Andrew M. Hill
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Contents
An Introduction
5 – 6)
What is this field guide?
8)
Research Resources
9 – 11)
Helpful Physiology
12)
Visualizing Genres
13 – 14)
The Top 10 Worst Lab Scenarios
15 – 18)
Which Major is Right for You?
19)
21 – 24)
25 – 27)
An Interview with a Professor
An Interview with an Upperclassman
3)
Contents
Investigating Genres
29 – 45)
47 – 52)
53 – 54)
A Proposal for Change
Works Cited
4)
Dear Reader,
An Introduction
What you have just opened is a comprehensive guide to writing in the cognitive neuroscience concentration at the University of Denver and beyond in the professional field of neuroscience. After commencing this course of study, I thought it would be highly beneficial for you as incoming freshman if you had a place to which you could refer whenever you come across any difficulty during your university career. In developing this portfolio, I compiled my research by conducting interviews with individuals such as professors who had a greater understanding with regards to the concentration as well as how the biology and psychology components interplay with one another. In addition, I consulted important texts such as syllabi and essays to further facilitate in the compilation of a useful portfolio.
Throughout this piece you will notice the different neuron headers for each
section. You will follow the pathway of these ultimate conduits for information. Firstly, you will encounter the field guide. This comprehensive piece outlines various important aspects of the cognitive neuroscience concentration such as what to avoid during labs and how to effectively write a research paper. Next are excerpts from interviews with a neuroscience professor and a biology upperclassman. These interviews provide valuable information about writing in the courses of the concentration from two different yet experienced perspectives. Following this is an
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investigation into genre theory. This investigation includes an analysis of genre
An Introduction
theory and how it is relevant to the forms of writing that you will be doing in your major courses. Finally, you will find a proposal for a change in the structure of some of the required biology courses that you will have to take.
I hope you will find each of these pieces helpful throughout your time as an
undergraduate. When you write within the different genres of your courses, I hope you will remember or even return to what you encounter in this guide. Also, I hope you take with you information that will be helpful in the different courses that you undertake for your major. Ultimately, the most important thing I hope you take from this portfolio is a further appreciation for the fascinating field of cognitive neuroscience. Our brains not only control our bodily functions and permit us to live, but they also allow us to develop a personality and identity. Further, it is our cognitive abilities that allow us to investigate all of the different nuances and aspects of the cognitive neuroscience concentration. Again, I hope you find this portfolio helpful in your college career and I wish you all the best for your next four years at DU. Kind Regards, Andrew Hill
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What is This Field Guide? Dear Prospective Cognitive Neuroscience Major, You are about to embark on an absolutely amazing experience having elected the extremely interesting field of cognitive neuroscience as a concentration. Within this field you will learn of the fascinating interplay of biology and psychology and explore some of the most thought-‐provoking questions such as: How do we feel emotions? How do we learn and form memories that we cherish forever? Also, you will be investigating a wide variety of disorders and neurological diseases. However, you may not be too sure what this concentration entails. As such, what lies before you is a field guide – a sort of “how-‐to manual” for someone concentrating in cognitive neuroscience. Within this field guide you’ll find a wide variety of useful information for navigating through the “cog neuro” concentration. These range from great resource resources to helpful hints for writing reports and important things to avoid during labs. Overall, I hope you find the information within this guide a helpful tool as you start down your undergraduate path. Regards, Andrew Hill
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Research Resources
Throughout the cognitive neuroscience concentration you will be required to write several research papers in your psychology major/minor. As such, here is a list of research resources that I found very useful. I hope you find them helpful! Overview Pros
Cons
Anderson Academic Commons •
A great place for finding research materials as it is located right on campus!
•
Can search on the library website for a multitude of databases and articles related to cognitive neuroscience or any other of your classes. Can arrange an appointment with the research center if you need help finding and evaluating relevant sources or creating a bibliography.
•
N/A
URL
http://library.du.edu/site/
Did you know your brain is the only organ that can research itself?
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Research Resources
The Neuroscience Information Network Overview
•
Pros
•
Cons
• •
contains a variety of different articles and other An online database that publications in the field of neuroscience. A great resource for finding articles and information on a topic of a research paper due to the wide range of sources and the search capabilities of the site. Your searches must be very specific due to the large selection of sources. Some of the links to articles may only contain a portion or preview of the article, and subsequently require you to look elsewhere for the remainder of the text.
URL
http://www.neuinfo.org/
Biology – Online Dictionary
Overview
•
Pros
• •
Cons
•
URL
The Biology Online Dictionary allows you to search for a multitude of words and besides providing the definition. Provides you with handy supplementary information about the term. Terms can be a little complicated in their explanation.
http://www.biology-‐online.org/
This is a great resource for all of those tricky biology terms!
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Research Resources
BehaveNet
Overview
•
This website is fantastic for finding information about specific mental disorders as well as the effects of various drugs on the brain and behavior.
Pros
• • •
Provides easily understood overviews. Site is search capable. Provides a list of related books and films in popular culture that deal with the disorder being searched. Links to the books and films describe how they are related to the disorders by means of character and plot analysis. You could possibly get hooked on looking into interesting and though-‐ provoking disorders!
• Cons
•
URL
http://behavenet.com/
Overview Pros Cons
PsychARTICLES • •
A very useful online database that contains a plethora of articles about a wide array of different topics. Run by the accredited American Psychological Association.
• •
Simple search capabilities. Searches can be categorized for narrowed down results.
•
Since there are so many articles in the database, you might have to be very specific in your searching to get the best an most relevant results.
URL
http://www.apa.org/psycarticles/
Helpful Physiology Underpinning every psychology and some biology courses you will take is basic brain and nervous system physiology. Whilst only being explicitly taught in introductory level courses, basic neural structure is constantly referred to in upper division courses. As such, here are a few of the key elements of brain physiology that you will come across during your university career.
Basic structure of a neuron
The four major cortical regions/lobes
Axes of the brain
The divisions of the nervous system
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Visualizing Genres
-‐ The Research Paper
The nervous system is the ultimate
neural communication, carrying the
communication network in our
information to and away from the
bodies. It allows us to regulate vital
brain. To me, this input -‐ higher
life processes, produce complex
processing -‐ output system is a good
thoughts and interact with other
model for the process of writing a
human beings and our surroundings.
research paper – a common form of
This latter function of interaction
assessment in the cognitive
involves the input and interpretation
neuroscience concentration. I hope
of stimuli, which in turn elicits an
you find this analogy useful when it
appropriate action or response. This
comes to writing your papers!
process is strictly followed and is sometimes unconscious for all five of our senses. For instance, you may not have the time to actively think about someone scaring you from behind, but you instantaneously jump up when they do. These pathways are comprised of neurons, the cells that act as the telephone lines for our
Did you know that there are more neurons in there are your brain than stars in the Milky Way galaxy?
13)
Visualizing Genres
-‐ The Research Paper
Station Thalamus – The Relay At this point your research because m ore specific, being ‘relayed’ to specific parts of the question. Central Ascending Pathway This is where you start researching the broad topic of the paper. This research is fairly basic (like typing key terms into search engines) and involves building an intitial understanding. Peripheral Ascending Pathway This is where you breakdown the question into its components. This analysis of the question directs your research. Components often include a brief overview of the topic, a biological analysis of a disorder, neural system etc, causes and symptoms of injury or damage and treatments of damge. Stimulus The question is the stimulus – it arouses activity, interpretation and processing of the parts of the question.
Response This is the ultimate response to the original stimulus question – the submission of your completed research paper!
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Cerebral Cortex Here you use your research to write your paper. Traditionally, you will open with an introduction. Your body paragraphs will correspond to the components of the question that you isolated. Finally, you will wrap up with a conclusion that summarizes your discussion and can sometimes outline your take or opinion on the question. Central Descending P athway The actual report itself is written by this stage. This step involves the fine-‐tuning and reworking of drafts, ensuring grammatical structure is sound and the flow of content is logical and correctly addresses all parts of the question. Peripheral Descending Pathway This is where you add the final accessory touches and portions to your paper. These include a bibliography or works cited page (which are always required in APA format).
The Top 10 Worst Lab Scenarios By concentrating in cognitive neuroscience, you are required to study psychology as well as
I HAVE TO TAKE A LAB?!
biology, either doubling majoring or minoring in one. Whichever path you take you will be required to take a biology lab with every biology course. Labs are an informative and practical way of supplementing the topics covered in lectures. HOWEVER, there are some things you definitely want to be aware of or even completely avoid during a lab at ALL COSTS. So here is a list of the top 10 WORST lab scenarios. Here’s hoping you do not run into any of them!
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The Top 10 Worst Lab Scenarios 1) Lousy Lab Partners -‐
These are those people who have absolutely no clue about what they are supposed to be doing. They will take a backseat on the experiment, forcing you to do all of the work.
2) Meticulous Measuring -‐
Procedures specify certain amounts of reagents for a reason. Too much can mess up a reaction and too little can mess up a reaction. Be sure not to mistake 0.5 mL for 5 mL -‐ strange colors and unsettling smells may evolve…
3) Forgetful Fred -‐
Don’t be a forgetful Fred! Always remember to take down your results as soon as possible. It’s an awful feeling when you close a recording program only to realize you did not save or record the data. Also, TA’s will know if you forge results from scratch (resulting in a poor grade).
4) Working Overtime -‐
For a lot of labs it is important to pay attention to how long an activity needs to be carried out. No one wants to have his or her hand in an ice bath for too long.
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The Top 10 Worst Lab Scenarios 5) Winter Field Labs -‐
Fields labs take place outdoors. Whilst these can be pleasant in warmer months, it is very frustrating having to measure tree trunk diameter when it’s below freezing. If you’re lucky you’ll avoid these.
6) Use Only as Directed -‐
There is no point trying to impress anyone with wicked chemistry skills if you mix six random reagents together and accidently produce a crazy concoction that is spewing bright orange fumes (as visually spectacular as that may be). No one wants to have to go through an unnecessary evacuation.
7) An Unexpected Haircut -‐
For individuals with longer hair it is especially important to tie it back or wear it up when you are working with chemicals or open flames. Nobody wants to go to lab with long luxurious locks and leave looking like you ran into a mean pair of scissors in a dark alley.
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The Top 10 Worst Lab Scenarios 8) No Shirt, No Shoes No Service! -‐
The warmer months are always nice. You get to wear tank tops, shorts and flip-‐ flops. Just be sure not to wear these to lab. Ultimately you’ll be turned away and will score a zero for that particular experiment. But hey, it’s better to have skin on your arms than to accidentally burn it off. Be sure to wear long sleeves, pants and closed-‐toed shoes.
9) Acids -‐
Acids are a major component of metabolic reactions so you will likely be working with them at least once in you university career. Be sure to always cap acids and avoid carrying them near clumsy people. It isn’t fun to come back to your dorm only to realize you have a hole in your shirt…. Or pants…. Or shoes.
10) Dissections -‐
A large part of biology is understanding the external and internal physiology of different organisms. However, these can be nasty. It is important to identify the hazards of particular organisms so you can avoid them. These can range from uncontrollable oozing to funky flying fluids (squid ink…). All in all, be sure not to stick your nose too close to any animal. You’ll likely regret it.
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Which Major is Right For You? By concentrating in cognitive neuroscience, you are required to either double major in biology and psychology or major in one and minor in the other. If both arouse your interest but you don’t like the concept of a greater workload that comes with double majoring, which major would you choose? This quiz is designed to be a sort of guide for that decision.
Start
Super Strength
Do you enjoy mathematics?
No
Which superpower would you rather have?
Do you enjoy chemistry? No
Do you like snakes?
Yes
Mind Reading
Yes On a date would you prefer to…
Talk over dinner
Go to the zoo No
No
Would you like to help people through your profession? Yes
No
Batman or Spider-‐man? Spider-‐man
Would you rather work outside or in an office? Outside
What type of research would you prefer to conduct? No
Working in a Lab
City
Batman
Are you comfortable with dissections?
Yes
Yes
Would you prefer to live in the country or the city? Country
Do you enjoy working in groups?
Yes
No
Case Studies
Office Would you like to help people through your profession? Yes
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An Interview with a Professor The professor that I interviewed was
provided some insight into her
Dr. Christy Rossi. An adjunct
teaching methods. Also, Dr. Rossi
psychology professor at DU, Dr. Rossi
described how her teaching style
teaches the introduction to cognitive
relates to and informs her writing
neuroscience course. Dr. Rossi
assessments.
specializes in developmental
neuroscience research, focusing on
elaborated upon her research
how the nervous system normally
interests. She shared some of her
develops during embryonic
personal experiences working in labs
development as well as on autism
and with patients and the ethical
spectrum disorders. The interview
issues that surround her type of
was divided into two main sections:
research. Further, Dr. Rossi discussed
the interviewee’s role as a professor
the types of writings that she does in
and their role in terms of research and
her field and what it takes for these
their professional field outside of
works to be published.
academia.
In the first section of the
interview, Dr. Rossi discussed the
types of writing she assigns and
In the second portion, Dr. Rossi
21)
An Interview with a Professor
What role does research play in you professional identity? Research is really a chance to follow what I’m interested in. So my professional identity again, is fairly two-‐fold as far as having an interest in embryonic development of the nervous system and then autism. Those are two facets of my professional identity. Research plays a big role in channeling where I go with how I pursue those interests and I like to bring those to teaching. That is, I bring examples from my research into class. So is there one particular form of research that is more favored over others in your field and if so, why do you think that is? For example, is working directly with the people who suffer from the disorders that you are investigating and obtaining first hand observations more valued than say, working in a lab with samples, away form those directly affected allowing you to compile your own ideas and thoughts? I’ve actually done both and I’m going to argue that one is not better than the other – they are both very complimentary. So there’s basic
science, which is more of what you think of as “bench” work or “wet lab” work where you’re doing experiments on maybe an animal model or cells. So that was the embryology work that I did. In my mind it was very related to my interest in autism because you can’t really understand how things go wrong in the nervous system without understanding how they normally occur. And then the other side of that is clinical or more applied research, where you are actually engaging with people who might have a certain disorder. So in my case, children with autism – so studying how their biology is functioning, how their immune system is functioning what their brain looks like and maybe looking into possible treatments. So ultimately I’m going to say both research methods are equally important as they really inform one another. Have you ever had to plan an experiment from scratch and if so, how was that experience? Yes, I definitely have had to plan experiments from scratch and from my perspective, lots of upfront research is the best way to go. Taking embryology as an example, I was using zebra fish embryos. So planning
22)
An Interview with a Professor
an experiment meant not only review, getting the review back, acquiring the right skills for that revising and then having it be particular approach but also lots of accepted, you start framing your research about the developmental research in a way to make sure that stages of the embryo. So lots of you’re “dotting all the Is and crossing upfront work but then it’s also a all the Ts – you’re thinking about what learning process where trial and error someone else who may not share the comes in. You always have to repeat same hypothesis as you would think experiments anyways to validate your about the experiment, and how can results and make sure they are you support the methods that you reproducible, but in used and describe why Research b ased the beginning you’re they were appropriate often tweaking when writing is definitely and why your you do things, how conclusions were the most often you do them and appropriate based on predominant f orm how you’re going to your findings. So I think of writing in the measure your results. everything becomes more streamlined the field. So have you gone more times you’ve been through the process of publishing through the process. any of your research and if so, how has that process been? Ok – so when you are conducting or Yes I have. So I’ve published, probably planning research or an six papers in total. Your first paper is experiment, do you think, “How is always the slowest and the hardest this publishable?” or do you and there’s definitely a learning curve conduct your research first and there. What’s interesting about it is then take what you think is that the first paper you publish, you’re publishable from that? not just learning how to write, b ut More the first way, which I think is a you’re also learning how to do good thing, because “how is this publishable research. So once you’ve publishable?” ultimately means how gone through the process of writing can I argue that this was a good an entire manuscript, submitting it for experiment, that it was conducted and
23)
An Interview with a Professor designed well with the proper controls in place and that I evaluated the findings in an appropriate way.
So would you say that the major forms of writing that you do and publish are research based? Yes, research based writing is definitely the most predominant form of writing in the field.
Ok well thank you very much Dr. Rossi for your time and for answering all of my questions. You’re very welcome, have a great day.
24)
An Interview with an Upperclassman
The upperclassman that I interviewed was a junior friend of mine named
required course for all biology majors. In the second part of the
Jana Huang. Jana is undertaking a BSc
interview, Jana and I discuss her
in biology and she is also a residential
prospective career paths in the
assistant in the freshman dormitories
medical field and the forms of writing
at DU.
she may conduct in her future
Similarly to the interview with Dr.
profession.
Rossi, this interview consisted of two parts. Firstly, Jana and I discuss the foremost form of writing that she does in her major, which is lab reports. We discuss the structure and style of these reports as well as what is expected by the professors and teaching assistants. In addition, Jana discussed the differences and similarities between biology lab reports and organic chemistry lab reports, as organic chemistry is a
In your concentration in cognitive neuroscience, you may either take a BA or BSc in your psychology and/or biology major(s).
25)
Typically I write reports directly to my TA as the audience. But on top of that, I imagine my audience as people who are going to take the lab or conduct the experiment. Therefore, I have to write the report in a clear way that is easily understood and can be repeated. So what advice would you give to incoming freshman about writing lab reports? TAs using give you good advice with regards to what they want to see in your reports. But I would probably say to incoming freshman that they should really pay attention to what they are doing and how it is significant in the experiment as a whole and to not be afraid to ask questions. So many incoming freshmen would likely have experience writing lab reports in high school. How different would you say high school reports are to university reports? I’d say they are quite different. High school sort of teaches you the basic guidelines of what you should write about, whereas college professors expect you to go more in depth with regards to your application of your
An Interview with an Upperclassman What are the main types of writing you do in your major? Biology courses consist of a lot of lab reports so nothing really essay based. So when your professors or TAs evaluate your reports, what are the some of the things that they are looking for? Mainly the professors are looking for content – that is, how well you answer the questions or address the problem under investigation and how you support your conclusions. However, professors also look for a clear format. In terms of the format that you mentioned, are you given a fairly strict grading rubric that you have to follow? For the most part courses do have a strict grading rubric, which outlines a particular structure that want you to use. But the main point of the reports is that you clearly present your knowledge and understanding of what was done and why. When you write your lab reports who do you imagine as your target audience?
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knowledge. It’s more like they’re putting you out there on your own and they aren’t going to hold your hand through the report. If you did need help with a lab report, to whom would you go to get assistance? I would definitely meet with my TA or professor during their office hours. Also I would consult with friends who may have taken the course already and have a better understanding of the concepts. Organic chemistry is a required course for anyone majoring in biology. How different would you say chemistry reports are to biology reports? I don’t think there is a large degree of difference between the reports. Both follow a fairly strict format and require a large application of knowledge and theory. However I would say that biology reports are more hypotheses based and chemistry reports are more theory-‐application based. So what sort of career are you looking into?
I aim to go to med school and from there hope to work as a general physician. Ok so what are the forms of writing that you think you will have to do in such a profession? The main types of writing that I’m aware of are notes about a patient’s health or situation and referrals and prescriptions. How informative are university lab reports in terms of the writing that you will be doing in your profession? I think the content of the reports in probably the most informative aspect because what we learn is directly related to several health professions. Also, the observation and analysis that is done in a lab report is a really helpful skill for doctors. All right, those are all of the questions I wanted to ask. Jana thank you very much for your time! Thank you.
An Interview with an Upperclassman
27)
28)
Investigating Genres
What Lies Before You…
When you think about ‘genres’, what
its inclusion of features such as robots,
comes to mind?
aliens, space travel and a high usage of
Perhaps you think of Tim
special effects. Besides the obvious
McGraw, as country music is your
classifications of films, music and
favorite music genre. Or maybe you
video games, genres also exist within
think of Star Wars series, as science
literature and writing. Genres also
fiction is your favorite film genre.
apply to all forms of communication,
Regardless of what comes to mind, genres permeate our lives. But what exactly
“When you think of ‘genres’, what comes to mind?”
is a genre? Genres can be seen as being
including verbal and non-‐ verbal. But how do genres originate and what features are deemed as being
characteristic to specific genres?
categorical groupings, with the
These are questions that genre theory
elements of a group all having similar
aims to answer.
components that allows them to be
What lies before you is an
categorized together. For example,
investigation of genres through the
Star Wars can be seen as belonging to
application of genre theory. The
the science fiction film genre based on
purpose of this investigation is to
29)
Investigating Genres
examine what genre theory is, as well
categories of classroom genres,
as to analyze the genres that you will
student-‐produced genres and
be encountering by concentrating in
professional genres. Ultimately, I hope
cognitive neuroscience. These genres
you find this genre investigation a
will be taken from the three major
useful tool in navigating through your
undergraduate career and beyond.
What is Genre Theory?
A theory is a system of ideas that
newspaper articles, to research papers
intends to serve as an explanation for
and experimental reports. Genre
something. For instance, the theory of
theory is extremely useful in
relativity works to explain why and
deciphering the typified features and
how the phenomenon of gravity
purposes of these and the many other
occurs. Similarly, genre theory aims to
genres of writing. In addition, genre
explain how and why genres exist.
theory explores the particular
Within the context of writing, genres
rhetorical situations that different
can range from literary analyses and
genre of writing address.
30)
Investigating Genres
You may or may not have
nature that several rhetoricians
heard of the ‘rhetorical situation’
employ to describe this term. What
before. Regardless, it is a relatively
can be taken from this definition
intricate term that is often
however is that any rhetorical
overcomplicated. One such example is
situation is a situation comprised of
the definition Lloyd Bitzer provides in
several different components, that
his article The Rhetorical Situation; “…
arises for a particular reason to
a complex of persons, events, objects
contribute some change to the reason
and relations presenting an actual or
of its existence. Through genre theory,
potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse,
“A genre comes into being for a particular reason in order to address a situation”
I aim to break down the complex that is the rhetorical situation into more easily understood
introduced into the situation, can so
components and to explain how each
constrain human decision or action as
of these facets contribute to the
to bring about the significant
rhetorical situation of a genre.
modification of the exigence.” Now I
do not mean to scare you away with
for a particular reason in order to
this convoluted definition. I simply
address the situation. For example, a
mean to highlight the complicated
lab report arises from the experiment
First, a genre comes into being
31)
Investigating Genres
and data that is conducted and
genre’s exigence. Carrying on from the
collected and aims to address the
lab report example, the social action is
experiment by drawing conclusions
the drawing of conclusions from the
from the data. This is known as the
data of the experiment. The action is
exigence of a rhetorical situation – the
indeed social as it prompts an
purpose of its existence. Different
interaction between the genre and
genres have different exigencies and
people, whether it is one person or an
even a single genre can have multiple
entire country. Also, social action is
exigencies. For instance, a research
carried out in a manner that
paper may be investigating a
corresponds to the exigence. For
psychological disorder, or it may be
instance if the lab report described
discussing the migratory patterns of
how awesome science is without
monarch butterflies. When writing in
drawing and discussing conclusions
a particular genre, it is always
from the data of the related
important to analyze the exigence of
experiment, the social action would
the genre in order to best understand
not be corresponding to the exigence
what needs to be addressed.
of the situation.
In response to the exigence, a
In correlation with exigence,
genre carries out social action. This
current genres arise from what are
action is the response evoked by the
known as ‘antecedent genres.’
32)
Investigating Genres
Antecedent genres serve as ancestors
innovation of email. Emails however
for modern genres and provide a
were a new genre whose exigence was
starting point for differentiation in
similar to that of the letter. As such, a
order to better suit and address new
similar style was employed from the
exigencies. A clear example of this is
email’s antecedent genre. Overtime
evident in our day-‐to-‐day lives
the style evolved to become more
through communication with social
simplistic and less formal, depending
media. As you are aware, before
on the occasion. This new style carried
computers and mobile phones, long
on into the newer genre of text
distance communication had to be
messaging, which employs a much
done via letters. The exigence of the
more simple and shortened style than
letter genre was to communicate
that of its antecedent genre. What can
without having to be in person and to
be taken from this is that as time
have a conversation over great
progresses, new genres will come into
expanses. Also, there was a strict style
being from new exigencies.
and structure to letters that was
Subsequently, people will likely draw
always followed.
on antecedent genres -‐ what has been
The invention of the computer
done previously to meet a similar
and Internet firstly changed long
exigence, in order to properly address
distance communication with the
the new form. Eventually,
33)
Investigating Genres
modifications will be made to better
of a genre. These include style,
meet the new exigence.
structure, content as well as audience,
although this is not a comprehensive
There are several aspects of a
genre’s rhetorical situation that
list. Constraints of style and structure
contribute to its structure, style and
are fairly obvious, as you wouldn’t
content. One of the most important
write a literary analysis in the same
facets is audience. The audience, like
way that you write a lab report.
that of a play or film, are the people
Content-‐based constraints are also
who take in the writing. Through their
fairly intuitive, as certain genres only
uptake of the genre, the audience is
discuss certain topics or material. The
capable of addressing a portion of, or
audience as a constraint can be quite
even the complete exigence. For
different. Audiences can constrain
instance, the purpose of a magazine
style, language and content. For
article may be to encourage people to
instance, you probably would not
eat more healthily. A reader changing
write a formal dissertation in the
their diet after reading the article has
same way you would write for your
carried out the goal of the exigence.
friends. However, constraints can be
Constraints are another major
overlooked or broken in an effort to
aspect of a genre’s rhetorical situation.
satirize the genre in order to make a
Constraints pertain to the limitations
point or generate a particular effect.
34)
Investigating Genres
Finally, genres exhibit structures in
and helpful in understanding writing
power. That is to say, power is
as a whole as well as specifically
distributed to different aspects of the
within the cognitive neuroscience
genre as well as to the different
concentration. Genre theory allows for
individuals involved. For instance,
the analysis of what is necessary for
more power may be distributed to
different assignments and tasks, such
style in a letter whereas content is
as what constraints are in place and
highly variable. Also, greater power
the eventual social action of the piece.
may be placed in the hands of the
In addition, the critical thinking that is
audience, as they may be the ones who
involved in genre theory help set a
carry out the desired social action.
solid foundation for the analysis-‐
This would be the case for an op-‐ed
based thinking and processing that is
piece in a newspaper.
present in several professional fields
that lead from the major, such as
What you have just read may
seem a lot to take in and at the end of
physicians, research scientists and
it all, you may be thinking ‘so what?’
neurologists.
Ultimately, genre theory is important
35)
Investigating Genres
Classroom Genres – The Syllabus It is quite likely that you received a
could include battle plans, recipes or
syllabus during your time at high
construction plans. In university you
school. However if you aren’t familiar
will receive a syllabus for every course
with the genre, a syllabus is an outline
that you study which includes all of
of what will be covered in a course. As
your common curriculum
such, the exigence of this genre is the
requirements as well as requirements
need to outline what a student is in
for your major(s) of biology and/or
essence, ‘getting into’ when they
psychology. With examples of syllabi
enroll in a course. Therefore, the
from the majors of the cognitive
social action of a syllabus is to inform
neuroscience concentration, we will
students about the ins and outs of the
now investigate the aspects and
course. The antecedent genre of
expectations that surround a syllabus,
syllabi is likely any form of plan that
as well as any variations and
outlines goals and the ways in which
connections between individual
these goals will be reached. Such plans
syllabi and other genres.
36)
37)
Investigating Genres
The first page of the syllabus for the Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Psychology course
The first page of the syllabus for the Physiological Systems Biology course documents are often highly organized
There are several typified
and structured in order to clearly set
features that are common throughout
the goals and discuss the aspects of a
all syllabi. It is evident from the first
course. Tables are often implemented
pages of the syllabi above, that these
to facilitate the structured format. At the top of the first page of a syllabus is
Investigating Genres
the title of the course as well as the
syllabus include a week-‐by-‐week
time and location of lectures.
breakdown of the topics and affiliated
Immediately below, the professors
course readings, an outline of the
provide their contact information
grading scheme with regards to exams
including office hours and email
or other assessments, information
addresses. If a TA is involved with the
about academic dishonesty and the
class, their contact information is also
Honor Code, missed exams and late
provided here. Following this is a
assignments, and a section pertaining
listing of required course texts and
to students with disabilities.
other supplies. The syllabi then
outline the course goals or objectives,
that surround a syllabus. The
which are the expected outcomes of
expectations in question are mainly
the course once it has been completed.
those of the students who will be
After these formalities, there can be
receiving these documents. There is a
stylistic modifications pertaining to
high expectation with regards to
the ordering of different sections,
structure, as the information of a
based on the preference of the
syllabus needs to be clearly conveyed.
instructor. Other typified features of a
In addition, there are content-‐based
expectations as students expect syllabi
There are several expectations
38)
Investigating Genres
to provide a comprehensive
syllabi. These atheistic differences
presentation of the course. Due to
often pertain to the organization of
these relatively constraining
the pages, implementation of tables
expectations, there is little room if any
and overall look and layout. However,
to ‘break’ the genre, by adding or
there can be content variations
omitting information or employing an
between syllabi as well. For instance,
unusual structure or style. Further,
the physiological systems course is a
there are few alternative means of
hybrid learning course, meaning that
addressing the exigence of outlining a
lectures are done in person and
course, as the syllabus clearly imparts
online. As such, there is a whole
the information in highly structured
section in this syllabus that discusses
manner.
the hybrid learning system.
Ultimately, syllabi act as a reference
As was previously mentioned,
stylistic variations can exist between
point for all the other genres that are
to be encountered in a course.
39)
Investigating Genres Student-‐Produced Genres – Essays
The essay is a fairly broad genre that
the field of psychology and involve the
you will likely encounter throughout
critical analysis of the information in
your time at university. In relation to
question. The major difference
your psychology major or minor, you
however lies in the social action. The
will be required to write two different
specific purpose of a research paper is
types of essays – the research essay
to show your understanding of a
and the reflection essay. Both
particular topic, such as autism,
belonging to the same genre, these
ensuring you outline the information
two ‘subgenres’ share commonalities
causes, symptoms, and advances in
as well as differences in exigence,
treatment based off your researching
social action as well as typified
of the topic. A reflection essay’s
features.
purpose on the other hand, is to
demonstrate your understanding as
The exigencies for a research
paper and a reflection paper in
well as your opinion on a topic, such
psychology are fairly similar. They
as incidental findings in neuroimaging
both arise from data or conclusions
studies. From this it can be concluded
that have been conducted or drawn in
that several differences exist between
the features of the two essays.
40)
Investigating Genres
A major difference in the typified
result in a poor grade. Also, the
features of the essays is the style of
audience must always be taken into
writing. A research paper is more
consideration when writing either a
“third person” in that you do not use
reflection or research essay. The
personal voice at all. Contrary to this,
language must be reflective of an
the personal and opinion-‐based
audience that is knowledgeable in the
reflection essay allows for the usage of
topic and familiar with specific
the “first person.” Also, as trivial as it
terminology and as such, simpler
may seem, there are differences in
explanations should be avoided.
citation methods. Reflection essays
The major features that are
require an APA formatting whereas
similar between the two subgenres
MLA is employed for research papers.
are aesthetic, with the same font and
These stylistic and formatting features
spacing being used for both essay
are the some major constraint of the
forms. Differences and similarities are
genre. Another major constraint of the
also present in content. Since
both of the essays is the question. The
reflection essays are more personal, it
question needs to be addressed in
is advised that you do not quote from
sufficient detail and straying too far
outside sources whereas quotes are
from the essay prompt will often
necessary in a research paper to
41)
Investigating Genres
support your claims. However, the
which their content is drawn. For
content of both papers will be fairly
instance, a research paper is linked to
fact based.
the articles that pertain to the topic
being researched, and a reflection
The two genres themselves are
linked through commonalities in
paper is connected to the prompting
content and are also individually
article.
connected to the other genres from
Professional Genres – The Experimental Plan
In several research-‐based profession
experiments are fairly similar,
that branch off from the cognitive
although they deal with different
neuroscience concentration,
topics and have some very distinct
experimental plans are essential in
features.
developing the research that can
further our understanding of different
arise from the same premises – to
phenomena and workings in our
make discoveries, test hypotheses or
minds and bodies. The plans for both
demonstrate already known facts. The
biological and psychological
social action that is derived from these
Firstly, all experimental plans
42)
Investigating Genres
exigencies can vary. Examples include
greatly aided in how they looked for
supporting or disproving a commonly
their answers.
held belief, presenting new
information with regards to a current
experimental plans are uniform across
idea or presenting entirely new claims
different disciplines. The language
from the data that is collected.
needs to be easily understood so that
The antecedent genres of
Generally typified features for
the experiment itself can be
experimental plans would likely be
replicated. Further, the content needs
the experiments of earlier scientists,
to be highly specific. Precise details
philosophers and alchemists. Each of
pertaining to factors quantities of
these groups were trying to discover
chemicals, ages of subjects, equipment
something new, whether it be a new
used and many others need to be
way of thinking about how a
defined. Also, most experimental plans
phenomenon occurs or the various
require a preface or abstract that
properties of a particular substance.
outlines the hypothesis of the
Regardless of their intentions, the
experiment. This abstract should
rudimentary experimental plans of
clearly outline the premise and
these bygone factions would have
purpose of the experiment in a
manner that is easily understood.
43)
Investigating Genres
There are a fairly large amount
specified to permit an easy
of constraints that surround
understanding of techniques being
experimental plans. Firstly, the plans
implemented.
need to ethically sound. They cannot
allow for any exploitation of animals
published articles often hold the
in a biological study or humans in a
expectations of experimental plans.
psychological study. This may require
They audience whilst consisting of
researchers to undertake special
informed and experienced individuals,
training in order to become familiar
still expects the language to be clear
with the subjects being used. One such
and explicit. The author of the
example is that of autism researcher
experiment has expectations as well.
Dr. Christy Rossi who had to receive
Dr. Rossi stated that researchers often
training in working with and
write and design experiments that are
understanding zebra fish embryos in
publishable – that is to say,
order to humanely utilize them in her
experiments that investigate new
experiment. As was previously
hypothesis or implement innovative
highlighted, the language of an
techniques. As such, the researcher
experimental plan needs to be highly
has expectations of their own work in
The readers of the eventually
that they will create something that
44)
Investigating Genres
the world will want to see and share with them.
At the End of it All…
After 16 pages you have finally
genres of the cognitive neuroscience
reached the end of this investigation.
concentration. More importantly
Together we have discussed
however, I hope you take from this
genre theory and how it applies to the
investigation an appreciation of the
various genres that you will encounter
myriad of genres that we use to
throughout your undergraduate
communicate and help tighten our
career and in the professional field. I
bonds within the various communities
hope you have picked up some helpful
to which we belong.
hints with regards to writing in the
45)
46)
A Proposal for Change
Cognitive neuroscience investigates
however, the current major
the interplay between neural biology
requirements must be analyzed, along
and behavior. As such, it makes sense
with the reasons for change, why the
that the cognitive neuroscience
current courses are beneficial and the
concentration requires both biology
stakeholders who will be affected if a
and psychology as either double
change were implemented.
majors or as a major and a minor.
Whilst the majors/minors provide a
departments, the biology and
good foundation and understanding in
psychology majors for the cognitive
both psychology and biology, some of
neuroscience concentration require
the major requirements themselves
the fulfillment of 45 quarter hours in
should be more relevant to future
the field. For the most part the courses
professions in the field of
that need to be taken are highly
neuroscience. More specifically, I
informative of the types of research
propose that the more redundant
and writing that will be conducted in
biology courses are removed and
future professions. For instance,
replaced with requirements that are
research papers must be written in
much more related to the
several of the psychology courses.
neuroscience field. In order to
Additionally, lab reports must be
properly address this proposal
written on conducted experiments in
Concurrent with several other
47)
A Proposal for Change
the biology courses, which is highly
are fairly redundant in that they do
informative of experiments and
not relate very well to the rest of the
experiment-‐based writing that will be
requirements or the research and
conducted in research-‐related
writing of careers in neuroscience.
professions. The subject matter of
The foremost courses of the biology
several of the required courses also
major that do not really pertain to the
provides a strong foundation for the
concentration are general ecology and
future. Most of the psychology courses
conservation biology. These classes
provide background in neuroscience
discuss the relations between
whilst the biology courses provide an
organisms to one another and their
understanding of the nervous system
physical surroundings and status of
and affiliated anatomy. Further, the
the planet’s biodiversity with the aim
required chemistry minor and
of protecting species respectively.
calculus courses for the biology major
Whilst these are important concepts
provide the knowledge that is
in biology, their relevance to
required for several medical
neuroscience is fairly low. As such, the
professions.
content that is being learned would
However, there are courses within the current biology major that
likely be impractical for a research
48)
A Proposal for Change
profession in neuroscience, as would
relevant to neuroscience. For instance,
be the reading and writing of
a course that investigates how
ecological or conservational research
particular brain areas affect and
pieces.
coordinate specific behaviors would
However, in contrast to what
be extremely valuable. Another
has been discussed, there are some
example of a class that would greatly
benefits of the having the general
prepare students for a career in
ecology and conservation biology
neuroscience would be a lab course in
classes. Firstly, the classes provide
which students learn about different
some variety amongst the required
research techniques and how to
courses. They are very different in
effectively prepare and conduct
terms of subject matter and provide
experiments and research.
an understanding of biology on a
greater scale. Also, they may help
for biology major of the cognitive
students later on in their careers
neuroscience concentration would
should they choose to follow a
affect a wide variety of different
different biological focus.
stakeholders. The term ‘stakeholders’
Ultimately, these courses could be replaced with some that are more
Changes to the requirements
refers to any individual who would be directly affected by any enacted
49)
A Proposal for Change
change. Firstly, the department of
they would need to take up more TA
biology itself would be affected. They
hours.
would need to first discuss reasons for
Finally, the students
modification with the board of
themselves would be affected by
academics and then courses that
changes to the major requirements.
would fill the places of those removed.
Students that may be near the
Further, new faculty may be required
completion of their course who have
to teach the new courses.
taken the ecology or conservation
Also, psychology faculty would
biology courses may find these credits
be affected, due to the concentration
redundant and unable to facilitate
being coordinated with this
their graduation (however it should
department. Psychology staff would
be noted that the change in required
need to make sure that the introduced
courses would likely begin to be
courses compliment the psychology
applied to a class of incoming
requirements and do not have a large
freshmen). Also, new courses would
overlap in terms of content.
implicate new textbooks and other
Since labs would likely run
learning materials, which may be
alongside new courses, graduate
costly for students.
students would also be affected, as
50)
A Proposal for Change
The replacement of some of the
their biology professors and the
more redundant and irrelevant
faculty heads with regards to the
requirements for the biology major of
introduction of new requirements. In
the cognitive neuroscience
addition, students could write and
concentration with more related
sign a petition outlining their desire
courses would greatly assist students
for courses that would better support
as they enter the neuroscience field.
them.
More pertinent courses would
In the end, what is important is
improve upon relevant writing
what students learn and take from
techniques and research methods
their undergraduate studies as they
whilst also enhancing knowledge with
move into the professional field. In my
regards to some of the major topics in
opinion, this is of extreme importance
the profession. However, the current
in relation to the cognitive
courses do provide some variations
neuroscience concentration. It is my
and changes to the existing curriculum
belief that the students undertaking
would have affect a wide range of
this concentration need to develop a
different people. If change is to be
great understanding of our cognitive
seen in the near future however,
processes in order to shine more light
students should express an interest to
51)
A P roposal for Change
on to the inner mechanisms that
make us who we are.
52)
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