anticipate with any virtual environment, especially one rich in visual and audible detail, that wandering will occur. The goal will be to instill students with a sense of purposeful wandering. This is not dissimilar to setting students down to use the internet and providing them with a search task. Without purpose for being in a learning environment, a student is left to define their own purposes, many of which may not be appropriate for school. Therefore, I plan to include wandering as an activity. Students will be encouraged to explore these virtual environments but do so with intent. This intent might involve searching for objects, engaging people in conversation, or gathering data of some sort. The teacher’s presence in the environment is also a key to curtailing off-task behavior of this sort.

If a teacher should notice a learner wandering aimlessly or behaving in a way that is not productive they can question that student and redirect their focus.

Software Evaluation Before I can begin writing this curriculum I will need to know which platform I will use, which virtual world I will draw upon. Some software evaluation is needed. The authors of Evaluating Software For the Classroom (2003) suggest system requirements, intended grade or age level, time requirements, and cost are the primary considerations for evaluating software for classroom use. Once these requirements are met the

57 software evaluation should focus on the content, instructional design, multimedia and interface usability, classroom applications, technical considerations, and technical support.

Limitations. The creation of this curriculum will be limited by a number of factors. With unlimited resources a more effective virtual learning experience could be achieved. However, I am convinced that given limited resources an effective VLE can still be achieved. I am first and foremost limited by budget. I have very little money to work with. I will have to rely on software that is either free or very inexpensive. I also will have no resources to purchase any hardware. Given that most schools do not own the head-mounted displays or other peripheral equipment needed to make fully immersive VR a possibility in the classroom, I will be limiting my search to existing desktop, or “fish bowl� virtual worlds. A test conducted by Moreno (2003) suggests that no significant difference could be found between students who learned using desktop virtual worlds and those using more immersive technology. The factor determining how effective VLEs are in promoting student learning is how well the learning activities are structured to promote appropriate cognitive processing. I intend to demonstrate how an effective VLE can be achieved and used for under $200.

Software evaluation criteria. Graetz (2006) lists five criteria for defining a usable system in evaluation of software for educational consideration. First, the system has to be learnable. If the user interface is too complicated, orientation and familiarity with the program will dwarf the intended learning outcomes. Second, the system has to be efficient. The software must provide ability for learners to make clear connections to what is to be learned. Third, the system has to be memorable. Within the virtual world, learners must be able to find their way without getting too lost. They also must be able to find their way back to places within the virtual environment. Fourth, the system must be capable of inducing errors. This is how much of learning is traditionally done in a regular classroom. It is also the chief way learning occurs in game-based experiences.

For the student to grow they must be able to learn from mistakes. Fifth, the experience must be satisfying.

These five criteria, says Graetz, are supported by four cognitive determinants of environmental preference: coherence, complexity, legibility, and mystery.

58 Since I will need to place pedagogical objects within the virtual world, the world I choose must allow users to edit their environment by adding objects. For this reason programs like Runescape will be excluded. The virtual world must also be populated by users. Software grows outdated very quickly. These virtual worlds depend on users to keep them running. It is possible that a multi-user virtual world existed that would best suit this curriculum but has grown extinct through lack of use or through the closure of company or institution that hosted it.

To help establish presence, the software must use avatars as an interface with the VLE. According to Winn (2003) cognition is tied to our physical bodies and thus tied to our environment. If we are using a virtual environment it is then necessary to have virtual bodies. These virtual bodies, argues Arthur, Hancock, & Telke (1996, as cited by Winn, 2003), also help make it easier to remember three-dimensional spatial layouts.

These virtual worlds must also have clearly distinguishable landmarks. Bricken (1992) discovered that worlds with landmarks were easier for users to navigate than those that lacked these points of reference.

It does little good if the learner just gets lost every time they use the virtual world. If this curriculum is to be spread over multiple lessons it will be extremely important for the learner to successfully navigate the virtual landscape. These virtual worlds, as Di Paola (2003) points out, do not need to resemble realistic environments. While realism might be appropriate for immersion in entertainment software, social applications require a balance of elements that are not always realistic.

Virtual feng shui. Heim (ND) argues that educational spaces in virtual worlds should not look like traditional learning environments. Avatars cannot use chalk or sit in desks. In the design of VLEs attention needs to be paid to how the user interacts with the world. He recommends trying not to impose aesthetic rules inherent in other media such as film, painting, or theater. These media are not interactive nor do they attempt to create a sense of presence with their audience. He also believes that since virtual space is not linear, it is not a good platform for narrative storytelling. However, Heim (1998) points out users do identify with non-

59 linear action where surprises await around every corner. We ought to seek to create non-linear stories with our VLEs. Heim (2000) argues that a virtual Feng Shui must be applied to VLEs. While the difference in spacetime between their physical and virtual worlds necessitate differences in design both branches of spatial organization share much in common. He believes that an effective VLE will induce a sense of calm in the user and likens an ideal VLE to the Japanese tea ceremony. Such an environment would induce reflection.

The relaxation caused by such an environment is ideal for creating the relaxed nervous system necessary for optimal learning. An important difference, he points out, is that virtual worlds are event-based and occasioncentered. The real substance in these worlds is what occurs there since these worlds are not physically real.

The physical world is largely object-centered. For Heim, a successful VLE resembles our actual physical world only in that the physical world provides a background for cognitive activities.

We cannot think of a virtual classroom the same way we think of a physical classroom. What works physically in a traditional classroom does not work in an environment where students have to experience the world through the interactive tools afforded by these VLEs. Heim (2000) describes an online class in Active Worlds where a large open natatorium-like area was intended to be used to hold lectures and group discussions. This place was never used because people could not find a way to position their avatars to facilitate conversation. Instead, he found that these kinds of interactions tended to go on in the open-air part of the world where avatars could stake out comfortable places across a much larger space. More traditional looking classrooms might facilitate interaction between two avatars but not large groups. Therefore, whichever system I use has to provide a way for groups of people to converse and collaborate. Rather than looking like a school, the system must afford the types of interactive learning experiences research has concluded foster learning. Heim believes that as this technology evolves, virtual worlds will begin to resemble the aesthetic of pre-digital media. In other words, VLEs will look and act more and more like real world environments.

60 Roger Miller (as cited by Druin & Solomon, 1996) points out another issue in choosing a world format. If the virtual world is too vast, users will get lost and distracted; they will not realize that they are there to learn and likely spend their time exploring other things. If the world is too confined, the lack of user control will cause interest to be lost. Therefore, in choosing a virtual world, it cannot be too large but it also must be large enough to allow the student to have choice and a sense of control. Druin & Solomon (1996) also note that there is a delicate balance in edutainment between the “edu-“ and the “-tainment.” In other words, this VLE experience must be fun but the fun elements cannot outweigh the learning objectives.

Data collection. In evaluating software for this project I will test it against the following questions: 1. Is the software available? If “no” then I can immediately eliminate it as a possibility.

2. Is the virtual world thriving? To determine this I will visit the world to see how many users are logged on. This will provide some quantitative data to help determine the potential usefulness of its application. I will also engage users of these worlds in conversation to gather some qualitative descriptive data about their experiences using the world. This data will help me determine whether this world is appropriately suited for my purposes.

3. How much will it cost for me to edit this world? How much will it cost to bring students here? This data will be collected from world websites. If it costs too much to even visit I will have to forego step 2 and eliminate it from my evaluation criteria.

4. Does the world make use of avatars?

5. What is the user interface of this world like? a. Does it allow users to manipulate the environment? b. How is communication facilitated? c. How is information presented? d. Does the software allow for multiple views (i.e. first person, third person, aerial view, etc.) e. Does the software allow users to record conversations or keep records of their events?

61 6. What does the world look like? How large is the world? Are there elements that could be tied to any of the above mentioned curricular topics or performance objectives?

7. How easy is the software to use?

Summary Drawing from research supported best practices in educational gaming, VLEs, constructivism, and instructional design I intend on selecting an appropriate virtual world platform and appropriating it for use as a VLE. I will evaluate existing VLEs according to their appropriateness of use with adolescents, the interaction the platform provides, and its relevance to set learning objectives. Objects I place in the virtual world will be packed with curricular content and performance tasks requiring students to interact with the environment and other users of the VLE. I will use McTighe & Wiggins (2005) UbD framework to structure lessons and align performance tasks with state standards.

In chapter four I will apply this UbD framework for curriculum development to identify appropriate learning objectives for the art history topics of Native American Art, Impressionism, Ancient Egyptian Art, Ancient Greek Art, Midevil Art, Renaissance Art, Regionalism, and Cubism. I will then evaluate existing virtual world software and identify the platform that best meets my needs. From there I will provide a rich description of the world I choose to use and identify how this world might be used to reach the performance objectives of three or four of the above mentioned art history topics. Additionally, if the world seems to be particularly suited to address any of the other content standards, units of study will be developed to maximize the potential of this software for learning. I will then draft both formative and summative assessments including rubrics to outline how I will know students are reaching performance objectives. Finally, I will craft learning activities to be done interacting in this world through the creation of three-dimensional pedagogical objects using WebQuests to frame the tasks and organize curricular materials.

62 CHAPTER FOUR: THE CURRICULUM What are the principal elements of research supported learning experiences within virtual learning environments? To answer this question, I first have to find the appropriate virtual world to use as a virtual learning environment (VLE). In chapter three I explained my methodology for assessing virtual world platforms for their appropriateness and usefulness as a potential VLE. Chapter three also explained my approach to developing curriculum for such an environment. In this chapter I will present the results of my virtual world platform review and describe how I have used that platform to develop a curriculum that makes use of research supported learning experiences using VLEs. Virtual World Platform Evaluation In my assessment of virtual world platforms I limited my search by cost, usability, and population.

There are far too many virtual world platforms for an extensive evaluation of each one to be practical. For a platform to be economically applicable to a classroom situation the cost to explore must be free. For a platform to be used widely with educators it also must be easy to install and easy to manipulate. To insure that what is created will last the platform must be stable. A stable virtual world platform is one with regular users. With these parameters in mind I narrowed my search down to eight virtual world platforms: Moove, There, Active Worlds, Active Worlds Education Universe (AWEDU), Second Life, Digital Space Traveler, Kaneva, and Habbo Hotel.

Online virtual worlds are changing every day at alarming rates and in time one of these platforms may adopt policies and practices more condusive to pedagogical and curricular aims, but currently in 2007 the most appropriate platform for use with students is by far AWEDU. This is the only widely used virtual world platform designed specifically for education. There are many content rich environments already created that students and teachers can explore for free. However, this platform is not suitable for the teacher who wants to craft curriculum that requires a build within the world unless they are prepared to spend quite a bit of money.

It is far too costly for the teacher only wanting to use it for a couple class projects. Instead, I have determined that Active Worlds is a better vehicle for casual use.

63 Active Worlds and AWEDU are both virtual world platforms created and maintained by the same company, Active Worlds Inc. They are almost identical. The only experiential difference is that there are worlds available on AWEDU that are not available in Active Worlds and there are worlds available in Active Worlds that are not available in AWEDU. While AWEDU is designed for education, Active Worlds was designed for entertainment. Active Worlds can still be an appropriate medium for educators because the terms of service explicitly states that inappropriate or mature material is prohibited. Citizens of Active Worlds cannot post images or videos of a vulgar or sexually explicit nature. Consequences for doing so include the deletion of any build that contains inappropriate material and termination of their account. This governance provides a safe environment for young people and an appropriate environment to manufacture learning experiences.

Appropriateness One primary concern with any experience involving primary or secondary students is safety. Just as teachers would not want to send students out to explore the internet unfiltered they also would not want to send students into an unfiltered virtual world. For the same reason the ability to monitor and moderate student experiences in digital environments so that they do not expose themselves to potential harm is crucial. While there are no virtual world filters that work the way internet filters do, some of these virtual worlds have established methods to deal with this problem.

The most popular platform, Second Life (see Appendix C), has created two different grids. The teen grid is only accessible by those under the age of eighteen and the main grid is only accessible by those over the age of eighteen. There are a few major problems with this model. Without being able to enter a virtual environment with your students it is nearly impossible to monitor their activity there. Therefore, students entering the teen grid do so without adequate adult supervision. While a teacher can submit to a background check and be allowed to enter the teen grid, they are limited only to their own island and cannot explore other places with their students. If Second Life is being used with high school seniors, this also poses a problem.

Most students turn eighteen in their senior year. Therefore, a teacher could be working with a group of

64 students who one by one are denied access because of their age. Finally, it is not difficult to enter either the teen grid or the main grid regardless of your age. Just as a student under the age of fourteen can get a MySpace page by lying about their age, minors can enter the main grid and adult predators can enter the teen grid. There is no guarantee that the avatars students encounter are controlled by the people who they purport to be. The main grid poses another problem for educators. If students explore the Second Life main grid, they can very easily enter an environment full of mature content. In my exploration of the main grid, I encountered many sites listed among Second Life’s most popular containing images depicting explicit sex acts, nude avatars engaging in virtual intercourse, and adult films streaming into the virtual world. While it is easy to avoid these places, their existence and the inability to block them makes Second Life a dangerous place to bring students.

Another platform that is gaining in popularity is Kaneva (see Appendix D). Kaneva is being promoted as the first virtual world platform to fully integrate Web 2.0 tools. Kaneva can be thought of as three dimensional social networking. Users are given a webpage to publish their profile much in the same way they would with services like MySpace or Facebook. When they encounter another avatar in the virtual world, they can view their profile to determine if they want to engage them in discussion and know a little bit about what they might like talk about. Users are also given their own room that they can customize by streaming YouTube videos on virtual television sets, uploading image files as wallpaper, placing hyperlinkable pictures on the walls, or purchasing furniture. This level of control makes this environment potentially useful for educators. However, there are no controls over content; users can post anything they want. Since this environment is being promoted as a place to socialize, it probably is not the most suitable place to bring students. Kaneva also appears to be courting commercial retailers for a presence on their platform. The central meeting point for users of this platform is designed as a shopping mall. I suspect students using this platform will spend far too much time off task.

Moove takes a different approach to content filtration. Moove, much like Kaneva, is structured as a social networking platform (see Appendix E). Users are given their own homes to decorate. Unlike Kaneva,

65 Moove has no central or communal spaces. Users can teleport to each others homes with relative ease. These homes are hosted on each users own computer and their computers act as servers for their environments. To navigate in this environment users have to switch back and forth between traditional web pages and the three dimensional browser. Although this platform was originally intended as an online dating service, most of the activity that appears to go on in this environment seems to revolve around individual personal interests and not romance. When users sign up for accounts on Moove, they have to enter a plethora of personal data including birth date and the content level of their rooms. Users marking their spaces as being for mature audiences deny access to minors. The self monitoring feature for content makes this platform a bit more suitable for education but it does not offer any guarantees. Additionally, Moove is inappropriate for casual educational application for reasons I will explain later.

The best method I encountered for monitoring and filtering virtual worlds content are from Active Worlds (see Appendix F) and AWEDU (see Appendix G). These platforms take an approach to virtual world planning that recognizes that the virtual people who populate their worlds represent real people. In the real world real people control the governance of their environments. It is the responsibility of the citizenry to ensure that rules are followed and report those who are wrongdoers. With this in mind, these two platforms have established a government of sorts where users provide feedback on what they deem appropriate and inappropriate. When registering for a citizen account, which is required to build in either environment, users must sign a terms of service agreement that outlines these regulations. These regulations include the prohibition of all mature content of vulgar or sexually explicit nature. Users are also encouraged to report any such content they find to Active Worlds. Should a user post inappropriate material their builds will automatically be deleted and their accounts terminated. This policy ensures that Active Worlds and AWEDU remain safe places for users of all ages to explore.

Digital Space Traveler (see Appendix H), and Habbo Hotel (see Appendix I), also contain no inappropriate environments. However, I contend these environments are not suitable for educational use as a VLE because they limit user control over the environment too much. In both of these environments users can

66 only alter their surroundings to add or move items already constructed by the platform developers. I did not find any method of governance over the content on There (see Appendix J). In my exploration of this virtual world platform, I never encountered any content I would feel uncomfortable showing children. I assume they control content either in a way similar to Active Worlds or they have regular staff members that patrol the environment for content.

Avatar selection. In addition to the virtual environment’s appropriateness is the appropriateness of its avatars. While avatars are important for providing a virtual presence they also can be a huge distraction and can promote negative stereotypes. With this in mind I sought to find a platform that limits avatar selection so that students do not get hung up on what they look like and provides avatars that are socially appropriate.

The virtual world platform that provides users with the greatest control over their avatars is Second Life. Users of Second Life can customize their avatars with near infinite possibilities. They can even make their avatars look almost exactly like themselves. I attempted this and spent more than five hours on the task.

I believe providing users with the ability to limitlessly modify their avatars will promote countless hours of lost instructional time. Given the ability to customize avatars causes many users to create manifestations of themselves that reinforce potentially damaging stereotypes. Second Life is full of avatars that are sexually suggestive in ways people would not dare present themselves in the real world.

Kaneva, There, and Moove also provide a fairly high level of avatar customization but have limits to user control. Students using these platforms are not likely to waste too much class time on their avatar appearance.

Active Worlds, AWEDU, Digital Space Traveler, and Habbo Hotel all provide a list of avatars users can choose from but do not allow for customization with basic accounts. Additionally, the avatar selections in these environments are more appropriate for classroom settings and do not promote negative stereotypes.

Many of these environments also allow for avatars that are not human.

Presence. For a VLE to be successful, learners have to feel an actual presence in the virtual environment. Exploring these worlds I discovered three main factors that contributed to my own sense of

67 presence in these environments. First, the ability to explore an environment through a first person perspective was of high importance. Active Worlds, AWEDU, Moove, There, and Digital Space Traveler are the only platforms I evaluated that allow for true first person perspective. Second Life and Kaneva allow for a perspective close to first person but from a short distance behind the user’s avatar. This gives the user a feeling of being a puppet master and constantly reminds them of their real world existence. Habbo Hotel only supported third person viewing.

The second factor that I found important was ease of use. It seemed the more complicated a platform was to use the harder it was to fully immerse myself within its worlds. The easiest platforms to use were Digital Space Traveler, There, Active Worlds, AWEDU, and Kaneva. The most difficult to use were Moove and Second Life.

The third factor I found contributed to my own presence was the believability of the virtual environment. The more detailed the graphics the more I felt immersed. These environments did no have to be realistic if the graphics did a good enough job of convincing me they were real. There and Kaneva by far exceeded all the other platforms at this. Both of these environments are rich in their photographic realism, smoothness of animation, and use of details such as light, shadow, and surface texture. Active Worlds, AWEDU, Second Life, and Moove all came in a close second but each lacked one or more quality that would make their environments completely believable. Neither Habbo Hotel nor Digital Space Traveler helped me achieve a feeling of visual immersion.

Ability to build. The ability to construct things within a VLE is of varying importance depending on what the VLE is to be used for. For teachers who simply want to bring students to a virtual environment that already exists this factor does not deserve much consideration. It does become important if one wants to construct teaching objects or build environments for students and teachers to interact with and in.

Additionally, if the instructional aims are to use the VLE as a tool to achieve constructivist aims, building it is of crucial importance. Moove, Kaneva, Second Life, Active Worlds, AWEDU, and There all allow users to

68 build or construct things. I consider two criteria in evaluating these environments on the ability to build: ease of use and cost.

Moove, while completely free and relatively easy to build in, is a difficult platform to use. Each user has to host their own builds and are limited to basic structures provided by the software. Additionally, for others to view a user’s virtual house or the rooms within it their IP has to be configured in a specific way.

Instructions are provided on the Moove website for IP configuration but are loaded with tech talk that makes the use of this platform impractical for most educators.

Second Life allows users with a premium membership to build on their own land. Membership starts at $9.95 per month and provides members with enough land to build a virtual house. Users who want to build more need to purchase an island. Both the teen grid and main grid are subdivided in squares of virtual land called islands. Many island owners further subdivide their islands and make virtual space available for reduced prices but acquisition of virtual land this way is both limiting and not easy to secure. Further, everything built within Second Life is done by modifying simple geometric shapes. Constructing something complicated would require a level of proficiency beyond that of most causal users. Already constructed objects can be acquired but they cost money.

There operates in a way very similar to Second Life. Builders purchase islands where they build their creations for $100 per month. Objects in There are first created in an independent three dimensional object rendering software program like 3D Studio Max and uploaded to the virtual world server. Users can either create their own objects or purchase them from There object developers. I did not explore how these builds were accomplished because the cost of island ownership was high enough not to be practical for most educational institutions.

Kaneva allows users to customize their virtual living quarters by integrating with Web 2.0 software to allow for video streaming, image display, and website hyperlinking. All modifications of this nature are free and extremely easy to accomplish.

69 Active Worlds is perhaps the most practical when it comes to ease of use and cost. To build within the Active Worlds platform users have many options. Users can purchase their own worlds, galaxies, or universes for a fairly high cost. They can then have complete control over the contents of these environments and who is allowed to visit. This would be practical for an institution with many teachers interested in sharing a VLE. However, if the demand is small, Active Worlds offers users the ability to build as much as they want within any of their six public building worlds with a basic citizenship that costs only $6.95 a month. Builds by citizens are protected from being edited or deleted by other users even after the user’s membership expires. Building in Active Worlds is fairly easy but does require a small learning curve.

Each world in Active Worlds has an object directory. Users can create manifestations of these objects using simple keyboard controls. These objects can be rotated and moved. Most of these objects can also accept script commands making them programmable. The most significant of which is the ability to place a picture or texture over an object from a website. Objects can also be programmed to play sounds, move, or activate external controls when bumped or clicked such as teleportation or the animation of nearby objects. Building in Active Worlds is a lot like building with Legos or Tinker Toys.

AWEDU and Active Worlds are nearly identical platforms. The most significant difference is in accessibility. AWEDU does not have a standard citizen membership or public building worlds. Instead, AWEDU provides virtual worlds, galaxies, and universes to educational institutions for a discounted price.

The smallest world costs $650 the first year and $395 every year after that. Worlds available to explore from the AWEDU browser are only those owned and maintained by educational institutions. This platform is ideal for situations where teachers want all their students to have the ability to build or where large numbers of teachers within a single school want to use a virtual world platform. For the casual user with a limited budget or those who do not intend on using the VLE for very long this platform is perhaps not economically viable.

Two-dimensional web integration. For curricular purposes it is important to be able to display information in a two dimensional format. Some of these virtual worlds provide integrated web browsers or have the ability to integrate with existing web browsers. Active Worlds, AWEDU, There, and Moove all have

70 their own integrated web browsers. An integrated browser is preferable because it allows users to review a website while maintaining control of the VLE. Second Life and Kaneva both use the default internet browser to open hyperlinked webpages. Habbo Hotel is completely web based and must be accessed with the computer’s default web browser. Digital Space Traveler provides no integrated browser or way to hyperlink to a webpage.

System requirements. A major consideration in whether to adopt any software is the system requirements. For a virtual world platform to have applicability in a school setting it must operate smoothly with the school’s hardware and software configuration. Platforms requiring too fast a processor or too much memory will likely be out of reach of most schools. On the other hand, choosing the platform with the lowest system requirements potentially limits users. The goal here is to find the virtual world platform that offers the most user control with the least system requirements.

Of the eight platforms I explored the three with the lowest system requirements were Habbo Hotel, Digital Space Traveler, and Moove. All of these platforms can be run on a Pentium with 120MHz processing speed and an internet connection. However, neither Habbo Hotel or Digital Space Traveler support the kinds of activities necessary to create a content rich VLE. Moove requires only a Pentium I to operate but requires a direct internet connection without a proxy server. This connection requirement makes this platform unsuitable for school settings.

Active Worlds and AWEDU can both be run on a Pentium II with 300MHz or larger processor. These two platforms additionally make use of object directories that make operation much more efficient because computers only need to download one object for the representation of many as opposed to having to render each object individually. The one major limitation to these two platforms is they cannot be run on a Macintosh.

Second Life and There are two platforms that fit into a third class of virtual worlds. Both of these platforms require at least 800MHz processors to operate and a broad band internet connection. Second Life

71 also runs on both PC and Macintosh. Wide use of either one of these platforms in a lab environment would put enormous strain on system resources and eat up bandwidth quickly.

Kaneva by far has the highest system requirements. It needs at least 1.2 GHz to operate. When I explored this platform I could feel the strain on my computer system. I ran Kaneva on a Centrino Duo processor and experienced a lot of down time while the software loaded. Additionally, every time I started Kaneva it had to install updates. Sometimes this took up to a half hour. Kaneva might have future in education but it is clear it can’t have a present.

Summary. After an extensive review of existing virtual world platforms I have determined that Active Worlds would best suit my curricular and pedagogical needs. Active Worlds will run on most PCs available in schools and will not place a great strain on network resources. It also provides a safe place to bring students where I can interact with them virtually. The cost to build is reasonable and affords me great freedom to build whatever I need. With this platform I can also build as much as I need and cover a vast area of land with no extra expense. If I have students work in groups of four and give each group one citizen account, with a class of twenty-eight students the cost would only be $48.65 per month and I would only need to pay that fee for the time they need to build. Active Worlds has an integrated internet browser that will provide a convenient vehicle for the presentation of curricular materials. Students using this platform are also not likely to waste class time customizing their avatars and the avatars they have to choose from do not promote negative self image or reinforce socially damaging stereotypes or archetypes.

Virtual World WebQuests When I first envisioned this project I intended on only placing simple virtual objects within already existing virtual environments that students would discover through exploration. In exploring existing virtual world platforms it became evident that this would not be possible. First, virtual real estate in nearly every platform is governed by rules that are extremely similar to the rules that govern real estate in the real world.

The big difference is in the real world it is easier to break many of these rules. In the virtual world these rules often manifest themselves as limitations provided by the software. In Active Worlds, virtual property is

72 claimed by placing objects on unoccupied property. The platform recognizes which users placed each object. The only user allowed to modify any piece of property with an existing build is the original builder. Since these world builds are protected even after a user’s account has expired it is often impossible to locate users to ask permission to place new builds in their environments. Second, the virtual worlds of Active Worlds are so vast that the likelihood of students stumbling upon one of my teaching objects would be minimal. Therefore, I had to modify my approach. Instead of placing objects within existing environments I had to build a space that included teleports to the environments I originally wanted to infiltrate. This approach ended up being preferable because it afforded me more control over the presentation and context of curricular materials. It also provided a virtual place for class activities to be grounded.

Virtual real estate acquisition. Before I could begin building anything for this project I had to acquire virtual land to build on. At first this was frustrating and required a fair amount of learning on my part. In Active Worlds, registered citizens are allowed to build as much as they want in any of six public building worlds. However, the restriction that one cannot build on a piece of virtual land that someone else has claimed made it difficult initially to find anywhere I could build my own objects. To learn how to find virtual land I had to rely on other experienced users.

After an hour of failed attempts to place objects within the public world AlphaWorld, I teleported to AWSchool, a virtual world devoted to helping users learn how to build in Active Worlds. There I typed a question in the chat window, “Can anyone show me how to find a place to build in AlphaWorld?” A volunteer AWSchool teacher was online and came flying to my assistance. That user asked me to follow their avatar who guided me to a series of screens in AWSchool that provided instructions for how to build in any of the Active Worlds public worlds. They also told me they knew a user who was the mayor of Horizon City, a virtual community within AlphaWorld, and that they would be right back to let me know where I can build. A few minutes later the teacher was back and gave me coordinates to teleport to and instructed me to find a user named Sirqus. When I teleported to the coordinates I was given, Sirqus, the mayor of the city, greeted me and asked me to follow to an empty plot of virtual land. I was given a three by three plot, large enough to build a

73 large building. Within it, I could build anything I wanted. I got right to work building a structure to house the Virtual World WebQuests I would later write. This building can be found by teleporting to the coordinates 6893S 13856E in the world AW. In the process of constructing and writing my Virtual World WebQuests, I discovered There are many places a citizen can build in AlphaWorld without getting the permission of another user. Most users who want to claim land do so by covering the land with flat grey objects. Land that is not claimed and can be built on by anyone appears green like grass. To place an object, an existing object has to be copied and inserted then moved. This can be done by right clicking on an object and hitting the insert key on the keyboard. That object can then be moved to the free property by using the arrow keys. To build in an area far away from existing builds one has to start in a populated area and repeatedly move the object and then move their avatar.

Once a developable area has been discovered the coordinates can be saved within the browser so users can get there easily. I also discovered a directory of existing virtual cities within AlphaWorld that contain open plots.

I include this directory as part of my third Virtual World WebQuest.

Building Objects. Rather than constructing three dimensional models in a modeling program and importing them into AlphaWorld, anything built must be constructed out of items already existing in the AlphaWorld object directory. This ensures a performance standard for users of AlphaWorld. By limiting the number of objects, browsers can upload world information faster. It also prevents average users from importing highly complicated objects or object files that are too large to be practical. However, the object directory is quite extensive and many of the objects allow for action commands that let users place their own pictures on the objects or program the objects to animate or activate a number of interactive controls. While there is a limit to the kind of object you can place, there is great flexibility with the objects that have been approved. Additionally, there is an object yard within AlphaWorld that displays all the possible objects that builders have to work with.

To change an object, builders only have to change the file name of an object. When users right click on an object an object properties window pops up. That window displays the object filename, a description

74 field, and an actions field. Changing the object filename changes the object that is rendered.

Entering information into the description field does nothing but leave notes for other builders about the object.

In the action field any number of scripts can be written that change the properties of that particular rendition of the object. These actions can be used to create a picture, activate a teleport, hyperlink the object to a website, or animate the object.

The integrated internet browser. One of the features of Active Worlds that makes it attractive for development of curricular activities is the integrated internet browser. This feature allows objects in the virtual world to act as hyperlinks to the two dimensional web. When an object that has been coded as a hyperlink is clicked, the corresponding website opens in this integrated browser. By default this browser is displayed as a tab within the Active Worlds program. When it is opened it appears on the right side of the screen as a tall and narrow window. Windows that are displayed as tabs resize the virtual world window to accommodate for the change in screen size. This window can be detached from the Active Worlds window and resized. However, for optimal use and navigation between the virtual world and the two dimensional web, it is best to keep these windows tabbed when at all possible. Therefore, website material created for use with this environment must take into consideration the unconventional shape of the browser window. To accommodate this I had to create my own webpages for each of the WebQuest items. To do this I created a table in HTML that was the same width as the default browser window. I used Google Docs & Spreadsheets, an online document hosting and publication application, to host these websites which allowed for quick and easy editing and a reliable place to host these pages. I also discovered that the wiki pages provided by PBWiki were ideal for use in this browser. PBWiki pages are structured so that at the top of each page is a sidebar that is located on the right. The default settings of the integrated browser show all content to the left on these sidebars. Some pages of the WebQuests I created require students to contribute data. I used PBWiki sites for this purpose.

Linear Perspective and Renaissance Art. Exploring the virtual environments of Active Worlds and AWEDU, it was quite evident that this could be a great tool for teaching concepts related to linear perspective.

75 I have always had difficulty trying to explain the relationship between real environments and the concepts associated with linear perspective. The nature of this problem has to do with framing. A drawing usually has the limitation of the frame or edge of the paper. This is also true of photographs. I always found that I had no trouble teaching students how to draw in one or two point linear perspective if they were drawing things from their imagination. The difficulty came when I brought students to an actual place and asked them to draw what they saw using linear perspective.

Using a tool like Active Worlds, I can bring students to a virtual environment and easily illustrate these concepts. The browser window acts as a frame, the same way the edge of the paper does. This helps foster knowledge transfer because the virtual environment is one step closer to reality than the photograph. Using Active Worlds I can view the same scene from multiple viewpoints and using drawing tools illustrate where the vanishing point is in relationship to the viewer and the environment. I can more easily illustrate how the vanishing point moves depending on where the viewer stands. I can also easily illustrate how moving to a viewpoint where the viewer is looking at a corner changes the perspective from one to two-point.

The first two floors of the building I constructed contain the Linear Perspective and Renaissance Art Virtual World WebQuest (see Appendix K). Upon entering the building students are confronted with a sign that contains all navigational instructions and curricular components typically seen in a WebQuest: introduction, task, procedure, evaluation, resources, and teacher instructions. Additionally, there is a sign that contains a virtual worlds code of conduct. The essential questions for this WebQuest are: How is art a lie? and What are the relationships between illusion and reality? For their task, students are asked to make a concept drawing for a virtual world that will promote their favorite food product. To do this they will have to know how to draw in linear perspective, understand a little bit about virtual worlds, and learn how the technique of linear perspective was discovered. They are instructed in the procedure to follow the signs sequentially through the halls of the first floor of the building, clicking on the signs and images there for information and further instructions.

76 This Virtual World WebQuest is divided into three basic tasks with four different assignments. Task one has students exploring the Italian Renaissance and learning how linear perspective and other ways of showing space in paintings was important to that time period. In their exploration of the content presented in the first hall they are given videos to watch and websites to explore. When they are done they prepare a short oral critique of one artwork they encounter in their search. In that critique they identify methods the artists used to show depth or create a sense of space. The task makes use of Gabcast, a free telephone podcasting service, for the students to record their oral critiques. Once critiques have been recorded, they can be listened to by clicking a sign at the end of the hall.

The second task asks the students to learn how to draw in one and two point linear perspective. The second hall on the first floor contains links to all the tutorial websites and two videos I created using Active Worlds, the Paint program that comes standard with Windows XP, CamStudio, and Windows Movie Maker.

One of these videos illustrates how to find the vanishing point in a given scene. The other video illustrates the difference between one and two point linear perspective. At the end of this hall is a room that contains the assignment for this task. Students partner with a classmate, teleport to another virtual world, and communicate using the communication tools available in Active Worlds to position one avatar over the vanishing point of a given scene. The other user is to then take a screenshot of that scene and upload it to a wiki created for this task. This assignment does two things. First, it assesses whether or not the student understood the concept of vanishing point. Second, it prepares students for activities in other Virtual World WebQuests that will require collaboration and communication within Active Worlds.

The third task is the summative assessment for the WebQuest and contains two different but related assignments. First, students are to use linear perspective to create a concept drawing for a virtual world promoting their favorite food product. When their drawings are complete they either scan or take a digital photo of them, change the image size, and save it as a vector graphic file (.gif). They then upload the image to a wiki page provided within the VLE. If done correctly their image will appear in the gallery on the second floor. The second assignment of task three asks students to record a sales pitch for their virtual world. Each

77 image in the gallery on the second floor has a sign next to it with a unique Gabcast channel number and password. Students will call the toll-free number provided at the top of the stairs, enter the channel number, and password then record their sales pitch. Visitors of the gallery can then listen to the sales pitches while looking at their concept drawings.

Impressionist Artist Profiles. The third floor of the building contains the second Virtual World WebQuest (see Appendix L). Students are once again confronted with an introductory sign containing all the major components of a WebQuest. The virtual world VanGogh , available on Active Worlds for registered citizens and on AWEDU for all users, was the inspiration for this Virtual World WebQuest. VanGogh is a world constructed from a series of paintings by Vincent Van Gogh. Exploring this world is like stepping into a Van Gogh painting. While there is little curricular material in the environment I felt it would serve as the perfect environment for a class discussion about Impressionism and Post Impressionism. The essential questions students will explore in this WebQuest are: Where does meaning come from? How can meaning change? and What has influence over meaning? To answer these questions they will examine one work of Impressionist or Post-Impressionist art from multiple viewpoints.

The first task of this Virtual World WebQuest is a teacher led discussion activity making use of the think-pair-share discussion model inside VanGogh. After a brief lecture by the teacher, students are divided into groups of four to discuss information presented to them by the teacher. For whole class discussions I suggest assigning each student a number and requiring students to type in turn. This will ensure each student has an equitable chance to speak and it will help keep class discussions logical. In their small groups they additionally have to decide who will assume each of the four roles necessary to complete the WebQuest: art critic, art historian, biographer, and general historian.

After the introductory discussion in VanGogh, students are brought back to the third floor of the building that houses this Virtual World WebQuest. The first hall on this floor contains four images representing the four roles students will assume. These images are linked to wiki pages that explain each individual student task and provide resources to assist them in understanding their role. The adjacent room is a

78 gallery of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings and sculptures. Linked to each of these artworks is a wiki devoted to it. Students are to edit this wiki adding information about the artist, the artwork, the stylistic period, and world events influencing the artist and their work. Their final product will be a website containing four papers providing information about the artwork and a list of links to information about the topic. Should students need assistance editing the wiki there is a link at the top of the stairs to tutorials on how to edit and use the wiki.

Greek and Roman Architecture. Both the Linear Perspective and Renaissance Art Virtual World WebQuest and the Impressionist Artist Profiles Virtual World WebQuest could be done without teachers having to purchase citizen accounts for their students. They also provid students with activities that help them acclimate to the Active Worlds browser. The third Virtual World WebQuest, Greek and Roman Architecture (see Appendix M) introduces students to building objects and environments in Active Worlds. It also requires that teachers purchase one citizen membership for every four students in their class. In completing this Virtual World WebQuest students will explore the essential questions: How does form relate to function? and How does our environment affect us?

At the top of the stairs is a sign similar to those at the beginning of the two prior Virtual World WebQuests. For their task, students will have to design a building in Neoclassical style that will serve as a museum. Their final product has to be a virtual model of this building. To complete this task, students need to learn about Classical and Neoclassical architecture and learn how to build virtual building in Active Worlds.

Instead of moving through hallways sequentially encountering signs and images prompting them to open websites or play videos in the integrated browser the entire floor is a large room containing teleports to virtual world environments that will assist them in learning how to build in AlphaWorld. Before students can explore this floor they have to complete a worksheet where they find definitions of terms related to Greek, Roman and Neoclassical architecture. They are provided with a list of websites to explore to find these definitions. They must then choose who will assume each of the four roles necessary to complete the final task. One student serves as the realtor and supplier and is responsible for locating land and objects to use.

79 The concept artist is responsible for producing drawings of what the building would look like. The architect is responsible for figuring out how to use the items available and provided by the supplier to achieve the concept artist's vision. And the builder is responsible for following the blueprints provided by the architect.

All students are encouraged to visit the teleports provided on this floor. There is a teleport to AWSchool where students can learn how to build things in Active Worlds. There is a teleport to a directory of cities in AlphaWorld where anyone with a citizen account can build. There is a teleport to the AlphaWorld building yard where students can locate file names of objects they will need to construct their building. Once all students have a general understanding of how the team will complete the task they each separate and do their own work. The realtor locates a place for them to build and then searches the building yard for objects they will need. This student will only need to use the citizen account for locating property. The builder then takes over the citizen account for the remainder of the project. The concept artist and architect then work together to design their building. The architect takes the ideas the concept artist comes up with and tries to make them work with the objects provided by the supplier. The builder is then responsible for taking the architects instructions and the supplier’s objects and putting them together. When the group is finished there is a wiki page linked to a sign in the room where they record the coordinates of their Neoclassical building.

Magnum Opus. The fifth and final floor of the building houses the Magnum Opus Virtual World WebQuest (see Appendix N). While the other three Virtual World WebQuests addressed the Minnesota Content Standards for the visual arts Magnum Opus also addresses the content standards for media arts. For this project students are to assume the role of a film crew charged with the task of creating an animated instructional film for the Museum of Modern Art. The Museum is going to have an exhibit of all the great Cubists and they want animated videos to accompany the most important works for each artist in the show.

Additionally, they want a virtual world for each artist rich with educational content. In completion of this task students will wrestle with the essential questions: How can virtual world tools be utilized to communicate to a mass audience? and What are the essential components of Cubism?

80 To complete this task, students must choose an artist and learn as much as they can about their life and their work. They will then assume one of four roles. The writer is responsible for pulling together any script that would be used and for developing the film's storyboard. The director is responsible for creative direction and final decision making. The set designer is responsible for designing and building the virtual sets. The editor is responsible for taking all video and audio clips and editing them to create the final product.

All students begin by researching a Cubist artist. Four websites are provided that contain enough information to get started. Following their research they brainstorm and collaboratively come up with a general plan for their film. The script writer then works with the director to create a storyboard for the film and write any dialogue that needs to be included. While the director and script writer work on the storyboard, the editor assists the set designer in constructing the virtual sets necessary to make this film. As the storyboard is firmed up, more set direction will occur. When the storyboard and sets are complete, all students log into the virtual world and serve as actors while the director uses CamStudio to film clips that will be included in the final cut. Any audio to be included is later recorded using Audacity. When all clips, still images, and sound files are created the director works with the editor to produce a final cut in Windows Movie Maker. To assure each student has something to do through the whole process of completing this task, the set designer and the script writer are responsible for transforming the sets into VLEs while the editor and director compile the final cut. The final products are an instructional video and a VLE devoted to a cubist artist.

The fifth floor where this Virtual World WebQuest is located contains far fewer objects than the other floors. In this case the students are using Active Worlds more as a tool to create than a tool to consume. The objects that do appear on this floor are only provided as examples for students to give them ideas for how they might design their own environments or how they might use Active Worlds to create their film. Included is a link to a music video on YouTube that makes use of the Sims II to create an animated story, a painting by Picasso animated and rendered three dimensionally, a teleport to a virtual sculpture garden where students can get ideas for how to combine different building objects, a teleport to a bubble world created in AlphaWorld

81 using panoramic pictures, and a hyperlink to a website explaining how to use object action commands. The ceiling in this room is intentionally left out to show students how the faรงade of the building was created. At the end of the room is an exit door that teleports students to AWGate, the place where most users enter Active Worlds.

Summary. While the main learning objectives of these four Virtual World WebQuests revolve around the Minnesota Content Standards for visual arts and media arts there is a secondary goal of teaching students how to use a virtual world. The first three floors of this building introduce students to navigation and communication tools. The fourth floor introduces students to manipulating and building objects in this virtual world. The fifth floor has students utilizing the virtual world as a tool to create an object that is useful in the real world. Students completing all three WebQuests will possess the skills necessary to utilize Active Worlds as a tool for other projects they may encounter. All units make use of constructivist learning activities and are designed following the guidelines supported by Understanding by Design.

In chapter one I described my own experience with technology, the disillusionment my first encounter with VLEs left me with, and how two student projects renewed my fascination with digital tools. In chapter two I explored what the literature on Digital Natives, Immigrants, & Tweeners, digital teaching machines, MMORPGs, VR, VLEs, virtual worlds, learning environments and constructivism has to tell us about the use of virtual environments in education. In chapter three I laid out a plan for how I would conduct a review of virtual world platforms and how I would craft a curriculum based on the results of this review. In this chapter I have presented the findings of my virtual worlds platform review and four Virtual World WebQuests I designed based on these findings and following the guidelines set out in chapter three. In chapter five I evaluate these four WebQuests according to criteria extrapolated from the literature review in chapter two. I also explain how the Active Worlds platform can be easily used by educators to craft similar curriculum for their students and identify areas of further study.

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83 CHAPTER FIVE: EVALUATION In chapter one I described my own experience with technology, the disillusionment my first encounter with virtual learning environments (VLEs) left me with, and how two student projects renewed my fascination with digital tools. Chapter two explored what the literature on Digital Natives, Immigrants, & Tweeners, digital teaching machines, MMORPGs, VR, VLEs, virtual worlds, learning environments and constructivism has to tell us about the use of virtual environments in education. A plan for how virtual world platforms would be reviewed and how a curriculum based on the results of this review would be developed is laid out in chapter three. This virtual worlds platform review and the four Virtual World WebQuests I designed based on these findings were presented in chapter four. In this chapter I evaluate these four WebQuests according to criteria extrapolated from the literature review in chapter two, address the questions raised in chapter one, explain how the Active Worlds platform can be easily used by educators to craft a similar curriculum for their students, identify areas of further study, and reflect on my own professional growth.

So, what are the principal elements of research supported learning experiences within VLEs? VLEs are multi-user by nature. They are places where people from distant geographical locations can meet and interact. VLEs are primarily a communication tool but can also be used to craft simulations, design content rich environments, and provide students with a tool to build places and things. The ideal VLE is immersive and creates a sense of presence for users. Most VLEs also allow users to have some control over the appearance of the virtual landscape. The research supported learning experiences within these environments take advantage of all these features.

First, students entering a VLE must have some clear objective for being there. Bringing students into a VLE is much like taking student on a field trip and setting them free to explore. Without clear guidance or purpose on such a field trip students are not likely to learn the concepts or participate in the activities the teacher wants. A fair amount of independent exploration must be expected when bringing students into a VLE, Therefore exploration must be an integral part of a lesson making use of the VLE. The research also supports the use of constructivist methods when using a VLE.

84 Second, the ability to manipulate the virtual environment makes constructivist teaching methods ideal in a VLE. Having students build something or collaborate to construct something in a VLE both gives students a clear purpose for using the VLE and exemplifies constructivist pedagogical ideals.

Third, VLEs must relate to the curricular content. A virtual world can be a powerful learning environment if the virtual environment supports the learning objectives of a given lesson.

Secondary Questions My experiences with Runescape raised for me a few questions I addressed in chapter one. These questions revolved around three primary themes: student behavior, achievement, and motivation. Many of these questions were answered in chapter two by the literature review, some by chapter four with my curriculum, and some are left as areas for further research. The first question my experience with Runescape raised for me was: How do MMORPGs, VLEs, and virtual worlds affect student behavior? This question was answered in chapter two by the literature review. These virtual environments will engage students and engaged students are usually well behaved. How students find the VLE engaging depends on: clear purpose, level of presence, immediate feedback, and ability to enact some control over the environment.

The second question this experience raised for me was: How do we increase student on-task behavior and increase student achievement using VLEs? When students are engaged in learning activities their achievement will increase. VLEs provide a medium through which one can engage students, control student behavior by eliminating certain distractions found in the traditional classroom, and connect students to ideas and people from distant places. Eliminating distractions and providing an engaging place to learn will ultimately lead to greater levels of on-task behavior which will in turn lead to an increase of student achievement. On-task behavior can be further increased by providing clear objectives for students that take advantage of the natural tendencies of users within virtual worlds. Users will want to explore these environments on their own so it is important to structure activities that encourage them to do so. Engagement can again be increased by providing students with the ability to control or influence the makeup of this environment.

85 What was different between the two experiences my students had using Runescape that lead one group to be on task and the other to misbehave within the digital environment? This question was answered in chapter two by Malone and Lepper (1987). Each student applied a different pedagogical technique related specifically to the virtual environment. The student that was more successful encouraged the students to explore the virtual environment. The student that was less successful tried to use the VLE to do what could more easily been done in a traditional classroom. While this student did apply a scoring system in an attempt to increase student motivation they did not utilize any of the virtual world features in the activities they had students do. Without taking student natural tendencies to explore into account or giving students tasks to do that they need to use the virtual environment to accomplish the students ended up misbehaving. This misbehavior was a result of natural tendencies to explore new environments.

Achievement. Another question these experiences raised for me was: Will the disembodiment caused by virtual environments cause an otherwise poor student to excel? The literature tells us that VLEs can be beneficial for students with social and cognitive disorders such as autism or aspergers. It also tells us that students who are normally shy in a traditional classroom setting may benefit from a virtual setting. Bringing students into a virtual environment removes them one step from direct interaction with the teacher and with each other. In such an environment, especially if communication in that environment is facilitated through text chat, students often will speak up and say things they would not normally feel comfortable saying in class. These environments also provide for learners with physical disabilities the ability to do things virtually they might not be able to do in real life.

Motivation. Will the game-like platform of the experience increase motivation or will the student become bored with the game once its novelty wears off? This question was answered in chapter two by Malone and Lepper (1987). They found that given a choice, most students would choose to receive instruction in a game format rather than drill and practice (p. 227). For games or simulations to be motivating they must provide challenge, facilitate fantasy, foster curiosity, and provide users with a certain level of control. Cooperation, competition, and recognition are also very important for games that involve working

86 with others (p.224). Students will become bored with a VLE if the goals provided are easily attainable, for optimal motivation goals must be challenging and goal attainment must be uncertain. Frequent, clear, constructive, and encouraging performance feedback must also be given. These environments must also evoke sensory and cognitive curiosity (pp. 235-37). Students need to be allowed to make choices and have some level of control over the environment (p 238). Fantasy elements must be directly related to the curriculum content (p. 240). So, it really depends on the game or simulation and the individual student. If all these criteria are met engagement will likely persist.

Curriculum. After my experience described in chapter one, I wondered if a content-rich course could be developed and taught using virtual worlds? My experience exploring virtual world platforms described in chapter four and the subsequent curriculum I developed answers this question. The answer is a resounding yes. The issue is not whether a curriculum can be developed but rather whether how it is to be taught. The ability to manipulate and build within many of these virtual worlds makes curriculum development within these environments rather easy. The utilization of a virtual world for curricular aims requires a pedagogical shift unfamiliar to many teachers. Teachers have to be prepared to take a back seat at times and let students drive much of their own learning. Virtual worlds do not support well many of the traditional teaching methods typically used in the brick and mortar classroom. They are not good places to hold a lecture and they do not necessarily lend themselves well to completely synchronous learning. The teacher who utilizes a virtual world for curricular purposes must be prepared to do a lot of planning to craft environments and activities for students that are engaging and related to the curriculum. The use of such an environment will also necessitate a much more personalized approach to teaching and assessment.

Summary. The literature review in chapter two answered many of my initial questions regarding instructional use of VLEs. Many other questions were answered in the platform review and curriculum provided in chapter four. The one question I am left with after my literature review, virtual world platform evaluation, and curriculum writing is: Will students with behavior issues only transfer these issues to the virtual environment? Without testing my curriculum with students I cannot verifiably answer this question. I

87 suspect this will depend on the student. I have observed students who routinely misbehave in one classroom be model students in another. What triggers a student to misbehave, I suspect, depends on the dynamics created between the teacher, the environment, and the students own personal learning style. It is entirely possible that the use of a VLE could cause an otherwise well behaved student to misbehave. This will also most likely depend on methods used to engage. Some VLEs will likely provoke more misbehavior than others.

Professional Growth This project has opened my eyes to many factors influencing both education as an institution and how students learn. It has forced me to revisit my own early experiences with technology and reflect on what it was about those experiences that either fostered or hindered knowledge construction. It has also forced me to reflect on my experiences as a teacher and how my prior instructional actions and procedures had an effect on student behavior, motivation, and achievement.

Two sources greatly influencing my choice to pursue virtual worlds for this capstone were Marc Prensky (2001) and Clayton Christensen (2005). Prensky’s (2002) claim that there is a digital divide between generations struck a nerve with me when I first read it. The idea that digital natives and immigrants are somehow neurologically different was a difficult idea to accept. However, the difficulties I have observed many older people have with technology caused me to spend a lot of time entertaining Prensky’s claims and ideas. Entertaining his ideas caused me to reflect on the nature of learning. I thought back to the video games I played when I was younger and what it was about them that I found engaging. I thought about the things that my own teachers did that engaged me and the things they did that left me feeling I learned nothing. I felt a fair amount of guilt thinking back on my own teaching practice and how I used some of these less engaging strategies because I thought that was how I was supposed to teach.

Regardless of whether Prensky is right or wrong about the neurons in the brains of those exposed to digital technologies at an early age his work is beneficial for how it has induced both reflective practice and metacognitive reflection. As a result I have altered my own teaching practice to pay closer attention to the

88 attention of my students. If my job were just to disseminate information, it would not matter if the students actually learned anything but the teacher’s job is to grow young minds. Just as a good gardener pays attention to the needs of their plants I need to pay more attention to the needs of my students. From this I have concluded that instruction is best when it can be individualized. The only way for most teachers to do this is to spend less time in the driver’s seat and more time guiding students along their own path.

Constructivist pedagogy makes this possible and tools like virtual worlds assist with management and engagement.

The other work guiding my decision to pursue virtual worlds for my capstone topic was Clayton Christensen’s (2005) speech, “Disruptive innovation" in American public education. This speech caused me to feel a fair amount of fear. Christensen explains that education funding sources cannot meet the rising cost of educating a child. Without a different model, our schools will soon deteriorate in quality, class sizes will continue to grow, and resources will become scarcer. We notice this every fall when schools try to pass a levies and referendums and again in the spring when regardless of whether voters approved additional school funding or not cuts still have to be made. He describes how this same scenario has happened in many other industries and how antiquated business models and products are always replaced by what he calls a disruptive technology. This led me to become interested in distance learning. When I was reintroduced to virtual worlds by my students, it was evident to me that this might be a good tool for distance learning and a possible disruptive technology in the field of education.

On the topic of virtual worlds, two voices stand out for me. The extensive research by Chris Dede on virtual reality and virtual worlds influenced nearly every step of both my virtual world platform review and construction of my curriculum. There clearly is no one in the field who has as much experience with these two topics as Dede. While there was very little I found surprising in Dede’s work, what it did do was answer most of my secondary questions and greatly informed my primary research question.

The other work that stood out for me on the topic of virtual worlds and VLEs is Graetz’s (2006), The Psychology of Learning Environments. In that article Graetz asks if students find our traditional brick and

89 mortar learning environments enchanting and proposes that virtual worlds and massively multiplayer online role playing games are both appropriate and beneficial for gaining student engagement and evoking their sense of wonder and creativity. More than any other source this one was influential in thinking about the VLE as a learning environment. This article nicely compliments the work of Marc Prensky and frames digital learning not as a video game but rather a digital environment. This work guided my thoughts on how instruction in a VLE might be structured.

While virtual worlds are not digital games, they are closely related. I found it necessary to review literature related to the topic of digital games and game based learning. Initially I thought research on digital games would inform most the design of my curriculum from a structural level. Instead it informed more how the brain functions and how people learn. The most influential and informative source on this topic was Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). This article very thoroughly describes the factors that contribute to active engagement in video games. Most of these factors are also true for engagement in any learning environment. The most notable finding from their research influencing my virtual world platform review and curriculum was that for optimal engagement the motivating factors have to be contextualized. Learning activities are more effective when they are authentic. As a result I tried to find or construct virtual environments that were directly related to the content. Holding a class discussion on Impressionism inside a Van Gogh painting is a good example of this.

Now I am more conscious of how my curriculum, teaching methods, and learning environment affect the attention and motivation of learners. I notice things in classrooms that I never did before. My personal belief that misbehavior is solely the fault of the student has shifted to a position of mutual responsibility between the teacher and the student. It is the teacher’s job to engage students and it is the student’s responsibility to respect and appreciate the efforts of the teacher. There has also been great growth in my own knowledge and proficiency with technology. Aside from learning how to utilize virtual worlds to build VLEs this project also provided opportunities to learn new Web 2.0 tools like Gabcast.

90 Curriculum Evaluation Any activity or instruction that utilizes a VLE must be measured against a few criteria: the environment, learning objectives, assessments, constructivist pedagogical methods, and how it addresses the tendency of students to explore independently. VLEs must evoke a sense of presence for the learner. These environments must also be appropriate for student use and cost effective for the educator. Learning objectives must be clear, relate directly to what is to be learned, and evoke intellectual curiosity and wonder. Both formative and summative assessments that provide learners with immediate or near immediate feedback are necessary. Learning activities must take advantage of the properties that make VLEs particularly suitable for constructivist teaching methods. These lessons must also take into account the human nature to explore new surroundings and environments and utilize that tendency in students for curricular aims.

The platform. From the review of literature involving virtual worlds and VLEs it was overwhelmingly apparent that the ability to evoke a sense of presence was crucial. I found that a three dimensional environment experienced in the first person with realistic graphics was the best method of achieving this effect. Active Worlds provided a perfect platform for this. While the graphics were not as realistic as There or Kaneva, it did provide an environment rich enough visually to achieve this effect. I believe students entering the environment I created will experience a sense of presence adequate enough to suspend disbelief and make them feel to some degree that they are in this world.

Active Worlds was also an ideal platform because of cost. To build this environment in another platform would have cost hundreds of dollars, and to ensure what I built lasted I would have had to pay annual fees. With Active Worlds I only paid $6.95 per month, and I only needed it for one month to build the structural elements of my project. Likewise, to have students build it only costs $6.95 per month per citizen account for only the duration of their project. This curriculum could be developed and used with a class of 28 students for less than two hundred dollars.

While AWEDU provides many more content rich virtual world environments, it is far too expensive for the casual user in an educational setting. The environments available are also free to explore and many

91 can be explored using the Active Worlds browser. Most of the environments in Active Worlds are not designed for educational use but they are also not inappropriate for use with students. The absence of obscene or explicit content in Active Worlds makes it an appropriate place to bring students. Avatars in Active Worlds are also appropriate. They are not sexually suggestive or convey a certain ideal of beauty. Students are limited to only a few choices of avatar forms eliminating the distraction of avatar customization.

Learning objectives. Learning objectives are clearly stated in the introduction of each of the four Virtual World WebQuests I created. They come in two forms: tasks and essential questions. While the tasks lay out what students are to do, the essential questions frame what ideas and concepts they should be thinking about while they accomplish the tasks. Each of the questions is broad enough to be overarching and apply to situations outside the realm of the lesson. These tasks are broken down further into procedures that contain both formative and summative assessments.

Assessment. These Virtual World WebQuests make use of both formative and summative assessments. The assessments in each lesson make use of the virtual world and give students the ability to enact some level of control over the world for themselves. The final summative assessments require students to create a final product accessible both inside and outside the virtual world.

In Linear Perspective and Renaissance Art the formative assessments come in the form of an oral presentation and a screenshot. Both assignments are uploaded to websites that can be viewed from hyperlinks located in the virtual world. Students create a concept drawing of a virtual world applying the technique of linear perspective for the summative assessment. They also produce a podcast of their sales pitch that accompanies the drawing. When finished, if they follow the directions correctly, their drawing and podcast appear in the student gallery in Active Worlds. When they are done, they will have a drawing and a digital recording that can be viewed or listened to independent of the virtual world.

In Impressionist Artist Profiles the formative and summative assessments are more closely linked.

Students work together to create a wiki site devoted to an Impressionist artist. This wiki serves both as a formative and summative assessment tool. The individual components are formative and the whole final

92 product is summative. This wiki can be viewed from any web browser, not just in Active Worlds.

Each time a student edits the artist wiki the teacher knows it and can respond in near real time via an RSS aggregator that tells them when edits are made. In this lesson the search for content becomes the formative assessment and the final paper becomes the summative assessment.

In Greek and Roman Architecture, formative assessment comes in the form of a worksheet but the concepts unveiled in completing the worksheet are used in their summative assessment. Students work together to create a virtual building in Neoclassical style. While Active Worlds is the primary medium to experience each of the student’s final products, screenshots of the final product can be taken to create hardcopy products viewable outside the virtual environment.

In Magnum Opus the formative assessments are each of the individual parts needed to complete the entire project: the storyboard, the sets, the video and sound clips, and the links to websites about Cubism. In this WebQuest students create an educational video for their final product and summative assessment. This video, while made in Active Worlds, is not meant to be viewed in Active Worlds, it can be viewed either from a media player on a computer or burned to a DVD and played on a television set.

Constructivism. The tasks these WebQuests prompt students to do are constructivist in nature. In every Virtual World WebQuest, students are asked to produce a product of their learning. They do so by building upon what they already know. Knowledge is constructed through exploration, reading content both inside the virtual world and from websites opened up in the integrated browser, watching videos, experimenting, creating, and discussing ideas with others.

Wandering. The biggest problem I found when my students tried to use a Runescape for instructional purposes had to do with the natural tendency for people to want to explore their environment. For instruction to be effective in a VLE students must be encouraged to wander but do so with a purpose. In each of these Virtual World WebQuests students are encouraged to wander and explore. In Linear Perspective and Renaissance Art students are asked to explore various virtual worlds to see how linear perspective works in relation to the viewer. In Impressionist Artist Profiles students are encouraged to explore VanGogh world

93 while having a discussion about Impressionism. In Greek and Roman Architecture, students are required to explore Alpha World looking for a place they can build, explore the building object yard looking for objects to build with, and explore AWSchool learning how to build things in Active Worlds. In Magnum Opus, in addition to looking for a place to build and objects to build with students are encouraged to explore existing builds in Active Worlds for ideas to incorporate into their own environment designs. By making exploration part of the task, I believe student off-task behavior will be minimized.

What would I do differently? When I first set out to build the virtual environment that housed these four Virtual World WebQuests, I knew very little about how building things in Active Worlds worked. I was under the impression that it would be very difficult to find another place to build once I secured the three by three plot of virtual real estate these four lessons are built on. As I developed these lessons and as I continued to explore, I discovered finding property to build on is not as difficult as I originally thought. If I were to do this again, I would have spread out and covered more space. There are places in the building I built that I feel are too cramped for what I want to use it for. The halls in the first and third floors are too narrow to simultaneously accommodate a whole class of 28 students. I would have given them more space. I found in creating this building that AlphaWorld only allows citizens to place a certain number of objects on each one by one square. Some of the nine squares I built the building on have more objects than others. When I reached the fifth floor I found it hard to build in certain areas because the program kept giving me messages that area was full. If I were to separate these four WebQuests and build them in different locations, they could still by linked by teleports. Virtual real estate could be secured around the Greek and Roman Architecture and Magnum Opus Virtual World WebQuests for students to build their projects and more space could be allocated for the student art gallery in Linear Perspective and Renaissance Art. Summary. These four Virtual World WebQuests make good use of the curricular framework provided

by Understanding by Design. They provide essential questions and enduring understandings that foster knowledge transfer. They also employ the key components of a WebQuest to focus student learning and engagement. They utilize the essential qualities of a virtual world and make use of research supported

94 elements of learning experiences in a virtual learning environment. The Active Worlds platform provides the necessary functions to provide students with a sense of presence while being both appropriate in content and affordable to educators.

Integration Plan When I began this journey exploring virtual worlds, I was employed as an art teacher for an alternative high school in a small suburban school district in the upper Midwest. Unfortunately my tenure at that institution ended shortly before conducting the virtual world platform review described in chapter four. My career has taken a rather significant shift. I now hold two teaching positions, both very different from where I was when I began this quest. I am a technology curriculum integration specialist for a small rural school district, serving students in a kindergarten through twelfth grade setting. In that position I do not have a classroom but rather am responsible for assisting teachers with curricular issues related to technology. I coach teachers in uses of technology in the classroom, conduct professional development workshops, and collaborate with teachers to develop and implement learning activities that utilize technology to engage students. My second job is with an online public school. There I teach art and technology courses in a mostly asynchronous setting.

With these new roles I will perhaps be more influential in integrating virtual worlds and VLEs into course instruction. The setting that I see could most obviously benefit from this curriculum is the online school. In that setting students do not have a physical body that other students or teachers can see. Their presence in that environment is limited to their names, paperwork, and written voice present in text chat and threaded discussions. This makes their learning experience, while very personalized, more anonymous. The use of a tool like Active Worlds or AWEDU for distance learning will blur the boundaries between online and face to face interaction. By providing students with avatars and a virtual environment to explore and be grounded in, students are more likely to feel grounded in their virtual experience. However, this online public school is very cautious of using any program or website that might connect students to strangers. Most Web 2.0 tools are forbidden for fear of online predators or students making poor choices with their online activities.

95 While students use of Web 2.0 tools is allowed it is currently not acceptable for teachers to direct students to them. For a virtual world to work with this setting, I would have to use AWEDU and purchase my own world that was closed to unregistered users. Being an adjunct teacher I do not have very much influence on the policies or direction of the organization. It is possible that a tool similar to the curriculum I created could be used in this setting but not likely in the near future.

The brick and mortar school district that I work for is quite a bit more liberal administratively when it comes to Web 2.0 and new technologies. In that setting I see many applications for this or a similar tool.

Being new in the district I thought it would be foolhardy to come in and try to plug something like virtual worlds right away. The teachers I work with, while very open minded and eager to try new things are still accustomed to twentieth century behaviorist pedagogy and a tool like Active Worlds would not mesh well with their teaching style. Instead, I began the school year introducing teachers to Web 2.0 tools that were easier to see applied to their current curriculum. We started using a blog for the school newspaper, wikis for students to create master sets of notes, and YouTube for sharing video presentations the students made.

Giving teachers tools that can be applied to traditional direct instruction methods but lend themselves more naturally to constructivist approaches to learning is quickly leading many of these teachers to adopt more project-based and constructivist teaching practices. I also set each teacher up with an RSS aggregator and loaded it with feeds related to their discipline, areas of personal interest, teaching, and technology. Some of these feeds occasionally talk about the use of virtual worlds in education. Some teachers have just begun coming to me inquiring about things they read in the technology feeds. A few have inquired about virtual worlds.

I have been taking this opportunity to show teachers what I have done in Active Worlds. The response I usually get from teachers when I show them the Virtual World WebQuests is that they agree it would be a great tool to use with students but most feel they could never become tech savvy enough to pull something like it off. I think this will be a slow process that will, just like when I introduced the to wikis and blogs, take off and grow exponentially once teachers see what the early adopters are doing. One teacher I have shown

96 my curriculum to is our art teacher. She is willing to give it a try but is hesitant to use all four Virtual World WebQuests. We will most likely start with just the first WebQuest and if it works well move on to the second. I know it is not in her budget to pay for the citizen accounts this year to complete the final two WebQuests. That may have to wait until next year.

I have also shown Active Worlds to our industrial technologies teacher. He does a project with his eighth graders where they make blueprints for a house and then build scale paper models. He is considering letting students use Active Worlds as either an enrichment assignment or an option in place of the paper model. We envision building our own community in Alpha World of student created structures. Students could later use these buildings as places to house projects they do in other classes. If every student in our school system makes a virtual house in Alpha World, they will be ready to use this tool for projects in other classes as well. If we keep it as an optional assignment, we can ask students or their families to pay the $6.95 subscription fee. However, if we require each student to build a virtual house in eighth grade we will lay the foundation for integrating a full virtual campus for learning at the high school level. This could have great potential if the school later decides to adopt a one to one laptop program.

Limitations One concern I have developed over the course of my research and work in Active Worlds is that there may not currently be a virtual world platform that is truly appropriate for instruction in a regular school curriculum. I have no doubts that students will find these virtual environments engaging or that they can be used to provide intrinsic motivation to learning tasks that usually require extrinsic rewards for most students.

My concern is the user friendliness of these tools. There is definitely a learning curve that users of these platforms must overcome before the focus of their use is on the content rather than the platform. Teachers and students alike are likely to spend more time in the beginning learning about how to use a platform than they will on the core learning objectives of a lesson. Are the beneficial effects on motivation worth the time it takes to learn the tool?

97 To effectively utilize a virtual world for creation of a curriculum and virtual learning environment that was cost effective and attainable, but still provided sufficient input from learners, I had to merge many different Web 2.0 tools. The four Virtual World WebQuests I created made use of a telephone podcast service, wikis, YouTube, and quite a few applications for media editing. Using each of these tools requires a different skill set that needs to be learned. In addition to learning how to navigate and use the virtual world platform students would also need to learn how to use each of these other technologies.

However, this may be a mute point. As the use of these tools become common in other realms of academia the learning curve will become less steep. It is highly likely that a student in a class using my Virtual World Webquests will have been exposed to most if not all of these tools in other classes. With prior exposure, the integration of these tools will be appropriate and provide an efficient way of disseminating and digesting curriculum.

Virtual worlds is a field of technology that is changing very fast. Each month new platforms are released and existing platforms are constantly upgrading their software. It is probable that in the near future a virtual world platform will be released that is more appropriate for education than Active Worlds. It is also probable that tools will come available that will make it easy for teachers and students to create and host their own virtual worlds where they can control content and security themselves. Should such a platform arise it will still take time for it to be widely adopted and rich content developed.

Possible Implications This curriculum will most likely not be used as I originally planned. Instead, it will serve as an example for how other teachers might craft a project or design content rich environments using virtual worlds.

Having gone through the process of setting this up, I now have the knowledge and understanding necessary to guide others who attempt to integrate virtual worlds in instructional settings. I can help them avoid common technical and pedagogical pitfalls.

A foundation for a new kind of classroom is laid out with this curriculum where students have control of their own environment and new ideas can be tested with minimal real world consequence. With such a

98 classroom students would be able to attend school even if they were sick and had to stay home or if they had to be out of town but still had internet access. Teachers could structure courses as environments that students could take either synchronously or asynchronously. With this model teachers become more like coaches in their interactions with students. This, I believe exemplifies what Skinner (1968b) talks about when he says that teachers need to be more like programmers.

Another place I see an application for this technology is in classes that have made use of Interactive Television (ITV) to connect rural schools and share instructional resources. Obviously the televised image of the teacher and students breaks down distance barriers by providing an actual image and voice to interact with but a VLE brings all parties into the same space for a learning experience that is equal for all parties. The student at a distant school experiences the VLE in exactly the same way as students at the teacher’s school.

This will be especially true the more virtual world platforms are developed. Both Second Life and Active Worlds have undergone recent upgrades that allow for voice over internet protocol (VOIP) and video can also be streamed into either environment. In the near future virtual worlds may be able to very closely replicate our real world. When that is possible ITV may seem like ancient technology much like the eight track player or the typewriter.

It is my hope that this research and curriculum will inspire other teachers to craft similar projects online and that a virtual space will evolve connecting Virtual World WebQuests to each other, teachers, and students. Such an environment would foster collaboration between students, teachers, and schools. A virtual city could be built in Active Worlds where teachers could build these lessons and a searchable directory of teleports to these buildings, objects, and environments could be established. This could either be done by acquiring virtual land within one of the six public building worlds in Active Worlds or by a group of teachers, schools, or professional organizations pooling resources to purchase and develop a world in AWEDU devoted specifically to this initiative. Students would find this environment engaging, relevant, and authentic promoting the construction of knowledge not by small isolated groups of students but with students from very different geographic locations.

99 APPENDIX A: STUDIES DONE SHOWING VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONEMNTS ARE NOT SUITABLE FOR DIRECT INSTRUCTION

Andolsek, D. L. (1995). Virtual reality in education and training. International journal of instructional media, 22(2), 145-155. Retrieved March 20, 2007, from ERIC database.

Gives an overview of forms of virtual reality and virtual worlds and explores its potential for education. The author provides examples for its application in special education, architecture, multiculturalism, history, literature, science, math, medical education, corporate training, manufacturing, military training, and air flight training. These examples make use of either constructivist or experiential learning.

Barab, S. A., Hay, K. E., Barnett, M., & Squire, K. (2001). Constructing virtual worlds: Tracing the historical development of learner practices. Cognition and Instruction, 19(1), 47-94. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from ERIC database.

This study explores pedagogy and learning using virtual worlds. In this study students working together in a summer day camp constructed virtual worlds. The findings support constructivist teaching methods as appropriate pedagogy when using virtual worlds for instruction.

Bergeron, B., & Obeid, J. (1995). Temporal issues in the design of virtual learning environments. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 4(2-3), 127-145. Retrieved March 20, 2007, from ERIC database.

This study explores how the use of computer mediated virtual learning environments effect the perception of time and how that perception can be utilized by instructors to improve learning. Their findings show that

100 virtual learning environments do not well support direction instruction models that make use of learning experiences like lectures where students and teachers all need to experience time in the same way.

Bricken, M., & Byrne, C. M. (1992). Summer students in virtual reality: A pilot study on educational applications of virtual reality technology No. HITL-TP-R-92-1) March 31, 2007, from ERIC database.

This study explored the application of virtual reality in education. Their study involved students who were creating and exploring virtual reality environments in a summer day camp. They found that the creative nature of the project was an important variable affecting student engagement. They conclude that the application of virtual reality in education best makes use of the creative potential of this medium.

Bricken, W. (1990). Learning in virtual reality No. HITL-TR-M-90-5) Human Interface Technology Laboratory, University of Washington, FJ-15, Seattle, WA 98195 ($5). March 31, 2007, from ERIC database.

This article explains the principle elements of virtual reality and explores their potential for education. The author says that virtual reality environments teach through constructivist methods. Users learn experientially by exploring their environment. The author also says that the hidden curriculum of any virtual reality program is to build your environment and take care of it.

Brown, A. H. (1999). Simulated classrooms and artificial students: The potential effects of new technologies on teacher education. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32(2), 307-318. Retrieved March 20, 2007, from ERIC database.

This article explores the possibilities of using virtual worlds, virtual reality, or digital games in teacher education. Existing applications of virtual worlds as simulations for teaching are explored and the potential these technologies have for teacher education is discussed. The examples provided support constructivism as

101 an appropriate pedagogy when using simulations or other digital tools that replicate real situations.

In these environments students learn by doing.

Chen, C., Toh, S., & Johari, A. (2005). A Feasible Constructivist Instructional Development Model for Virtual Reality (VR)-Based Learning Environments: Its Efficacy in the Novice Car Driver Instruction of Malaysia. Educational Technology Research & Development, 53(1), 111-123. Retrieved Sunday, April 22, 2007 from the Academic Search Premier database.

This article discusses the results of a study using virtual worlds for driver education. In this study a new constructivist teaching method is used. This method the authors call the reflective, recursive design and development model is proven an effective teaching strategy and an appropriate model of instruction using virtual worlds. The study also shows desktop virtual reality as effective for student learning as fully immersive virtual reality environments.

Childress, M. D., & Braswell, R. (2006). Using massively multiplayer online role-playing games for online learning. Distance Education, 27(2), 187-196. Retrieved March 3, 2007, from ERIC database.

This article explores the application of Second Life for distance learning. The authors identify instructional methods proven to work to facilitate online synchronous discussions. They also identify massively multi-user online games and virtual worlds as appropriate tools for constructivist learning because of the potential these programs provide for creation.

Dede, C. (1987). Empowering environments, hypermedia and microworlds. Computing Teacher, 15(3), 2024,61. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from ERIC database.

In this article the author describes technologies that were considered emergent in 1987 and speculates about their influence on education and educational institutions. Microworlds are discussed and the creative and

102 collaborative possibilities of those worlds explored. The author concludes that these new technologies will disrupt the structure of both industry and education. As industry adopts these technologies and adjusts organizational structure the author proposes that schools will have to do the same. One shift that will need to be made is in pedagogy. Teaching methods must adjust to make best use of new tools.

Dede, C. (1992). The future of multimedia: Bridging to virtual worlds. Educational Technology, 32(5), 54-60.

Retrieved April 6, 2007, from ERIC database.

This article describes how hypermedia and artificial virtual worlds can be incorporated in educational settings to promote knowledge construction and cooperative learning.

Dede, C. (1995). The evolution of constructivist learning environments: Immersion in distributed, virtual worlds. Educational Technology, 35(5), 46-52. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from ERIC database.

This article describes the application of a virtual worlds and their potential for constructivist learning. It describes a work in progress that teaches students science concepts related to space. In this article Dede describes the potential benefit constructivist virtual learning environments have for students who are normally shy, reflective, or prefer some emotional distance. He also speculates that students will benefit from the collaborative nature of learning these environments promote.

Dede, C., Salzman, M., Loftin, B., & Sprague, D. (1999). Multisensory immersion as a modeling environment for learning complex scientific concepts. Retrieved March 20, 2007 from VLearn 3D, http://www.virtual.gmu.edu/ss_research/index.htm

This article describes the results of a study done using virtual worlds to teach science concepts. What they found was immersive virtual worlds promote knowledge construction. The level of presence effects student involvement and the simulation nature of the virtual world promote constructivism.

103 Dickey, M. D. (2005a). Brave new (interactive) worlds: A review of the design affordances and constraints of two 3D virtual worlds as interactive learning environments. Interactive Learning Environments, 13(1-2), 121-137. Retrieved February 26, 2007, from ERIC database.

Two virtual world platforms are reviewed for educational application. The author concludes that virtual worlds that allow users the ability to manipulate their environments are best suited for education because they promote knowledge construction through experiential and constructivist learning activities.

Dickey, M. D. (2005b). Three-dimensional virtual worlds and distance learning: Two case studies of Active Worlds as a medium for distance education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(3), 439-451.

Retrieved February 22, 2007, from ERIC database.

This article describes two different studies done using Active Worlds as a learning environment in a distance learning scenario. Successes and challenges of both studies are outlined providing a case for constructivist teaching methods. In these studies clearly show virtual worlds are not appropriate for lectures or large group discussions.

Dunning, J. (1998). Virtual reality--learning by immersion. TECHNOS, 7(2), 11-13. Retrieved March 20, 2007, from ERIC database.

This article describes how virtual worlds can be used by educators to create engaging learning environments that rival the environments of video games. A set of criteria are given for adoption of virtual worlds by educators. When this article was written only half of these criteria were met but now virtual worlds software meets all of these criteria making the case for their inclusion. The examples of interactivities given that teachers can create for their students align with constructivist principles.

104 Fialho, F. A. P., & Catapan, A. H. (1999). Knowledge building by full integration with virtual reality environments and its effects on personal and social life. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 19(3), 237-243. Retrieved March 20, 2007, from ERIC database.

The authors of this article promote the use of archetypes and metaphors as tools to promote knowledge construction in the virtual learning environments created using virtual worlds.

Follows, S. B. (1999). Virtual learning environments. T.H.E.Journal, 27(4), 100,102,104,106. Retrieved March 20, 2007, from ERIC database.

This author promotes the use of virtual learning environments as ideal learning environments for students.

These environments are engaging and offer learners high levels of control over their own learning. The author promotes their use because of their ability to facilitate learning activities beyond fact drills.

Graetz, K. (2006). The psychology of learning environments. Educause Review, 41(6), 60-74. Retrieved Saturday, April 14, 2007 from the Academic Search Premier database.

This article explores the psychology of traditional learning environments and compares them to virtual learning environments. The case is made for more engaging and enchanting learning environments. The author promotes virtual worlds for their potential to provide such an environment citing their applicability to constructivist pedagogies as one factor contributing to engagement.

Kim, J., & Song, Y. S. (1997). Instructional design guidelines for virtual reality in classroom applications.

Retrieved March 20, 2007, from ERIC database.

This paper examines elements of virtual reality and how they can be applied to classroom instruction.

Instructional design guidelines are offered. Among these guidelines is an suggestion for instructional designers to consider constructivist learning principles.

105 Moore, P. (1995). Learning and teaching in virtual worlds: Implications of virtual reality for education. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 11(2), 91-102. Retrieved March 20, 2007, from ERIC database.

In this article the author reviews literature on virtual reality and its application as a learning environment.

Constructivist teaching methods are identified as ideal pedagogy with virtual worlds.

Winn, W. (2003). Learning in artificial environments: Embodiment, embeddedness and dynamic adaptation.

Technology, Instruction, Cognition and Learning, 1(1), 87-114. Retrieved March 20, 2007, from ERIC database.

This author identifies embodiment, embeddedness, and dynamic adaptation as three properties of artificial learning environments. Models of learning supported by traditional cognitive psychology and constructivism are explored.

106 APPENDIX B: MINNESOTA ACADEMIC STANDARDS: VISUAL ARTS 6-12

The following is an excerpt from the Minnesota academic standards Arts K-12 (2003) stating the standards and benchmarks for Visual Arts, grades six through eight: 3501.0630 Grades 6 Through 8 Standards.

Artistic Interpretation Standard: The student will understand and use artistic processes to analyze and interpret a variety of works in at least two of the three arts areas required to be offered by a school from the following: dance, music, theater, and visual arts.

Benchmark: D. VISUAL ARTS. The student will: 1.

understand how the following components of visual arts are used to convey meaning:

a.

elements, including color, line, shape, form, texture, and space;

b.

principles, such as repetition, contrast, or balance;

c.

vocabulary;

d.

styles, such as abstract or impressionist; and

e.

structures, such as two dimensional or three dimensional;

2.

understand the connection between a visual art work, its purpose, and its cultural and historical contexts;

3.

understand how the principles and vocabulary of visual art are similar to and different from other arts areas, such as dance, music, or theater;

4.

communicate a personal reaction to works in visual art using the components of visual art; and

5.

use criteria to evaluate works of visual art.

Artistic Creativity and Performance

107 Standard: The student will understand and use artistic processes to create and perform in at least two of the three arts areas required to be offered by a school from the following: dance, music, theater, and visual arts.

Benchmark: D. VISUAL ARTS. The student will: 1.

understand the following components of visual art:

a.

elements, including color, line, shape, form, texture, and space;

b.

principles, such as repetition, contrast, or balance;

c.

vocabulary;

d.

styles, such as abstract or impressionist; and

e.

structures, such as two dimensional or three dimensional;

2.

understand technical skills of visual arts, such as selecting and using tools and techniques of the medium;

3.

understand how audience and occasion affect artistic choices in creation of visual art;

4.

use artistic processes to create in a variety of visual art contexts;

5.

express and communicate ideas using the components of visual arts;

6.

generate ideas for artistic expression in visual arts;

7.

make and explain artistic choices in creating visual art; and

8.

use feedback to revise artistic expression in visual art.

The following is an excerpt from the Minnesota academic standards Arts K-12 (2003) stating the standards and benchmarks for Visual Arts, grades nine through twelve: 3501.0635 Grades 9 Through 12 Standards.

Analysis and Interpretation

108 Standard: The student will understand and apply artistic process to analyze, interpret, and evaluate art works in at least one of the three arts areas required to be offered by a school from the following: dance, media arts, music, theater, and visual arts.

Benchmark: E. VISUAL ARTS. The student will: 1.

understand how a synthesis of the following components of visual arts is used to define a work in visual art:

a.

elements, including color, line, shape, form, texture, and space;

b.

principles, such as repetition, contrast, or balance;

c.

vocabulary;

d.

styles, such as abstract or impressionist;

e.

structures, such as two dimensional or three dimensional; and

f.

technical skills, such as selecting and using tools and techniques of the medium;

2.

understand the similarities and differences among the structures and styles within visual arts;

3.

understand how the selection of criteria affects criticism of a work in visual arts;

4.

understand the connections between visual arts and other disciplines outside the arts, such as mathematics, science, or history;

5.

select criteria for evaluating visual art works;

6.

analyze and interpret visual art through its historical, cultural, or social context;

7.

support personal reactions to visual art works using the components of visual arts; and

8.

articulate informed evaluations of visual art works using selected criteria.

109 Creation and Performance Standard: The student will understand and use artistic processes to create original or perform existing works of art in at least one of the three arts areas required to be offered by a school from the following: dance, media arts, music, theater, and visual arts. As an elective, the student may understand and use artistic processes to create original or perform existing works of art in another art form or creative writing.

Benchmark: A. VISUAL ARTS. The student will: 1.

understand the integration of the following components of visual arts:

a.

elements, including color, line, shape, form, texture, and space;

b.

principles, such as repetition, contrast, or balance;

c.

vocabulary;

d.

styles, such as abstract or impressionist;

e.

structures, such as two dimensional or three dimensional; and

f.

technical skills, such as selecting and using tools and techniques of the medium;

2.

understand the cultural, historical, or social contexts that influence creation of visual art;

3.

use artistic processes to create and single, complex work or multiple works in visual arts;

4.

generate and clarify artistic intent for work in visual art;

5.

make decisions based on artistic intent;

6.

make choices based on analysis of audience and occasion for work in visual art; and

7.

revise visual art work using multiple sources of critique and feedback.

110 APPENDIX C: SECOND LIFE World Format: Second Life System Requirements: Windows Minimum System Requirements • • o

Internet Connection*: Cable or DSL Operating System: Windows XP (Service Pack 2) OR Windows 2000 (Service Pack 4) NOTE: Second Life does NOT currently support Windows Vista

• • • o

Computer Processor: 800MHz Pentium III or Athlon, or better Computer Memory: 256MB or better Video/Graphics Card**: nVidia GeForce 2, GeForce 4mx, or better OR ATI Radeon 8500, 9250, or better Mac Minimum System Requirements

• • • • • o

Internet Connection*: Cable or DSL Operating System: Mac OS X 10.3.9 or better Computer Processor: 1 GHz G4 or better Computer Memory: 512MB or better Video/Graphics Card**: nVidia GeForce 2, GeForce 4mx, or better OR ATI Radeon 8500, 9250, or better

Release Date: Already Exists Number of users: According to Virtual Worlds News (2007), as of October 1st, 2007 There were 8.5 million registrations recorded by Linden Labs.

Cost to explore: Free Cost to build: A Premium Second Life account starts at $9.95 a month and allows you to own land.

What you get for your money: For your premium membership you get a plot of land within Second Life large enough to build a virtual house.

111 Where can you build: Normally you can only build on your own land. However, some existing land owners do allow anyone to build on their land. These sites are called sandboxes. More land can be purchased for an extended fee. A full region can be acquired for a one time fee of $1675.

Description of Avatars: Second Life by far offers users the most extensive control over the appearance of their avatars. Avatars can be edited to look almost exactly like their real life counterparts or they can be changed to look completely different. You can also acquire clothes and accessories for your avatar. There are many Second Life universal resource locators (SLURLs) where you can visit to acquire these items for free.

User interface options: a. Does it allow users to manipulate the environment? Yes b. How is communication facilitated? Most users communicate through text chat and instant messaging but it does support voice communication as well. There is also an email feature. c. How is information presented? Second Life does not have it’s own integrated web browser.

Instead, if a link to a website is posted within the world it opens up the user’s default browser.

112 Information can also be presented through text boxes that pop up within the program.

Many SLURLs display information when you enter their island about the content and purpose of their virtual site. d. Does the software allow for multiple views (i.e. first person, third person, aerial view, etc.)

You can manipulate the camera angle but only when your avatar is stationary. Since you cannot explore the world in first person the feeling of presence within this world is diminished.

One feels more like a puppeteer when using Second Life than in other VLEs. e. Does the software allow users to record conversations or keep records of their events?

You can take pictures but recording events requires the aide of other software.

Description of the world’s visual and audio features: Second Life sets itself apart from other virtual world platforms in its realism. In Second Life the sun does rise and set, casting portions of its world in sunshine or shadow. While it does add another level of realism it can also cause a fair amount of frustration. The graphics and animations in this environment are phenomenal but reflect the extremely high system requirements needed to run the world. Environments in Second Life are organized into islands that are square in shape and organized according to a grid structure. In most cases one can navigate to adjacent islands just by walking or flying to them. Users can also teleport to an island or even a specific location on an island.

Second Life is by far the most popular of the virtual world platforms. It has more registered users than any other platform currently being used. Many post secondary institutions are using it for instruction but there are a few factors that make it undesirable for a k-12 setting.

When you sign up for an account in Second Life you are asked your age. If you are under 18 you are limited to the Second Life teen grid which is strictly patrolled for content and behavior. If you are over 18 you are restricted to the adult grid. Adults over the age of 18 can own islands in the teen grid and visit them if they pass a background check but are limited to their own islands. They cannot explore beyond their own limits. Teens entering an island owned by an adult are given a warning that the island is inhabited by an adult.

113 The inability to see beyond one’s own domain makes it difficult for a teacher to find content within the teen grid to take students to. Also, since many high school students are 18 or older they would not be able to access the same grid as their peers.

The adult grid, while containing some extremely educational sites is largely filled with mature content.

On the list of most popular sites, islands with sexually explicit content or themes make up the majority of the top 20. Within these sites avatars can perform sexual acts upon each other. You can also even watch pornographic films of real people there. It is not difficult to stumble across content that is grossly inappropriate for students. Currently there are no internet content blockers that block inappropriate SLURLs. Should a future version of Second Life be developed it would become an ideal learning environment if the teen and adult grids were combined with islands containing mature content hidden from younger visitors and adult avatars not passing a background check hidden as well. An environment could be inhabited simultaneously by two separate categories of avatars with only those with special permission able to see both groups.

However, there are quite a few SLURLs with entirely appropriate content that provide content rich and useable learning environments. Teachers could, using a projector to display content for students on a large screen or using software like Adobe LiveLesson present content to students in an online setting, enter the adult grid and carefully navigate to these appropriate environments. The problem with this is it negates much of what makes a VLE a powerful learning tool. Displaying Second Life environments to a class is nothing like letting them explore for themselves or using a VLE to construct their own objects.

114 The Second Life grid is so expansive that a comprehensive list of educationally appropriate SLURLS could not be accomplished. The Second Life grid is much like the virtual World Wide Web and can be searched by keyword within the Second Life browser. The following are just a few of the sites I have found that might be appropriate for use within the visual arts: Vassar College’s Second Life recreation of the Sistine Chappell (http://slurl.com/secondlife/Vassar/192/93/25) – This site contains a scale replica of the Sistine Chappell rendered with high quality images.

Cherry Creek Sioux Nation (http://slurl.com/secondlife/Unity%20Grove/245/27/39) – This site replicates an American Indian village. It contains many artifacts and information relevant to the study of Sioux Nation culture. It is also a very interesting environment visually. Walking through this environment one experiences a fair level of presence.

115

Mexico ~Chichen Itza~Archeological Site~New World Wonder (http://slurl.com/secondlife/Visit%20Mexico/61/79/36) – This site is maintained by the Mexican tourist bureau. It contains a replica of the site at Chichen Itza. When you enter this site you are asked to put on an ancient Aztec costume and assume a role to play. Visitors become ancient Aztec citizens.

Describe the user friendliness: Second Life is very user friendly. Within moments of creating an account I was on my way, exploring islands, changing my avatar’s appearance, and communicating with other users with similar interests.

116 APPENDIX D: KANEVA World Format: Kaneva System Requirements: • Processor: Pentium or AMD CPU, 1.2 GHz or faster.

• Memory (RAM): 256 MB minimum, 1 GB recommended.

• Operating Environment: Microsoft Windows XP (Home or Professional).

• Storage (hard disk): 300 MB typical. Complex games use more storage.

• Video card: NVidia GeForce 4200 64MB and ATI Radeon 9500 PRO 128MB for lower-end systems, NVidia GeForce FX 5800 Ultra 128MB and ATI Radeon 9700 PRO 128MB for higherend systems.

Most any video card that supports DirectX should work.

• Software subsystems: Microsoft DirectX 9.0c and later versions.

• Audio: Windows-compatible 32-bit sound card.

• Network: A narrowband or broadband connection to the Internet, such as dialup modem, DSL, Cable Modem, or dedicated network.

Release Date: It was released in Beta in early 2007. As of October 2007 the product is still in beta.

Number of users logged in: Every time I come here I find people in the public areas. Most of them are there to see what Kaneva has to offer.

Cost to explore: free Cost to build: $9.99 gets you 1,500 credits What you get for your money: You can purchase things such as furniture for your room, clothes for your avatar, or open space to build on.

Where can you build: When you sign up for a free account you are given your own room complete with one plastic chair, a few picture frames, and a television set. You also get a profile page that is very similar to MySpace profiles.

This is your space to build. You can upload digital media to your profile page or link to YouTube videos for free. These media files can then be imported to your room as pictures on the wall, wallpaper, videos on your television, or music playing on the radio. For a fee you can purchase your own land to build on. However, to build you have to buy. Everything three dimensional costs money here.

117 Description of Avatars:

Kaneva’s avatars are customizable to a certain point. Currently, when you first log in to the world you are asked to create your avatar. In its beta version it is not possible to change an avatar’s appearance after this initial setup. You have a choice of gender, hair styles, hair colors, facial hair, and body height and weight. However, the height and weight proportions are limited to that of an idealized male or female figure.

118 User interface options: a. Does it allow users to manipulate the environment? Users can only manipulate their own environments. b. How is communication facilitated? Text chat, instant messaging, and email. c. How is information presented? There is no integrated browser but elements within the world prompt your computer to open the default internet browser. This is mostly to access profile information. d. Does the software allow for multiple views (i.e. first person, third person, aerial view, etc.)

Yes, you can view from behind your avatar, in front of your avatar, or through your avatar’s eyes. e. Does the software allow users to record conversations or keep records of their events? no Description of the world’s visual and audio features: Kaneva is being promoted as the first virtual world to fully integrate Web 2.0 concepts.

Kaneva is basically three dimensional social networking. Kaneva profiles look almost identical to those of MySpace or Facebook. Kaneva has also integrated YouTube streaming into its virtual world.

So far it is the only virtual world with this capability. With building of objects limited the creative construction capabilities with this virtual world are really limited to things that can be done with other Web 2.0 tools. The three dimensional aspect to this social network then serves mostly as a place to facilitate dialogue.

Kaneva requires much on a client system to operate. The high system requirements reflect the quality of graphics and animation. Pictures that are imported into this world show up crisp and very easy to see. Integrated video does as well. Avatars also have far greater and smoother animations for their actions. Since it is relatively new there have not been that many people who have established a presence in this environment.

119 After Login

Your Own Room

120 The Mall

121 Kaneva Cultural Art Museum

Art Studio

122 Art Gallery

Describe the user friendliness: Kaneva is extremely user friendly. Once I got the program downloaded and installed, created my profile, and created my avatar I was up and running. The learning curve with this program is extremely minimal. From download to customizing my room and exploring other places it was less than two hours.

APPENDIX E: MOOVE World Format: Moove

123 System Requirements: PC only, Windows 98 or later, Internet Explorer 5.5 or later, Screen resolution of at least 800x600 Pixel, 16 bit color, Pentium I or later, direct internet connection without a proxy server.

Release Date: Already Exists Number of users logged in: 788 users online October 1, 2007 @ 11:00am central daylight savings time Cost to explore: free Cost to build: free What you get for your money: n/a Where can you build: Each user is given a virtual home that resides on that user’s computer. When you download and use Moove your computer acts as a server to others who want to visit your virtual home.

You have the ability to add rooms and decorate them as you like. Moove comes with a plethora of building objects including furniture, gadgets, decorations, etc. Builders can create links to websites by using an object that when placed on a wall becomes a picture or when placed in the room becomes a small cube. This object can be painted with a jpeg file for customization. You can also download a free program called DecoMaker where you can create custom 3d objects to be used in your home.

Description of Avatars: Users have limitless avatar possibilities including the option of using more than one avatar as well as incorporating visual information from picture files.

User interface options: a. Does it allow users to manipulate the environment? You can manipulate the environment by accessing room controls in the Moove browser window or by right clicking on the view screen and choosing “add furniture.” b. How is communication facilitated? Moove fascilitates text, voice, and webcam chat. Avatars can also perform many actions such as waving, shaking head, jumping, or dancing.

124 c. How is information presented? This is where Moove becomes a bit confusing to first time users. To navigate from one user’s home to another you have to find their profile using Internet Explorer. From there you click on a link titled “visit.” That link brings you to a page with a list of their rooms. Clicking on a room link in Internet Explorer activates the Moove browser and directs you to the room you chose. Within rooms there are doors which serve as links to other rooms within that user’s home. d. Does the software allow for multiple views (i.e. first person, third person, aerial view, etc.)

You have many options for viewing a space. Aside from the standard first person, third person, and aerial views you can also program the camera to move about the space as you would like.

This makes this platform ideal for creating avatar movies. e. Does the software allow users to record conversations or keep records of their events? Not as far as I can tell.

Description of the world’s visual and audio features:

Once you are able to enter a world (in Moove they are called rooms) it looks somewhat like the picture above. You can view yourself as an actor or you can view the room from your actor’s point of view.

125

Navigating Moove is a bit tricky. It is a lot like navigating pages on other social networking platforms like MySpace or Facebook. You can search for user’s pages from Moove’s internet site. Using Inernet Explorer (Moove world browser does not integrate with Firefox) you can click a visit link. From there it brings you to a page with that user’s rooms you can visit. Clicking on one of the rooms opens your Moove browser. Unfortunately, the other user has to be logged in to visit their page. You have to choose from the users who are logged in on the left hand side of the “community’ page and enter their rooms. Until you explore there is no way of telling what is in these rooms. Most rooms look alike since Moove starts you out with a standard house.

126

The above picture depicts a typical room in Moove.

There are some sites within Moove that contain inappropriate content, however, those sites are marked and users creating profiles who are under the age of eighteen are not granted access to them.

Describe the user friendliness: Initially Moove is not very user friendly. The program makes you go through too many steps to navigate to desired worlds. However, with just two days playing around with this program I was able to customize a room, create links to websites, and upload pictures for wallpaper. Since you have multiple rooms that you can manipulate this might be a perfect application for education. Students creating user accounts would likewise have the same capabilities in their own spaces where they can create objects or environments for class assignments. Since this program is free and building in this environment is free the cost of creating custom virtual learning environments would be nil. The system requirements also mean that specialized hardware would be unnecessary.

Special Notes: Each user’s computer has to have its own unique IP address. Therefore, in a lab setting where a router has an IP address and each PC connects to that router through the same IP Moove will not work as shared

127 environment. For users to share the same virtual space they must each have their own IP. However, this would not be a problem for most distance learning situations. It would also work in a situation where users wouldn’t necessarily have to visit each other at the same time. Learning environments could be hosted on a remote computer and classroom teachers could direct students one at a time to each environment.

For such a scenario it would be advantageous for teachers to have students work in groups. This platform would also support two different classes from different schools collaborating in small teams as each group from each school would be able to visit one room hosted by a team from the other school.

128 APPENDIX F: ACTIVE WORLDS World Format: Active Worlds Minimum System Requirements: Pentium II CPU 300mhz or equivalent 64MB RAM Microsoft Windows 98, NT, Me, 2000, XP or Vista DirectX 8.1 or later Windows Media Player 6.4 or later D3D video card with at least 8MB and the latest drivers Recommended System: Pentium IV CPU 800mhz or equivalent 128MB RAM Microsoft Windows 98SE, Me, 2000, XP or Vista DirectX 9.0 or later Windows Media Player 6.4 or later 3D accelerated video card with at least 64MB and its latest drivers

Release Date: already existing Number of users logged in: In email correspondence with Active Worlds Inc. a company representative told me that the company does not keep records on membership. However, every time I enter Active World’s Alpha World I find many other avatars. This virtual environment is thriving with activity.

Also, according to Virtual Worlds News (2007) as of August, 2007 there were 70,000 registered users.

Cost to explore: free Cost to build: $6.95 / month What you get for your money: For $6.95 you get one month’s citizenship in Active Worlds. Citizenship gives you access to virtual worlds restricted to tourist visitors. You also get rights to build within community worlds such as Alpha World.

Active Worlds also has an affordable option if you want to build your own world from scratch. What you pay for essentially is space on their server to host your world and multi user functionality. The more

129 users you let into your world the more expensive it is. The following is the pricing information from the Active Worlds website:

Server Configurations

Annual Registration Fees

World Class

World Size

Maximum Free 5 10 15 20 Coordinates Citizens* Simultaneous Simultaneous Simultaneous Simultaneous Users Users Users Users

P-10

40,000 sq. meter

10 N,S,E,W

N/A

$10

$60

$110

$160

P-20

160,000 sq. meters

20 N,S,E,W

N/A

$40

$90

$140

$190

P-30

360,000 sq. meters

30 N,S,E,W

1

$90

$140

$190

$240

P-40

640,000 sq. meters

40 N,S,E,W

2

$160

$210

$260

$310

P-50

1,000,000 sq. meters

50 N,S,E,W

3

$250

$300

$350

$400

P-60

1,440,000 sq. meters

60 N,S,E,W

3

$360

$410

$460

$510

P-70

1,960,000 sq. meters

70 N,S,E,W

4

$490

$540

$590

$640

P-80

2,560,000 sq. meters

80 N,S,E,W

4

$640

$690

$740

$790

P-90

3,240,000 sq. meters

90 N,S,E,W

5

$810

$860

$910

$960

P-100

4,000,000 sq. meters

100 N,S,E,W

5

$1000

$1050

$1100

$1150

Where can you build: You can build only within your own virtual world.

Description of Avatars: If you use the free version three are two choices for avatars: male tourist and female tourist. These avatars look like typical tourists complete with sunscreen on the nose, Hawaiian shirt, and hat. In some worlds within this platform you are fitted with a world specific avatar defined by the

130 world author. For instance, when you enter Showcase, a virtual world which contains an Ancient Egyptian style environment, your avatar becomes either a mummy or a skeleton.

131

User interface options: a. Does it allow users to manipulate the environment? If you enter as a tourist you have limited ability to manipulate the environment. There are some objects that are programmed with interactive features but manipulation is extremely limited. With a basic subscription you have unrestricted and unlimited access to build within public areas. b. How is communication facilitated? AWEDU supports both text and voice chat. c. How is information presented? There is an integrated web browser that appears on the screen as a tabbed window.

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d. Does the software allow for multiple views (i.e. first person, third person, aerial view, etc.) yes e. Does the software allow users to record conversations or keep records of their events? no Description of the world’s visual and audio features: Active Worlds is visibly and audibly spectacular. The detail that is possible rivals that of it’s more high tech competitors like There and Second Life but its system requires for end users is far less. As you move throughout Active World’s worlds you will hear ambient noises recreating the sounds of birds,

133 waterfalls, or any number of sources. Active Worlds does not define its purpose. That is, individuals can create objects and environments here for any reason as opposed to AWEDU which is specifically set aside for educational institutions. This does not mean that educational institutions could not use Active Worlds.

Most of the worlds available in Active Worlds are geared more toward entertainment. There is little educational content aside from content related to 3D rendering and multi-user VR. AWEDU hosts more content rich environments. However, some of AWEDU’s worlds can be accessed with Active Worlds and one could always download both browsers and have students go between them. Active Words does host two worlds I found particularly suitable for education: Leaves – This is a beautiful wilderness landscape set in a mountain terrain. When you enter this world you are greeted by a tour guide bot who can take you on one of two tours. She will either take you hiking or kayaking. As you move through this environment you see birds, butterflies, deer, trees, and a stream. Animal objects are skillfully animated and sound is tied to it’s virtual source. That is, the closer you get to something that makes sound the louder you hear it.

134 Mars – This world is a futuristic Martian landscape. It is basically a colony on Mars. While most of what is here is science fiction such an environment could be used with students to begin an investigation into what here is actually possible scientifically.

Describe the user friendliness: Active Worlds is extremely user friendly. Navigating worlds on this platform is very simple and intuitive. The build standards Active Worlds has established for both Alpha World and AWEDU have made it so users with slower systems can still have a decent experience without loosing much time to object downloads. Building in this world is fairly easy as well. You have two options. You can visit worlds on the platform like Mega Path that have free object yards where you can choose from lots of already existing objects created by others or you can create your own objects using any 3d rendering application and upload the files yourself. One reason the Active Worlds can be run on slower computers is that rather than rendering every object separately it only renders objects that are different. For example, if I were to build an empty box I would need five or six squares or very thin rectangular prisms. On other VR systems each individual side of the box would be downloaded separately. Since I would only need one object but need it five or six times I only upload that object. I would then go into my world and tell the program to call up that image. To render the other sides I would follow the same steps but change the coordinates, angle, or scale of the object. When the end user visits this world their browser has very little data to download but the result is spectacular.

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136 APPENDIX G: ACTIVE WORLDS EDUCATION World Format: Active Worlds Education (AWEDU) Minimum System Requirements: Pentium CPU 300mhz or equivalent 64MB RAM Microsoft Windows (95, 98, Me, NT4, 2000, or XP) DirectX 7.0 Recommended System: Pentium IV CPU 800mhz or equivalent 128MB RAM Microsoft Windows 98, Me, 2000 or XP DirectX 8.1 or later Windows Media Player 6.4 or later 3D accelerated video card with at least 64MB and the latest drivers Release Date: already existing Number of users logged in: Usually when I log into this world I am the only one there. Sometimes I do encounter another user but it is seldom. There are a number of educational institutions who are using it for projects though.

Cost to explore: free Cost to build: $650 first year, $395 subscription renewal What you get for your money: For your subscription you get space for a 400x400 virtual world stored on their server and 20 student licenses. Your world will be blank and you will have to build from scratch the environment. This is ideal for many situations because it limits the restrictions on what is possible. In AWEDU you do not have to be confined by the normal conventions of reality such as ground, gravity, or laws of physics. One could construct a world where avatars explore or navigate in three axial directions and not be limited to one plane.

Where can you build: You can build only within your own virtual world.

137 Description of Avatars: If you use the free version three are two choices for avatars: male tourist and female tourist. These avatars look like typical tourists complete with sunscreen on the nose, Hawaiian shirt, and hat. In some worlds within this platform you are fitted with a world specific avatar defined by the world author. For instance, when you enter Showcase, a virtual world which contains an Ancient Egyptian style environment, your avatar becomes either a mummy or a skeleton.

138 User interface options: a. Does it allow users to manipulate the environment? If you enter as a tourist you have limited ability to manipulate the environment. There are some objects that are programmed with interactive features but manipulation is extremely limited. If you purchase your own world you are free to build as much as you want but it is pricey. b. How is communication facilitated? AWEDU supports both text and voice chat. c. How is information presented? There is an integrated web browser that appears on the screen as a tabbed window.

139 d. Does the software allow for multiple views (i.e. first person, third person, aerial view, etc.) yes e. Does the software allow users to record conversations or keep records of their events? no Description of the world’s visual and audio features: AWEDU is visibly and audibly spectacular. The detail that is possible rivals that of its more high tech competitors like There and Second Life but its system requires for end users is far less. As you move throughout AWEDU’s world you will hear ambient noises recreating the sounds of birds, waterfalls, or any number of sources. Since AWEDU is specifically designed for education there are far more educational content rich environments here than in other world formats.

Many of these worlds are visually rich, well organized, and full of useful information. With these worlds it is clear they were developed as places to take students for virtual field trips. Other worlds appear more disorganized and clearly resemble places where students have been given assignments to build objects and modify the environment.

Some of the more spectacular AWEDU worlds currently include: Journeys – World history is the theme of this world. It is loaded with links to websites with curricular content.

140 Globe – Beautifully rendered environment resembling the lobby of a theatre. As one moves through the halls of this lobby they are taken on a journey through the history of drama. Objects in this world are linked to informative websites related to drama in literature and the theatre.

VanGogh – This is perhaps one of the most enticing environments in any virtual world I encountered.

Stepping into the virtual world VanGogh is literally stepping into one of Vincent Van Gogh’s paintings.

There is not much in terms of curricular content embedded within the world but when you teleport to VanGogh your integrated browser is directed to a website containing information about the artist and his work.

141 VBI - VBI is a virtual library that resembles a regular brick and mortar library. Digital information is organized in a manner that is accessible the way books or reference material would be on a book shelf. The majority of the resources located in this library are links to search engines, databases like EBSCO and ERIC, online encyclopedias, and interlibrary loan catalogs. There are also virtual desktop computers on tables within this world that display pictures of real life librarians who have their live hours posted so that virtual visitors can get live help from a real librarian. I can see this virtual world might be useful in teaching digital immigrants fundamentals of digital information resources but to most digital natives the cumbersome task of having to manually move about the space to get from one link to another might be off putting.

VTOUR – This world is a virtual version of our solar system scaled down and speeded up so that avatars in the world can see the planets go by and rotate as they make their trip round the sun.

142 Dirt City – I am not sure how this environment was intended for educational purposes but its attention to detail is superb. As the name suggests, this world is a gritty urban landscape. In Dirt City you can walk the streets, step into buildings, visit a virtual movie theater where you can watch films about AWEDU and desktop VR, or interact with objects programmed to do various different things when you touch them or come close to them. This environment might be appropriate for art students studying linear perspective. Since the city is fairly realistic, screenshots could be taken of places in the city and later used as reference material for studying how linear perspective works.

Describe the user friendliness: AWEDU is extremely user friendly. Navigating worlds on this platform is very simple and intuitive.

The build standards Active Worlds has established for both Alpha World and AWEDU have made it so users with slower systems can still have a decent experience without loosing much time to object downloads.

Building in this world is fairly easy as well. You have two options. You can visit worlds on the platform like Mega Path that have free object yards where you can choose from lots of already existing objects created by others or you can create your own objects using any 3d rendering application and upload the files yourself.

One reason the AWEDU can be run on slower computers is that rather than rendering every object separately it only renders objects that are different. For example, if I were to build an empty box I would need five or six squares or very thin rectangular prisms. On other VR systems each individual side of the box would be downloaded separately. Since I would only need one object but need it five or six times I only upload that object. I would then go into my world and tell the program to call up that image. To render the other sides I

143 would follow the same steps but change the coordinates, angle, or scale of the object. When the end user visits this world their browser has very little data to download but the result is spectacular.

144 APPENDIX H: DIGITAL SPACE TRAVELER 2.03 World Format: Digital Space Traveler 2.03 System Requirements: Windows 98 or higher, Pentium 120MHz with 64MB of RAM as well as a compatible sound card, microphone and speakers.

Release Date: Already Existing Number of users logged in: On October 8th, 2007 at 2:50 pm central time I found no other users logged in and using this service.

Cost to explore: free Cost to build: n/a What you get for your money: n/a Where can you build: nowhere Description of Avatars: Avatars in Digital Space Traveler, formerly Onlive! Traverler, take the form of giant heads. When you start the world browser you are prompted to choose from a collection of avatars. Some of these are human and others resemble animals or inanimate objects. You do have limited ability to customize your avatar including changing size, color, and skew. But these avatars are rather blocky and do not use any specialized textures to render surfaces.

145 User interface options: a.

Does it allow users to manipulate the environment? no

b.

How is communication facilitated? Voice and facial expression

c.

How is information presented? n/a

d.

Does the software allow for multiple views (i.e. first person, third person, aerial view, etc.) no

e.

Does the software allow users to record conversations or keep records of their events? no

Description of the world’s visual and audio features: This world offers little in terms of visuals. Environments and the objects within are all rather crude.

The focus of this space is on its audio capabilities and its breaking with the conventional idea of avatar. This world begs the question, “What shape do our digital selves need to take?” Since users cannot build within this world it’s main purpose would be to facilitates conversation. When one speaks into a microphone the avatar moves their mouth to mimic the sounds. Sound in this environment is also tied to space. The further away an avatar is the harder it is to hear their voice. This could be good for groups of people who need to facilitate discussion in a jigsaw fashion, moving back and forth between large group and small group discussions in the same space.

Describe the user friendliness: Digital Space Traveler is a very simple program and therefore very easy to use. However, its user friendliness is also illustrative of its very limited potential.

146 APPENDIX I: HABBO HOTEL World Format: Habbo Hotel System Requirements: Web Browser with Shockwave Player Plugin Release Date: Already Existing Number of users logged in: 7.5 million accounts as of September 2007 according to Virtual Worlds News (2007) Cost to explore: Free Cost to build: There is an in world currency used to buy things to fill your rooms. You can purchase 25 Habbo coins for five dollars.

What you get for your money: Five Habbo dollars will buy you virtual objects to place in your Habbo Hotel room. These are simple graphic objects that can be moved around. There is little or no customization available. 25 Habbo coins would buy you three plastic chairs, and a camera costs ten coins with film for twelve pictures.

Where can you build: You can build in your own rooms but you can also often build in other people’s rooms if they give visitors permission.

Description of Avatars: Avatars, as well as all the graphics in Habbo Hotel, resemble characters in a sixteen bit Nintendo video game. They are fairly crude in comparison to other multi-user environments out there but it is also completely web based. When one creates an account in Habbo they are prompted to create an avatar.

You have a number of different faces, hairstyles, hats, and clothing to choose from.

User interface options: a. Does it allow users to manipulate the environment? Yes, but manipulation is very limited. b. How is communication facilitated? Text chat and instant messaging c. How is information presented? Content is not displayed within this environment. d. Does the software allow for multiple views (i.e. first person, third person, aerial view, etc.) no e. Does the software allow users to record conversations or keep records of their events? no

147 Description of the world’s visual and audio features: Habbo Hotel is really no more than a series of chat rooms with interactive graphics. It is greatly limited by the fact that it is completely web based. There are a number of public spaces that anyone can enter so long as there are not too many users at one time. Individuals can create their own rooms at no cost that can support up to 25 visitors. I really had no sense of presence when exploring this world. It felt much more like playing a video game that had no objectives or events. Habbo Hotel really has little to offer educators.

Describe the user friendliness: Habbo Hotel is very user friendly but there is also not much you can do in their environments besides chat with people.

148 APPENDIX J: THERE World Format: There Minimum System Requirements: For PC: 800 MHz Pentium III, Windows 2000 or later, 256MB RAM, 56k Internet Connection, 500MB free hard disc space, graphics card with 32MB of RAM For Mac: This platform is not supported with Mac Release Date: Already Available Number of users logged in: This is hard to determine. I could not find a place where it listed how many people were logged in nor how many people actually had active accounts. I did however encounter other avatars every time I visited There but I never found more than three. However, according to Virtual Worlds News (2007) by July 2007 There had one million registered members.

Cost to explore: Free Cost to build: $100/month What you get for your money: 45 acre plot to build on. You can purchase custom objects from developers or build your own using a 3d program that supports the .3ds file format. (More space can be purchased for more money.)

Where can you build: You are limited to your own space.

Description of Avatars: When you first sign up for a user account you are prompted to choose an avatar.

You are given a fair number of options but the customization is limited. This might be a good thing since people can become obsessed with customization of their avatars in other programs and in an educational setting this could equate to hours of lost instructional time. These avatars do reflect a sense of idealism that might not promote an equitable classroom.

149 User interface options: a. Does it allow users to manipulate the environment? Users can explore their environment by walking, and can click on items that have been programmed with special properties. Some objects, when clicked, prompt you to decide on avatar actions such as sit or lie down. Avatars also have the ability to jump. b. How is communication facilitated? There supports facial expressions or emocations. Verbal communication is limited to text chat. c. How is information presented? There has an integrated web browser. d. Does the software allow for multiple views (i.e. first person, third person, aerial view, etc.) yes e. Does the software allow users to record conversations or keep records of their events? No, but this can be done with any program by using a screen capture recorder such as CamStudio.

Description of the world’s visual and audio features: Visually this is perhaps the most pleasing virtual world I have seen. Motion in this world is seamless and the graphics are beautiful. If it weren’t for the existing content and the price of building this platform would be ideal for education. There has a content policy that forbids anything sexually explicit or otherwise offensive. The user interface is extremely intuitive. And the program does well at establishing a sense of presence.

150

151 This platform does currently have a virtual Egypt world that beautifully replicates the Sphinx and an Egyptian tomb. Developers of this world say that this world is in progress and will soon contain other elements present in Giza such as the pyramids. However, the other worlds and places available on this platform do not lend themselves so well to education. One gets the overwhelming sense that There is meant to be a place for pure entertainment and socialization. The majority of the locations existing on this platform stress a party environment where avatars can dance and users can socialize with their friends and meet people. There promotes events that happen from time to time in their virtual world such as street races, concerts, and parties.

Describe the user friendliness: There is extremely user friendly. Most commands are located at the bottom of the screen and are easy to navigate. Keyboard controls are limited so a user doesn’t have to memorize many commands to navigate or communicate within the world.

152 APPENDIX K: LINEAR PERSPECTIVE AND RENAISSANCE ART

Linear Perspective & Renaissance Art Introduction The Renaissance was a time in the history of western civilization that saw an awakening of knowledge, curiosity, and understanding of the world. This time period saw an increased interest in education, the arts, and the sciences. Some even argue that this time period marked the beginning of our current age.

In the Renaissance the world saw advances and discoveries in all areas of study including the arts. The most notable discovery in the visual arts was linear perspective. Linear Perspective is a method of drawing three dimensional space using geometry concepts.

In this virtual world WebQuest you will learn

153 about how linear perspective was discovered and how to use it in your own drawings. You will demonstrate understanding of concepts by taking and manipulating screen shots of places in the Active Worlds universe and by creating concept drawings for a virtual world of your own.

Ultimately you will seek to answer the essential questions: How is art a lie?

What are the relationships between illusion and reality?

Linear Perspective & Renaissance Art Task Virtual worlds are becoming very popular and large corporations want in on the action. You have been commissioned by the company who

154 makes your favorite food product to do some concept drawings of what a virtual world that promotes their products might look like. They want the drawing to look as realistic as possible and to show what it might look like from within the world. To do this you will need to learn how to use linear perspective to render space.

You will explore the halls of this floor, interacting with the images and signs to learn about linear perspective. You will then work in groups of two or three to demonstrate within the virtual world some of the key concepts associated with one and two point linear perspective.

When you have completed the training course it is your turn to be the designer. Your work will appear in our gallery upstairs when you are finished.

Linear Perspective & Renaissance Art Procedure Task 1: Historical Background To start this task, and all subsequent tasks you will simply walk your way through the halls of this building. The images on the wall are numbered.

Start with the first one and go through sequentially.

Most of the images have signs with instructions.

155

156

This is a screenshot of the first image students encounter in this virtual world WebQuest and the screen that appears when they click on the sign. The integrated browser opens a page that includes an embedded YouTube video about the Italian Renaissance and provides them with links to two websites for more information.

157

When students click on the first image another window appears in the integrated browser containing a video about linear perspective and the Italian Renaissance and provides them with two more links to explore for further information.

Clicking on the second sign opens up a webpage in the browser containing a video about different methods of showing space in art. The first assignment is given at this time.

158

This is a screenshot of the first hallway on the first floor of the building containing images of four major works done by four different artists from this time period. Clicking on the image opens a website with more information about the artist.

At the end of the hallway is a sign with instructions for how students are to record their reports for the first assignment. They can also listen to the reports of other students by clicking on the sign which opens up a page containing their recordings. This assignment makes use of the Web 2.0 service Gabcast which is a free service that allows users to record podcasts over their telephone.

159

At the end of the hall, students turn right and make their way down another hall for task two. This hall is devoted to teaching how to draw in linear perspective. The above screenshot illustrates what students see when they click on the first sign in this hall. In the browser three links to websites that teach one point linear perspective.

Clicking on the corresponding image opens up a video I created that uses the virtual world Dirt City to illustrate the concept of vanishing point.

160

Clicking on the picture or sign at the end of this hall opens a window in the browser that contains a video tutorial on some advanced tricks using one point linear perspective.

The last image in this hall links to a video I created using Active Worlds to illustrate how one and two point linear perspective are related. Also on this page is a link to a tutorial website.

161

The next room contains the assignment for task two. Clicking on the red sign opens up a webpage containing the assignment directions. The image on the wall illustrates what a finished product might look like. Since there is more text in this window than can be displayed on the screenshot I have included a copy of the text below: Assignment: Partner up with one or two of your classmates and go exploring one of the many worlds in the Active Worlds Universe. You may also venture into virtual worlds on other platforms if they are available to you (AWEDU, Second Life, There, Kaneva, etc.). If there are no classmates available go to AWGate and find someone who would be willing to help you with your assignment.

Your goal is to demonstrate you know how to locate a vanishing point by having your partner go into the distance and position their avatar on the vanishing point as you see it. This is going to take some coordination and communication.

You can take photos by pressing the "Prt Sc" button on the keyboard. This function copies a picture of the screen on your clipboard. Then you can paste it into Photoshop or Gimp Shop to edit it. Draw an arrow to the avatar who is positioned on the vanishing point.

When you are finished, upload your photo to this wiki and paste it below.

You can edit this wiki at any time. The password is "avatar."

Instructions for uploading photos:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Make sure your photo is saved as a gif or jpg file.

Click Insert Image from the top of the editor screen.

Click "Browse" and locate your file Dont forget to include your name

162 Vanishing Point Screenshot Rubric

Example:

Flanking the image on the wall where students find the assignment for task two are three images that when clicked on teleport students to virtual worlds they may use to complete the assignment.

163

This is a screenshot looking into the room where task three is located. It is shown here to provide a sense of the layout of the virtual space.

When clicking on the first sign or image in task three an assignment description comes up in the integrated browser. Since there is more text in this window than can be displayed on the screenshot I have included a copy of the text below:

164

Assignment: Virtual World Concept Drawing: Virtual worlds are becoming very popular and large corporations want in on the action. You have been commissioned by the company who makes your favorite food product to do some concept drawings of what a virtual world that promotes their products might look like. They want the drawing to look as realistic as possible and to show what it might look like from within the world.

For this task you will design your own virtual world using either one or two point linear perspective.

When you are finished you will upload a digital photo of your work to this wiki. If you follow the instructions correctly your drawing will be displayed in our gallery upstairs. After you upload your image go to the gallery and find it. Next to it will be a sign with a phone number and access code to record a description of your world. Tell us what inspired you and about the things we can't see.

Virtual Worlds Concept Drawing Rubric

This wiki is to be used to share your linear perspective photos taken in Active Worlds and to share your own linear perspective drawings.

You can edit this wiki at any time. The password is "avatar."

Instructions for uploading photos:

1. Make sure your photo is saved as a gif file.

2. Make sure the aspect ratio is the standard photo ratio (no panoramic images or funky crops please) and your image is no larger than 600 pixels wide.

3. After clicking on edit, click on files.

4. For your image to appear in our gallery in Active Worlds you have to name your files with simple numbers (e.x. 1.gif, 2.gif, 5.

3.gif...).

Please check what files already exist. Do not replace any files. If 5.gif is the last file you see name yours 6.gif.

165

Clicking on the second sign or corresponding image in task three opens the final assignment for this virtual world WebQuest.

This is a screenshot of the stairs leading up to the student project gallery where student drawings will be displayed when they complete task three.

166

This is a screenshot of the sign at the top of the stairs providing instructions for how students are to submit their final assignment.

This is a screenshot of the gallery. Since this virtual world WebQuest has not yet been used with students there are no images in the gallery. Once they are uploaded to the wiki these frames will display their images.

167

Each image has a different Gabcast channel. Clicking on the “Play Audio� button opens the Gabcast channel where student sales pitches can be heard.

Linear Perspective & Renaissance Art Evaluation Renaissance Art Critique Podcast Rubric Vanishing Point Screenshot Rubric Virtual Worlds Concept Drawing Rubric Virtual World Sales Pitch Rubric

168

Oral Presentation Rubric : Renaissance Art Critique Podcast CATEGORY

4

3

2

1

Content

Shows a full Shows a good Shows a good understanding of the understanding of the understanding of topic. topic. parts of the topic.

Preparedness

Student is completely prepared and has obviously rehearsed.

Student seems pretty prepared but might have needed a couple more rehearsals.

The student is Student does not somewhat prepared, seem at all prepared but it is clear that to present. rehearsal was lacking.

Vocabulary

Uses vocabulary appropriate for the audience. Extends audience vocabulary by defining words that might be new to most of the audience.

Uses vocabulary appropriate for the audience. Includes 1-2 words that might be new to most of the audience, but does not define them.

Uses vocabulary appropriate for the audience. Does not include any vocabulary that might be new to the audience.

Uses several (5 or more) words or phrases that are not understood by the audience.

Description and Anlaysis

Description and analysis provides the listener with a clear mental picture of the artwork being critiqued.

Description and analysis is present and elements and principles of the work are accurately presented but one needs to see the work to understand what is being discussed.

Some elements of description and analysis are presented.

Description and analysis are not present.

Interpretation

Student provides a thoughtful interpretation of the works meaning that includes historical references to events occurring within the artist's life. The interpretation takes into account multiple views of the artwork.

Interpretation is present and exhibits some signs of knowledge of the artist or the time period.

Interpretation is present but only reflects contemporary viewpoints.

No interpretation present.

Evaluation

Evaluation contains both subjective and objective judgment and clearly separates opinion from criterion based assessment.

Evaluation is based on an articulated criterion.

Evaluation is entirely No evaluation based on the opinion present. of the student.

Does not seem to understand the topic very well.

169

Vanishing Point Screenshot CATEGORY

4

3

2

1

Communication

Students effectively use the communication tools provided within the Active Worlds browser to complete the assignment.

Students rely on traditional communication methods (talking, email, and writing notes) to complete assignment.

Students cheat and log control each other's avatars to complete the assignment.

Students fail to communicate or collaborate. Final product either doesn't exist or does not contain other avatars.

Vanishing Point

Avatar in the picture clearly is positioned over the vanishing point in the frame.

Avatar in the picture is close to the actual vanishing point in the frame.

Vanishing point is The vanishing point correctly identified in incorrectly but only with digital identified. drawing tools and not by positioning a partner's avatar over it.

Digital Image Editing

The vanishing point is additionally identified by an arrow drawn on the screenshot image.

Unnecessary information is cropped out of the picture.

Digital imaging software is used to draw an arrow pointing to the vanishing point.

The vanishing point No digital imaging is identified by some software is used. use of digital imaging or paint software.

Uploading Pictures to Wiki

File is uploaded to File is uploaded and File is uploaded but File is not present. the assignment wiki, the image is placed not placed on the placed on the on the wiki. assignment page. assignment page, and the student's name appears next to the image they uploaded.

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Virtual Worlds Concept Drawing Rubric CATEGORY

Excellent

Very Good

Needs Improvement Poor

Linear Perspective

10 or more perspective details are accurately drawn using the 3 step process.

10 or more perspective details mostly accurate are drawn using the 3 step process.

Less than 10 perspective details are included in the drawing.

Few attempts to use linear perspective are evident.

Use of Media

Skillful and controlled use of the chosen media.

Understanding of shading is seen in the work.

Some technique Medium is utilized but not common to the much has been done to media are tried. explore its affects.

Attempts to include shading are evident.

Little evidence of exploration of medium is evident.

Development of Idea

The technique being studied has been applied in a way that is unique to the student.

Details fully describe the idea.

Student has taken the technique being studied and has used source material as a starting place.

Details included adequately describe the idea.

Student has copied some ideas from the source material. There is little evidence detail development, but the student has done the assignment.

Not much has been done to develop ideas based on the assignment requirements.

Time/Effort/Respect

Class time was used wisely.

Much time and effort went into the planning and design of the drawing. Art room guidelines were respected.

Class time was used wisely.

Student could have put in a bit more time and effort. Art room guidelines were respected with a reminder.

Class time was not always used well, but student did do the work required. Art room guidelines were respected after many reminders.

Class time was not used well and the student put in no additional effort.

Art room guidelines were not respected.

171

Oral Presentation Rubric : Virtual World Sales Pitch Rubric

CATEGORY

4

3

2

Preparedness

Student is completely prepared and has obviously rehearsed.

Student seems pretty prepared but might have needed a couple more rehearsals.

The student is Student does not somewhat prepared, seem at all prepared but it is clear that to present. rehearsal was lacking.

Speaks Clearly

Speaks clearly and distinctly all (10095%) the time, and mispronounces no words.

Speaks clearly and distinctly all (10095%) the time, but mispronounces one word.

Speaks clearly and distinctly most (9485%) of the time.

Mispronounces no more than one word.

Stays on Topic

Stays on topic all (100%) of the time.

Stays on topic most Stays on topic some It was hard to tell (99-90%) of the time. (89%-75%) of the what the topic was. time.

Salesmanship

Student presents a sales pitch that is convincing and takes their target audience into account.

Student presents a sales pitch that is convincing to the average listener but is not directed toward the companies they built their world for.

Resources: Renaissance Links: Renaissance: What inspired this age of balance and order? http://www.learner.org/interactives/renaissance/index.html

http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/REN/REN.HTM The Italian Renaissance 1300-1400

Often mumbles or can not be understood OR mispronounces more than one word.

Student presents a Student does not try sales pitch that takes to sell their idea in into account their their podcast. target audience but is not convincing.

Linear Perspective & Renaissance Art

The Early Modern - The Italian Renaissance

1

172 http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=AAjPoPInbfU Eyecon Art: Key Innovations and Artists of the Italian Renaissance http://www.eyeconart.net/history/Renaissance/early_ren.htm Brunelleschi and the Origin of Linear Perspective http://www.kap.pdx.edu/trow/winter01/perspective/ Discovery of Linear Perspective http://video.google.com/url?docid=2312017894293310073&esrc=rss_docidfeed&ev=v&len=169&srcurl=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo.google.com% 2Fvideoplay%3Fdocid%3D2312017894293310073&vidurl=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo.google.com%2Fvideoplay%3Fdocid%3D2312017894293310073%26hl%3Den&usg=AL29H22M2ajVppWK5nBw5oLSAUFVOCDy4Q Illusion of Depth http://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=XmLRYyDcWAw The Artchive: Michelangelo http://www.artchive.com/artchive/M/michelangelo.html The Artchive: Masaccio http://www.artchive.com/artchive/M/masaccio.html The Artchive: Raphael http://www.artchive.com/artchive/R/raphael.html The Artchive: da Vinci http://www.artchive.com/artchive/L/leonardo.html

How to draw in Linear Perspective: Drawing in One-Point Perspective by Harold Olejarz http://www.olejarz.com/arted/perspective/ About.com: How to Draw Perspective http://drawsketch.about.com/library/weekly/aa021603b.htm

173 Museum of Science: Exploring Linear Perspective http://www.mos.org/sln/Leonardo/ExploringLinearPerspective.html Beginner's Perspective Drawing: Calculating Diminishing Spaces http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7890885840534562261&q=perspective+drawing&total=238&start=0&num=10&so=0&type=search&plindex =0 About.com: Draw Two Point Linear Perspective http://drawsketch.about.com/library/weekly/aa021603c.htm

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Virtual World WebQuests Code of Conduct Rule 1: No Harassing Other Avatars While some of the avatars you will find in virtual worlds are bots, the majority of them represent real people such as yourself. Just as in the real world, your actions in the virtual world can have profound impact on others. An insult written in text can have the same effect as one spoken to someone. Therefore, treat others the way you would be expected to treat them in a classroom. In the virtual world your avatars are not confined to desks. Be aware of your avatar's physical actions and their impact on others.

Rule 2: Do Not Intentionally Block Others View Information in the virtual world is presented in various ways. While some of your curriculum is delivered through popup webpages some is presented in world. Do not intentionally block another avatar's view of something.

Rule 3: Do Not Give Away Personal Information Just as you wouldn't go around telling strangers your name, address, or phone number in the real world keep that information private in the virtual world.

These environments can be used by anyone and the people you meet in these worlds are not always who they say they are. Also, text you enter in a world is often viewable by anyone in that world, even if you can't see them. When you sign in do not use your full name. Your teacher might so that you can easily identify him or her but do not do this yourself.

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Teacher Instructions Essential Questions: How is art a lie?

What are the relationships between illusion and reality?

Enduring Understandings: Illusion of depth is a construct of the viewer, their position, and fundamental understanding of the world derived from their past visual experiences.

Time Frame: This Virtual World WebQuest is meant to be used over the course of a couple of weeks. It is expected that students will take two days to complete task one, two or three days to complete task 2, and five to ten days to complete task 3.

Standards: This WebQuest addresses the Minnesota Graduation standards in the visual arts for creation and performance as well as analysis and interpretation.

Teacher Instructions: This WebQuest is fairly automated in its process. It is recommended that teachers give students one class period to acquaint themselves with the Active Worlds universe and browser before starting on their first Virtual Worlds WebQuest. This Virtual Worlds WebQuest calls for students to upload image files and call in podcasts that will be integrated into the three-dimensional environment. It is necessary for teachers to have image editing software capable of drawing on the image, cropping, and changing image size. Teachers also need to provide students with access to digital cameras and drawing or painting supplies for completion of task 3. Students will also need access to a phone, cell phone, or VOIP for completion of tasks 1 and 3.

While students are working within the virtual world teachers need to establish a presence there as well. This is important in both traditional brick and mortar settings and for distance learning. While you are there patrol areas where your students are to make sure they are on task, behaving themselves, and not giving strangers personal information. You can also use this opportunity to ask guiding questions to direct their learning. Don't be afraid to pull students off to the side for an impromptu mini lesson.

References: Annenberg Media (2007). Renaissance: What inspired this age of balance and order? Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www.learner.org/interactives/renaissance/index.html Artchive (2007). Archive. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://www.artchive.com/

176 Beginner perspective drawing: Calculating diminishing spaces. (N. D.). Retrieved October 17, 2007, from http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7890885840534562261&q=perspective+drawing&total=238&start=0&num=10&so=0&type=search&pl ind=0 ex=0 beta0net (2007). Illusion of depth. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XmLRYyDcWAw Discovery of Linear Perspective. (N. D.). Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://video.google.com/url?docid=2312017894293310073&esrc=rss_docidfeed&ev=v&len=169&srcurl=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo.google.c om%2Fvideoplay%3Fdocid%3D2312017894293310073&vidurl=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo.google.com%2Fvideoplay%3Fdocid%3D2312017894293310073%26hl%3Den&usg=AL29H22M2ajVppWK5nBw5oLSAUFVOCDy4Q dizzo95 (2007). The Italian Renaissance 1300 – 1400. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AAjPoPInbfU Eyecon Art (N. D.). Key Innovations and Artists of the Italian Renaissance. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://www.eyeconart.net/history/Renaissance/early_ren.htm Hooker, Richard (1996). The Italian Renaissance / early modern. Retrieved October 23, 2007 from http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/REN/REN.HTM Olejarz, Harold (2005). Drawing in one-point linear perspective. Retrieved October 17, 2007, from http://www.olejarz.com/arted/perspective/ Ross, Jamie (N. D.). Brunelleschi and the Origin of Linear Perspective. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://www.kap.pdx.edu/trow/winter01/perspective/ Science Learning Network (2007). Exploring linear perspective. Retrieved October 17, 2007, from Museum of Science http://www.mos.org/sln/Leonardo/ExploringLinearPerspective.html

177 South, Helen (2007a). How to draw perspective: Draw a box using one-point perspective.

Retrieved October 17, 2007, from http://drawsketch.about.com/library/weekly/aa021603b.htm South, Helen (2007b). How to draw perspective: Draw a box using two-point perspective. Retrieved October 17, 2007, from http://drawsketch.about.com/library/weekly/aa021603c.htm

178 APPENDIX L: IMPRESSIONIST ARTIST PROFILES

Impressionist Artist Profiles Introduction

In the mid 1800s photography was invented and it revolutionized the art world. Before this time the chief method of acquiring an image of something was to have a drawing or painting done of it. With photography there was no longer a need for skilled artists to serve this purpose. Of course some people still wanted drawings and paintings and they were necessary to illustrate imaginary things but for simple representations they were no longer necessary. A picture could be taken with a camera that was usually more visually accurate and developed much faster and cheaper than it would take an artist. This shook up the art world and sparked artists to ask some tough questions about art. At the foundation of this inquiry were the questions, "what is art, what is it good for, and what is unique to each art form?" This inquiry marked our entry into an era in art history known as Modernism.

179 The first Modernist artists were the Impressionists. The impressionists sought to capture in their artwork that which the camera could not. They argued that while the camera could capture visuals, it could not capture the individual's internal impressions of a scene.

On this floor is a gallery of paintings and pictures of sculptures by famous Impressionist artists. Next to each image is a sign with a link to a wiki you and your classmates will develop about the artist. This quest is for historic knowledge and community knowledge sharing. You will look for resources and share them, write summaries of the artists' lives, talk about their work, and critique the artwork presented here.

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Impressionist Artist Profiles Task

The images on the walls on this floor are of art done by famous Impressionist artists. Clicking on the signs next to the images will bring you to a wiki about the artist. You are to work in groups of four, each assuming a different role. If you are the first one to visit this wiki you will see it only has a few links to get you started.

Your task is to work together to gather as many good links as you can about these artists to place in the artist wiki then summarize the information you collected so it is easy for others to learn about your artist by visiting your site.

Roles: Biographer - Responsible for information about the artist's life and work.

Critic - Responsible for writing critiques of the artist's work.

Cultural Historian - Responsible for letting us know about what the world was like when the artist was alive.

Art Historian - Responsible for telling us the significance the artist's work had for other artists.

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Impressionist Artist Profiles Procedure Step 1: We will all start this WebQuest by stepping inside an Impressionist painting to have a discussion about Impressionism. By clicking on the image that says, "Teleport to VanGogh ," you will be teleported to a world that has been constructed from paintings done by Vincent Van Gogh. In that environment your teacher will give a talk about Impressionism. (This teleport will only work if you are logged in as a citizen. If students only have a tourist account they will have to download and install the AWEDU browser. In that platform There is a parallel world with the same name. Students in the AW VanGogh will not see students in the AWEDU VanGogh . It is important that all students go to the same world.)

Step 2: Your next step is to find three partners. You will work in teams of four to complete the rest of this Virtual World WebQuest. One student will be the art historian, one the general historian, one the biographer, and one the art critic. Once you have found your partners and decided on the rolls find

182 the picture on the wall behind you and click on it for further information about your job.

Step 3: Now you will all explore the Impressionist art gallery and find a work of art you would all like to learn more about. The signs next to these works have links to wikis about the artwork.

These wikis are new and do not contain much information. Your job is to contribute information to these wikis. Remember, these are websites that can be viewed in any browser, not just the Active Worlds browser, so keep that in mind when you do your writing. Not everyone reading it will have the virtual experience you do.

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This is a screenshot of what the browser displays when students click on the art historian picture in the hall.

Similar wiki pages open up for students clicking on the art critic, historian, and biographer images. The following is a transcription of the contents of these wiki pages: Art historian: As the art historian of your group it is your task to find information about how this work relates to it's genre.

In other words, you will become the expert in Impressionism and write about how this work relates to the work of other artists. Look for as many resources as you can find about Impressionism and write about how this work relates to the work of others. Do this on the wiki that corresponds with your artwork. You can find it by clicking the sign next to the artwork. Do your work on a new wiki page. If you need assistance in editing your wiki click on the tutorial at the top of the stairs. Before you begin your quest, read the information on the following links to better understand your role.

Links Writing in the Humanities: Writing the Art History Paper http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/humanities/arthistory.shtml What is Art History http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-280181-3.pdf Evaluation: Art History Rubric Additionally, each student is expected to contribute: •

3-5 pictures

184 • •

5-10 hyperlinks and extra credit will be awarded for videos

Art Critic: Your task is to write about the work of art on the wall in the gallery. Pick it apart, give us a detailed description of the work, analyze it, interpret it, and evaluate it. Explore the links below to learn more about art criticism. Then, when you find the work in the gallery click on the sign corresponding to it. This will bring you to a wiki for the work. Create a new page on this wiki for your critique. If you need help in editing the wiki click on the PBWiki image at the top of the stairs.

Links: Questions in Art Criticism http://mati.eas.asu.edu:8421/ChicanArte/html_pages/ArtCriticismQues.html Looking at Art: Seeing Questions http://www.princetonol.com/groups/iad/Files/crit.htm Evaluation: Critique Rubric Additionally, each student is expected to contribute: • • •

3-5 pictures 5-10 hyperlinks and extra credit will be awarded for videos

Historian: As the general historian of the group it is your job to help us understand the world at the time this work was created. Your task is different from the others in that you will not be exclusively looking at art related resources. If there were major world events such as wars, famine, or life changing developments in other fields of study you need to tell us. You need to paint for us in words a picture of what the world was like back then. This helps us place the work in a context and will ultimately bring us closer to understanding about the artist, the artwork, and the genre of art. Do this on the wiki that corresponds with your artwork. You can find it by clicking the sign next to the artwork. Do your work on a new wiki page. If you need assistance in editing your wiki click on the tutorial at the top of the stairs. Before you begin your quest, read the information on the following links to better understand your role.

Links History Jobs http://www.unixl.com/dir/humanities/history/history_jobs/

185 BBC - History - The Historian's Many Hats http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/htd_history/historians/historians_hats_02.shtml Evaluation General History Overview Rubric Additionally, each student is expected to contribute: • • •

3-5 pictures 5-10 hyperlinks and extra credit will be awarded for videos

Biographer: As the biographer it is your job to find out as much as you can about the artist. Dig into their personal and professional life. Your goal is to focus on the person. Help us to know them. You will write a short paper about the artist and collect links to information relating to their life. Do this on the wiki that corresponds with your artwork. You can find it by clicking the sign next to the artwork. Do your work on a new wiki page. If you need assistance in editing your wiki click on the tutorial at the top of the stairs. Before you begin your quest, read the information on the following links to better understand your role.

Links The Biography Maker http://www.bham.wednet.edu/bio/biomaker.htm Biography - Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography Evaluation Biography Rubric Additionally, each student is expected to contribute: • • •

3-5 pictures 5-10 hyperlinks and extra credit will be awarded for videos

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Screenshot of the Degas painting in the gallery along with the corresponding wiki students are asked to edit.

The following is a list of screenshots of individual wikis set up for each artist:

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Impressionist Artist Profiles Evaluation Biography Rubric General History Overview Rubric Art History Rubric Critique Rubric

Additionally, each student is expected to contribute: • •

3-5 pictures 5-10 hyperlinks

•

and extra credit will be awarded for videos

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Artist Biography CATEGORY

4

3

2

1

Characteristics

Student identifies multiple significant characteristics that distinguish this artist's work or school/period from others and uses these to recognize other works by this artist.

Student identifies multiple significant characteristics that distinguish this artist's work or this school/period from others.

Student identifies 1 or 2 significant characteristics that distinguish this artist's work or this school/period from others.

Student cannot identify characteristics that distinguish this artist's work or period/school.

Recognition of Work

Student can Student can accurately name 4 accurately name 2 works by this artist works by this artist. and describe them in some detail.

Student can either accurately name or describe at least 2 works by this artist.

Student is not able to name or describe this artist's works.

Influence of culture

Student is able to give several detailed examples of how the time period(s) in which an artist lived influenced his/her work.

Student is able to give a couple of examples of how the time period(s) in which an artist lived influenced his/her work.

Student is able to give one example of how the time period(s) in which an artist lived influenced his/her work.

Student has difficulty describing how the time periods in which artists lived influenced their work.

Influence of other artists

Student is able to name at least 2 artists who influenced the artist being studied. He can also point out areas in this artist's paintings where one can see these influences.

Student is able to name at least 2 artists who influenced the artist being studied.

Student is able to name at least 1 artist who influenced the artist being studied.

Student does not know which other painters influenced the one being studied.

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Humanities Paper CATEGORY

4

3

2

1

Focus on Topic (Content)

There is one clear, Main idea is clear but well-focused topic. the supporting Main idea stands information is general. out and is supported by detailed information.

Main idea is somewhat clear but There is a need for more supporting information.

The main idea is not clear. There is a seemingly random collection of information.

Support for Topic (Content)

Relevant, telling, quality details give the reader important information that goes beyond the obvious or predictable.

Supporting details and information are relevant, but one key issue or portion of the storyline is unsupported.

Supporting details and information are relevant, but several key issues or portions of the storyline are unsupported.

Supporting details and information are typically unclear or not related to the topic.

Accuracy of Facts (Content)

All supportive facts are reported accurately.

Almost all supportive facts are reported accurately.

Most supportive facts are reported accurately.

NO facts are reported OR most are inaccurately reported.

Sequencing (Organization)

Details are placed in a logical order and the way they are presented effectively keeps the interest of the reader.

Details are placed in a logical order, but the way in which they are presented/introduced sometimes makes the writing less interesting.

Some details are not in a logical or expected order, and this distracts the reader.

Many details are not in a logical or expected order.

There is little sense that the writing is organized.

Sources (Content)

All sources used for quotes and facts are credible and cited correctly.

All sources used for quotes and facts are credible and most are cited correctly.

Most sources used for quotes and facts are credible and cited correctly.

Many sources used for quotes and facts are less than credible (suspect) and/or are not cited correctly.

Grammar & Spelling (Conventions)

Writer makes no errors in grammar or spelling that distract the reader from the content.

Writer makes 1-2 errors in grammar or spelling that distract the reader from the content.

Writer makes 3-4 errors in grammar or spelling that distract the reader from the content.

Writer makes more than 4 errors in grammar or spelling that distract the reader from the content.

Capitalization & Punctuation (Conventions)

Writer makes no errors in capitalization or punctuation, so the paper is exceptionally easy to read.

Writer makes 1 or 2 errors in capitalization or punctuation, but the paper is still easy to read.

Writer makes a few errors in capitalization and/or punctuation that catch the reader's attention and interrupt the flow.

Writer makes several errors in capitalization and/or punctuation that catch the reader's attention and greatly interrupt the flow.

195 Introduction (Organization)

The introduction is inviting, states the main topic and previews the structure of the paper.

The introduction clearly states the main topic and previews the structure of the paper, but is not particularly inviting to the reader.

The introduction states the main topic, but does not adequately preview the structure of the paper nor is it particularly inviting to the reader.

There is no clear introduction of the main topic or structure of the paper.

Conclusion (Organization)

The conclusion is strong and leaves the reader with a feeling that they understand what the writer is "getting at."

The conclusion is recognizable and ties up almost all the loose ends.

The conclusion is recognizable, but does not tie up several loose ends.

There is no clear conclusion, the paper just ends.

Answering the Questions

The paper answers The paper answers all all the questions for the questions in the the assignment with assignment. convincing evidence that ties the topic together.

The paper answers some of the questions in the assignment.

The papers answers too few questions in the assignment.

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Art History Paper CATEGORY

4

3

2

1

Characteristics

Student identifies multiple significant characteristics that distinguish this artist's work or school/period from others and uses these to recognize other works by this artist.

Student identifies multiple significant characteristics that distinguish this artist's work or this school/period from others.

Student identifies 1 or 2 significant characteristics that distinguish this artist's work or this school/period from others.

Student cannot identify characteristics that distinguish this artist's work or period/school.

Influence of culture

Student is able to give several detailed examples of how the time period(s) in which an artist lived influenced his/her work.

Student is able to give a couple of examples of how the time period(s) in which an artist lived influenced his/her work.

Student is able to give one example of how the time period(s) in which an artist lived influenced his/her work.

Student has difficulty describing how the time periods in which artists lived influenced their work.

Influence of other artists

Student is able to name at least 2 artists who influenced the artist being studied. He can also point out areas in this artist's paintings where one can see these influences.

Student is able to name at least 2 artists who influenced the artist being studied.

Student is able to name at least 1 artist who influenced the artist being studied.

Student does not know which other painters influenced the one being studied.

Recognition of Work

Student can Student can accurately name 4 accurately name 2 works by this artist works by this artist. and describe them in some detail.

Student can either accurately name or describe at least 2 works by this artist.

Student is not able to name or describe this artist's works.

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Analysis of A Work of Art : Art Critic CATEGORY

4

3

2

1

Description

Makes a complete and detailed description of the subject matter and/or elements seen in a work.

Makes a detailed description of most of the subject matter and/or elements seen in a work.

Makes a detailed Descriptions are not description of some detailed or complete. of the subject matter and/or elements seen in a work.

Analysis

Accurately describes several dominant elements or principles used by the artist and accurately relates how they are used by the artist to reinforce the theme, meaning, mood, or feeling of the artwork.

Accurately describes a couple of dominant elements and principles used by the artist and accurately relates how these are used by the artist to reinforce the theme, meaning, mood, or feeling of the artwork.

Describes some Has trouble picking dominant elements out the dominant and principles used elements. by the artist, but has difficulty describing how these relate to the meaning or feeling of the artwork.

Interpretation

Forms a somewhat Student identifies reasonable the literal meaning hypothesis about the of the work. symbolic or metaphorical meaning and is able to support this with evidence from the work.

Student can relate how the work makes him/her feel personally.

Student finds it difficult to interpret the meaning of the work.

Evaluation

Uses multiple criteria Uses 1-2 criteria to to judge the artwork, judge the artwork. such as composition, expression, creativity, design, communication of ideas.

Tries to use aesthetic criteria to judge artwork, but does not apply the criteria accurately.

Evaluates work as good or bad based on personal taste.

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Impressionist Artist Profiles Art Critics Questions in Art Criticism http://mati.eas.asu.edu:8421/ChicanArte/html_pages/ArtCriticismQues.html Looking at Art: Seeing Questions http://www.princetonol.com/groups/iad/Files/crit.htm Art Historians Materials for Students: Writing in the Humanities: Writing the Art History Paper http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/humanities/arthistory.shtml What is Art History http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-280181-3.pdf Historians History Jobs http://www.unixl.com/dir/humanities/history/history_jobs/ BBC - History - The Historian's Many Hats http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/htd_history/historians/historians_hats_02.shtml Biographers The Biography Maker http://www.bham.wednet.edu/bio/biomaker.htm Biography - Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography Artists Artcyclopedia - Claude Monet

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200 http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/cassatt_mary.html The Artchive - Mary Cassatt http://artchive.com/artchive/C/cassatt.html Artchive - Edouard Manet http://www.artchive.com/artchive/M/manet.html Edouard Manet's Studio http://www.mystudios.com/manet/manet.html The Artchive - Georges Seurat http://www.artchive.com/artchive/S/seurat.html Discover France - Georges Pierre Seurat http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Art/Seurat/Seurat.shtml Artcyclopedia: Paul Gauguin http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/gauguin_paul.html The Artchive: Paul Gauguin http://www.artchive.com/artchive/G/gauguin.html Artcyclopedia: Vincent Van Gogh http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/van_gogh_vincent.html The Van Gogh Museum http://www3.VanGogh museum.nl/vgm/index.jsp?lang=nl The Artchive: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec http://artchive.com/artchive/T/toulouse-lautrec.html Toulouse-Lautrec Biography http://www.artelino.com/articles/toulouse_lautrec.asp

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Teacher Instructions Essential Questions: Where does meaning come from?

How can meaning change?

What has influence over meaning?

Enduring Understandings: Meaning is something that resides solely within the viewer.

External factors such as culture, history, and personal experiences help determine how a viewer interprets the meaning of a work of art.

Time Frame: This Virtual World WebQuest is meant to be used over the course of one week. It is expected that task one will take one class period and at least four days to complete task two.

Standards: This WebQuest addresses the Minnesota Graduation standards in the visual arts for analysis and interpretation.

Teacher Instructions: The first task of this Virtual World WebQuest requires that you facilitate a lecture/discussion on Impressionism. Take all students to the virtual world VanGogh . If you have purchased citizen accounts for all your students you can use the teleport link on the fourth floor. If your students are entering Active Worlds as tourists you have to have them close the browser and open the AWEDU browser. From There they can teleport to VanGogh . You can download the AWEDU browser at the AWEDU website. http://www.activeworlds.com/edu/index.asp

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204 http://www.renoir.com/pages/1/index.htm Rodin Museum (2007). Rodin Museum. Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www.rodinmuseum.org/ Roland, Craig (N. D.). Looking at art: Seeing questions. Retrieved October 21, 2007, from Princeton Online http://www.princetonol.com/groups/iad/Files/crit.htm Roskill, Mark (1987). Georges Pierre Seurat. The Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, Release #9.01. Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Art/Seurat/Seurat.shtml UniXL (N.D.). History jobs. Retrieved October 21, 2007, from http://www.unixl.com/dir/humanities/history/history_jobs/ Van Gogh Museum (2007). Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www3.VanGogh museum.nl/vgm/index.jsp?lang=nl What is art history? (N. D.) Retrieved October 21, 2007, from http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-280181-3.pdf

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206 APPENDIX M: GREEK AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

Greek and Roman Architecture Introduction Today's buildings owe much to the ancient Greeks and Romans for their contribution to the field of architecture. Architecture from this time period was influential in both form and function. In this Virtual World WebQuest you will explore the elements and styles of architecture from these time periods and see how contemporary architecture relates to these ancient constructions. You will then work in a team to design and build a virtual building that incorporates functional and stylistic elements introduced to us by the ancients.

Ultimately you will seek to answer the essential questions: How does form relate to function?

How does our environment affect us?

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Greek & Roman Architecture Task

You have been hired by the government to design a new federal building. The building will be an American cultural museum.

They want that building to reflect the classical style of ancient Greek and Roman Architecture. They also want to be able to experience the building virtually before committing to a design. If you have successfully completed the linear perspective and Impressionism WebQuests on the first, second, and third floors you have become comfortable with navigating and communicating within Active Worlds.

Now we are going to take our next step and learn how to build in this environment. You and your team members will learn as much as you can about classical architecture and incorporate at least three elements of classical architecture in your final product.

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Greek & Roman Architecture Procedure Each member of your group will assume a different role. Some of the following tasks will be done by all members of the group and others will be done only by students assigned a specific role.

Those roles are: Realtor & Supplier - Responsible for locating land and objects to use.

Concept Artist - Responsible for producing drawings of what the building would look like.

Architect - Responsible for figuring out how to use the items available and provided by the supplier to achieve the concept artist's vision.

Builder - responsible for following the blueprints provided by the architect.

Task 1: Research (all group members) To start this task you will need to learn some fundamentals about Greek and Roman architecture.

Take some time and explore the following websites to learn about this topic. Many of the objects in Alpha World allow you to put pictures on them from image files on the web. Find at least 5 pictures you think you can use. Also, for each of the terms on the task 1 worksheet formulate your own definition and find one picture that illustrates it.

Greek Architecture: A Digital Archive of Architecture: Greek Architecture, by Prof. Jeffery Howe http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/arch/ greek_arch.html Ancient Greece http://www.ancientgreece.com/ History of Greek Architecture http://web.kyotoinet.or.jp/org/orion/eng/hst/greek.html

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Task 5: Planning (Architect & Concept Artist) Knowing what supplies are available to sketch a drawing of what your building might look like. Include both concept drawings and blueprints.

Task 6: Building (builder) On your plot of land build a model of your building.

Record the coordinates of your finished work on the unit wiki (http://greekarchitecturevwwebquest.PBWiki .com/FrontPage). The password is avatar.

212 Greek and Roman Architecture Worksheet For the following terms write a definition and find a picture to illustrate its meaning. (The same picture can be used for more than one term.)

Doric column

Doric entablature

Doric Temple

Ionic column

Ionic entablature

Ionic capital

Corinthian entablature

213 Parthenon

Erechtheum

The Temple of Apollo at Didyma

The Temple of Athena Nike

Pantheon

Colosseum

Arcoo Di Titio

Maison Carree

214 Voussoirs

Arcade

Aquaduct

barrel vault

groin vault

dome

acanthus

215 keystone

vault

216

Greek & Roman Architecture Resources: Greek Architecture: A Digital Archive of Architecture: Greek Architecture, by Prof. Jeffery Howe Ancient Greece History of Greek Architecture

Roman Architecture: History of Roman Architecture A Digital Archive of Architecture: Roman Architecture, by Prof. Jeffery Howe Roman Architecture Reconstructed Roman Architecture Parts of an Arch

Neoclassical Architecture: About.com: Neoclassical Architecture Architectural Styles of AmericaL Neoclassical (18931940)

217

Greek & Roman Architecture Evaluation

Teachers will use two tools for assessment with this Virtual Worlds WebQuest. First, students will fill out a worksheet about Greek & Roman Architecture. Then teachers and students will work together to develop rubrics defining the quality indicators for their group project. Each student in the group is responsible for a very different task. It is important that students are clear on what is expected of them. Therefore teachers and students need to spend a fair amount of time defining what these quality indicators are.

Greek & Roman Architecture Worksheet Rubistar

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Virtual World WebQuests Code of Conduct Rule 1: No Harassing Other Avatars While some of the avatars you will find in virtual worlds are bots, the majority of them represent real people such as yourself. Just as in the real world, your actions in the virtual world can have profound impact on others. An insult written in text can have the same effect as one spoken to someone. Therefore, treat others the way you would be expected to treat them in a classroom. In the virtual world your avatars are not confined to desks. Be aware of your avatar's physical actions and their impact on others.

Rule 2: Do Not Intentionally Block Others View Information in the virtual world is presented in various ways. While some of your curriculum is delivered through popup webpages some is presented in world. Do not intentionally block another avatar's view of something.

Rule 3: Do Not Give Away Personal Information Just as you wouldn't go around telling strangers your name, address, or phone number in the real world keep that information private in the virtual world.

These environments can be used by anyone and the people you meet in these worlds are not always who they say they are. Also, text you enter in a world is often viewable by anyone in that world, even if you can't see them. When you sign in do not use your full name. Your teacher might so that you can easily identify him or her but do not do this yourself.

219

Greek & Roman Architecture Teacher Instructions Essential Questions: How does form relate to function?

How does our environment affect us?

Enduring Understandings: Many key concepts in architectural design were first introduced thousands of years ago.

Time Frame: This Virtual World WebQuest is meant to be used over the course of a couple of weeks. It is expected that students will take two days to complete task one, one day to establish rubrics and expectations, and five to ten days to complete the rest of the project.

Standards: This WebQuest addresses the Minnesota Graduation standards in the visual arts for creation and performance as well as analysis and interpretation.

Teacher Instructions: Assessment, and getting students to internalize performance indicators, is key to the success of this lesson. It is recommended then that teachers commit much of their time in the first week of this project discussing with students what a quality product would look like. Each student in each group will be doing very different tasks, therefore it will be necessary for each student to develop their own performance rubric with your guidance. It is then of extreme importance that when assessing students that this rubric is used. This will help keep all students accountable for their portions of the project. It is also an opportunity to teach to understanding. If the students know what the quality indicators are for their tasks they will already understand the content you will be assessing them on. It is also important to note that while this assignment uses the Active Worlds platform that you are not assessing their use of it to finish their project. You need to keep in mind that what you really want to assess is their ability to create and their understanding of classical architecture.

220

221 s.html Penn State Mont Alto (2000). Architecture: Roman. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from http://egghead.psu.edu/~ma_tapps/arch/roman.html Roman Architecture Reconstructed. (N. D.). Roman Architecture Reconstructed. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from Davidson County Schools Technology Center, http://techcenter.davidson.k12.nc.us/spring025/contents/indexl. html University Press Inc. (2007). Ancient Greece: History, mythology, art, culture, and architecture. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from http://www.ancientgreece.com/

Screenshot of AWSchool

222

Screenshot of the AlphaWorld directory of places anyone can build

Screenshot of the AlphaWorld building yard

223

When students find a place to build they record the coordinates here. Clicking on this circle opens a wiki in the integrated browser window.

224 APPENDIX N: MAGNUM OPUS

Magnum Opus: A Multimedia Virtual World WebQuest Introduction Magnum Opus is Latin for great work.

Usually it is used to refer to the most famous or most important work of an artist's career. In this case the term has a double meaning. This will be your magnum opus for work in this course but you will also be investigating the great work of a Cubist artist. If you have successfully completed the WebQuests on the lower four levels of this building you have hopefully become comfortable with navigating your way through the Active Worlds Universe and comfortable with using the virtual world as a communication tool. You also have had experience building objects in this environment. In

225 this WebQuest you will use all these skills to create a product that is meant to be experienced in the real world.

There are two main learning objectives with this lesson. First, you will learn how to utilize multimedia tools to convey a message. Second, you will understand the fundamental concepts behind the Cubist art movement of the twentieth century.

Ultimately, we seek to answer the following essential questions: How can virtual world tools be utilized to communicate to a mass audience?

What are the essential components of Cubism?

Magnum Opus: A Multimedia Virtual World WebQuest Task You and your partners are a film production company specializing in 3d animation. You have been hired by the Museum of Modern Art to make a short film about a Cubist artist.

They want this film to be animated but you

226 don't have enough time to pull together an animated film using conventional methods.

You have decided to use a virtual world to help you speed things along. The Museum is giving you a lot of creative license with this task. They don't care if the film is realistic or abstract. In fact, being a Modern Art Museum they probably would appreciate something a little more creative. They also want the sets you create to be a virtual extension of their museum exhibit.

You will work in groups of four, each assuming a different role: Writer - Responsible for pulling together any script that would be used and for developing the film's storyboard.

Director - Responsible for creative direction and final decision making.

Set Designer - Responsible for designing and building the virtual sets.

Editor - Responsible for taking all video and audio clips and editing them to create the final product.

227

Magnum Opus: A Multimedia Virtual World WebQuest Procedure Step 1 - Research: Explore the following Website and chose one Cubist artist to make your movie on: HuntFor.com: Art History (Cubism) http://www.huntfor.com/arthistory/C20th/cubism.htm Then, with your partners, find out as much as you can about that artist's life and work. The following websites will be helpful to you in your quest: WebMuseum, Paris: Cubism http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/glo/cubism/ Artcyclopedia http://www.artcyclopedia.com/ The Artchive http://www.artchive.com/

Step 2 - Script Writing & Storyboarding: Now that you have learned about your artist you should have a pretty good idea about how you might write a story for that artist. It is the script writer's

228

229

230 http://www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/ using/moviemaker/default.mspx Filming and Editing Rubric

http://rubistar.4teachers.org/index.php? screen=ShowRubric&rubric_id=1075738&

Step 6 - Transforming Sets into Learning Environments: While the editor and director are hard at work compiling the final cut of your film, the set designer and the script writer should go back into the sets and add informational signs and links to information about your artist.

Magnum Opus Resources: Cubism: HuntFor.com: Art History (Cubism) WebMuseum, Paris: Cubism Artcyclopedia The Artchive Storyboarding:

231 Storyboarding: A Story from Start to Finish Software Tutorials: Audacity Tutorials YouTube CamStudio Tutorial Windows Movie Maker: How to use Software Downloads: http://audacity.sourceforge.net/ http://camstudio.en.softonic.com/ http://www.gimpshop.com/download.shtml

Magnum Opus Evaluation Storyboard: Storyboard Rubric Required elements: Avatars (actors), Settings, actions, captions with each image, dialogue.

Set Construction: Same rubric developed for Classical Architecture lesson.

Filming & Editing: Filming & Editing Rubric

Storyboard Rubric from http://rubistar.4teachers.org/index.php?screen=ShowRubric&rubric_id=893702&:

232

Storyboard Rubric CATEGORY

Excellent

Good

Satisfactory

Use of Time

Used time well during each class period with no adult reminders.

Used time well during most class periods with no adult reminders.

Used time well Used time poorly in spite of required adult several adult reminders to reminders on one or do so. more occasions to do so.

Needs Improvement

Cooperation

Worked cooperatively with partners all the time with no need for adult intervention.

Worked cooperatively with partners most of time but had a few problems that the team resolved themselves.

Worked cooperatively with partners most of the time, but had one problem that required adult intervention.

Content

All content is in the students' own words and is accurate.

Almost all content is in the students' own words and is accurate.

At least half of the Less than half of the content content is in the is in the students' own students' own words words and/or is accurate. and is accurate.

Required Elements

Storyboard included all required elements as well as a few additional elements.

Storyboard Storyboard included One or more required included all all required elements was missing from required elements elements. the storyboard. and one additional element.

Spelling & Grammar

No spelling or grammatical mistakes on a storyboard with lots of text.

No spelling or grammatical mistakes on a storyboard with little text.

One spelling or grammatical error on the storyboard.

Several spelling and/or grammatical errors on the storyboard.

Clarity and Neatness

Storyboard is easy to read and all elements are clearly written, labeled, or drawn.

Storyboard is easy to read and most elements are clearly written, labeled, or drawn.

Storyboard is hard to read with rough drawings and labels.

Storyboard is hard to read and one cannot tell what goes where.

Worked cooperatively with partners some of the time, but had several problems that required adult intervention.

233 Filming and Editing Rubric from http://rubistar.4teachers.org/index.php?screen=ShowRubric&rubric_id=1075738&

Multimedia Project : Movie Maker movie CATEGORY

4

3

2

Presentation

Well-rehearsed with smooth delivery that holds audience attention.

Rehearsed with fairly smooth delivery that holds audience attention most of the time.

Delivery not smooth, Delivery not smooth but able to maintain and audience interest of the attention often lost. audience most of the time.

1

Content

Covers topic indepth with details and examples.

Subject knowledge is excellent.

Includes essential knowledge about the topic. Subject knowledge appears to be good.

Includes essential information about the topic but There are 1-2 factual errors.

Requirements

All requirements are All requirements are One requirement met and exceeded. met. was not completely met.

More than one requirement was not completely met.

Organization

Content is well organized using headings or bulleted lists to group related material.

Uses headings or bulleted lists to organize, but the overall organization of topics appears flawed.

Content is logically organized for the most part.

There was no clear or logical organizational structure, just lots of facts.

Attractiveness

Makes excellent use of font, color, graphics, effects, etc. to enhance the presentation.

Makes good use of font, color, graphics, effects, etc. to enhance to presentation.

Makes use of font, color, graphics, effects, etc. but occasionally these detract from the presentation content.

Use of font, color, graphics, effects etc. but these often distract from the presentation content.

Originality

Product shows a large amount of original thought.

Ideas are creative and inventive.

Product shows some original thought.

Work shows new ideas and insights.

Uses other people's Uses other people's ideas (giving them ideas, but does not credit), but There is give them credit. little evidence of original thinking.

Mechanics

No misspellings or grammatical errors.

Three or fewer misspellings and/or mechanical errors.

Four misspellings and/or grammatical errors.

Content is minimal OR There are several factual errors.

More than 4 errors in spelling or grammar.

234

Virtual World WebQuests Code of Conduct Rule 1: No Harassing Other Avatars While some of the avatars you will find in virtual worlds are bots, the majority of them represent real people such as yourself. Just as in the real world, your actions in the virtual world can have profound impact on others. An insult written in text can have the same effect as one spoken to someone. Therefore, treat others the way you would be expected to treat them in a classroom. In the virtual world your avatars are not confined to desks. Be aware of your avatar's physical actions and their impact on others.

Rule 2: Do Not Intentionally Block Others View Information in the virtual world is presented in various ways. While some of your curriculum is delivered through popup webpages some is presented in world. Do not intentionally block another avatar's view of something.

Rule 3: Do Not Give Away Personal Information Just as you wouldn't go around telling strangers your name, address, or phone number in the real world keep that information private in the virtual world.

These environments can be used by anyone and the people you meet in these worlds are not always who they say they are. Also, text you enter in a world is often viewable by anyone in that world, even if you can't see them. When you sign in do not use your full name. Your teacher might so that you can easily identify him or her but do not do this yourself.

235

Teacher Instructions Essential Questions: How can virtual world tools be utilized to communicate to a mass audience?

What are the essential components of Cubism?

Enduring Understandings: Powerful messages can be conveyed using inexpensive, or even free, software applications.

The cubists pushed the limits of what was considered art in both content and process.

Time Frame: This Virtual World WebQuest is meant to take place over the course of at least three weeks. More time is preferable since the activities required can be quite labor intensive. Five or six weeks is preferable.

Standards: This WebQuest addresses the Minnesota Graduation standards in the visual arts for analysis and interpretation and in the media arts for creation and performance.

Teacher Instructions: This WebQuest is fairly automated in its process. Students are required to take responsibility for their own learning. Your role in this lesson is that of learning coach and assessor. Depending on your students' exposure to the multimedia tools it may be necessary to do some breakout training sessions on how to use these tools. It is probably best to do these in small groups as needed. You will need to be familiar with how to use Audacity, Windows Movie Maker, and CamStudio.

While students are working within the virtual world teachers need to establish a presence there as well. This is important in both traditional brick and mortar settings and for distance learning. While you are there patrol areas where your students are to make sure they are on task, behaving themselves, and not giving strangers personal information. You can also use this opportunity to ask guiding questions to direct their learning. Don't be afraid to pull students off to the side for an impromptu mini lesson.

236

237 Softonic International S.L. (2007). CamStudio 2.0. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://CamStudio.en.softonic.com/ Stevens, Jane (2007). A story from start to finish. Retrieved October 30, 2007, from Knight Digital Media Center, http://multimedia.journalism.berkeley.edu/tutorials/reporting/starttofinish/storyboa rding/

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