The Hidden Watercourses of Newcastle upon Tyne
Figure One:
The ‘Swirle Pavilion’ by Raf Fulcher, located on the Quayside,
marks the point where the hidden Swirle Burn meets the river Tyne.
The Hidden Watercourses of Newcastle upon Tyne To what extent do natural land features have an effect on city plans and architecture despite man’s intervention?
Andrew Alfred Nelson 110268994
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of BA in Architecture 2014.
Acknowledgements I would like to thank Professor Andrew Ballantyne and Dr. Thomas Faulkner for help and advice while writing this dissertation.
Additional thanks to the archivists and librarians at the GNM
Hancock and City Library for assistance with the historic map, text and newspaper collections.
Thanks also to Paul Nelson for endless encouragement and dedicating countless hours to proof reading.
Contents Acknowledgements Introduction
Statement of Aim
Methodology
Structure
Terminology
Chapter One
4 7 7 8 8 9
Within the Town Walls
The Lort Burn
13
The Skinner Burn & Swirle Burn
17
Preface
The Pandon Burn
19 20
The Ouseburn
25
i. The Tyne
29 31
Chapter Two
Chapter Three Chapter Four
Chapter Five Chapter Six
ii. Beyond The Tyne
Conclusion
33
List of Illustrations
37
Bibliography
38
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Any river is really the summation of the whole valley. To think of it as nothing but water is to ignore the greater part. (Hal Borland, This Hill, This Valley)
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Introduction Statement of Aim In this dissertation I will analyse the impact that forgotten watercourses have on our cities, using Newcastle upon Tyne as the major case study. Through unearthing the hidden topography of the town and by comparing historic and contemporary maps, I will discuss whether natural land features have a lasting effect on the evolving town plan despite human intervention and repeated remodelling. Additionally, I will consider the views of inhabitants past and present to discuss if changes in the town plan have had any positive or negative impacts on the lives of residents and visitors. Finally, I will make comparisons with other cities where alternative solutions have been employed in order to accommodate their hidden watercourses.
Structure Looking at a large geographical time frame, the first chapter of this dissertation initially outlines the topographical history and various settlements of Newcastle prior to the building of the town walls. The chapter continues by summarising the fortification of the town and the history of land reclamation within the medieval town walls. The following chapters look at the key streams which have influenced the town plan most, and, the historical and current effects on the remnants within the city. Chapter six looks beyond Newcastle upon Tyne at
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examples where alternative approaches have been taken and briefly describes
Terminology
EU and UK government initiatives that are encouraging a ‘return to nature’. In
Often, in Northern England and Scotland, a small stream is called a burn (or
the final chapter I draw my own conclusions and evaluation from my research.
bourn) and the valleys in which they run are called deans. The long narrow streets that characterised Newcastle’s quayside in the 18th and 19th centuries
Methodology
are known locally as ‘chares’. All three of the aforementioned terms feature
I started my research by analysing a geological map of Newcastle upon Tyne
regularly in street and buildings names within the city. In this dissertation I will
which shows the city is built on land comprising of a combination of glacial
talk about ‘culverting’, which is the act of containing a watercourse within a pipe
deposits and areas of ‘made land’ [Figure Two]. The areas of made land
to allow it to pass under an obstruction.
follow the lines of forgotten streams that once divided the city. In order to gain an understanding of when the culverting of the streams and the levelling of land surrounding them began, I have looked at a range of maps, including examples by early mapmakers and later maps produced by Ordnance Survey - the mapping agency of Great Britain. Having researched and understood the timetable of land reclamation in Newcastle, I then read historic writings and newspaper articles by local academics whose opinions and critiques portrayed the feel of these spaces before and after regeneration. My later research expanded beyond Newcastle, looking at nation wide government initiatives for the redevelopment of lost watercourses in order to encourage fresh recreational use. Finally I studied an EU programme that has set goals for river improvements to be implemented by 2027.
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Within the Town Walls Newcastle upon Tyne is situated on the northern bank of the river Tyne in north east England. The land on which the city of Newcastle sits was formed from layers of glacial debris deposited during the several glaciations that characterized the last 2.6 million years of the Quaternary Period.1 The nature of these loosely packed deposits meant that streams rising north of the city quickly eroded deep valleys into the plateau creating an undulating ground with steep ravines running adjacent to the river Tyne.2 These surface features made the land an appealing site for Roman settlement. The steep banks of the river Tyne and intersecting tributaries provided the first settlers with hilltops where ‘fortified places of refuge’ could be built and, in between, ‘snug and sheltered spots to build their dwellings’.3 It was also a consequence of the nature of the land that Newcastle upon Tyne, or ‘Pons Aelius’ as the initial Roman settlement was then named, hosted the most easterly river crossing over the Tyne. Because of this tactical positioning the Romans ‘initiated Newcastle’s future site and situation’4 by providing a nucleus for expansion.
Following the Roman departure from Britain in the 5th century AD, Pons Aelius was used as a strategic fortress for several hundred years. During this period the settlement adopted numerous names including Monkchester, it was here,
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Figure Two:
Geological Map Data ŠNERC 2013. ŠCrown copyright/database right. An Ordnance Survey/EDINA supplied service.
Scale 1:10000
Geology map of Newcastle. Areas0 shaded blue are glacial deposits and areas 1000 m shaded red are man-made land. 100
200
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500
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800
900
Aug 29, 2013 14:14 Andrew Alfred Nelson Newcastle
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in the late 11th century that William the Conqueror ordered his son, Robert
the town walls was culverted creating the uninterrupted lengthy quayside that we
Curthouse, to build a castle to protect the Kingdom against the invading Scots.
see today. The reclaimed land on the quay was used to provide accommodation
He named it the ‘New Castle upon the Tyne’ and from here the town took the
for the merchant community. This took the form of long narrow streets, known
name we use today. A century later, in 1172, Curthouse’s motte-and-bailey
locally as ‘chares’, which were laid out in neat rows adjacent to the river Tyne.
castle was rebuilt from stone and the settlement began to expand. As the town
Broad Garth, a chare that remains today, marks the position of the culverted
and population expanded the number of ships bringing overseas goods into the
Pandon Burn.
Tyne also increased and whilst smaller boats had moored in the shelter of the burn inlets, anchor points with greater river depth were needed to accommodate
The newly enclosed town was bound by the Skinner Burn to the east, Pandon
larger vessels. Recent excavations have shown that land reclamation began
Burn to the west and split in half by the Lort Burn. The Ouse Burn, further east
at the riverside as early as the end of the 12th century.5 Historical evidence
of the early town, would later prove to be an obstruction as the town outgrew the
suggests that land on the quay was reclaimed in stages and that initially there
confines of the walls and spread east. The steep ravines that accompanied the
were three distinguished lengths of quay separated by the Skinner, Lort and
burns meant streets were often curved to make them more passable through a
Pandon burns.6 The 13th century saw completion of land reclamation on the
more traversable shallow gradient. Where long curves weren’t possible, stone
quay and the initiation of the building of the town walls. The land within the new
staircases were introduced. Today, these staircases characterise the medieval
walls would provide a protected area in which the medieval town could flourish.
portion of the city and still provide essential connections between the Quayside and higher portions of the city.
In 1299 King Edward I ‘empowered the Burgesses of Newcastle to purchase Pandon’ , a small settlement east of Newcastle upon Tyne through which the 7
Pandon Burn flowed. The eastern walls were laid out to include the town of Pandon thus rendering Newcastle upon Tyne protected on all sides. The river provided protection to the south of the town while the walls controlled access from other directions. Sometime after the acquisition of Pandon, the burn within
Barke, M. and Buswell, R.J. (1992) Newcastle’s Changing Map. Newcastle upon Tyne: Newcastle upon Tyne City Libraries & Arts. p. 9. 2 ibid., p. 11. 3 Charleton, R.J. (1895) A History of Newcastle upon Tyne. Newcastle upon Tyne: William H. Robinson. p. 17. 4 British Association for the Advancement of Science. (1949) Scientific Survey of North-eastern England. Newcastle Upon Tyne: The Local Executive Committee. p. 192. 5 Newton, D. and Pollard, A.J. (2009) Newcastle and Gateshead before 1700. Chichester: Phillimore p. XIX. 6 O’Brien, C. (1988) The Origins of the Newcastle Quayside: excavations at Queen Street and Dog Bank. Newcastle upon Tyne: Society of Antiquaries. pp. 154-149. 7 Charleton, R.J. (1895) A History of Newcastle upon Tyne. Newcastle upon Tyne: William H. Robinson. p. 34. 1
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Figure Three:
John Speed’s 1610 map of Newcastle highlighted to show where the Lort Burn ran open.
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The Lort Burn In this chapter I will concentrate on the Lort Burn, a stream that became famous in the 19th century for its uninviting characteristics developed due to its use as an open sewer. I will look at the gradual culverting of the burn and how, ultimately, the natural topographical land features of the dean in which the burn ran have influenced some of the architectural characteristics of Richard Grainger’s redevelopment of the city centre.
As the population of the town increased over the centuries following the building of the town walls, land reclamation within the town walls continued, spreading northwards through the town to accommodate new construction projects. The deans that made Newcastle an attractive defensive site began to be filled and the land levelled. The first of the four main burns to be filled was the Lort and its tributary the Lam Burn (or Lamb Burn). In Speed’s map of Newcastle from 1610 [Figure Three], the burn can be seen running open, at a tangent to the river Tyne. Until the early 18th century the entire burn ran open with exception to the two bridges that spanned it to allow pedestrian circulation around the town; High Bridge (Upper Dean Bridge) and Low Bridge (Nether Dean Bridge). Boats moored in the shelter of the burn until early 1800’s when ‘the state of the burn became the subject of public attention’ and an act of parliament was
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passed which allowed the infill of the ravine and the building of the appropriately
grand neoclassical development for the centre of Newcastle. To accommodate
named Dean Street.8 An undesirability of the burn is described in Andrew Reid’s
the new streets and buildings, the remaining section of the Lort Burn was filled
‘Handbook to Newcastle Upon Tyne’:
in.12 Grainger’s redevelopment massively improved transport throughout the city. Formerly Pilgrim Street had provided the main link from the quayside to the
The extreme inconvenience of having the town divided into two sections by an inconsiderable brook may readily be conceived. To make matters worse it’s waters were not always pellucid as could be desired. Altogether it was extremely desirable that the burn should be arched over throughout its entire course.9
northern portions of the town as Anderson Place had been a ‘vacuum in the very heart of the town’ that had restricted circulation.13 The in-filled burn provided a convenient foundation for Grey Street (referred to as Upper-Dean Street in Grainger’s plans), hence the slightly curving line as it followed the route of the culverted dean. According to an article from the Newcastle Journal published in
Similarly, in 1827, Eneas Mackenzie, a local publisher and printer, described the Lort Burn as a ‘receptacle of all the filth of the neighbourhood’10 These descriptions make it easy to understand why Grainger’s redevelopment plans for the upper portion of the dean faced little opposition from the authorities and were readily approved.11
North of Dean Street the burn ran through an area called Anderson Place (referred to as ‘Newe house’ in Figure Three), a private estate and grounds built on the site of a former Franciscan Friary. Anderson Place, the largest
October 1835 to celebrate “Mr Grainger’s splendid improvements”, the natural characteristics of the land “will add materially to its picturesque effect”. Despite the loveliness of the completed streets, a lot of groundwork was required by Grainger to create suitable building land. This is described in the Newcastle Journal article: From the High-bridge to Blackett-street the ascent will be much easier, which has been effected by Mr. Grainger at a very considerable extra expense, in the vast excavations he has made to overcome the natural irregularities of the surface, and to promote the public convenience.14
open space remaining within the town walls, contained the final portion of the Lort Burn to be culverted. In July 1834 local land developer Richard Grainger purchased Anderson Place after the death of its owner. With the aid of architect John Dobson and town clerk John Clayton, Grainger planned a
In Reid’s handbook he describes Grey Street as ‘the handsomest street in the town’ and argues that ‘few streets in any town or city in the empire can vie with it [because] variety as well as elegance characterize it’.15 An opinion also
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the drainage systems running beneath the streets, what remains of the ‘High Bridge’ has been incorporated into the walls of the sewers.17 [Figure Four]
Unlike outer parts of the town where little evidence of the burns remains, the area within the walls provides several examples whereby the original topography of the land has determined the layout of the city plan we see today. Features of the land have determined characteristics of the architecture as seen in Grey Street. Additionally, despite the ground level being raised, subterranean evidence of the burn and its bridges can still be found.
Figure Four:
Remnants of the ‘High Bridge’ in the sewer beneath Grey Street.
held by many contemporaries too due to the street being named the third most picturesque in Britain by the ‘Google Street View Awards’ in 2010.16
Evidence of the burn remains today not only in the characteristics of Grainger’s new architecture, but also can be found in the street names. For example Highbridge, which intersects Grey Street, was once the site of the aforementioned Lort Burn crossing. Subterranean evidence that indicates a change in street level can be found in the cellars of some buildings on Dean Street where old doorways only protrude above floor level by two or three feet. Additionally, in
Charleton, R.J. (1895) A History of Newcastle upon Tyne. Newcastle upon Tyne: William H. Robinson. p. 216. 9 Reid, A. & Co. (1913) Reid’s handbook to Newcastle upon Tyne. Illustrated. Newcastle upon Tyne: Andrew Reid. p. 61 10 Mackenzie, E. (1827) A descriptive and historical account of the town and county of Newcastle upon Tyne: including the borough of Gateshead. Newcastle upon Tyne: Mackenzie and Dent. p. FIND 11 Grand Dinner - Opening of the New Markets. 1835. The Newcastle Journal, 31st October. p. 3. 12 Faulkner, T.E. (2010) ‘Urban landscapes of Newcastle upon Tyne’, in Faulkner, T.E., Berry, H. and Gregory, J. (eds) Northern Landscapes: Representations and Realities of North-East England. Woodbridge: Boydell, pp. 217-218. 13 Ross, M. (1841) Architectural and picturesque views in Newcastle upon Tyne. Newcastle upon Tyne: W & T Fordyce. p. 73. 14 Grand Dinner - Opening of the New Markets. 1835. The Newcastle Journal, 31st October. p. 3. 15 Reid, A. & Co. (1913) Reid’s handbook to Newcastle upon Tyne. Illustrated. Newcastle upon Tyne: Andrew Reid. pp109-111 16 Ford, R. (2010) Google Street View awards 2010. [online] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/travel/gallery/2010/mar/08/google-street-view#/?picture=360124038&index=2 [Accessed: 12 Dec 2013]. 17 Goulding, C. (1995) Hidden Newcastle. Newcastle upon Tyne: Newcastle City Libraries & Arts. p. 20. 8
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Figure Five:
James Corbridge’s 1723 map of Newcastle highlighted to show the course if the Skinner Burn.
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The Skinner Burn & Swirle Burn West of the town, the Skinner Burn ran parallel to the town walls before joining the river Tyne. The Skinner Burn is clearly visible in Corbridge’s 1723 map of Newcastle upon Tyne [Figure Five], however, it must have been culverted sometime in the following century as in Oliver’s map [Figure Eight] it has been replaced by a street named Forth Banks. The only indication that the burn existed is a small indentation in the reclaimed land of the Quay. Robert Charleton, a novelist and historian, writes of the quayside ‘we see the mouth of the sewer through which what was the Skinner’s Burn discharges into the Tyne’ in his 1895 book.18 By this time the town had outgrown the walls and was spreading in all directions, the infilling of the Skinner Burn allowed a westerly expansion, beyond the protection of the walls as their defensive duty was no longer required. The burn was replaced with another steep street dictated by the natural topography of the land but, unlike Grey Street, it was occupied with warehouses and factories rather than grand neoclassical buildings. Factories included the gas works which manufactured street lighting for the town centre redevelopment, fulfilling new laws that required all public streets to be adequately lit and paved. The majority of factories have since been demolished however the few warehouses that remain are currently being incorporated into the ‘Stephenson Quarter’ development that aims to bring commercial and public
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activity to the disused 10 acre site bound on one side by Forth Banks.19 One
Little evidence exists of the burn in maps however the existence of the stream
building, currently under construction, has been designed to fit into the slope of
has been acknowledged in the street name ‘Swirle’ which is visible in the earliest
Forth Banks requiring huge excavations [Figure Six].
Ordnance Survey maps. In Charleton’s History of Newcastle upon Tyne he says
Figure Six:
Deep excavations are required to accommodate a new car park on Forth Banks.
that the street ‘owed its name to a little stream, one of the ancient boundaries of the town’s liberties, which used to run here’.20 More recently artist Raf Fulcher has celebrated the Swirle Burn in a folly ‘Swirle Pavilion’ [Figure One] that sits on the promenade at the Quayside marking the spot where the hidden stream meets the Tyne. [Figure Seven]21
Like in the centre of the town, the street names here also describe the history of the lost burn, for example the intersection of Skinner Burn Road and Forth
The Swirle Burn (sometimes called the Squirrel Burn) was the shortest burn in the town. The burn ran north to south between the Pandon Burn and Ouseburn.
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1910 Ordnance Survey map of Newcastle’s Quayside. Marker 0
Banks on the quayside marks the point where Charleton describes the sewer discharging into the river.
Figure Seven:
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Andrew Alfred Nelson Newcastle
indicates the position of the ‘Swirle pavilion’. Charleton, R.J. (1895) A History of Newcastle upon Tyne. Newcastle upon Tyne: William H. Robinson. p. 287. 19 Silverlink-uk.com. (2013). SilverLink. [online] Available at: http://www.silverlink-uk.com/ [Accessed: 6 Jan 2014]. 20 Charleton, R.J. (1895) A History of Newcastle upon Tyne. Newcastle upon Tyne: William H. Robinson. p. 355. 21 Newcastle.gov.uk (2013) Public art - Quayside. [online] Available at: http://www.newcastle.gov.uk/leisure-libraries-and-tourism/arts-and-entertainment/public-art/public-artquayside#swirle [Accessed: 10 Jan 2014]. 18
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The Pandon Burn Preface Dr Reid was a Scottish physician who sat on the Royal Commission looking into the state of Britain’s towns and cities and the cause of disease. In 1845 he commented on the insanitary conditions of Newcastle upon Tyne in his report and made numerous suggestions for improving the health and wellbeing of its inhabitants. He stated that open spaces should be ‘set apart for public use for ever’ to provide respite from the insanitary conditions of the town centre. He suggested that a portion of Castle Leazes and its public paths should be fenced and set out in an ornamental manner because ‘the want of sufficient shelter, and the nuisance of the cattle, render them unpleasant’.22 Leazes Park, now Grade II listed, became the first public park in Newcastle, opening in December 1873.
Reid also commented on the state of Newcastle’s drainage system, much of which was directed into the remaining open burns via the natural steepness of the streets. In his report Reid commented that “Any legislative enactment which would render efficient drainage compulsory would be of great public advantage, and the cost of construction would bear a small proportion to the vast amount of benefit that would accrue in comfort and health to the inhabitants.”23 He also
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said that the deans provide ‘great lines of drainage’ in which sewers could be built. A suggestion that has since been enforced.
To encourage the clean up of Britain’s towns and cities and prevent the spread of waterborne diseases, a public health act was set out by the government in 1875 containing many of the suggested improvements previously laid out by Reid and his colleagues.24 The legislation demanded that no house should be built without proper sewerage and fresh water supply and that all highways should be paved and adequately lit. Many of the criteria which much of Newcastle was not meeting at the time despite Dr Reid’s suggestions 30 years previously.
The Pandon Burn In this chapter I will look at land reclamation beyond the town walls, paying particular attention to the history of the Pandon Burn. I will also look at the effect that repeated redevelopment has had on the physical traces of the burn.
In Speed’s 1610 map the Pandon Burn can be seen running parallel to the Lort Burn outside the city walls [Figure Three]. It remained like this well into the 18th century until the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th which centuries saw mass expansion of Newcastle and the building of major new infrastructure including new Tyne crossings and an extensive rail network. In Figure Eight:
Thomas Oliver’s1833 map of Newcastle.
order to accommodate the massive construction projects the industrial revolution
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brought, the Pandon Dean was gradually in-filled to provide the required space.
Dr Reid’s reservations, many people considered the introduction of industrial
Successive ordnance survey maps show that culverting began where the town
infrastructure as a great feat. Moses Aaron Richardson, a local antiquarian,
wall crossed the burn and that initially only a small portion of the burn was filled
describes the dean in his 1838 guide:
to accommodate a new railway station. In 1845 Dr Reid describes the building of the railway ‘mound’ as an obstruction and inconvenience to people living in the lower parts of the town trying to access the open spaces of the north.
On and
passing the
over
elevated
it,
the
mound
view of
of the
the North
Dean
northward,
Shields
railway
southward, will not be passed without a look of admiration26
He suggests that in order to compensate for the loss of access, ‘an agreeable and picturesque promenade through this valley’ should be created.25 Despite
In the early 19th century the remaining Pandon Dean, north of the railway terminus, is described by many as a beautiful place of recreation, a stark contrast to how the Lort Burn was described at the time. In 1827 Eneas Mackenzie, a local topographer and historian, describes the dean: The walk up the dean is extremely pleasant and romantic: the banks on each side, above the water corn-mill, are covered with little gardens, which are mostly kept in excellent order, and
have
pretty
convenient
summer-houses.
Here
many
industrious tradesmen find pleasure and recreation, while they contribute to increase the beauties of this delightful vale.27
A view shared by Miss Jane Harvey who describes the dean as ‘a sweet rural place indeed’ in her Sentimental Tour Through Newcastle.28 Figure Nine:
‘The New Bridge Pandon Dean 1821’ by John Knox shows a view south through Pandon Dean towards the river Tyne.
Due to its location on the outskirts of the town the dean hosted larger residences
22
1870
with long gardens backing onto the burn. In Oliver’s 1830 map two projected streets; Northumberland Road and Lovaine Crescent are shown [Figure Seven[, these streets were constructed in the mid-19th century while the burn remained open. The provided rows of neat residences with private gardens surrounding the sweeping ravine that was interrupted, only occasionally, by a water mill [Figure Nine]. Like Grey Street, Lovaine Crescent has characteristics determined by the burn. When built, it followed a broad arc around a bend in the steep ravine that fell to the former watercourse. Mackenzie gives an attractive view of the houses, saying they possess ‘the advantage of an, open, southern aspect, and of an interesting view down the dean.’29 Subsequent ordnance 1940
survey maps from the late 19th century show, first, the dean behind the houses
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being filled and then large industrial and government buildings gradually filling
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Andrew Alfred Nelson Newcastle
the area bound by the two aforementioned streets.30 Despite the loss of the dean, some of the private gardens survived well into the 20th century until the land was acquired to provide car parking for the city. This whole area was again flattened in the 1960’s to make way for the new Civic Centre of Newcastle upon Tyne, whereby the broad arc of houses on Lovaine crescent were themselves lost leaving little trace of the former watercourse. The 1960’s redevelopment of the land did however ensure some of the land returned to recreational use. An area in front of the civic centre has been landscaped and includes water features and ponds, in my opinion perhaps a homage to the forgotten watercourse. © Landmark Information Group Ltd and Crown copyright 2014. FOR EDUCATIONAL USE ONLY.
Figure Ten:
Ordnance Survey maps from 1870 and 1940 show the loss of the Pandon Burn. Scale 1:2500 0
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Jan 20, 2014 17:09 Andrew Alfred Nelson Newcastle
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used to exist [Figure Eleven]. For example a street simply named ‘Pandon’ runs parallel to the river Tyne. In historical maps other streets, since demolished,
also had Pandon in their name for example in Oliver’s map a street called ‘New Pandon’ follows the exact line of a culverted portion of the dean [Figure Seven]. Additionally a building named Pandongate House exists today, situated roughly where the burn intersected the medieval town wall.
Figure Eleven:
Street signs around town remind us of the lost burns.
In the early 20th century further extensive rail infrastructure was built including a new line connection between Newcastle and Edinburgh. The railway was built on reclaimed land that followed the line of the former dean before continuing northwards from the western end of Lovaine Crescent. The route of the Central Motorway now follows this line, once again splitting the city into two.
Unlike the Lort Burn area, little evidence of the Pandon Burn remains. The physical evidence that existed in the architecture of the private houses was lost in the 20th century with the demolition of the streets. However, like the Lort Burn, street names near the Quayside remind us that the Pandon Burn
Reid, D.B. (1845) Report on the state of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and other towns. London: W. Clowes and Sons, for Her Majesty’s Stationary Office. p. 95. 23 ibid., p. 72. 24 Legislation.gov.uk. (2013) Public Health Act 1875. [online] Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/38-39/55/contents [Accessed: 3rd Nov 2013]. 25 Reid, D.B. (1845) Report on the state of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and other towns. London: W. Clowes and Sons, for Her Majesty’s Stationary Office. p. 96. 26 Richardson, M.A. (1846) A guide through Newcastle upon Tyne and its vacinity. 2nd ed. Newcastle upon Tyne: M.A. Richardson. p. 283. 27 Mackenzie, E. (1827) A descriptive and historical account of the town and county of Newcastle upon Tyne: including the borough of Gateshead. Newcastle upon Tyne: Mackenzie and Dent. pp.186-187. 28 Harvey, J. (1794) A sentimental tour through Newcastle; By a young lady. Newcastle: A. Akenhead. p. FIND 29 Mackenzie, E. (1827) A descriptive and historical account of the town and county of Newcastle upon Tyne: including the borough of Gateshead. Newcastle upon Tyne: Mackenzie and Dent. p.192. 30 Ordnance Survey. (2011) 20th Century Newcastle upon Tyne. Generated by A. Nelson; using Digimap Roam. URL: http://edina.ac.uk/digimap/index.shtml [31 August 2013]. 22
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The Ouseburn The Ouseburn is the most easterly Tyne tributary within the city of Newcastle. Unlike the other burns, It remains the most open as only a small portion of it, about 600 metres, has been diverted into a culvert to allow levelling of the land above.
Sitting outside the city walls, the lower Ouseburn valley was once a busy industrial area using the watercourse for its power potential and transport links. Early
Figure Twelve:
The Ouseburn culvert under
construction in the early 1900’s.
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Ordnance Survey maps from the mid-19th century show an area full of industrial
may be taken by way of the New-Bridge, which was opened in 1812, the great
activity separate from the town of Newcastle. An area of agricultural land called
altitude and boldness of design of which render it a piece of work well worthy of
‘Battlefield’ separated the valley from Newcastle until the early 20th century.
a visit.’ Again he shows appreciation for both the land and the industrial.
By this time the expanding town encroaching from the West has engulfed the Ouseburn valley. The burn made access to the new housing estates of Heaton
In more recent years, trusts and organisations, such as the Ouseburn Trust, have
and Byker difficult due to its steep ravine, so, culverting of a small section of the
been established to promote the regeneration of the Ouseburn. The decline in
burn began in 1907 [Figure Twelve]. The culvert was finished by 1911, allowing
industry after the industrial revolution boom meant many of the factories in the
better road links, however, covering of the culvert with industrial rubbish from
valley fell into disrepair and a state of ruin. The Ouseburn Trust was set up to
the town carried on until the 1950’s when the land became an undesirable area
promote fresh investment and encourage new businesses to take residence
known locally as ‘The Tip’.31 The poor reputation and low economic value of the
in the valley.34 Since the 1980’s numerous properties have been remodelled
land led to the council using it for a public park and running track in the 1960’s.
to accommodate new functions. Examples include The Biscuit Factory and
The government has since put laws in place making it illegal to build on landfill
The Toffee Factory, both of which now provide spaces for ‘creative industries,
sites, such as this in the Ouseburn. As a result the land has remained mostly
innovation and tourism’ [Figure Thirteen].
derelict unlike other culverted areas in Newcastle.32
In contrast to the lower valley, the upper Ouseburn has remained an uninterrupted open recreational space. In 1880 Sir William Armstrong, the engineer famous for designing Newcastle’s Swing Bridge, laid out walks and planted a large part of the valley from Jesmond Dene House to Jesmond Vale Lane creating ‘Armstrong Park’ which he gifted three years later to the city along with another length of the burn known as ‘Jesmond Dene’.33 Describing a walk from the mouth of the Ouse to Jesmond in 1838, Richardson says a ‘very agreeable walk
Figure Thirteen:
Advertising campaign by the Ouseburn Trust to promote the valley regeneration.
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In 2009, the Ouseburn Barrage was completed [Figure Fourteen]. This provides 35
a more pleasant environment by eliminating the smell caused by the exposed river banks by maintaining a higher tide in the burn. The implementation of the barrage has helped promote development by creating potential for businesses to utilise the burn-side location more readily. For example the Ouseburn Festival now takes place every year in venues both indoor and outdoor throughout the valley. In addition, The Toffee Factory has flexible outdoor space under a bridge arch adjacent to the burn used for performances and ‘pop-up events’.36
Due to the Ouseburn remaining mostly open, unlike the other burns, it has the potential to become a bustling area once again providing attractive outdoor space for the city like that which was lost in the Pandon Burn area. Contrary to other areas in the town where a change in use from recreational to a built environment has been permanent, at the Ouseburn, the land has remained more adaptable and a reverse from industrial to public has been easily achievable with minimal intervention. Morgan, A. (1995) Bygone Lower Ouseburn. Newcastle upon Tyne: Newcastle upon Tyne City Libraries & Arts. pp. 4-5. 32 Ouseburnnewcastle.org. (2014) Ouseburn - Regeneration 1930’s to the Present. [online] Available at: http://www.ouseburnnewcastle.org/home/regeneration/regeneration-1930-present/ [Accessed: 14 Dec 2014]. 33 Barke, M. and Buswell, R.J. (1992) Newcastle’s Changing Map. Newcastle upon Tyne: Newcastle upon Tyne City Libraries & Arts. pp. 54-55. 34 Ouseburntrust.org.uk. (2013) Aims & Objectives - Ouseburn Trust. [online] Available at: http://ouseburntrust.org.uk/index.php?page=aims-objectives [Accessed: 14 Dec 2013]. 35 Ouseburnnewcastle.org. (2013) Ouseburn Barrage. [online] Available at: http://www.ouseburnnewcastle.org/store/OuseburnBarrage.pdf [Accessed: 14 Dec 2013]. 36 Toffeefactory.co.uk. (2013) Event Space. [online] Available at: http://www.toffeefactory. co.uk/meetings-events/ [Accessed: 14 Dec 2013]. 31
Figure Fourteen:
The Ouseburn Barrage.
28
6
29
Beyond Newcastle To provide further examples in relation to the effect that watercourses have on land use, I have extended the scope of my research in this chapter to include specific examples where alternative approaches have been taken.
Part One: The Tyne The contributories of the Tyne mentioned in previous chapters have had significant impact on the city plan, however, we must also remember that had it not been for the River Tyne itself, the city would not be where it is today. Many Roman settlements throughout the empire were positioned on rivers to provide trade links, fresh water and food for the inhabitants - qualities that Pons Aelius was no exception to. The Tyne also provided a defensive quality for the settlement, as it was more difficult for enemies to attack from water than from land. It should be noted that when the town walls were constructed, there was never a defensive wall built along the quay, the river was considered to provide ample protection.
Along the Tyne there are several examples environmental and social impacts resulting from land reclamation and, indeed, where land has been given up to watercourses. For example at the source of the River North
30
Tyne in Northumberland, the construction of Kielder Reservoir in the 1970’s
centres have been established around the reservoir, taking advantage of the
meant upheaval for several farms which were to be lost when the valley was
man made landscape.
dammed and flooded.37 Socially this meant that communities were split up and dispersed throughout the wider landscape, and environmentally, changes in
At the opposite end of the river, Jarrow Slake provides another example of land
the landscape inevitably had an effect on the local flora and fauna. However,
being reclaimed for industrial purposes. In the 19th century the slake was a tidal
without the reservoir, communities further down the Tyne would struggle to
inlet on the Tyne marking the point where a contributory, the River Don, met the
meet water demands, so a balance had to be struck between the rights of local
river. The slake, and area of tidal mud flats, was used to treat wood imported
residents and the rising demand for water across the entire region. Additionally,
from overseas. In maps predating 1980, a grid of vertical posts is visible which
the incorporation of a hydro-electric plant into the dam has utilised the power of
were used to hold the wood floating on the water for treatment [Figure Fifteen].
the water. Since completion of the dam in 1980, holiday parks and recreational
Repeated soaking and drying as the tide changed created a robust wood that was in high demand. However, with the change of manufacturing that came with the industrial revolution the use of the land started to alter, portions of the slake were brought above sea level to accommodate railways bringing coal from the mines of the wider North East to the banks of the Tyne for worldwide distribution. By 1890 approximately one third of the slake has been turned over to this use. The timber posts remained in place until the 1990’s when the remaining slake was reclaimed to accommodate a new car port. Meanwhile the river Don underwent changes as well, one section was redirected to take a more direct route allowing the construction of the Tyne Tunnel, another was diverted around the edge of the slake before joining the Tyne.
Figure Fifteen:
Jarrow Slake in1973 prior to land reclamation.
Five miles west of Newcastle is the semi-rural village of Newburn which is thought
31
to have taken its name from the river that once ran through it. Like the burns of
Part Two: Beyond The Tyne
city centre, the burn runs culverted under the village carrying water to the river
East of the city of Manchester, the river Medlock flows open before being
Tyne. In September 2012 widespread flooding hit the north east of England
channelled underground into the heart of the city centre [Figure Sixteen].
causing numerous burns and rivers to burst their banks, including Newburn.38
Manchester City council is committed to providing desirable new public spaces
The sheer volume of water running through the culvert, now known to have
by creating purposeful hubs of activity rather than ‘incidental’ open spaces.40
been previously damaged, caused the land to become saturated. The culvert
The council identified the potential of the Medlock providing desirable open
collapsed during the storm endangering a housing estate (Spencer Court) built
space for new city centre communities. Work is underway to return the river to
on the reclaimed land above. Forty million litres of water was pumped out of
a more natural land feature. Eight million of the famous Accrington bricks that
the estate to reveal the collapsed land which left apartment block foundations
form the culvert carrying the watercourse are being ripped up and recycled
precariously exposed. As a consequence of the land being washed away in
allowing the river to adapt a slower flowing natural course that will encourage
the floods, one block of apartments had to be demolished the following month.
the return of wildlife.41 The Medlock regeneration programme also contributes
Extensive repairs were required also to make the culvert and remaining housing blocks safe again. Neither Dunelm Homes, the property developer who built the apartments, or Northumberland Estates, who own the land through which the culvert runs, has accepted liability. Both had performed checks on the culvert in the ten years preceding the collapse, however, perhaps this disaster could have been avoided if it had been made clear whose responsibility it was to carry out a more regular and thorough scheme of inspections. Despite repairs to the culvert, in January 2013 another block was demolished as repairing the foundations would risk damaging the newly repaired culvert.39 The culvert collapse at Newburn shows that natural watercourses can still find their natural, quickest path when given the opportunity to do so.
Figure Sixteen:
Medlock culvert under construction on the outskirts of Manchester city.
32
to part of the UK government’s response to a wider European scheme aiming to ‘breathe life back into natural waterways across the continent by 2027’.42 Additionally, the scheme is backed by the Environment Agency as part of its pledge to restore some of the 9000 miles of lost river nationally.43
An example where planners have successfully managed to contain a watercourse and not allow it to effect the town plan can be found in London. While building Sloane Square tube station, Victorian engineers had to contend with and divert the River Westbourne, a contributory of the Thames. This is now contained within an iron pipe suspended above the station platforms [Figure Seventeen].44 Like Newcastle, London has an extensive underground network of tunnels and culverts diverting water courses and occasionally small glimpses, like at Sloane Square, remind us of the lost waterways.
Keystothepast.info. (2012) Falstone. [online] Available at: http://www.keystothepast.info/ Pages/pgDetail.aspx?PRN=N13253 [Accessed: 10 Jan 2014]. 38 BBC News. (2012) Homes could collapse after flood. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc. co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-19710257 [Accessed: 17 Jan 2014]. 39 ITV News. (2014) Full Report: More Newburn flats to be demolished. [online] Available at: http://www.itv.com/news/tyne-tees/update/2014-01-15/full-report-more-newburn-flats-to-bedemolished/ [Accessed: 10 Jan 2014]. 40 Kellie, E. (2010) Rebuilding Manchester. Derby: DB Publishing. pp. 224 – 225. 41 Mckie, R. (2013) Britain’s lost rivers resurrected and freed to go with the flow. [online] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/oct/13/britain-lost-rivers [Accessed: 18 Nov 2013]. 42 Europa.eu. (2013) The EU Water Framework Directive - integrated river basin management for Europe. [online] Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/ [Accessed: 20 Nov 2013]. 43 BBC News. (2013) Britain’s hidden ‘red river’ resurrected. [online] Available at: http://www. bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24562282 [Accessed: 18 Nov 2013]. 44 Jones, I. (2012) The river over Sloane Square. [online] Available at: http://150greatthingsabo uttheunderground.com/2012/11/28/69-the-river-over-sloane-square/ [Accessed: 20 Nov 2013]. 37
Figure Seventeen:
The river Westbourne passing over the platforms at Sloane Square tube station.
7
33
Conclusion The city of Newcastle upon Tyne showcases many examples where former watercourses have had an effect on the city despite intervention from man. Some of the physical effects exist today whereas others only survive in the form of genteel reminders of the past. Additionally, subtle reminders such as street names also remind us of the presence of hidden water. I have summarised my finding on these effects into four categories: the effect on architectural characteristics; the effect on infrastructure; environmental impact and finally the social impact.
Effect on Architecture The valleys which made Newcastle an appealing site for Roman settlement once characterised the area within the medieval town walls. After the infilling of the dean’s, the resulting curves and inclines that followed the course of the former meandering streams determined certain characteristics of the towns architecture. The Lort Burn and Skinner Burn provided foundations for Grey Street and The Forth respectively. Grey Street follows a sweeping incline producing a naturally picturesque effect. Richard Grainger’s design and build of grand neoclassical buildings resulted in the street being recently named one of the most beautiful in Britain. Likewise, the private housing at Lovaine Crescent
34
seemed to create similar acclaim in the 19th century. Unfortunately, the need
Effect on Infrastructure
for infrastructure that arrived with the industrial revolution meant the loss of
Whilst access to the city was always available via the river Tyne, on the land,
these buildings. In contrast The Forth has a much steeper incline and hosted
transport around the town was problematic. Prior to the infilling of the deans,
only industrial buildings and warehouses up until the 21st century. Where
they restricted lateral movement across the city. Initially, when space was
appropriate, the warehouses are being incorporated into a redevelopment
ample, this problem was solved with bridges, for example the New Bridge which
scheme, however, most have been lost. New buildings in the development have
spanned the Pandon Burn. However, with the advent of the industrial revolution
required massive excavations in order to achieve stability due to the nature
and population growth, space within the town became scarcer and the land
of the land. In a different way, many of the industrial facilities aligned to the
was levelled. The levelled land provided opportunity for much better road links
relatively unscathed Ouseburn have been redeveloped rather than demolished.
to be made. For example, the Ouseburn culvert allowed new housing estates east of Newcastle to be connected to the city by the way of new roads. The
In conclusion the characteristics of the reclaimed land drove much of the
reclaimed land was also used to accommodate rail infrastructure built during
original architecture that was built on it. Where the original buildings have been
the industrial revolution. This would otherwise have demanded mass demolition
demolished and the land redeveloped, the land features have had less impact
of existing buildings to accommodate the large rail warehouses. The line of the
on the architecture, rather the land has been adapted rather than the building.
19th century railway connecting Newcastle to Edinburgh followed the line of the
Where the watercourses remained open, the burns and deans had less effect
Pandon Burn for a small part of its course and more lately the Central Motorway
on the architecture, however, in these places the architecture has stood the test
was built on this route. In overcoming the natural division that the valley had
of time and mostly still remains. The effect on the architecture within the city has
once created, now divisions were erected in the form of rail and road networks.
been controlled, however, at Newburn the forgotten stream had an unforeseen and disastrous effect on the architecture when the culvert collapsed. The
In summary the watercourses that divided the original settlement weren’t
collapse led to demolition of several homes and brought to public attention the
always considered a negative feature, it has only been during the last three
potential impacts hidden watercourses can have on our towns and cities.
centuries that they have been deemed an inconvenience. Despite intervention and development of better road and rail links, the routes of the original
watercourses still create divisions, although they are now echoed through the
and no doubt helped the Ouseburn Trust promote the area.
35
massive infrastructure developments such as the central motorway. Therefore, it could be said that all intervention on a watercourse has an Effect on Environment
environmental impact as any change inevitably alters it in some way.
In 1845 Dr. Reid raised awareness of the insanitary conditions within Newcastle.
Nevertheless, in Newcastle, the addressing of one problem (the open
This prompted changes in law that demanded improvements to sewerage in the
sewerage) has led to another (industrial land fill) and evidence of both problems
city. Of particular concern was the state of the Lort burn as it had been used
occasionally presents itself even today.
as an open-air sewer and the fear that it was rapidly spreading waterborne diseases. The sewerage unsurprisingly had a knock on effect on the ecology
Social Impact
of the Tyne and burns, reducing fish stocks.45 Although the remaining culverted
Socially, the main effect of the burns was the divisions they created within
rivers still carry waste, it is now treated before re-entering the Tyne. However,
the town. For example, in the 18th and 19th centuries the majority of people
during high tides and at times with significant rainfall, the culverts still have a
resided in small dwellings in the ‘chares’ in the centre of town while the gentry
tendency to back-fill and cause problems in the cities drainage system.
lived in grander houses on the outskirts of the town overlooking the streams. The infilling of the burns meant the majority of recreational space within the
When the Ouseburn culvert had been completed, the land above was used as
city was lost and consequently town folk had to travel further for respite from
a tip for industrial waste creating an unsightly environment. Not only did the
the insanitary town centre. On the other hand, the in-filled burns provided land
waste pollute the land, it also meant that the use of the land was limited as new
for new building projects which ultimately created more jobs. The improved
laws prevented building on wasteland. The council dealt with this by tidying up
infrastructures also opened up the expansion of the town to incorporate social
the land and turning it into a public park. Despite best intentions however, the
housing estates to the west. More recently, the alterations to the Ouseburn
park is now redundant and rarely used leaving an unloved waste of space. One
have enabled new companies to set up business in the area again creating
of the more successful interventions on the Ouseburn is the Ouseburn Barrage
more jobs. In Grainger’s central development, the buildings now house many
which, since its completion, has created a pleasant recreational environment
shops, bars and restaurants, all of which make Newcastle an attractive place to
36
visit and helped it achieve the Academy of Urbanism’s ‘Great Neighbourhood
of my research, especially given that approximately 70% of the world’s surface
Award’ in 2008.46
is covered in water, it has nonetheless provided numerous examples where watercourses have affected the city as detailed in previous chapters.
The collapsed culvert at Newburn has also understandably had a negative effect on the lives of many who lost their homes but on a wider scale, also
Despite mans interventions, I believe there is clear evidence that watercourses
raised awareness of our hidden infrastructure and instigated increased public
continue to have an impact on the evolving structures of our cities. As a result, I
anxiety.
believe architects have a responsibility to take this into account when designing new landscapes and buildings to avoid the risk of repeating mistakes made by
Overall, social impacts have changed with time, housing previously centred
our predecessors. Additionally, I think it is essential that those watercourses that
around the burns has gradually been dispersed to the outer reaches of the
are now hidden or lost are remembered in buildings, be it via building design,
city, whereas existing, more central, burns are gradually returning to use for
names or landscaping.
recreational and social purposes.
Evaluation The aim of this dissertation was to analyse the impacts of hidden watercourses on our cities. I have used Newcastle upon Tyne as the major case study although I have also included some wider analogies to form comparisons. My focus was mainly on, but not limited to, the lost burns of Newcastle. Examples where burns that still run open have had influence on the wider city plan have also been included. Palmer, W. J. (1882) The Tyne and it’s Tributaries. London: George Bell and Sons. p. 223. Academyofurbanism.org.uk. (2014). The Academy’s Great Places 2007 – 2014. [online] Available at: http://www.academyofurbanism.org.uk/awards/great-places/ [Accessed: 15 Jan 2014]. 45
Whilst there are limitations in using the river Tyne and its tributaries as the focus
46
37
List of Illustrations Figure One: Author’s photograph.
Available at: http://www.twmuseums.org.uk/engage/blog/the-real-barras-bridge-andnewcastles-beautiful-lost-dean/ [Accessed 4th January 2014]
Figure Two: Ordinance Survey (2013) Newcastle upon Tyne: Geology Study, 1:10,000. EDINA Digimap [online] Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library
Figure Ten: Ordinance Survey (2013) The Pandon Burn, 1:2500. EDINA Digimap [on-
<http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk> [Accessed 24th May 2013].
line] Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library <http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk> [Accessed 3rd November 2013]
Figure Three: John Speed (1610) Newecastle [Map] Available at: http://www.picturesofgateshead.co.uk/local_maps/photo1.jpg [Accessed 20th August 2013]
Figure Eleven: Author’s Photograph
Figure Four: Remnants of Highbridge [Photo]. In: Goulding, C. (1995) Hidden New-
Figure Twelve: The Ouseburn, looking south, c1907 [Photo]. In: Goulding, C. (1995)
castle. Newcastle upon Tyne: Newcastle City Libraries & Arts. p. 19.
Hidden Newcastle. Newcastle upon Tyne: Newcastle City Libraries & Arts. p. 9.
Figure Five: James Corbridge (1723) Newcastle-upon-Tyne [Map] Available at: http://
Figure Thirteen: Author’s photograph.
www.forthbc.org.uk/history/map.html [Accessed 20th August 2013] Figure Fourteen: Author’s photograph. Figure Six: Author’s photoraph. Figure Fifteen: Jarrow Slake [Photogtaph]. In: Perry, P. (1991) A Portrait of Old JarFigure Seven: Ordinance Survey (2014) Swirle Burn, 1:2500. EDINA Digimap [online]
row. S.B. Publications. p. 102.
Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library <http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk> [Accessed 4th January 2014].
Figure Sixteen: The Culverted River Medlock [Photo] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/oct/13/britain-lost-rivers [Accessed 18th November
Figure Eight: Thomas Oliver (1833) Plan of Newcastle upon Tyne and the Bor-
2013]
ough of Gateshead [Map] Available at: http://www.flickr.com/photos/74726036@ N04/7290670824/ [Accessed 22nd May 2013]
Figure Seventeen: Ian Jones (2012) Sloane Square [Photo] Available at: http://15 0greatthingsabouttheunderground.com/2012/11/28/69-the-river-over-sloane-square/
Figure Nine: John Knox (1821) The New Bridge Pandon Dean 1821 [Engraving]
[Accessed 18th November 2013]
38
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