Chinese grammar by Andy Gui

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Chinese Grammar Step by Step

Chinese Grammar Step by Step is a useful, easy to understand reference guide to the Chinese language. Based on the Grammar Syllabus in the International Curriculum for Chinese Language Education, issued by The Office of Chinese Language Council International, it organises grammar topics in a progressive manner and offers a clear, concise explanation for each language point. Refreshingly presented in a manner that makes learning easy, it is the first guide to Chinese grammar for learners at all levels.

ල ឥ ឥ ก

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Chinese Grammar

Key features include: • key structures with sample sentences clearly presented; • useful examples with grammatical features marked out in colour to aid understanding; • Chinese text accompanied by pinyin and English translations; • engaging exercises with full answer key; • supplementary tips as extended language points to draw connections with other usages; • comparison with the English language where relevant; and • a glossary of grammatical terms to enhance understanding.

A well written and beautifully designed book. The grammar point coverage is adequate with clear explanations and useful exercises. Ruilan Yuan, Oxley College, Victoria, Australia

I especially like the way the book categorises the grammar points… Students will know what grammar points they should master before they advance to the next level. Hsiu-jen Elsie Chang, Cinci Ranch High School, Texas, USA

Step by Step

The grammatical points in this book are presented in a much simpler way that students in secondary schools and universities could understand and learn… Jixing Xu, Chinese Language Teachers’ Association of Victoria, Australia

ISBN-13: 978-981-4352-54-3 ISBN-10: 981-4352-54-3

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Chinese Grammar Step by Step

լ‫ڲ‬ቡ James Wu

ᄇ᳓ Bai Lu Ǒ‫ڍ‬ᬄලឥஓߥ᤯ၸាርܷጨǒឥกសౡ A Guide to the Grammar Syllabus in the International Curriculum for Chinese Language Education (by Hanban, China)

90000

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Chinese Grammar Step by Step

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James Wu Bai Lu

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C O N T E N T S ᄬै Acknowledgements

Foreword (1)

Message from the Authors

VII

Foreword (2)

ʷጟឦข

Stage 1

Common measure words (I) ࣢ၹ᧚ឈ (ʷ)

The conjunction h9 ᤌឈþ֗ÿ

Sentences with verbal predicates

1.2

3 4

1.1 Sh#

Stage 2

General questions with ma, ba and ne ၹþՙÿǌ þբÿǌ þքÿᄊʷᓊႡ᫈Բ

Questions with ma

ၹþՙÿᄊႡ᫈Բ 2.2

Questions with ba

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ၹþբÿᄊႡ᫈Բ 2.3

Questions with ne

ၹþքÿᄊႡ᫈Բ

2.1

Sentences with adjectival predicates

̄ጟឦข

sentences þ௧ÿߚԲ Y6u sentences þదÿߚԲ

үឈ់ឦԲ

Time expressions ௑ᫎՐឈ 1.1 Expressing the year, month and day ࣲǌథǌெᄊ᛫᣺

1.2

Expressing days of the week ௡రᄊ᛫᣺

1.3

Expressing a certain point or period of time ௑གˁ௑඀ᄊ᛫᣺

Expressing price in RMB

Sentences with nominal predicates

Time expressions as adverbials ௑ᫎ࿄ឦ

ᇯΎԲὉ᛫ᇨឰරǌ֑̾኎

Locations as adverbials ‫ڡ‬ག࿄ឦ

Exclamatory sentences ਖՄԲ

The possessive de ਫ਼࡛Тጇᄊ᛫᣺

Personal pronouns ̡ሦ̽ឈ 8.1 Plural forms of personal pronouns

Directional words வͯឈ 7.1 Simple directional words

ॎࠔឈ់ឦԲ

Sentences with nominal predicates

4 5

Րឈ់ឦԲ

Negative sentences with b& ၹþˀÿᄊաࠀԲ

Imperative sentences: For polite request

‫ܭ‬஝̡ሦ̽ឈ 8.2

Demonstrative pronouns ૉᇨ̽ឈ

9 10

Adverbs of degree as adverbials

ሮएҞឈͻ࿄ឦ

Numerals ஝ឈ

Րឈ់ឦԲ

እӭவͯឈ

22 24

̡ඟࣉᨑ஝ᄊ᛫᣺

7.2

Compound directional words

7.3

Postpositional phrases

Ռੇவͯឈ வͯឈጸ

Questions with interrogative pronouns ၹႡ᫈̽ឈᄊྲ൴Ⴁ᫈Բ

44 46

54 55 55 58

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Existential sentences ߛ‫ښ‬ᄊ᛫᣺ 9.1 Z3i sentences þ‫ښ‬ÿߚԲ 9.2 Y6u sentences þదÿߚԲ 9.3 Sh# sentences þ௧ÿߚԲ

60 60 61

Expressing distance ᡰሏᄊ᛫᣺

Expressing wish or desire with y3o and xi2ng ਓਝᄊ᛫᣺Ὁ þ᜶ÿǌ þਇÿ

The de pronominals þᄊÿߚፇ౞

14 15

þඋÿߚԲᄊաࠀ

102

Sentences with a double object

105

ᤌүԲ

107

Alternative questions ᤥહႡ᫈Բ

109

Expressing a brief duration ᛫᣺ᆁఇ௑඀ 69 13.1 Duplication of verbs үឈ᧘ԯ

Affirmative-negative questions

111

13.2 Y~xi3r ʷʾЈ

Common measure words (II) ࣢ၹ᧚ឈ (̄)

Sentences with multi-verbal compounds

൤ԦႡ᫈Բ

Questions with z0nme

ၹþট˦ÿᄊវ᫈வर

Adverbs of scope ᔵ‫ڊ‬Ҟឈͻ࿄ឦ

16.1 N9ng ᑟ

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ʼጟឦข

1.2 Xi3ng Ք

1.3 W2ng ड़

1.4 C5ng…d3o… ̰ĀĀ҂ĀĀ

Expressing action in progress ͈̃൤‫ښ‬ᤉᛡᄊ᛫᣺

The particle zhe Ұឈþᅌÿᄊၹข

Existential sentences ߛဘԲ

The particle le Ұឈþ̀ÿᄊၹข

Negative sentences with m9i(y6u) ၹþ෥ἷదἸÿᄊաࠀԲ

Expressing similarity and dissimilarity

Comparative structures (I) උᣗԲ (ʷ) 99 8.1 Structures with b@ þඋÿߚԲ

ዝՏᄊ᛫᣺

118 119

16.4 Y~ngg`i ऄស

120

16.5 Yu3ny# ਝਓ

122

Prepositions: Introducing persons

124 125

17.1 G8n ᡲ 17.2 G0i ፌ

80 81 82 83

1.1 C5ng ̰

16.3 K0y@ Ի̿

118

̮ឈὉळᤉࠫ៶ͻ࿄ឦ

Prepositions: Introducing place or direction ̮ឈὉळᤉቇᫎவͯͻ࿄ឦ

115

Modal verbs ᑟਝүឈ 16.2 Hu# ͘

Stage 3

113

Question tags ၹþট˦ನ὎ÿþ‫ݞ‬ՙ὎ÿ þԻ̿ՙ὎ÿ þᛡՙ὎ÿᄊႡ᫈Բ

76 77

15.2 Y0 ˷

ԥࠖឦԲ

15.1 D4u ᦐ

100

The adverb zu# Ҟឈþతÿ

Negation of b@ structures

8.2

Stage 4 1

‫پ‬ጟឦข

127

Adverbs of time as adverbial ௑ᫎҞឈͻ࿄ឦ

1.4 C1i and ji&þ੦ÿ֗þࡃÿ

128 128 129 131

The particle le Ұឈþ̀ÿᄊၹข

The particle guo Ұឈþ᣿ÿᄊၹข

Complements of time ௑᧚ᛪឦ

Complements of action ү᧚ᛪឦ

1.1 H1i ᤇ 1.2 Y@j~ng ࣃፃ 1.3 Z3i and y7uþгÿ֗þԡÿ

5.1 C# ൓

136 139

142

145

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146 146 146 147

5.2 Bi3n ᥆ 5.3 T3ng ᡙ 5.4 Hu! ‫ ڀ‬ 5.5 D&n ᮐ

Comparative structures (II) උᣗԲ (̄)

149

Pivotal sentences ЪឦԲ

151

The sh#…de construction

9.3

Supposition: r%gu6 (y3oshi)…ji&…

9.4

Addition: b&d3n…9rqi0…

9.5

Contrast: su~r1n…d3nsh#…

163

Verbs as resultative complements

1.3

Negating complements of result

үឈͻፇ౧ᛪឦ

165

ፇ౧ᛪឦᄊաࠀ

᛫ᇨ଎᝷Ὁ௅ཀྵĀĀࡃĀĀ

8.2

Concession: J!sh@…y0…

8.3

“Non-condition”: W%l&n…d4u…

ፇ౧ᛪឦᄊԻᑟर

Positive form ᐰࠀᄊԻᑟर Negative form աࠀᄊԻᑟर

Common complements of possibility

Complements of direction ᡖՔᛪឦ 4.1 Simple complements of direction

࣢ၹᄊԻᑟᛪឦ

እӭᡖՔᛪឦ

᛫ᇨᝨ൦ὉԁΎĀĀ˷ĀĀ

8.4

Choice: B&sh#…ji&sh#…

8.5

Preference: N#ngk0…y0…

᛫ᇨᤥહὉˀ௧ĀĀࡃ௧ĀĀ ᛫ᇨ‫ݞ؞‬Ὁ߱ԻĀĀ˷ĀĀ

192 193

᛫ᇨþ௄౎͈ÿὉ௄᝷ĀĀᦐĀĀ

Appendices

166

Complements of possibility

2.2

190

194 195 196

164

1.2

2.1

183

Compound sentences (II): Conjunctions and conjunctives ‫ܭ‬Բˁᤌឈἷ̄Ἰ 8.1 Inference: J#r1n…ji&…

Complements of result ፇ౧ᛪឦ 1.1 Adjectives as resultative complements ॎࠔឈͻፇ౧ᛪឦ

The passive voice ᜂүਓ˧ᄊ᛫᣺ 7.1 Notional passive ਓ˧ʽᄊᜂүԲ 188 188 7.2 The b-i construction þᜂÿߚԲ 7.3 The sh#…de construction

158

̋ጟឦข

180

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᛫ᇨࠫඋὉᙊཀྵĀĀͮ௧ĀĀ

157

ࣜүឈԪ̃

þ௧ĀĀᄊÿԲर

157

᛫ᇨ຋ҫὉˀͮĀĀᏫ˅ĀĀ

With a recipient object

The b2 construction þંÿߚԲ

156

᛫ᇨϜ᝺Ὁ‫ݠ‬౧ (᜶௧)ĀĀࡃĀĀ

179

6 155

᛫ᇨ‫ڂ‬౧ТጇὉ‫˞ڂ‬ĀĀਫ਼̿ĀĀ

Stage 5

Complements of degree ሮएᛪឦ 5.1 Without a recipient object

175

Cause and effect: y~nw-i…su6y@…

ᡖՔᛪឦᄊԻᑟर

9.2

᛫ᇨЏՑ൓ऀὉЏĀĀгĀĀ

174

5.2

‫ܭ‬Բˁᤌឈ (ʷ)

Order and succession: xi`n…z3i…

172

Extended uses of complements of direction ᡖՔᛪឦᄊळႂၹข Creating potential complements

௄үឈԪ̃

Compound sentences (I): Conjunctions and conjunctives 9.1

‫ܭ‬ՌᡖՔᛪឦ

4.3

Compound complements of direction

4.4

153

ྲ൴ԲरὉ þ௧ĀĀᄊÿ

4.2

168

170

172

168

205

Answer Key ԠᏦንವ

206

Table of Key Structures Բ‫ی‬᛫

224

Glossary of Grammatical Terms ឦขషឦ᛫

232

Index ጊळ

235

References ԠᏦ஡࿹

239

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Acknowledgements We would like to express our most sincere gratitude to John Cleghorn, Minister of Uniting Church, Australia, and to Michael Shaw, Chinese Department, Melbourne Grammar School, Australia, for their role as the English reviewers of this book. Their commitment, hard work and tremendous support have contributed much to the success of this work. We would also like to thank the following reviewers who offered many helpful insights, ideas and much constructive feedback during the editorial process:

Hsiu-jen Elsie Chang Cinco Ranch High School, Texas, USA

•

Xin Chen Berkeley High School, California, USA

•

Marion Chiu Wellington East Girls' College, New Zealand

•

Kenneth Dee San Marino High School, California, USA

•

Elizabeth Downing Whitehouse Preparatory School, North Carolina Virtual Public School, New Jersey, USA

•

Wei Ha President Chinese Language Teachers’ Federation of Australia

Chinese Grammar Step by Step

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Mariam Fan Saratoga High School, California, USA

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Shaohua Que The Chinese Language Teachers Network Coordinator ACT Department of Education and Training, Australia

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Qiao Xiao Chinese Learning Area Leader Caulfield Grammar School, Caulfield Campus, Australia

•

Jixing Xu President Chinese Language Teachers’ Association of Victoria, Australia

•

Ruilan Yuan Head of LOTE Oxley College, Victoria, Australia

Erica Pollard Hingham High School, Massachusetts, USA

•

Faraday Pang Assistant Head of Languages Faculty Presbyterian Ladies' College, Sydney, Australia

•

Evelyn Man Confucius Institute Officer, Business Services Curriculum & Learning Innovation Centre, Australia

•

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Message from the Authors In recent times, the usual approach to language teaching and learning in the Western world has emphasised fun, hands-on activities and the development of communicative skills. These methods encourage students to enjoy the language, but they are only useful in the primary stage of learning Chinese. Once the students are required to compose written materials or present oral reports, they need to master the grammatical rules of the language. Hence, it is the authors’ intention to write a book which will target the most important Chinese grammatical points, giving full explanation and providing various drills for students to have a good grasp of the language.

This book is written for Chinese language students with an English background. Its structure is largely based on the grammar items listed in the International Curriculum for Chinese Language Education (ǒ‫ڎ‬ᬅ඾ឦஔߦᤰၹិሮܸጩǓ) published by The Office of Chinese Language Council International, China ( Hanban, ‫ࠒڎ‬඾ҩ ). The authors’ main aim is to provide a simple, clear and concise explanation for each grammatical point under discussion.

While this book is largely based on the grammar items listed in the Curriculum by Hanban, slight modifications have been made to provide greater clarity and ease of reference for the learner. These modifications take the following forms:

• Integration — Some contents have been re-organised into relevant sections (e.g. the original Chapter 9, Stage 4, Questions with zenmele (ট˦̀) has been integrated with Chapter 14, Stage 3, Questions with zenme ( ট˦), to bring the related points together).

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• Refinement — Some chapters are broken up into smaller sections where more subpoints are listed (e.g. Chapter 2, Stage 1 is further divided into 2.1 Questions with ma (ՙ), 2.2 Questions with ba (բ) and 2.3 Questions with ne (ք ) ).

• Addition — Other functions or points, which are not included in the Curriculum, are also discussed because of their importance and relevance to the chapter (e.g. the inclusion of ᤈ̏, ᤈ᧗ and ᥧЈ in Chapter 8.2, Stage 1). The book provides succinct, readable sections which set out the complexities of the language points featured. Generally, each chapter has two parts – the text, which contains the explanation of grammatical structures and examples; and the exercises, which are designed to be wide ranging and engaging. In each chapter, the key language structure is displayed at the beginning together with sample sentences to provide a visual outline for learners. This is followed by plenty of useful examples with grammatical features marked out in a different colour to draw the learner’s attention to them. Chinese texts are fully annotated with pinyin alongside English translations. Different types of sentences including affirmatives, negatives and interrogatives are offered within each stage to give learners better exposure to the sentence pattern. Several “Did You Know” sections were offered in early chapters of the book to give learners a better knowledge of Chinese grammar. The “Tips” feature, which contains supplementary notes and sentence structures on extended language points or other forms of usage, occurs where required (e.g. "̄ and ː" in Chapter 10, Stage 1).

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Owing to the enormous population of China, numerous geographical linguistic groups and the long history of the development of the language, each word used in the grammatical point may have many synonyms. If these synonyms are interchangeable with the target word, they are then introduced in the entry, and may be used in the exercises. Example sentences, in both text and exercises, relate to everyday life, touching on relevant topics such as nationalities and countries, geography, food, time-telling and the calendar, etc. This allows learners to focus on the real patterns of use of the language in meaningful contexts. Where relevant, comparison with the English language is also made, with examples showing the correct and wrong expressions.

Most of the vocabulary used in the book is taken from the "Basic 800 Chinese Characters — ࣢ၹ඾ឦ 800 ߚ᛫" provided in the Curriculum by Hanban, and is carefully controlled at the appropriate level of learning and yet offers a certain degree of challenge. Example sentences and exercises are also crafted at the difficulty level of the particular stage, i.e., a grammatical feature or a language point that will be introduced at a later stage does not show up in the example sentences and exercises in an earlier stage. To aid learning, pinyin is added to difficult words in the exercises from Stages 1 to 4. These efforts are made to ensure greater accessibility of the content to the learner.

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The pinyin rules are referenced from the Basic Regulations of Chinese Pinyin Spelling (˗஡ ૃᮃ൤ឈข۳వ᜻ѷ). It should be noted that the characters ʷ (y~, one) and ˀ ( b&, not) have varied pronunciations according to the context they are used in, as governed by rules. However, in the book they remain annotated as y~ and b&, respectively.

The answer key at the end of the book offers only one answer to most questions. However, students are encouraged to explore other possible replies and discuss their suitability with their teachers. A glossary of grammatical terms is also included to aid understanding of unavoidable grammar jargon. With grammar topics organised in a progressive manner and the avoidance of introducing grammatical points that have not been taught at that particular stage, each chapter can be studied independently to suit the needs of self study or class study. We would like to thank Hanban and Penleigh and Essendon Grammar School Confucius Classroom for promoting this book through their International Chinese Teaching Resources Development Fund. We would also like to thank Professor Daniel Kane and Dr Liu Lening for contributing their forewords for this book. It is our hope that this book will be a refreshing and ideal reference for learners of Chinese at all levels.

James Wu Bai Lu June 2011

VIII

Chinese Grammar Step by Step

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Foreword (1) This book is a very welcome addition to the textbooks available to speakers of English on the long road to proficiency in Chinese. It is generally recognised that Chinese is not an easy language to learn, with the large number of characters which need to be learnt even for basic literacy, and the difficulty in pronouncing Chinese correctly, especially the use of tones.

The complexities of Chinese grammar are frequently overlooked. It is not uncommon in textbooks for beginners to read that “Chinese grammar is simple” compared to that of European languages, and that this is one of the less forbidding aspects of learning Chinese. The difficulties of Chinese grammar are of quite a different sort: precisely because there is so little “grammar”, or morphology to use the linguistic term, relationships between grammatical classes – subject, object, possession, location, tense, aspect, negation and so on – are expressed primarily by position and particles in ways which are quite hard for speakers of English to grasp. Indeed, deciding just what Chinese “grammar” is is a matter of great controversy even amongst Chinese linguists.

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When the standard simplified characters and the standard romanisation system (pinyin) were being formulated in the 1950s, Chinese linguists were unable to decide on a standard grammatical system. Eventually, a temporary “Provisional System of Chinese Grammar for Use in Schools” was devised for the practical purpose of adopting what was “correct Chinese” for teaching in schools, and it has been revised several times since. This system is the basis of the grammar taught in language textbooks published in China, and has gradually become the de facto standard scheme, replacing other grammatical systems and terminology used in textbooks of Chinese published outside China in earlier decades. It is also the basis of the most recent curriculum for Chinese grammar issued by The Office of Chinese Language Council International. James Wu has been one of the pioneers of Chinese language teaching in Australia for the last thirty years, during which he has amassed a large amount of personal, face-to-face experience in teaching Chinese to English speaking students, and identifying the problems generation after generation of students face in dealing with Chinese grammar. Bai Lu is a specialist in the teaching of Chinese as a foreign language from the Beijing Languages University, the foremost university specialising in this field in China. The Chinese language is changing as quickly as everything else in China, and her input has ensured that the language in this book is up-to-date. This book lists systematically the main features of modern Chinese grammar, set out in a way that makes learning and revision much easier than going through a textbook in which the grammar is presented piecemeal. The examples deliberately use a fairly restricted vocabulary, determined by the amount of Chinese students at beginning and intermediate levels actually know. The important point is clarity in expressing grammatical constructions rather than increasing vocabulary, as one might find in a textbook. I was particularly impressed by the way the negative forms of aspect particles and other words are presented (something which is not at all straightforward for the

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English speaking learner) and by how some of the most difficult aspects of Chinese, such as the correct use of the particle le (̀), are explained. This book encapsulates a lifetime’s teaching of Chinese to English speaking students in Australia, and I am delighted this experience can now reach a wider audience.

Daniel Kane

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Head of Chinese Studies Macquarie University June 2011

Chinese Grammar Step by Step

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Foreword (2) I have come across numerous grammar books on Chinese, but quality grammar books for nonnative learners of Chinese have been scarce. It is, therefore, a great joy to see the publication of Chinese Grammar Step by Step, a wonderful graded Chinese grammar book written based on the International Curriculum for Chinese Language Education. Language education is not about transmitting linguistic knowledge of the target language to its learners. It is about enabling learners to master the ability of using the language appropriately. However, without linguistic knowledge, this goal cannot be achieved. In the past, most efforts had been made in providing detailed, even exhaustive descriptions of the Chinese language. A few grammar books were produced for pedagogical purposes. Even if there were a small number of such books, they were not written with clear curriculum guidelines.

James Wu and Bai Lu are both experienced Chinese language teachers to non-native learners of Chinese. They felt the urgent need for a quality grammar book for Chinese study and instruction, and decided to take it upon themselves to accomplish this task. This culminated in their contribution of this unique book to the field of teaching Chinese as a second language.

R EV I

There are a number of great features about this book. First of all, to the best of my knowledge, this is the first graded Chinese grammar book written based on the International Curriculum for Chinese Language Education. It does not intend to provide exhaustive descriptions of the Chinese language, but rather leads users, students or instructors, step by step through the major grammatical structures of the language and presents them in stages. For instance, it does not introduce all Chinese comparative structures at once, but at two different stages, with the later stage presenting more complicated structures. Second, not only does it provide linguistic descriptions of Chinese grammar, it also offers great pedagogical assistance. I was greatly impressed by the chapter on time expressions, which uses many diagrams to indicate the relationships between different time expressions. They are extremely clear and helpful to users and the exercises on these expressions are beautifully designed and effective. Third, the explanations on grammatical structures are clear and accurate. The authors also provide further explanations for structures that look similar but are actually different. I believe users would find them easy to understand and very helpful. Fourth, except for a few early chapters, this book offers pinpointing and diverse exercises. They effectively help users develop both perceptive and productive abilities in the language. Lastly, this book is designed for both formal instruction and self-study. Its rich appendices make it very convenient for all types of users. All the unique features mentioned above make this book a great contribution to the field of teaching Chinese as a second language. My congratulations go to James Wu, a good friend of mine, and Bai Lu, my dear fellow countrywoman from Xi’an. I look forward to seeing more of their published works in future.

Lening Liu Professor of East Asian Languages & Cultures Director of Chinese Language Columbia University June 2011 © Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd

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LY N O EW R EV I R FO Â© Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd

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ʷ ጟ ឦ ข ᮊ ᄬ

Sentences with verbal predicates үឈ់ឦԲ 1.1 Sh#

sentences þ௧ÿߚԲ

1.2 Y6u sentences þదÿߚԲ

3 4

General questions with ma, ba and ne ၹþՙÿǌ þբÿǌ þքÿᄊʷᓊႡ᫈Բ

STAG E

Questions with ma ၹþՙÿᄊႡ᫈Բ

2.2

Questions with ba ၹþբÿᄊႡ᫈Բ

6 7

2.3

Questions with ne ၹþքÿᄊႡ᫈Բ

Sentences with adjectival predicates ॎࠔឈ់ឦԲ

Sentences with nominal predicates Րឈ់ឦԲ

Negative sentences with b& ၹþˀÿᄊաࠀԲ

Imperative sentences: For polite request ᇯΎԲὉ᛫ᇨឰරǌ֑̾኎

Exclamatory sentences ਖՄԲ

Personal pronouns ̡ሦ̽ឈ

Adverbs of degree as adverbials ሮएҞឈͻ࿄ឦ

Numerals ஝ឈ

Common measure words (I) ࣢ၹ᧚ឈ (ʷ)

The conjunction h9 ᤌឈþ֗ÿ

R EV I

2.1

8.1

Plural forms of personal pronouns ‫ܭ‬஝̡ሦ̽ឈ

8.2

Demonstrative pronouns ૉᇨ̽ឈ

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1 Sentences with verbal predicates үឈ់ឦԲ

STRUCTURE

subject + verb + object

ੈ ‫ ށ‬ဍǍ

STAGE 1

A sentence generally consists of two parts: subject and predicate. The subject, typically a noun or a pronoun, is what (or whom) the sentence is about. The predicate tells something about the subject by indicating an action, a state or a fact.

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

A sentence with a verbal predicate contains a verb that indicates what the subject does. The verb usually takes a noun or pronoun as object. Most sentences in the Chinese language belong to this sentence type.

ᤀБឭ඾ឦǍ

W6 x#ng W1ng.

R EV I

My family name is Wang.

ੈ‫ށ‬ဍǍ

M3ik- shu4 H3ny^. Michael speaks Chinese.

ᖆˠߦ˗஡Ǎ

‫˺˼ݾݾ‬Ǎ

M7 L# xu9 Zh4ngw8n.

Ji0jie m2i sh$.

Mo Li learns Chinese.

My elder sister buys books.

Tip!

In this chapter we introduce two common types of verbal-predicate sentences in Chinese.

Chinese verbs and inflection

A unique feature of the Chinese language is that it depends on word order and sentence structure, rather than morphology (changes in word form), to indicate the word’s function in a sentence. Thus, Chinese verbs, unlike English verbs, do not inflect for tense, i.e., they do not change their verb forms to indicate when an action or state occurs. In Chinese, the time of the action is generally expressed by placing a time expression before the verb or at the beginning of the sentence, by suffixing aspect particles ˿ ( le ) (see Chapter 5, Stage 3; Chapter 2, Stage 4), ᅋ (zhe ) (see Chapter 3, Stage 3) and ᣾ ( guo ) (see Chapter 3, Stage 4) to the verb, or by placing time adverbs like ൣ (zh-ng, right now) (see Chapter 2, Stage 3) or ࣂፂ (y@j~ng, already) (see Chapter 1, Stage 4) before the verb.

Chinese Grammar Step by Step

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1.1 Sh# sentencesþ௧ÿߚԲ STRUCTURE

subject

௦

object

ᖆˠ ௧ Ꮏ‫̡ڎ‬Ǎ

The verb ௦ (sh#, to be) forms part of a verbal predicate to define someone (or something), or to indicate existence (see Chapter 9.3, Stage 2). Here we discuss the first usage. It follows the subject and precedes a noun or a pronoun object. The subject is usually a proper noun (names of people, places, etc.) or a pronoun.

ੈ ௧ౄ௚Ǎ

M7 L# sh# M0igu5r9n.

M3ik- sh# xu9sheng.

W6 sh# L@ M!ng.

Mo Li is American.

Michael is a student.

I am Li Ming.

Personal pronouns are discussed in Chapter 8 of this stage.

STAGE 1

ᤀБ௧ߦၷǍ

ੈˀ௧ߦၷǍ

M7 L# b& sh# M0igu5r9n.

W6 b& sh# xu9sheng.

Mo Li is not American.

I am not a student.

̵ˀ௧Ꮵ࣎Ǎ

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

T` b& sh# l2osh~. He is not a teacher.

R EV I

Tip!

ᖆˠˀ௧Ꮏ‫̡ڎ‬Ǎ

The ௦ sentence is negated by placing the adverb ʿ (b&, not) before ௦.

ᖆˠ௧Ꮏ‫̡ڎ‬Ǎ

The verb ௧

A linking verb is a word used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate. In English, the most common linking verb is the verb “to be”, e.g. She is a student. In Chinese, ௦ may be viewed as the linking verb in sentences with verbal predicates, as introduced above. However, not all sentence types in Chinese require the use of a linking verb. Sentences with adjectival predicates, for example, express states and qualities using stative verbs without the need for a linking verb (see Chapter 3, Stage 1). Sentences with nominal predicates may also be formed without a linking verb (see Chapter 4, Stage 1). The major difference between ௦ and its English equivalent “to be” can be seen in sentences with adjectival predicates. For example, in the English sentence “She is tall”, the adjective “tall” becomes a stative verb ᰳ ( gò ) in Chinese, meaning “to be tall”. Thus, the Chinese translation is “‫ݜ‬ॡᰳǌ” (T` h0n gò. ) instead of “‫ݜ‬௦ᰳǌ” (T` sh# gò.) Unlike other Chinese verbs, ௦ cannot take the aspect particles ˿, ᅋ and ᣾.

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1.2 Y6u sentencesþదÿߚԲ STRUCTURE

starting point

థ +

verb (phrase)

ੈ ద ʷ˔षषǍ

The verb థ (y6u, to have) is mainly used in verbal-predicate sentences to indicate possession or existence (see Chapter 9.2, Stage 2). We only discuss the first usage here. Similar to ௦, it follows the subject and precedes a noun object.

T` y6u di3nz@ c!di2n.

I have a younger brother.

He has an electronic dictionary.

The negative form of థ is ෤థ (m9iy6u, not have).

ੈ෥దषषǍ

̵෥దႃߕߚЧǍ

W6 m9iy6u d#di.

T` m9iy6u di3nz@ z#di2n.

STAGE 1

W6 y6u y~ g- d#di.

The use of measure words for nouns is discussed in Chapter 11, Stage 1, and Chapter 14, Stage 2.

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

̵దႃߕឈЧǍ

ੈదʷ˔ षषǍ

He doesn’t have an electronic dictionary.

I don’t have a younger brother.

R EV I

NOTE In the negative form, there is no need to quantify what one doesn’t possess. We do not say:

ੈ෥దʼ˔षषǍ ✘ W6 m9iy6u s`n g- d#di.

Did you know?

I don’t have three younger brothers.

Mashi Wentong

The first book on Chinese grammar written in Chinese was published in 1898, entitled Mashi Wentong (ᯰග஠᤯, M2sh# W9nt4ng). It was written by Ma Jianzhong (ᯰतআ), a scholar and politician from Jiangsu Province. Born in 1845, he studied in France and was fluent in English, French, Greek and Latin. Mashi Wentong explains the grammar of classical Chinese, using Latin grammar as a guide with many selected sentences from Chinese classical works. It contains ten chapters discussing a comprehensive list of words and main grammatical rules of the Chinese language. Since its publication, this book has been a great influence on most of the grammar books that have followed it.

Chinese Grammar Step by Step

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E XE RC I SE S I

ጷ˸

State the nationality or occupation of the people in the pictures using ௦. The helping words are provided below. j@ngch1

/od3l#y3r9n

Zh4nggu5r9n

l2osh~

᝝ࠣ ༌ܸѾ̡̎ ˗‫ ̡ڎ‬Ꮵ࣎ 1. Nicole Kidman

2. Anna

(occupation)

STAGE 1

(nationality)

(occupation)

Zh4u R&nf`

և๧ԧ

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

(nationality)

R EV I

3. Janet

Based on the pictures, state the number of siblings each of these people has using థ. ࠴௙

ᔉᔉ

Tom

Jennifer

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General questions with ma, ba and ne ၹþՙÿǌþբÿǌþքÿᄊʷᓊႡ᫈Բ In Chinese, questions can be formed in the following ways: ➊ adding particles ՘ (ma), ա (ba) or փ (ne) to the end of declarative sentences (affirmative or negative); ➋ using question words (see Chapter 8, Stage 2; Chapters 14-15, Stage 3); ➌ using affirmative-negative adjective or verb forms (see Chapter 13, Stage 3); ➍ using the conjunction ᤆ௦ (h1ishi, or) to form alternative questions (see Chapter 12, Stage 3).

sentence

STRUCTURE

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

2.1 Questions with ma ၹþՙÿᄊႡ᫈Բ

STAGE 1

In this chapter we will discuss ➊, and the examples are restricted to those with verbal predicates. Questions formed from sentences with adjectival and nominal predicates are discussed in the next two chapters (Chapters 3 and 4) respectively.

՘?

ᤀБ௧ܸߦၷ ՙὝ

R EV I

՘ is used for general situations. It is added at the end of the sentence with no change in the word order. Questions with ՘ are generally yes-no questions, and the answer is usually expressed by using the verb in the question. If the answer is “no”, ʿ (b&, not) or ෤ (m9i, not have) precedes the verb. Answers

Ques t i ons

M3ik- sh# d3xu9sheng ma?

௧Ǎ ˀ௧Ǎ Sh#. B& sh#.

Is Michael a university student?

Yes. / No.

ᖆˠద‫ݾݾ‬ՙὝ

M7 L# y6u ji0jie ma?

దǍ ෥దǍ Y6u M9iy6u

Does Mo Li have elder sisters?

Yes. / No.

षषԝߦಣՙὝ D#di q& xu9xi3o ma?

ԝǍ ˀԝǍ Q&. B& q&.

Is younger brother going to school?

Yes. / No.

ᤀБ௧ܸߦၷՙὝ

Chinese Grammar Step by Step

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The reply may also begin with ௦ (affirmative) or ʿ (negative), followed by a statement that retains the word order in the question. In response to the same questions above, the reply can be:

௧ὊᤀБ௧ܸߦၷǍ / ˀὊᤀБˀ௧ܸߦၷǍ

௧Ὂᖆˠదː˔‫ݾݾ‬Ǎ / ˀὊᖆˠ෥ద‫ݾݾ‬Ǎ

Sh#, M3ik- sh# d3xu9sheng. / B&, M3ik- b& sh# d3xu9sheng.

Sh#, M7 L# y6u li2ng g- ji0jie. / B&, M7 L# m9iy6u ji0jie.

Yes, Michael is a university student. / No, Michael is not a university student.

Yes, Mo Li has two elder sisters. / No, Mo Li doesn’t have elder sisters.

௧ὊषषԝߦಣǍ / ˀὊषषˀԝߦಣǍ Sh#, d#di q& xu9xi3o. / B&, d#di b& q& xu9xi3o.

STRUCTURE

ա?

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

sentence

2.2 Questions with ba ၹþբÿᄊႡ᫈Բ

STAGE 1

Yes, younger brother is going to school. / No, younger brother is not going to school.

ᤀБ௧ܸߦၷ բὝ

Ques t i ons

R EV I

ա is used to seek confirmation where the answer is usually assumed or expected. Questions with ա are similar to phrases like “is(n’t) he”, “do(n’t) you”, etc. in English questions. The reply is the same as those to ՘ questions. Answers

ᤀБ௧ܸߦၷբὝ

௧Ǎ / ˀ௧Ǎ Sh#. / B& sh#.

M3ik- sh# d3xu9sheng ba?

Michael is a university student, isn’t he?

ᖆˠద‫ݾݾ‬բὝ

Yes. / No.

దǍ / ෥దǍ

M7 L# y6u ji0jie ba?

Y6u. / M9iy6u.

Mo Li has an elder sister, hasn’t she?

Yes. / No.

‫؞ݾݾ‬ൔ඾ឦբὝ

‫؞‬ൔǍ / ˀ‫؞‬ൔǍ

Ji0jie x@huan H3ny^ ba?

X@huan. / B& x@huan.

Elder sister likes Chinese, doesn’t she?

Yes. / No.

As with ՘ questions, the reply may also begin with ௦ (affirmative) or ʿ (negative), followed by a statement that retains the word order in the question.

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2.3 Questions with ne ၹþքÿᄊႡ᫈Բ STRUCTURE

sentence, noun / pronoun + փ?

ᤀБ௧ܸߦၷὊ Ϳ քὝ

ᤀБ௧ܸߦၷὊͿքὝ

ੈ˷௧ ( ܸߦၷ ) Ǎ

Answers

W6 y0 sh# (d3xu9sheng). Me too. (I’m also a university student.)

ᖆˠదʷ˔षषὊͿքὝ

ੈ෥ద ( षष ) Ǎ

M3ik- sh# d3xu9sheng, n@ ne? Michael is a university student. What about you?

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

Ques t i ons

M7 L# y6u y~ g- d#di, n@ ne?

W6 m9iy6u (d#di).

Mo Li has a younger brother. What about you?

No, I don’t (have a brother).

ੈՉ᭧ὊͿքὝ

ੈՉʼ௚෵Ǎ

STAGE 1

փ is normally used to form a question tag (see Chapter 15, Stage 3, for more forms of question tags), similar to “what about you?” or “and you?” in English. It is placed after a noun or pronoun to ask a follow-up question on the preceding statement. The reply follows the word order in the question with or without the object, adding the adverb ˶ (y0, also, too) (cf. Chapter 15.2, Stage 2) before the verb for an affirmative answer, and ʿ or ෤ for a negative one. In some cases where the reply is different from what is stated in the question, the answer may go beyond a simple “yes” or “no”.

W6 ch~ s`nm!ngzh#.

R EV I

W6 ch~ mi3n, n@ ne? I’m having noodles, and you?

I’m having a sandwich.

ᒭᛡᢼքὝ

ႃߕឈЧքὝ

L2osh~ ne?

Z#x!ngch8 ne?

Di3nz@ c!di2n ne?

Where’s the teacher?

Where’s the bicycle?

Where’s the electronic dictionary?

Ꮵ࣎քὝ

փ can be placed at the end of a noun or noun phrase to form “where” questions.

It can also be placed at the end of a question containing a question word (cf. Chapter 8, Stage 2) to express a moderate questioning tone.

ᖆˠឭ̤˦քὝ M7 L# shu4 sh9nme ne? What did Mo Li say?

Chinese Grammar Step by Step

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E XE RC I SE S

Answer the following questions according to the pictures. 1.

‫̓ݝ‬௧Ꮵ࣎ՙὝ

2. Brenda ‫؞‬ൔ࿷ՙὝ

ဍˠ௧ӞၷբὝ

STAGE 1

ጷ˸

5. Josh ద‫׎׎‬բὝ

R EV I

4. Vivian Չ̤˦քὝ

Translate the following into Chinese.

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

Josh

1. Is Michael British?

2. Do you have younger sisters?

3. You are a teacher, aren’t you?

4. Mo Li has an elder brother, hasn’t she?

5. I am Chinese. What about you?

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3 Sentences with adjectival predicates ॎࠔឈ់ឦԲ

STRUCTURE

subject + adverb + adjective

ᰴУǍ

An adjectival predicate describes the subject.

ੈॢঅǍ

̵ॢግǍ

W6 h0n m1ng.

T` h0n l-i. He is tired.

I am busy.

Unlike in English, Chinese adjectival predicates do not follow a linking verb, as Chinese adjectives can function as stative verbs. A degree adverb must always be used to modify the adjective in the adjectival predicate, the most common of which is ॡ (h0n, very). It is often unstressed in reading and does not really mean “very”.

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

ॢ

STAGE 1

ੈ

R EV I

ੈ‫ݞॢݥݥ‬Ǎ

‫ॢݾݾݝ‬໡̝Ǎ

W6 m`ma h0n h2o.

T` ji0jie h0n pi3oliang.

My mum is well.

Her sister is beautiful.

Other degree adverbs like ᄽ (zh8n, really), ྱѾ (t-bi9, exceptionally), ᭣࣡ (f8ich1ng, extremely) etc. may replace ॡ to modify the predicate. They are normally stressed in reading.

ᤈ ˔੝ߕᄾܸǍ

ܹඡྲѿ‫ݞ‬Ǎ

Zh-ge f1ngzi zh8n d3.

Ti`nq# t-bi9 h2o.

This house is really big.

The weather is exceptionally good.

̵̓᭤࣢ᰴУǍ T`men f8ich1ng g`ox#ng. They are extremely happy.

Demonstrative pronouns are discussed in Chapter 8.2 of this stage.

Chinese Grammar Step by Step

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If ॡ is absent in the affirmative, the sentence usually implies a contrast.

ᤈవ˺ΧࠂὊᥧవ˺᠜Ǎ Zh- b0n sh$ pi1nyi, n3 b0n sh$ gu#. This book is cheap. That book is expensive.

ᤈ˔᫈ᮥˀܸǍ

Zh- b0n sh$ b& gu#.

Zh-ge w-nt! b& d3.

This book is not expensive.

This is not a big problem.

ᤀБˀॢঅǍ

‫ݥݥ‬ˀܺᰴУǍ

M3ik- b& h0n m1ng.

M`ma b& t3i g`ox#ng.

ᤈవ˺ˀ᠜Ǎ

STAGE 1

In the negative, ʿ (b&, no/not) is placed before the adjective and there is no need for a degree adverb. The degree adverb ܹ (t3i, too) or ॡ can be used after ʿ to moderate the tone of negation.

Mum is not too happy. ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

Michael is not very busy.

R EV I

Sentences with adjectival predicates can be made into questions by placing ՘ (ma) or ա (ba) at the end of the sentence, or using փ (ne) to form a tag expression (cf. Chapters 2 and 4, Stage 1). For questions with ՘, the degree adverb may be omitted. The reply is usually expressed by repeating the adjective in the question, preceded by a degree adverb. If the answer is negative, ʿ is added before the adjective. Ques t i ons

Answers

N@ m1ng ma?

Are you busy?

ॢঅǍ

ͿঅՙὝ

ͿॢግբὝ

H0n m1ng.

Yes.

ॢግǍ

N@ h0n l-i ba?

H0n l-i.

You’re tired, aren’t you?

Yes, I am.

ੈॢᰴУὊͿքὝ

ੈˀᰴУǍ

W6 h0n g`ox#ng, n@ ne?

W6 b& g`ox#ng.

I’m happy. What about you?

No, I’m not.

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E XE RC I SE S I

ጷ˸

Look at the pictures and fill in the blanks using appropriate adjectives or adverbs.

ᤈ˔੝ߕ

ܸὊᥧ˔੝ߕ

ᤈ˔੝ߕܸὊᥧ˔੝ߕ

‫ݥݥ‬

ྚྚᑃὊ‫ݥݥ‬

ொʽ

ொʽབྷὊ௹ʽ

ᤈ౎ᜑߕ

ᤈ౎ᜑߕ᫂Ὂᥧ౎ᜑߕ

ܸǍ

ᑃǍ

ᑃὊྚྚ Ǎ

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

STAGE 1

p3ng

བྷǍ

བྷὊ௹ʽ

R EV I

q%nzi

᫂Ὂᥧ౎ᜑߕ

᫂Ǎ

Correct the mistakes in the following sentences. k&zi

ᤈ౎᜕ߕ௧᫂Ǎ

Ӓ̛ܸߦ᭤࣢ॢܸǍ

̭ܹੈˀ௧ግǍ

ጚᓤᜑߕˀᄾ໡̝Ǎ

ᤈᫎԐਫ਼ॢ௧᭤࣢ࣰьǍ

c-su6

Chinese Grammar Step by Step

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4 Sentences with nominal predicates Րឈ់ឦԲ

STRUCTURE

subject + age / nationality / place of birth

ᖆˠ 20 ࡧǍ

ᤀБᎿ‫̡ڎ‬Ǎ

(age)

(nationality)

M7 L# -rsh! su#.

M3ik- M0igu5r9n.

Mo Li is 20 years old.

Michael is American.

ౄ௚ʽ๒̡Ǎ (place of birth)

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

L@ M!ng Sh3ngh2ir9n. Li Ming is Shanghainese.

The predicate is negated by placing ʿ௦ (b& sh#, no, not) before it.

ᖆˠˀ௧ 20ࡧǍ M7 L# b& sh# -rsh! su#.

ᤀБˀ௧Ꮏ‫̡ڎ‬Ǎ

ౄ௚ˀ௧ʽ๒̡Ǎ

M3ik- b& sh# M0igu5r9n.

L@ M!ng b& sh# Sh3ngh2ir9n.

Michael is not American.

Li Ming is not Shanghainese.

Mo Li is not 20 years old.

ᖆˠ 20 ࡧǍ

R EV I

STAGE 1

A nominal predicate contains a noun or noun phrase that indicates age, nationality, place of birth, date, time, price, etc (the latter two are discussed in Chapter 3, Stage 2). It provides information about the subject preceding it. Unlike in English, and similar to Chinese adjectival predicates, nominal predicates in Chinese do not require a linking verb.

Similar to sentences with verbal and adjectival predicates, sentences with nominal predicates can be made into questions by placing ՘ (ma) or ա (ba) at the end of the sentence, or using փ (ne) to form a tag expression (cf. Chapters 2 and 3, Stage 1). The reply is the same as those discussed in Chapter 2 of this stage. Ques t i ons

Answers

ᖆˠ 20 ࡧՙὝ

௧Ǎ

M7 L# -rsh! su# ma?

Sh#.

Is Mo Li 20 years old?

Yes.

ᤀБᎿ‫̡ڎ‬բὝ

ˀ௧Ǎ

M3ik- M0igu5r9n ba?

B& sh#.

Michael is American, isn’t he?

No.

ဍ௚ʽ๒̡ὊͿքὝ

ੈ˷௧ (ʽ๒̡)Ǎ

W1ng M!ng Sh3ngh2ir9n, n@ ne?

W6 y0 sh# (Sh3ngh2ir9n).

Wang Ming is Shanghainese. What about you?

Me too. (I’m Shanghainese too.)

001-034_ChGram_SL.indd 13

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൦

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6/6/11 2:54:14 PM

A sentence with a nominal predicate is often used to list items to show contrast.

ᖆˠӒ̡̛ὊͿʽ๒̡Ὂ ੈᯮມ̡Ǎ

ྚྚ 50 ࡧὊ‫ ݥݥ‬48 ࡧὊ ੈ 24 ࡧǍ

M7 L# B0ij~ngr9n, n@ Sh3ngh2ir9n, w6 Xi`ngg2ngr9n.

B3ba w^sh! su#, M`ma s#sh!b` su#, w6 -rsh!s# su#.

Mo Li is from Beijing. You're from Shanghai. I'm from Hong Kong.

Dad is 50 years old. Mum is 48 years old. I am 24 years old.

Sentences with nominal predicates are usually short, and they are more frequently used in spoken Chinese.

(80)Ǎ‫ݛݛ‬

‫ݥݥ‬

(53)Ǎੈ

Nationality

੬ࡉ ᤀБ

Place of birth

(78)Ǎྚྚ

(55)Ǎ

(20)Ǎ

ᖆˠ L!ngd1

၀᣺

Tu4n!

Age ྙྙ

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

Fill in the blanks with nominal predicates using the hints provided.

ጷ˸

E XE RC I SE S

R EV I

STAGE 1

NOTE

l1n

࠵Р II

zh%

m9i

࠵ቬ

࠵೏

࠵ᖗ

Change the following sentences into questions. L5ngd4ng Ji`n1d3

ᴝˌҫ૆̡ܸǍ

ˠ‫ ޛ‬16 ࡧǍ

‫ݝ‬ᯮມ̡Ǎ

Ꮵ࣎ 40 ࡧǍ

ᤀБᎿ‫̡ڎ‬Ǎ

L#n3

Chinese Grammar Step by Step

001-034_ChGram_SL.indd 14

6/6/11 2:54:15 PM

5 Negative sentences with b& ၹþˀÿᄊաࠀԲ

STRUCTURE

subject + ʿ + verb phrase

ੈ

‫؞‬ൔ‫ׯ‬ൡǍ

ੈˀߦขឦǍ

W6 b& x@huan ch3ng g8.

W6 b& xu9 F2y^.

ੈˀ‫؞‬ൔ‫ׯ‬ൡǍ

It can also refer to actions in the past and future contexts.

R EV I

ੈ̿ҒˀՉᐛǍ

ੈ௚ܹˀԝߦಣǍ

W6 m!ngti`n b& q& xu9xi3o.

I didn’t used to eat meat.

I’m not going to school tomorrow.

W6 y@qi1n b& ch~ r7u.

E XE RC I SE S I

ʷ ጟ ឦ ข

I don’t learn French.

I don’t like singing.

STAGE 1

We discussed in Chapter 1.1 of this stage that the adverb ʿ (b&, not) can be used to negate ௦ sentences. As a negator, ʿ can also negate other verbs that follow it to indicate an intentional (non)action.

ጷ˸

Answer the following questions with negative answers using ʿ. ti3ow^

Ϳ‫؞‬ൔ᡺ᓂՙὝ D9y^

ͿߦॴឦՙὝ

ʽ๒௧˗‫( ڎ‬ᄊ) ᯫᦐՙὝ

sh6ud$

Rearrange the words to form proper sentences. 1.

ˀ ‫ ݥݥ‬ʽ ௚ܹ ိ

̿Ғ ᖆˠ ‫ ᦥ؟‬ˀ

‫؞‬ൔ ᢋ ࠵ဍ ወု ᡜု ‫؞‬ൔ ੪ ˀ

001-034_ChGram_SL.indd 15

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ข

൦

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6/6/11 2:54:18 PM