Along Liquid Paths
"The town is the correlate of the road. The town exists only as a function of circulation and of circuits; it is a singular point on the circuits which create it and which it creates. It is defined by entries and exits: something must enter it and exit from it." (Deleuze and Guattari, 1997, 186) "Cities accumulate and retain wealth, control and power because of what flows through them, rather than what they statically contain." (Beaverstock et al, 2000, 126)
ďťż
ďťż
Introduction The formation of a given city is predicated on access to a productive territory beyond that city. Cities were first created as intentionally unproductive centres in which the goods from surrounding hinterlands could be stored and distributed. The success and growth of early cities was entirely dependent on the expansion of their footprint - the area from which they drew their wealth. And as the distance between urban centre and productive periphery increased, so too did the importance of the connection between the two. Eventually, the footprints of certain territories extended into and across oceans. By the 16th century, while the seat of power remained within the city, the expansion of power was entirely reliant on maritime trade and navigation. Those European empires responsible for colonising large swathes of distant land conceived of the sea as a means for unimpeded expansion and unprecedented connectivity. These principles, borne of the sea, came to define the space of the city itself. By the 19th century, industrialisation led masses of rural inhabitants to flood into a few great urban centres, which meant an even greater reliance on distant sources of supply 1 . In the new metropolis the same initial rules applied; if a city could control distant sources of food and raw material, that city could continue to grow. Today while the distinction between city and productive territory has all but dissolved, the importance of the supply chain and the distribution of goods has only increased.
Capital is generated as much in the distribution of goods as in their production. This distribution relies on urban sites as processing centres the city is a space defined by logistics where logistics is the ‘science of value added through circulatory systems’ 2 . Things get moved from one city to another and by virtue of this movement their value increases. In this formulation distance is essential to the generation of value. Defining the urban by the joint concepts of circulation and flow means understanding the scale of urbanisation as truly planetary. This scale is such that the most seemingly isolated spaces – those most distant from city centres or suburban peripheries – have become fundamental components of the urban fabric 3 . The web that makes up the urban has now spread across the entire planet; even the oceans have become urbanised. To best understand this new form of urbanisation therefore requires investigating those distant spaces far beyond the city centre: the free-trade zones, the 24/7 ports, even the sea itself. In the following essay I will investigate the urban impact of DP World, a Dubai-based company that operates 77 terminals across the globe. I will discuss the passage of a container ship between Dubai’s first free-trade zone, Jebel Ali, and DP World Antwerp, and thus attempt to explicate the role of maritime infrastructure in the shaping of cities and economies worldwide.
Infrastructural Sea Seen through the pervasive lens of capital flow the sea is as much a piece of infrastructure as is a road or railway line. Standing at the port of Jebel Ali Freezone in Dubai, the water of the Persian Gulf can be glimpsed through a canopy of towering yellow gantry cranes. Here sublimity is not conjured by the tamed waters but by the mechanical dance of pure logistical efficiency. Jebel Ali is the largest marine terminal in the Middle East and it is DP World’s flagship facility. Like any other port, Jebel Ali is the stage upon which a choreography of interlacing machines plays out continuously. Containers are lifted off the ships by the huge cranes before being placed aside on the tarmac. A horde of smaller
straddle-carriers and reach-stackers then cart these containers off into neat piles between lines painted on the ground. Beyond this hypnotising array the sea appears as a background, an empty surface drained of any depth or ecological richness. If logistical power can be understood as the ability to mobilise the natural world for political effect or economic gain 4 ; here we see the space of the ocean reduced to a surface upon which goods are transferred. This stretch of water between container terminal two and three is essential to the proper functioning of the port. Much like in a parking lot, the emptiness of the water makes it all the more useful for the hulking container ships that ply the seas.
The sea is by no means empty though, even when seen as an infrastructural space. It is a technologically mediated space, thick with radar and acoustic sensors 5 . At sea as on land there exist defined lines of travel; north bound traffic tending to stick right and south-bound to the left; this marine traffic also monitored using satellites. The traffic lane that delivers ships to Jebel Ali terminates at a patch of ocean designated as a waiting area. Beyond each busy port huge swathes of ocean such as this are repurposed as ship-sized parking lots called anchorages. In the anchorage beyond Jebel Ali, one particular ship named the Africa Two waits it’s turn before slowly navigating into it’s allocated position at the dock. A sparse array of dock workers assist cranes to empty the ship of its contents, before new goods are loaded on. Sometimes this process can take a few
short hours, but today the Africa Two is full of containers and takes half the day to unload and reload. During this time the ship receives new parts, new food supplies, and it receives an oil change. By the time each of these processes have been completed, the ship detaches from the port and continues on it’s unending journey transporting goods across the globe. Looking back to Jebel Ali from the Africa Two, countless other free zones can be seen dotting the shore, each with their own tailored array of incentives. These free zones are the terrestrial corollary to the constantly circulating ship. They are enclaves in which the standard taxes and regulations of a given state are suspended in order to attract foreign investment. Deregulated zones have existed for centuries - notably in the form of Mediterranean city-states, howe-
ver the modern zone, such as is prevalent in Dubai, is something new, supplemented by a suite of modern technologies such as the shipping container. The zone mediates between two distinct modes of governance; one that is is rooted and of the land - that understands territory in contained terms, and another that is nomadic and smooth, and thus more conducive to capital flows 6 . however the modern zone, such as is prevalent in Dubai, is something new, supplemented by a suite of modern technologies such as the shipping container. The zone mediates between two distinct modes of governance; one that is is rooted and of the land - that understands territory in contained terms, and another that is nomadic and smooth, and thus more conducive to capital flows. The zone is a paradox; it offers perfect closure with reciprocity, cheating with absolute control. It is a quarantined territory that propagates a dream of ‘optimised frictionless passage’ 7 . Next to Jebel Ali, Dubai’s countless other zones are distinctly urban in their scale and ambition. The names for these different zones include Dubai Maritime City, Dubai Production City, Dubai Media City and Dubai Internet City. In these cities, the importance of geographical factors that have generally defined the emergence of past cities has been overridden by foreign investment, foreign labour and a suite of economic incentives.
To make these zones all the more enticing to investors, economic incentives are supplemented by the construction of shiny buildings. Much of Dubai’s zones are comprised of empty boulevards lined with glistening towers and well-maintained palm trees. Inside these air conditioned towers hordes of Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi workers perform all kinds of maintenance work for the benefit of other foreigners. It is primarily these migrants from the Indian subcontinent that make up the United Arab Emirates’ 88% foreign born population. The proliferation of free zone cities and ports throughout Dubai and across the globe presents the ultimate expression of neoliberalism. In the words of Alfred Sohn-Rethel, ‘time and space rendered abstract under the impact of commodity exchange are marked by homogeneity, continuity and emptiness of all natural and material content, … The entire empirical reality of facts, events and description by which one moment and locality of time and space is distinguished from one another is wiped out’ 8 . In the zone, space is flattened to facilitate the ceaseless circulation of money, commodities and bodies. These zones retain an almost identical appearance regardless of where they land, and in their utter indifference to things like cultural variance, they are the perfect conduit for supply chain capitalism.
Image by author
technologically mediated space, thick with radar and acoustic sensors5. At sea as on land there exist defined lines of travel; north bound traffic tending to stick right and south-bound to the left; this marine traffic also monitored using satellites. The traffic lane that delivers ships to Jebel Ali terminates at a patch of ocean designated as a waiting area. Beyond each busy port huge swathes of ocean such as this are repurposed as ship-sized parking lots called anchorages. In the anchorage beyond Jebel Ali, one particular ship named the Africa Two waits it’s turn before slowly navigating into it’s allocated position at the dock. A sparse array of dock workers assist cranes to empty the ship of its contents, before new goods are loaded on. Sometimes this process can take a few short hours, but today the Africa Two is full of containers and takes half the day to unload and reload. During this time the ship receives new parts, new food supplies, and it receives an oil change. By the time each of these processes have been completed, the ship detaches from the port and continues on it’s unending journey transporting goods across the globe. Image by HDVMaster via www.videoblocks.com
Looking back to Jebel Ali from the Africa Two, countless other free zones can be seen dotting the
shore, each with their own tailored array of incentives. These free zones are the terrestrial corollary to the new, supplemented by a suite of modern technologies such as the shipping container. The zone mediates constantly circulating ship. They are enclaves in which the standard taxes and regulations of a given state are between two distinct modes of governance; one that is is rooted and of the land - that understands territory suspended in order to attract foreign investment. Deregulated zones have existed for centuries - notably in in contained terms, and another that is nomadic and smooth, and thus more conducive to capital flows6. the form of Mediterranean city-states, however the modern zone, such as is prevalent in Dubai, is something The zone is a paradox; it offers perfect closure with reciprocity, cheating with absolute control. It is a
quarantined territory that propagates a dream of ‘optimised frictionless passage’7. Next to Jebel Ali, Dubai’s
5
Lorenzo Pezzani, ‘Hostile Environments’, Royal College of Art, March 2019.
countless other zones are distinctly urban in their scale and ambition. The names for these different zones include Dubai Maritime City, Dubai Production City, Dubai Media City and Dubai Internet City. In these
The Global Vessel Contained within the merchant vessel is a globalised world in miniature. As the container ship Africa Two leaves the port of Jebel Ali, it presents a perfect image of efficiency; it’s hulking, 230 metre long hull plies slowly and unendingly through warm waves. Inside the ship, machinery, crew members and cargo from the furthest reaches of the planet are heaped together. The space of the ship is synecdochic of the capitalised world at large. The Africa Two embodies the dissolution of geographical distinctions. This Japanese built container ship is operated by a French company, registered to the Bahamas, and manned by Filipino and Ukrainian crew. The 280 m long ship can carry up to 62,000 tonnes of cargo. Toward the stern of the ship, rising up from between rows of containers stacked 4 high, stands the gleaming white superstructure. This white mass, punctuated by a few small windows, houses the bridge as well as the quarters of the captain and other highranking members of the ship. In the middle of the superstructure is the crew’s accomodation and a small gym, while down below is the main office, the engine room, and the two mess halls.
Having two mess halls is indeed the rule rather than the exception when it comes to the sea. One for officers, one for crew. However these rooms would be better described as the Ukrainian and Filipino mess room respectively. While categories of race and class divide the ship almost equally, the few Filipinos who have made it to the position of officer, and those young Ukrainians who hold crew member positions, will choose to eat in the same room as their countrymen. Rather than being a rule to which the ship’s crew are forcefully subjected, this is simply considered the way things are. Within the logistics industry there is a tension between generating homogeneity in time and space, and in producing difference in terms of labour. Profits are maximised through both uniformity in space, and through diversity in worker identity While 40% of all seafarers worldwide hail from the Philippines, an extremely small minority of these seafarers will ever become officers. Indeed because Filipino seafarers speak good English and command half the European wage, the Philippines has been
Images by author (left: crew mess, right: officers mess)
rew mess, right: officers mess)
the world’s main supplier of seamen since 1987. However as of 2015 this role went to China, illustrating the ease with which maritime 3 labour pools can be geographically relocated. Global economic imbalances guarantee that there will always be somewhere new where ever-cheaper labour pools can be drawn from; in this way the relocation of labour is a spatial fix for crises of profitability 9 . Generating new maritime labour pools requires no heavy investment in immobile infrastructure; it relies instead on maritime schools which can be placed and replaced at relatively small costs. Now international institutes and training centres in Sri Lanka and Shanghai churn out scores of seafarers willing to work for half the price of the Filipinos. Yet this cannot be explained in geopolitical terms alone; this difference is something that the workers perform. For logistics workers, factors such as race, ethnicity, religion, citizenship status and age are all things which can be exploited 10 . The social production of all these seemingly non-economic factors is thus central to the structure of supply chain capitalism. Those Filipinos aboard the Africa Two are well aware
that their Chinese counterparts receive a mere pittance in comparison to their own salary, and this inspires them to regard the Chinese with a mixture of defensiveness and empathy. Filipino seafarers can earn three times what they would get for a government job at home by working on a container ship 11 . And while much of the crew want to leave the industry within a few years, primarily in order to spend time with their families, the prospect of job insecurity naturally causes concern. Ultimately these workers, who are already working for much less than the Europeans, know full well that there will always be someone else willing to work for less. On a container ship like the Africa Two, the conditions of the crew are compounded by the alienating nature of logistics work. This sense of alienation, shared amongst those who help to circulate goods throughout the supply chain, is best epitomised in the container itself. Developed to allow goods to be easily transferred from one mode of transport to another, the ISO shipping container completely standardised the movement of goods. These containers are 8 ft
wide, 8.5 ft high, and come in two lengths; 20 ft Second Officer Antonio Acedo, who receives and 40ft. What’s more these standard contai- a new nautical chart from each port the ship ners don’t need opening and their handling is visits. These paper charts, generally A1 sized, done entirely by cranes and forklift trucks. This use colours and lines to indicate water depth that the workers themselves never han- and land height, as well as geographical and means dle any goods directly, in fact the goods which man-made features. Yellow indicates land and they help to transport remain entirely unknown green is used for seabeds that dry with the tide, and invisible to them - they have no idea what while shallow water is shown in blue and deep these boxes contain. If Marx spoke of the factory water in white. These charts also include mulas having dispossessed workers from the means tiple compass roses, which show the difference of production, aboard thelike container ship workers between north and true north On On a container a container ship ship like the the Africa Africa Two, Two, thethe conditions conditions ofmagnetic of thethe crew crew areare compounded compounded byspecific by thethe alienating alienating are even further alienated in that they no longer to the area shown on the chart. In order to steer nature nature of relation of logistics logistics work. work. This This sense alienation, alienation, shared shared amongst amongst those those who who help help toGulf, to circulate circulate goods goods have any to production atsense allof 12of . At sea the cargo ship out of the Persian Second these seafarers inhabit a space of pure circula- Officer Acedo positions his parallel ruler on the throughout throughout thethe supply supply chain, chain, is best is best epitomised epitomised in the in the container container itself. itself. Developed Developed to allow allow goods goods to to be be easily easily tion. Their identity is thereby partly determined chart and uses his pencil to draw atostraight line. in relation tofrom afrom space that moves. Developing aanother, Hethe then extends halfcontainer the rulercompletely out in parallel standardised standardised the the transferred transferred oneone mode mode of of transport transport to to another, the ISO ISO shipping shipping container completely sense of belonging and stability in this moving until it meets the centre of the nearest compass context is made all theThese more challenging by rose. the direction the course movement movement of of goods. goods. These containers containers are are 8the ft8 wide, ft wide, 8.5Transferring 8.5 ft high, ft high, and and come come in two inoftwo lengths; lengths; 20line 20 ft and ft and 40ft. 40ft. elemental flux outside the ship. Indeed because onto the compass rose then allows the Second What’s more more standard standard containers containers don’t need need opening opening andand their their handling handling is done is to done entirely entirely cranes cranes and and theWhat’s outside is these so these uncontrollable, the Africadon’t Two’s Officer to read the line as a course steer. Ha-by by crew members wrestle back agency by taming ving calculated the direction in which to travel, forklift forklift trucks. trucks. This This means means that that thethe workers workers themselves themselves never never handle handle anyany goods goods directly, directly, in fact in fact thethe goods goods and sanitising the ship’s interior. In order to be the Second Officer uses sonar and GPS disliveable, life onhelp the is ‘zoned, monitored and plays to understand the position ofhave other ships to to them them - they - they have no no idea idea what what these these which which they they help toship to transport transport remain remain entirely entirely unknown unknown and and invisible invisible routinised’ 13 ; food is eaten at 0700, 1200 and relative to the Africa Two. Combining this inboxes boxes contain. contain. Marx If Marx spoke spoke ofthese of thethe factory factory as having as having dispossessed dispossessed workers workers from from the the means means of of production, production, 1800 each day.IfThe content of routines formation with readings on tides and weather, is of little importance, it simply matters that in Acedo is able to steer the ship onwards. Just as aboard aboard thethe container container ship ship workers workers areare even even further further alienated alienated in that in that they they nono longer longer have have anyany relation relation to to routine reflection is suppressed. It is this sup- the various machines in the depths of engine pression that routines their ‘security-gerequire workers for troubleshooting, production production atgives all at 12all. 12 At . At seasea these these seafarers seafarers inhabit inhabit aroom space a space of of pure pure circulation. circulation. Their Their identity identity is on thereby is thereby partly partly nerating power’ 14 . Through the formation and the bridge the navigator plays an essential role determined determined inroutines, relation in relation to a existential space a space that that moves. moves. Developing a sense a sense of of of belonging belonging and stability stability inenthis in this moving moving adherence to theto threat ofDeveloping in the functioning the ship.and This human being at sea can be managed. 3 gagement with the materiality of the ship helps context context is made is made all all thethe more more challenging challenging by by thethe elemental elemental flux flux outside outside thethe ship. ship. Indeed Indeed because because thethe outside outside is is to alleviate a pervasive sense of alienation. The This sense of comfort and security is crew found not crumbs from the eraser, graphite dust from thethe so so uncontrollable, uncontrollable, thethe Africa Africa Two’s Two’s crew members members wrestle wrestle back back agency agency bythe by taming taming andand sanitising sanitising ship’s ship’s only in routine but also in the tactile and hu- the pencil sharpener, the grease covered gloves 13 13 interior. interior. In In order order to to be be liveable, liveable, lifelife onon thethe ship ship is used ‘zoned, is ‘zoned, monitored monitored andand routinised’ routinised’ ; food ; food is eaten is eaten at 0700, at 0700, man qualities of the ship. Navigation, for exain the workshop; these are persistent and mple, despite the plethora of digital interfaces, tangible remnants of human labour that help 1200 andand 1800 each each day. The The content content of of these these routines routines is of is of little little importance, importance, it simply it simply matters matters that that in in still1200 relies on1800 plotting a day. course with pencil and to humanise the space of abstracted finance 14 14 paper. On the Africa this task by that that is the ship. routine routine reflection reflection is suppressed. isTwo suppressed. It isItisthis isdone this suppression suppression that gives gives routines routines their their ‘security-generating ‘security-generating power’ power’ . .
Through Through thethe formation formation andand adherence adherence to to routines, routines, thethe existential existential threat threat of of being being at sea at sea cancan be be managed. managed.
Images Images by author by author
Charmaine Charmaine Chua, Chua, ‘Landlessness ‘Landlessness andand thethe LifeLife of Seamen’, of Seamen’, thedisorderofthings.com, thedisorderofthings.com, https://thedisorderofthings.com/2015/01/27/landlessness-and-the-life-of-seamen/ https://thedisorderofthings.com/2015/01/27/landlessness-and-the-life-of-seamen/ (accessed (accessed January January 21,21, 2019) 2019) 13 13 Ryan, Ryan, Security Security Spheres Spheres , 12. , 12. 12 12
Black Box Sites As the Africa Two nears DP World Antwerp, the city of Antwerp remains far from view. Beyond the space of the ship, the complete standardisation of the container has also impacted the relationship between ports and cities. By obscuring cargo the standardised container has made the port less visible as well. The city turns its back upon the port, which becomes a space devoid of significant human presence. Like the Africa Two, DP World’s Antwerp port exemplifies what anthropologist Marc Augé has called the ‘non-place’: a space of transport which is also inhabited, ‘a world thus surrendered to solitary individuality, to the fleeting, the temporary and the ephemeral’ 15 . The operations of the port, and of the supply chains that flow through it, are organised according to these very qualities. They use the Just-In-Time method of production, which seeks to cut costs by reducing the amount of goods and materials held in stock. This means that cargo is delivered much more frequently than previously, with much less space required for the storage of goods. The port is thus a space of flux; a space where trucks and ships are constantly entering and exiting, where 3 containers are endlessly navigated around, never stopping for too long. Once the Africa Two is positioned alongside the dock, crew members hurl the heavy mooring lines toward the dockers ashore. In this moment of collaboration between the dock workers and the seafarers, the ship is at its least insular. In this exchange, which culminates in the lines being attached to human-sized bollards, the operations of the ship are at their most archaic, most contingent, and even most human. As the dockers glance up at the stern of the hulking vessel, they read the word ‘NASSAU’ painted in white, block letters below the ship’s name. The Africa Two has never been to the capital of the Bahamas however, this is simply the port to which the ship is registered. Just as the standardisation of the container both obscured and liberated the global movement of goods, so too did a system known as ‘flag of convenience’. This system, invented by American shipping magnates in the 1940s, allows shipowners to buy nominal sovereignty from nations such as Panama and Liberia. By flying the flag of the Bahamas, the Africa Two’s French owner can avoid tax as well as pesky labour regulations. The flag is a way for corporate power to disguise
its own dealings and to ‘increase forms of inequality by absenting itself from ... the spotlight of legal and financial scrutiny’ 16 . The Africa Two’s flag thus turns the ship into a space of Bahamian sovereignty, a space in which there is no restriction upon the nationality of the crew members. Indeed thanks to the camouflage provided by the container as well as the flag, both the port and the ship operate as black boxes; spaces which can only be understood in terms of inputs and outputs, but hardly ever in terms of their complex inner workings. At DP World Antwerp, the infrastructure is almost indistinguishable from that of DP World Jebel Ali. The very name, Dubai Ports Antwerp, clearly demonstrates the decoupling of ownership and location that has now become commonplace. The port, as with all non-places, gestures toward a destination somewhere else. Like the contemporary city, the port must speak simultaneously of itself and of places far away from it. And though the port has developed in response to distant supply chains, it is also positioned to take advantage of geographic proximity. Of the trickle of cars and trucks that pass back and forth through the port’s front gate, very few are actually headed for Antwerp. Rather than take the half hour drive into Antwerp proper, most vehicles head south to Brussels or north to Rotterdam, both only an hour away. As the containers that arrived at port now flow outwards into Belgium and beyond, each one packed full with goods of every kind imaginable, the Africa Two also makes its way onwards. For the crew it makes little difference which port they’re at. Even when the ship is stopped for a day or two, most of its crew will be too busy to take leave of the ship; a number of crew members haven’t stepped foot off the ship since last year. Indeed most of the Africa Two’s crew still have a few months left on the ship. For them the one thing that does make a difference is the condition of the water around them. Above the English channel, calm waters make for easy passage; however when the ship passes the coast of Spain, the open waters of the Atlantic Ocean cause the huge vessel to rock. As men on the docks take the mooring lines off the bollards, and men on deck help machines to wind them back in, the rest of the crew prepare themselves for the duties of the day, and for the next leg of their seemingly perpetual journey.
Conclusion With over 90% of the world’s trade carried by sea, the impact of the shipping industry cannot be overemphasized. The development of the modern shipping industry has played an instrumental role in the emergence of new technologies (i.e. the shipping container), new forms of labour (i.e. globalised labour markets), and new forms of urbanism (i.e. Special Economic Zones). However these advances are also accompanied by side effects, which though they cannot be attributed to shipping alone, are exacerbated by it; these include the homogenisation of space and the generation of the precarious transport worker. The modern cargo ship and its associated infrastructures can only be understood in paradoxical terms; constantly oscillating between closure and reciprocity. It is a world defined by the circulation of capital, where the entire globe becomes liquid and navigable. According to this logic the world is not divided into land and sea but into areas of concentrated and extended urbanisation. In tracing a small leg of the Africa Two’s unending journey, I have shown that besides being greatly beneficial, what this industry does is turn the globe into a singular, routinised urban sphere.
port is thus a space of flux; a space where trucks and ships are constantly entering and exiting, where
Image by author
containers are endlessly navigated around, never stopping for too long. Once the Africa Two is positioned alongside the dock, crew members hurl the heavy mooring lines toward the dockers ashore. In this moment of collaboration between the dock workers and the seafarers, the ship is at its least insular. In this exchange, which culminates in the lines being attached to human-sized bollards, the operations of the ship are at their
most archaic, most contingent, and even most human. As the dockers glance up at the stern of the hulking vessel, they read the word ‘NASSAU’ painted in white, block letters below the ship’s name. The Africa Two has never been to the capital of the Bahamas
1 Lewis Mumford, The City in History (San Diego: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961) 2 Deborah Cowen, The Deadly Life of Logistics: Mapping Violence in Global Trade (Minneapolis: UofMN Press, 2014) 3 Neil Brenner and Christian Schmid, “Planetary Urbanization”, in Matthew Gandy ed., Urban Constellations (Berlin: Jovis, 2012) 4 Chandra Mukerji, "The Territorial State as a Figured World of Power: Strategics, Logistics, and Impersonal Rule", Sociological Theory, vol. 28, no. 4, 2010
10 Anna Tsing, "Supply Chains and the Human Condition, Rethinking Marxism", 21:2, 148-176, DOI: 10.1080/08935690902743088 11 Rose George, Ninety Percent of Everything (London: Macmillan Press, 2013) 12 Charmaine Chua, "Landlessness and the Life of Seamen", thedisorderofthings.com, https:// thedisorderofthings.com/2015/01/27/landlessness-and-the-life-of-seamen/ (accessed January 21, 2019) 13 Ryan, Security Spheres, 12
6 Barry Ryan, "Security Spheres: A Phenomenology of Maritime Spatial Practices", 2015
14 Jennifer Mitzen, "Ontological Security in World Politics: State Identity and the Security Dilemma", 2006 15 Marc Auge, Non-Places: An Introduction to Supermodernity (New York: Verso, 2008)
7 Keller Easterling, Enduring Innocence: Global Architecture and its Political Masquerades (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005)
16 T.J. Demos, The Migrant Image: The Art and Politics of Documentary During Global Crisis (Durham: Duke University Press, 2013)
5 Lorenzo Pezzani, "Hostile Environments", Royal College of Art, March 2019
8 Alfred Sohn-Rethel, Intellectual and Manual Labour: Critique of Epistemology (London: Macmillan Press, 1978) 9 Charmaine Chua, "In Non-Places, No One Can Hear You Cry", thedisorderofthings.com, https://thedisorderofthings.com/2015/01/31/ in-non-places-no-one-can-hear-you-cry/ (accessed January 21, 2019)