Table 1. Questionnaire structure of the ALDE 2018 round

The first round of the ALDE survey provides nationally representative data on girls’ and boys’ primary school attendance and grade progression, highlighting demand- and supply-level factors that facilitate as well as hinder these school outcomes. The socio-ecological systems theory, with its focus on relationships, is used to test hypothesizes on the interlinked influences of family-, school- and community-level factors on a child’s participation in primary school in Mozambique. The findings presented in this report strongly support the underlying framework and show that focusing on school or family factors alone is not enough to address system failures reflected in the high level of absenteeism and low levels of educational attainment. The evidence presented also points to the need for fostering communication and joint collaboration of different actors (caregivers, school and community) in addressing demand- as well as supply-side constraints for achieving better outcomes for primary school children. Some key policy messages are summarized below.

Low grade progression and a wide age distribution (from four to 22 years olds) of the ALDE child population sample are indicators of inherited inefficiencies

of the primary school system. Seventeen per cent of all pupils in primary school are adolescents (13–18), who are expected to be in secondary school. Grade progression deteriorates rapidly from the beginning of primary school (aged 8–9), with nearly one in five 11-year-olds (18%) still attending attending Grade 1. The analysis confirms that the older the child becomes, the less likely he or she will stay on track, with the likelihood of catching up to their more successful peers diminishing every year. This can lead to the loss of motivation (mentioned by many caregivers as one of the reasons for poor attendance), age-appropriate skills and knowledge, which in turn can result in dropout. Policy interventions must target early school years with a particular focus on Grade 2, where one of the highest levels of grade repetitions observed.

Addressing pupils’ absenteeism is the first critical step towards improving expected grade progression. Based on the observational spot-check method, on average, a child attended the school only 61 per cent of the time (with a median of 3.4 observations per child). Around one in three (32%) children missed school one of the two days prior to the interview. As outlined by the conceptual framework and demonstrated by the multivariate analysis, pupils’ absenteeism contributes directly to and independently from the low educational attainment. Preventing and reducing absenteeism and increasing pupils’ motivation for learning are necessary pre-conditions for better educational attainment outcomes for both girls and boys.

Girls require more academic and social support from the onset of puberty

than boys. According to the analysis presented in this report, on average, girls are more likely than boys to be on track after accounting for all other characteristics. Yet, at the age of 12 to 13, more girls start falling one year behind their male peers. Moreover, girls are underrepresented in the adolescent age category (13–18), which raises questions and reinforces concerns about adolescent girls’ paths beyond and out of the primary school. Puberty is a critical time in girls’ development and school progression when the school, the family and the community need to work together to encourage and support the continuation of girls’ education.

Household wealth, measured through the index of household assets, is an independent barrier for pupil’s chances of being on track in their studies according to age, but it is rooted in the structural inequalities in the country. The findings contribute to the body of literature from low-income countries that