Biological Level of Analysis Packet

Biological Level of Analysis

IB Psychology Standard Level Examination- May 2017

Biological Level of Analysis Notes (p38-50) (​1​) Outline principles that define biological analysis Def of biological level of analysis ● The biological level of analysis (BLA) states that all cognitions, emotions and behaviours have a physiological basis. ● Principles of the BLA ○ There are three underlying principles that define the BLA 1. Emotions and behaviours are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and endocrine systems 2. Animal research may inform our understanding of human behaviour 3. Patterns of behaviour can be inherited; behaviour is innate because it is genetically based ● Purpose of the Principles ○ These principles are the main ideas that have driven focused research on specific areas of behaviour and physiology ○ They also allow us to understanding how behaviour can be caused or influenced by biological factors ● The BLA assumes that behaviour is a result of biological/physiological factors ○ Links with the principle that there are biological correlates of behaviour. ● Bidirectional relationship between other levels of analysis ○ Behaviour is not only a result of biological factors alone; other factors like cognitions and the environment interact with one another, resulting in specific behaviours ○ Cognition can affect biology and biology can affect cognition ○ The environment can also affect physiological processes and vice versa ● Nature vs. nurture debate ○ Debate between whether human behaviour is attributed to biological or environmental factors ○ Psychologists have an interactionist approach and take both into account ● Reductionist approach ○ At the BLA, researchers break down complex human physiology and behaviour into its smallest components to study Body ● The first principle states that ○ Cognitions, emotions and behaviours are products of the anatomy and physiology of our nervous and endocrine systems. ​There are biological correlates of behaviour.

Describe the principle ● Specific brain processes, neurotransmitters, and hormones can play a role in behaviour. ● These physiological processes are what forms the basis of the biological level of analysis, in relation to how it functions and therefore affects human behaviour in everyday life. ○ For example, this relates to the idea of localization of function, in that each area of the brain is responsible for coordinating a certain part of our body/nervous system and thus our behaviour.

Outline the approaches that can be made towards this principle ● This can be viewed using a reductionist approach, i.e. breaking down complex behaviour into smaller parts for analysis. ● Or a deterministic approach can be used, which suggests that human behaviour is completely physiological and that we are not capable of “free will,? but by predictable bodily functions, which is also assumes a correlational approach.

Adrian Raine (1997) Introduce Study/Signpost ● A study which supports this principle was conducted by Adrian Raine (1997), in which he aimed to determine whether criminals pleading Not Guilty under Reason of Insanity (NGRI) had any biological defects, which explained their distinct behaviour.

Connection of study to principle ● Raine showed that there was a difference in brain structure between normal subjects and NGRI’s. He found that: ○ NGRIs had less activity in prefrontal cortex which is linked to self-control and emotion ○ Subsequently showing how biological factors (brain structure) may thus affect behaviour ● This study supports the idea that there are biological correlates of behaviour because it was shown that there was a correlation between the behaviour of aggression and the physiology of the brain, in how when parts of the brain are damaged, the functions that are associated with it are impaired.

The next principle that will be outlined of the BLA is that ● Animal research can provide insight into human behaviour​.

Describe the principle ● This principle is based on Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.

○ Revolves around the idea that humans and many animals are different species now because of thousands of years of evolutionary adaptation to environmental demands. ○ Natural selection - those who adapt best to environmental challenges will have characteristics better suited to the environment and are more likely to pass on these traits ● Evolution is attributed as to why humans and some animals share some similar anatomy and behaviour ○ Therefore, inferences about humans can be made from animal research. ● Many animals, especially monkeys of the ape family have similar bodily systems as ours, so it can be presumed that when put in the same situation; humans would behave similarly to the animals. ● This idea is useful when testing treatments, although it does raise ethical issues in the treatment of animals, unless it is for a good cause and that it can be applied to humans and their health.

Berthold (1849) Introduce Study/Signpost ● An example of a study that used animals as a substitute for humans because of ethical concerns is by ​Berthold (1849)​.

Connection of study to principle ● Berthold observed that roosters were less masculine and did not crow or participate in sexual or aggressive behaviour after its testes were removed ● This thus shows that the hormone secreted by the testicles (testosterone) is linked with dominant male behaviours. ● Berthold’s study demonstrates the principle of the BLA because inferences were made to humans from roosters about the effect of testosterone on behaviour to inform our understanding of aggression. ● It also highlights the importance of using animals to determine human behaviour.

Conclusion ● Summarize the significance of studies in supporting the three principles (*do not restate the principles and studies mentioned as this wastes time and are repetitive). ○ It can be seen that there is sufficient support for the principles of the BLA. ○ It can be seen that in all three principles, other factors need to be taken into account before determining these principles as the sole influences of human behaviour. ○ These principles help to guide studies from a biological perspective. ○ Views from all levels of analysis need to be taken into account before reaching a determined decision on influences on human behaviour.

(2) Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research (that is, theories and/or studies) Introduction ● State what you are doing in the essay ○ This essay will give a brief summary of the principles that define the biological level of analysis, incorporated with supporting research. ● Define the biological level of analysis ○ The biological level of analysis (BLA) states that all cognitions, emotions and behaviours have a physiological basis. ● State the principles of the BLA ● There are three underlying principles that define the BLA 1. Emotions and behaviours are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and endocrine systems 2. Animal research may inform our understanding of human behaviour 3. Patterns of behaviour can be inherited; behaviour is innate because it is genetically based ● Purpose of the Principles ○ These principles are the main ideas that have driven focused research on specific areas of behaviour and physiology. ○ They also allow us to understanding how behaviour can be caused or influenced by biological factors. ● The BLA assumes that behaviour is a result of biological/physiological factors ○ Links with the principle that there are biological correlates of behaviour. ● Bidirectional relationship ○ Behaviour is not only a result of biological factors alone; other factors like cognitions and the environment interact with one another, resulting in specific behaviours. ○ Cognition can affect biology and biology can affect cognition. ○ The environment can also affect physiological processes and vice versa. ● Nature vs. nurture debate ○ Debate between whether human behaviour is attributed to biological or environmental factors. Psychologists have an interactionist approach and take both into account. ● Reductionist approach ○ At the BLA, researchers break down complex human physiology and behaviour into its smallest components to study ● Outline Essay

○ Two of the three principles will be outlined and demonstrated with appropriate research studies in the following essay.

Body 1. “​Cognitions, emotions and behaviours are products of the anatomy and physiology of our nervous and endocrine systems. There are biological correlates of behaviour.”

Describe the principle ● Specific brain processes, neurotransmitters, and hormones can play a role in behaviour. ● These physiological processes are what forms the basis of the biological level of analysis, in relation to how it functions and therefore affects human behaviour in everyday life. ○ For example, this relates to the idea of localization of function, in that each area of the brain is responsible for coordinating a certain part of our body/nervous system and thus our behaviour.

Outline the approaches that can be made towards this principle ● This can be viewed using a reductionist approach, i.e. breaking down complex behaviour into smaller parts for analysis. ● Or a deterministic approach can be used, which suggests that human behaviour is completely physiological and that we are not capable of “free will?, but by predictable bodily functions, which is also assumes a correlational approach.

Raine et. al (1997) A study which supports this principle was conducted by Adrian Raine (1997), in which he aimed to determine whether... (insert aim here) Aims ● The aim of the experiment was to discover (using PET scans) if murderers who pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) showed evidence of brain abnormalities (observing the cortical and subcortical parts of the brain) Variables​: ● The independent variable in this study was whether the participant was a NGRI or not. ● The dependent variable was the PET scan results between the controls and the NGRIs. ● Controlled: ○ 1 for each subject ■ matched for age / sex ■ schizophrenics with non-murderer schizophrenics ■ all controls screened for mental/physical health) Methods:

● 41 participants (39 male, 2 female) who pleaded not guilty for reasons of insanity (average age of 34.3) ● 41 participants (controls), selected based on sex, age and matched to a NGRI participant ● Each participant was injected with a glucose tracer (bonds to glucose) (for PET scans) ○ Glucose tracers tracks brain activity as the brain absorbs glucose (as energy) ○ Radioactive glucose tracer emits positively charged particles called positrons, which are picked up by the scan ○ PET scans show colourful maps of the brain activity; red = most active, blue = least active. ● They had to perform tasks requiring them to detect target signals for 32 minutes Results: ● NGRIs had less activity in the pre-frontal cortex ○ Linked to self-control and emotion ● NGRIs had lower activity in the amygdala and medial temporal hippocampus ● Lack of inhibition of violent behaviour ● Fearlessness - Inappropriate emotional expression ● Failure to learn consequences for violence Connection of study to principle ● Raine showed that there was a difference in brain structure between normal subjects and prisoners that pleaded not guilty for reasons of insanity (NGRI) ○ Subsequently showing how biological factors (brain structure) may thus affect behaviour ● This study supports the idea that there are biological correlates of behaviour because it was shown that there was a correlation between the behaviour of aggression and the physiology of the brain.

The next principle that will be outlined is that- Animal research can provide insight into human behaviour Describe the principle ● This principle is based on Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution ○ Revolves around the idea that humans and the many animals are different species now because of thousands of years of evolutionary adaptation to environmental demands ○ Natural selection - those who adapt best to environmental challenges will have characteristics better suited to the environment and are more likely to pass on these traits

● Evolution is attributed as to why humans and some animals share some similar anatomy and behaviour ○ Therefore, inferences about humans can be made from animal research. ● Many animals, especially monkeys of the ape family have similar bodily systems as ours, so it can be presumed that when put in the same situation; humans would behave similarly to the animals. ● This idea is useful when testing treatments, although it does raise ethical issues in the treatment of animals, unless it is for a good cause and that it can be applied to humans and their health.

Berthold (1849) Introduce Study/Signpost ● An example of a study that used animals as a substitute for humans because of ethical concerns is by Berthold (1849).

Aims ● The aim of this experiment was to test the effects of testosterone in roosters ● Berthold aimed to test the effects of castration in roosters, with the assumption that “were the action to be performed on humans, the reaction would be similar.?

Methods: ● Quasi- experiment ● 6 healthy roosters ● Surgically castrated them (removing testicles thus stopping the production of testosterone) He then divided them into 3 groups of 2 roosters ○ Group 1 - control group- roosters were left in their own capons ○ Group 2 - transplanted with testicles of another rooster ○ Group 3 - reimplanted with their own testicles Results: ● Berthold observed that the castrated roosters were less masculine, less aggressive ● Those roosters that reacquired testicles behaved like normal roosters again ● Autopsy of roosters revealed that the testicles did not re-establish nerve connections with the rest of the body Conclusions: ● Berthold concluded that the testicles must have produced a biochemical that influences aggressive behaviour (known as testosterone) ● The findings to this study support the role of physiological factors - hormones and the endocrine system (specifically for testosterone) in influencing aggressive behaviours Connection of study to principle

● Berthold’s study demonstrates the principle of the BLA because inferences were made to humans from roosters about the effect of testosterone on behaviour to inform our understanding of aggression (in humans). ● It also highlights the importance of using animals to determine human behaviour.

Conclusion ● Summarize the significance of studies in supporting the three principles (*do not restate the principles and studies mentioned as this wastes time and are repetitive). ○ It can be seen that there is sufficient support for the principles of the BLA. ○ It can be seen that in all three principles, other factors need to be taken into account before determining these principles as the sole influences of human behaviour. ○ These principles help to guide studies from a biological perspective. ○ Views from all levels of analysis need to be taken into account before reaching a determined decision on influences on human behaviour. (​3​) Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis Introduction ● “This essay will attempt to offer a ​balanced review ​of how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis (BLA).”

Define the biological level of analysis ● States that all cognitions, emotions and behaviours have a physiological basis.

Outline what is a research method? / What is t​ ​he purpose of research methods in Psychology? ● Researchers need to have a method for collecting and analysing data. ● There are many different/various methods researchers and psychologists use to conduct their studies. ● Research methods are ways that researchers use and manipulate to conduct their studies. ● State the main research methods used in psychological research ● There are 6 main research methods used in psychology, which consists of the following: ○ Experiments ○ Case Studies ○ Observational Studies ○ Interviews ○ Surveys/Questionnaires ○ Correlational Studies ● Triangulation

○ Sometimes in research, researchers incorporate the use of 2 or more research methods of investigation to explore the same aspect, as using 2 or more may be more suitable and effective in finding out the necessary aims of the researcher.

■ It also increases credibility. ○ There are 4 main types of triangulation: ■ Data ■ Researcher ■ Theoretical ■ Methodological ● Biases involved in psychological research ○ “In psychological research, certain biases are present, which may affect or influence the findings of the experiment, sometimes in a positive way, but mostly in a negative light/nature.” ○ 2 types ■ Researcher bias - The researcher/s sees what they are looking for, in which the expectations of the researcher consciously or unconsciously affect the findings of the study.

■ Observer bias - The participant/s act differently or accordingly due to the consciousness of being observed by people (researchers), which may influence the nature of the study. ● State (introduce) the research methods used at the BLA ○ Symptoms and disorders arise from physiological processes ■ Hormones, neurotransmitters and the brain (cannot be directly observed) ● Theories tested using research methods such as experiments and case studies ○ These will be further analysed in the body of the essay, looking at studies and how and why these research methods are used

Body EXPERIMENTS ● Define and explain purpose ○ Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect relationship between two variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables). ○ How experiments are used ■ Researchers manipulate the independent variable (IV) and measure the dependent variable (DV)

■ Attempt to control as many extraneous variables as possible to provide controlled conditions (laboratory experiments) ■ Experiments are considered a quantitative research method, however qualitative data may be collected as well ○ Types of experimental settings ■ Laboratory experiment, a natural (QUASI) experiment and a field experiment.

● Why experiments are used ○ Most scientific research method ○ Determines cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV) Raine et al (1997) (How does it reflect an experiment?) ● IV: Whether participants were controls or prisoners who pleaded not guilty for reasons of insanity (NGRI’s) ● DV: Brain activity ● Experimental Type: QUASI/natural because the IV was naturally occurring Why was an experiment used? ● Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised ● Cause: Brain abnormality ● Effect: Aggressive behaviour

● Cause effect relationship would not be able to be found using other research methods (e.g. survey/questionnaire, observation) Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972) How does it reflect an experiment? ● IV: Whether rats were placed in an enriched or deprived environment ● DV: Weight of the rats? brains, showing the amount of brain plasticity that occurred in the rats. ● Experimental Type: Laboratory experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated Why was an experiment used ● Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised ● Cause: Environment (enriched or deprived) ● Effect: Amount of brain plasticity ● Cause effect relationship would not be able to be found using other research methods (e.g. survey/questionnaire, observation) Berthold (1849) How does it reflect an experiment? ● IV: Whether or not roosters' testes were replaced (returned) ● DV: The rooster’s Behaviour ● Experimental Type: Laboratory experiment because it was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated Why was an experiment used ● Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised ● Cause: Amount of testosterone being secreted ● Effect: masculine behaviour ● Cause effect relationship would not be able to be found using other research methods (e.g. survey/questionnaire, observation)

CASE STUDIES ● Introduce the next research method (case studies) and relate it within the context ● Like experiments, another key research method used frequently in the BLA is a case study. ● How case studies are used ○ In-depth study of an individual or small group ○ Because of this, case studies obtain information that may not be identifiable by using other research methods ● Case studies are considered a qualitative research method, however quantitative data may be collected as well

● Combination of several research methods such as interviews and observations ○ The conclusions are more valid than what may be gained from any of these research methods individually ● Why case studies are used ○ To obtain enriched data ○ To study unusual psychological phenomena ○ Stimulates new research into an unusual phenomena ○ To study a particular variable that cannot be produced in a laboratory. For example, due to ethical or financial restrictions. ○ To obtain other information they may not be able to get from other methods. ● Why case studies are ​NOT​ used - limitations ○ Researchers may develop more personal relationships with participants → May result in subjective data or different behaviour of participants and researchers ■ Results of case studies are affected by the researcher's interpretations ○ May be subjective and influenced by the researcher's beliefs, values, and opinions ○ May cost a lot of time, effort & money due to the amount of data and time of a case study ○ Cannot be replicated ○ Lacks population validity - extent to which findings can be generalised to the whole population ○ Small participant sample ■ Especially if study investigates a unique phenomenon Outline case studies used in the BLA ● Money - "David Reimer" (1974) ● Harlow - "Phineas Gage" (1848) ● Broca - "Tan" (1861)

Money - "David Reimer" (1974) How does it reflect a case study? ● In-depth study of twins Brian & Bruce, in particular, Bruce whose name was later on changed to Brenda. ● Why was a case study used? ○ To study the unusual phenomena of a boy who was turned into a female ○ To study a boy whose penis was burnt off, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory

○ To study how (according to Money), biological sex or gender did not have to correspond to psychological sex (gender), and therefore children could be raised successfully in whatever sex was assigned to them. ○ In depth information would not be able to be collected by using other research methods (e.g. experiment, survey etc.).

Harlow - Phineas Gage (1848) How does it reflect a case study? ● In-depth study of Phineas Gage Why was a case study used? ● To study the unusual phenomena of a man who experienced dramatic personality changes after brain damage ● To study a man who suffered from an iron rod through his head, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory ● In depth information would not be able to be collected by using other research methods (e.g. experiment, survey etc.).

Broca - "Tan" (1861) How was a case study used? ● In-depth study of an individual - "Tan" Why was a case study used? ● To study the unusual phenomena of a man who had impaired language such that he could only say "tan" ● To study a man who had impaired language, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory ● By using a case study on Tan, over time, researchers found out more about the brain’s ability, in relation to localization of function. ● In depth information would not be able to be obtained using other research methods (e.g. experiment, survey etc.).

Conclusion ● Research methods are methods used for collecting and analysing data ● The type of research method used is dependent on the aim. ● At the BLA, the two main research methods used are ​experiments​ and ​case studies​. ● Experiments ○ To determine a cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV) ○ Whereby an IV and DV may be manipulated. ○ Advantages and disadvantages of experiments dependent on the type of experiment being conducted ○ Three types: laboratory, field and natural/quasi experiments. ● Case studies

○ In depth study of an individual or a small group; thus being able to collect enriched and detailed data. ○ Studies unusual psychological phenomena. ○ Considered to be a qualitative research method, but quantitative data may also be collected. They involve the use of a combination of several research methods such as interviews and observations, which can aid in finding significant and relevant information in the study. (​4​) Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis Introduction ● This essay will attempt to offer a balanced review of ethical considerations related to research at the biological level of analysis (BLA). ● Define the biological level of analysis ○ The biological level of analysis (BLA) states that all cognitions, emotions and behaviours have a physiological basis. ● Describe ethical considerations ○ In psychology, ethics must be considered to ensure participants (humans and animals) are not harmed and that research conducted is ethically valid ○ Researchers should always conduct research in an ethical manner and studies should always be critically evaluated for ethical issues. ○ Ethical standards made by the American Psychology Association (APA) that all research done in psychology must abide by. ○ These ethics are: ■ Protection of participants ■ Participants should be protected from physical and mental harm and distress --This includes humiliation, stress, injury, etc. ○ Participants should not be forced to reveal personal information. ○ Consent ■ Participants must be informed of the true aims and nature of research before giving consent ■ Sometimes it is not possible to give full information about research. ○ Participant bias: knowing the true aims of a study may affect participants' behaviour and thus the results of a study ■ It is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if no harm is expected ■ A guardian or family member should also give consent to the study if the participants are ● Confidentiality

○ Data collected in a study should remain confidential and anonymous to protect participants from possible consequences that may result from their data ● Deception ○ Deception should be avoided ○ But slight deception is considered acceptable if: ■ Participant bias would result from participants knowing the true aims of the study ■ The research has potential significant contribution ■ The deception does not cause any distress to the participant, including upon being informed of the deception ○ If deception is involved, informed consent is not obtained ■ Any deception must be revealed at the earliest opportunity ● Debriefing ○ Participants should leave the study without undue stress ○ Findings of the research should be made available to participants as soon as possible ○ Any deception must be revealed and justified Body Money - "David Reimer" (1974) ● Method: One identical twin boy had his penis burnt off by accident during circumcision ○ Money advised the boy's parents to castrate him and raise him as a female. ○ Money interviewed the twins once a year and used the findings to support his theory of gender neutrality - all people are born gender neutral and the environment determines gender-specific behaviour. ○ At the age of 14, Brenda was told she was born a boy, and decided to turn into a boy named David. ● Ethical issues of this study: ○ Informed consent ○ Money published scientific articles using this case study as evidence to support his theory ○ Neither the twins nor their parents gave informed consent to the twins being in a study. ● Withdrawal ○ Lack of knowledge of the study means they were not informed of their right to withdrawal ● Debriefing ○ Family was not debriefed ● Confidentiality

○ In the publications, Money revealed the case and identity of the twins, which violates the family's right to confidentiality. ● Participant protection ○ Money caused physical harm by castrating Bruce ○ Bruce was forced to live as a girl ○ Mental harm was inflicted as Brenda experienced confusion, bullying and trauma due to gender issues. ○ The mental trauma that David experienced from the study lead to the suicide of both twins ● Deception ○ The family was not informed of the true nature and aims of Money's study or that the twins were in a study. ○ David was deceived into believing he was a female for most of his childhood and adolescence.

Schacter and Singer (1962) Ethical issues of this study: ● Deception ○ Participants were deceived about the aims and nature of the study ○ Participants were told the study aimed to test the effects of Suproxin on vision ○ But it was actually testing the two factor theory of emotion - emotion arises from a combination of cognition and arousal - using adrenaline ○ All participants were deceived about the injection they were receiving ■ Participants were told they were receiving an injection of Suproxin (a drug that does not exist) ● But they were actually receiving adrenaline or a placebo (saline solution) ● Some participants were given false side effects of the adrenaline injection that they were given ● Headache, numbness, itchiness in the feet ● But deception was used because: ○ Participant bias would result from participants knowing the true nature of the study ○ The research has potential significant contribution to understanding the causes of emotion ● Consent ○ Participants were not informed of the true nature and aims of the study before giving consent.

■ They did not know that the study aimed to investigate the two factor theory of emotion

■ They did not know that they would be receiving adrenaline or placebo injections ■ Some participants did not know the true effects of the adrenaline injection they were given ○ They were either given false effects or no effects ○ But being fully informed of the true nature and aims of the study may result in participant bias ● Participant protection ○ Participants may have had a harmful reaction to the adrenaline ○ Researchers did not ensure that participants would not experience harm from the injection ● Debriefing ○ Participants were adequately debriefed ● Deception was revealed and justified ○ APA Guidelines for Animal Research ■ Tries to avoid harm to animals ○ But harm may still be inflicted on animals, ○ The research may potentially provide significant benefit to the health or welfare of humans or other animals ○ If it is unavoidable → If the procedure would cause pain to humans, it should be assumed that it will cause pain to animals ● Animal welfare should be monitored ○ Animals should be euthanized as soon as possible if research, causes long term/serious harm ○ Affects their ability to live normally ○ Pain-free Berthold (1849) ● Ethical issues of this study ○ Participant protection ■ Berthold castrated roosters to study the effects of testosterone (secreted by the testes) on behaviour ○ May have caused distress to the roosters after testicles were surgically removed ○ But the research provided significant benefit to the understanding of the effects of the hormone testosterone ○ This knowledge could benefit the health of humans and other animals ● Consent ○ Roosters could not be fully informed about the study ○ Roosters could not give consent ○ But roosters would not be able to understand if they were being studied

○ Therefore, it would not be possible to gain informed consent ● Withdrawal ○ Roosters could not express any desires to withdraw from the study ● Debriefing ○ Roosters were not debriefed ○ But since they are animals and they did not know they were in a study, they would not desire a debriefing ● Animal ethics ○ The welfare of the roosters was not monitored ○ It was found that when testes were replaced, they did not re-establish a neural connection ○ Berthold had done permanent damage to the roosters that may have affected their ability to live a normal, pain-free live ○ But he did not euthanize them Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972) Ethical issues of this study ● Participant protection ○ Researchers placed rats in enriched and deprived environments to study the effects of the environment on brain plasticity ○ May have caused distress to the rats living in the deprived environment ○ Rats were euthanized to study their brains ○ But the research provided significant benefit to the understanding of the effects of the environment on brain plasticity ○ This knowledge could benefit humans and other animals ● Consent ○ Rats could not be fully informed about the study ○ Rats could not give consent ○ But rats would not be able to understand if they were being studied ○ Therefore, it would not be possible to gain informed consent ● Withdrawal ○ Rats could not express any desires to withdraw from the study ● Debriefing ○ Rats were not debriefed ○ But since they are animals and they did not know they were in a study, they would not desire a debriefing ● Animal ethics ○ The welfare of the rats was not monitored ● Conclusion ○ Ethical considerations in all research in psychology include:

■ Informed consent ■ Withdrawal ■ Confidentiality ■ Deception ■ Debriefing ● (But there are slight exceptions for consent and deception) ○ Animal research has slightly different ethical considerations ● Differences regard harming participants and ethical euthanasia (​5​) Examine one study related to localization of function of the brain Introduction ● “This essay will attempt to give a detailed account including reasons or causes of localisation of the brain” Define Localisation of Function (LOF) ● LOF is the theory that certain areas of the brain correspond to certain functions; in that specific areas of the brain control different functions carried out by the brain. ● It refers to the idea that behaviour, emotions and thoughts originate in the brain in specific locations. ● Therefore, damage to relevant areas of the brain can cause drastic loss of that function and even more, depending on the individual. ● Therefore it is said that many functions of the brain are strictly “localised.?

State/Introduce the parts of the brain The basic set-up of the brain includes: ● 2 main hemispheres: ○ Left – logic, problem solving, maths, and language, controls RHS of body ○ Right – creativity, emotion, beliefs controls RHS of body ● 4 main lobes: ○ Occipital – vision ○ Parietal – higher senses and language functions ○ Frontal – reasoning, problem solving, judgement and creativity ○ Temporal – perception, hearing (sound recognition), memory and meaning. ● Other important areas of the brain include: ○ Broca’s Area – inability to produce language, but could understand/comprehend. ○ Wernicke’s Area – inability to understand language, but could communicate/speak ● Introduce research into LOF

○ Research from the 19th and 20th centuries has guided us towards a much better understanding of how we should carry out such research into the brain, but more specially, how functions of the brain are localized. ● Some studies which appear to support and demonstrate localisation of function are: ○ Broca – Tan (1861) ○ Harlow – Phineas Gage (1849) ○ Raine et al. (1997) ○ *Roger Sperry (1968) – If this study is chosen, make sure you explicitly state how it is localisation of function. ○ *Wernicke (1874) ■ (- For example Wernicke – you can't really explain the study as he never really conducted an official study, but if you choose Broca then try and explain Wernicke’s study with it.) ○ Milner – HM (1966) ○ * The studies with the stars are studies you can incorporate into your response, making sure you explicitly state how it relates to LOF as they are not clear or contain different intentions other than LOF. Body ● Introduce research into LOF (be more specific) ○ Scientific research into brain function was, until the 20th century, largely limited to case studies of individuals who were known to have suffered some kind of brain damage or head injury. ○ This type of research, not being of an experimental nature, could never clearly establish a cause and effect relationship between the behaviour of the person before death and location of the brain damage.

Phineas Gage (1848) ● Aim: To investigate the localisation of function in Phineas Gage’s case of how his brain damage resulted in a change of behaviour. ● Specifically, Harlow wanted to investigate how the particular brain damage altered his behaviour. ● Method: ○ Phineas Gage, a 25-year-old railroad worker in the 19th century who survived the passing of an iron rod through his head/skull. ○ It entered below his left cheek and exited through the top of his skull on the frontal lobe. ○ J.M Harlow nursed Gage to recovery observing his behaviour. ● Results: ○ Harlow observed and studied Gage, having undergone dramatic changes in personality after the injury, which he didn?t show beforehand.

○ Harlow described him as having little restraint, using extremely rude language, and making grand plans for the future, which would be instantly replaced with others. ● Conclusion: ○ From Harlow’s study of Phineas Gage, it can be concluded that Gage’s frontal lobes were indeed damaged in the left pre-frontal region, which accounted for his disinhibited behaviour. ○ Harlow’s study exemplifies how different parts of the brain, in this case, the frontal lobe which controls personality, relating back to the theory of localization of function, which is that specific regions of the brain are responsible for different functions.

Broca – “Tan” (1861) Introduce study and link to question: ● Another study from the 19th century which further revealed important and new information about the function of specific areas of the brain was by Paul Broca (1824-80) Aim: ● To investigate the localisation of function in a patient called “Tan.” ● Broca wanted to investigate Tan’s unusually language ability/capability by studying his brain.

Method: ● Broca studied a patient over a number of years (as it was a longitudinal study), known as “Tan,” because it was one of the few sounds he could make. ● After Tan died, Broca conducted a post-mortem autopsy on this patient (and several others) to figure out what part of the brain caused his or similar conditions.

Results: ● After performing the autopsy, he now had evidence that damage to a specific area of the brain was responsible for the loss of ability to produce coherent speech. ○ This area became known as Broca’s area. ● The effects of damage to this part of the brain can most easily be observed in the speech of stroke victims, many of whom are temporarily or permanently unable to produce language, a condition known as Broca’s aphasia.

Conclusion: ● Broca concluded that the area named after him (Broca’s area) is responsible for an impairment of language in a person. ● Through this study, new understanding and research had arised of “localised functions? of different parts of the brain, as a result of this finding from early research into the brain by scientists such as Broca.

Wernicke (1874)

Introduce study and link to question: ● A further study from the 19th century, very similar to Broca’s which also revealed important and new information about the function of another specific area of the brain was by Carl Wernicke (1874) ○ *May want to link with Broca’s area.

Aim: ● To investigate the localisation of function in patients with brain damage. ○ Like Broca, Wernicke wanted to investigate another speech/language and comprehension disorder, in which he believed, resulted from a different area than Broca’s area responsible for the comprehension of speech.

Method: ● Wernicke worked in a similar fashion to Broca, by noting behaviour and conducting post-mortem autopsies to locate brain damage after patients had died, particularly in stroke victims.

Results: ● After performing the autopsies, Wernicke concluded that there was a section of the brain which was responsible for the comprehension of speech. ○ The area later became known as Wernicke’s area. ● Individuals with this type of aphasia might have problems understanding the speech of others or might substitute wrong words into planned phrases. ● He now had evidence that damage to Wernicke’s area was responsible for the loss of ability to comprehend and understand speech, but still being able to speak.

Conclusion: ● Through this study, Wernicke concluded that the area named after him (Wernicke’s area) is responsible for an impairment of comprehending/understanding language. ● Through studies like Wernicke and Broca’s, it became clear that specific parts of the brain were responsible for specific human activities and behaviour. ● However, it was still very difficult to find ways to investigate this further, as cases like these were usually rare. ● Furthermore, people could not be operated on as it is deemed to be unethical.

Raine et al. (1997) ● Aims:

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○ The aim of the experiment was to discover (using PET scans) if murderers who pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) to show evidence of brain abnormalities (by observing the cortical and subcortical parts of the brain) Was to compare the functioning of various brain structures between NGRI'S and normal subjects using PET scanning technologies Variables: ○ The independent variable in this study was whether the participant was a NGRI or not. The dependent variable was the PET scan results between the controls and the NGRIs. Controlled (1 for each subject) ○ Matched for age / sex ○ schizophrenics with non-murderer schizophrenics ○ all controls screened for mental/physical health) Methods: ○ 41 participants (39 male, 2 female) who pleaded not guilty for reasons of insanity (average age of 34.3 ○ Matched with 41 participants (controls) was selected based on sex, age and matched to a NGRI participant ○ Each participant was injected with a glucose tracer (bonds to substances like glucose) (for PET scans) ■ As the brain uses substances like glucose (as energy) the areas of the brain that are most active absorb it ■ The glucose is broken down but the radioactive materials remain and it emits positively charged particles called positrons, which are picked up by the scan ■ This information can be read by the computer, producing coloured images on the level of activity throughout the brains

● Compared level of activity (glucose metabolism) in the right and left hemispheres of the brains and the control participants ● They had to perform tasks requiring them to detect target signals for 32 minutes ● Results: ○ Less activity in the parietal and prefrontal cortex of the brain of those participants charged with murder ○ More activity in the occipital areas and no difference in their temporal areas ○ Group 1 (those charged with murder): ■ Inability to grasp long-term implications of a situation ■ Inappropriate emotional expression

■ Lack of activity in the amygdala - indicating that violence was due to unusual emotional responses (e.g. lack of fear) Evaluation ● Strengths: ○ A large sample was used with many controls to rule out alternative effects on brain activity. ○ Previous findings on brain structures involved in violence are supported and new findings revealed. ● Limitations: ○ The PET scan method can lack precision, as the findings apply only to a subgroup of violent offenders (not to other types of violence or crime) and caution in the interpretation of the findings is needed, which need to be replicated. ○ The findings do not mean violence is caused by biology alone (other social, psychological and situational factors are involved). ○ It does not demonstrate that the murderers are not responsible for their actions. ○ It does not mean PET scans can diagnose murderers and do not say whether the brain abnormalities are a cause or effect of behaviour. ○ No control over the level of violence used in the murder. ○ Brain scans can be difficult to interpret. ○ Ethical implications of socially sensitive research.

Conclusion: ● Raine et al's study on NGRI's illustrated localisation of function ● Differences were found in the amygdala and corpus callosum of the NGRI's, amongst various structures, suggesting differences in their experience of emotion of fear and their inability to contemplate consequences of their actions ● The use of this new technology enables psychologists to see the functioning structures of the brain whilst performing specific tasks ● This allowed Raine to compare the functions of various brain regions, effectively showing changes in these areas in NGRI subjects and how they subsequently affect subjects' functioning Sperry (1968) ● Introduce study and link to question: ● “An influential study, which helped neuroscientists to understand the way brain functions appear to be not only localized in specific regions, but also lateralized – that is, the left and right hemispheres seem to be more or less responsible for certain activities was from the work of Roger Sperry (1968).” ● *Be careful with this study, and be explicit about the localization of function that Sperry demonstrated.

● Note that lateralization of function is not the same as localization of function, so answers using Sperry need to focus on the function of the corpus callosum, not on differences between left and right hemispheres of the brain. ● Aim: ○ To investigate both the localisation and laterization of brain functions. ○ To test the effects of a severed corpus callosum, and therefore prove that the two hemispheres have separate functions. ● Method: ○ He selected 11 patients who had severed corpus callosums, where the corpus callosums were severed in epilepsy sufferers to prevent seizures crossing from one side of the brain to another. ○ The patients were asked to perform hemisphere-related tasks. ○ The tasks included being shown an image on the left or right hand side of their body, where they were asked to identify it or asked to drawn pictures with their left or right hands based off an example. ● Results: ○ Sperry found that the patients could redraw pictures with their left hands, but not with their right. ○ This could be due to the fact that the left hand side of the body is controlled by the right hemisphere, which is also the creative hemisphere. ○ Sperry also found that when a picture was shown on the left they could not identify it, but could recognise it out of a variety of objects (right hemisphere knows object function but not name). ○ Inversely, when the object was shown on the right the patients were able to identify what it was.

Evaluation Strengths: ● Although, Sperry only had 11 participants, he found significant information into the insight of localization of brain function as well as laterization, which is the theory that the two hemispheres have separate functions.

Limitations: ● His study was seen to have low ecological validity, as it only had 11 participants/patients. ● Furthermore, more research needs to be undertaken regarding people who do not have a severed corpus callosum, so that it can be distinguished as to whether Sperry’s results can be applied to the general population.

Conclusion: ● “Through this study, Sperry found significant information into the insight of localization of brain function as well as lateralization, which is the theory that the two hemispheres have separate functions.” ● Lateralization of function includes the assertion that the right half of the brain is dominant for visuospatial ability (demonstrated in tasks like reading maps or recognizing faces), as well as musical abilities and understanding intonation in speech. ● The left half of the brain seems to be more positive than the right and is dominant for language and logical or mathematical abilities. ● His research allowed other research to form and take place to gain more insight into how the different parts of the brain functions.

FINAL Conclusion ● Link to learning outcome ○ The theory of localization of function within the brain is clearly established, and has relevant studies to support it as seen by Harlow’s work on Phineas Gage and other studies. ○ It is generally accepted that there are two hemispheres within the brain which each control separate functions. ○ Similarly, the four lobes of the brain and other areas of the brain are understood to have separate functions, primarily to do with the senses. ● What did Harlow’s study (or other study) signify? ○ Harlow’s study (1848) helped to demonstrate localization of brain function, in how different parts of the brain are responsible for specific human activities and behaviour. ○ State explicitly what area of the brain affected what behaviour in Phineas Gage’s condition. ○ In Gage’s case, Harlow discovered that the frontal lobes were responsible a change in personality and emotional vibe, which Gage showed a significant change in behaviour of.

Closing: ​However, more research needs to be undertaken in this area to ensure better understanding of the human brain.

(​6​) Explain, using examples, functions of two hormones on human behavior Intro ● This essay will attempt to give a detailed account including reasons or causes of functions of hormones in human behaviour.

Define hormones ● Hormones can affect human behaviour. ● Hormones are chemicals released by glands in the endocrine system which circulate in the bloodstream and act as messengers affecting particular cells and organs.

Define endocrine system ● The endocrine system is a system comprised of glands, which secrete hormones into the bloodstream to affect behaviour. ● From there, the hormones are sent to target cells by impulses which initiate specific responses.

Give examples of hormones ● The human body contains various hormones which relate to specific emotions and carry out different responses and actions in the body. ● Some hormones produced by the body are adrenaline and cortisol from the adrenals; melatonin, from the pineal gland; oxytocin from the pituitary gland and hypothalamus and testosterone and oestrogen from the gonads (testes/ovaries).

Outline hormones ● Hormones have widespread effects on both physiology and psychology in humans and thus behaviour. ● Hormones enter directly into the bloodstream so thus they take longer to produce changes in behaviour that neurotransmitters Hormone 1: Adrenaline ○ Description: Secreted in the Adrenal glands, located above both kidneys. ○ This hormone is known for the "flight or fight" reaction and arousal. ○ Thus adrenaline is a hormone that helps an organism deal with an external threat (in the environment) in preparing the body to fight it or run away. ○ Adrenaline can increase flow of oxygen and blood to the brain (increasing activity in the heart and dilating blood vessels). ○ Some symptoms which adrenaline causes the body to do are: ○ Increase in heart rate and blood pressure. ○ Dilation of pupils in eyes. ○ Transfers key resources (such as oxygen and glucose) away from internal organs to the extremities of the body ○ Functions like digestion are less important thus slowed down being focused in helping an organism fight or run away from danger

○ Value ■ Increases alertness ■ It has been suggested that adrenaline may be responsible for the creation of emotion Schacter and Singer (1962) A study looking into the effects of adrenaline on humans was conducted by Schacter and Singer (1962) Aims: ● To test the two factor theory of emotion (that emotion arises from a combination of a cognition and arousal), using the hormone, adrenaline.

Methods: ● Test 184 college males ● Divided into 4 groups ○ All groups were told that they were going to be given an injection of Suproxin in order to test its effect on vision ○ Even though men were really receiving adrenaline ○ First three groups were given an injection of adrenaline ○ Last group was given a placebo ○ 4 Groups divided into 2 subgroups ● Condition 1 - euphoria ○ Confederate encouraged participant to play with games inside the waiting room (with office equipment) ● Condition 2 - anger ○ Confederate completed a questionnaire at the same pace as the participant but became more and more angry as the questions became more personal ○ Participants were either informed of the correct effects of adrenaline (under the impression that it was suproxin) or given no information at all ● Control group was given false effects but otherwise remained tested under same conditions ● Participants observed for changes in emotion ○ Also asked to fill out a questionnaire detailing their state of emotion ● Results: ○ Showed that participants that were given information on the effects of adrenaline showed minimal changes in emotion ○ But those who had been told no effect, thus no explanation for their state of arousal showed much higher changes in emotion (in regards to the scenario they were in)

○ Participants who received a placebo experienced no state of arousal and this had no need to explain their feelings through their surroundings tho they had minimal changes in emotions ○ Those who were misinformed about the effects of adrenaline were included for control purposes and so their results were not included ● Conclusions: ○ Researchers concluded that emotion occurs by a process of cognitive labelling: the interpretation of physiological cues is combined with contextual cues to construct a person's subjective experience of emotion. *When explaining this study, do not go this much in-depth as in the above. State only the most relevant things that the examiner should know. ● This study shows that adrenaline can contribute to changes in emotion, a behaviour expressed by humans.

Hormone 2: Testosterone ● Secreted by the testes in males ● Function ○ Supporting male traits as it influences aggressiveness and aggression in general. ● Effects ○ The deepening of the voice ○ Facial hair growth ○ Increasing overall body mass and size of the male’s penis and testes. ○ Responsible for maintaining a male’s sex drive. o ● Although linked profoundly in males, testosterone is also found in females. ○ It plays a less important role ○ Secreted in small amounts from the ovaries ● Stimulates the production of red blood cells. ● Increases the incorporation of amino acids & protein synthesis in muscles, liver, & kidneys, thus stimulating their growth & metabolism. ● Increases cell division in certain tissues. ○ Essential for reproduction & maintenance of male characteristics, organs & behaviour

Arnold Berthold (1849) ● An early indication of a study demonstrating the effects of testosterone on animal behaviour is a study conducted by Berthold (1849). ● Aims ○ The aim of this experiment was to test the effects of testosterone through the castration of roosters. ● Methods: ○ Quasi Experiment ○ 6 healthy roosters ○ Surgically castrated them (removing testicles thus stopping the production of testosterone) ● Divided them into 3 groups of 2 roosters ○ Group 1 - control group- roosters were left in their own capons ○ Group 2 - transplanted with testicles of another rooster ○ Group 3 - reimplanted with their own testicles ● Results: ○ Berthold observed that the castrated roosters displayed different behaviour, where they were less masculine and less aggressive towards other roosters. ○ Such behaviours included a lack of crowing, fighting, and showed a less desire to mate. ○ Those roosters that reacquired testicles behaved like normal roosters again. ○ Autopsy of roosters revealed that the testicles did not re-establish nerve connections with the rest of the body. ● Conclusions ○ Berthold concluded that the testicles must have produced a biochemical that influences aggression and dominant male behaviours. ○ This study relates to the function of testosterone because when roosters had testes (which secrete testosterone) they displayed dominant male behaviours and aggression. ○ However, when they were removed it showed that the evolutionary and dominant “male? behaviours of the roosters (aggression) decreased, which indicates the connection that testosterone affects behaviour. ○ Because he tested the effects of testosterone on animals but not humans, some people may argue that his findings cannot be generalised to humans. ● “Although this is the case, Berthold still found significant results relating to the influence of testosterone and was a good early indicator, which generated more research into this biological area into humans.”

Dabbs et al. (1995)

Aims: ● The aim of this experiment was to investigate the relationship between testosterone and both sex and aggression.

Methods: ● They explored the relationship between testosterone levels and types of crimes committed by 692 prison inmates.

Results: ● Men who had committed personal crimes involving sex and violence had significantly higher testosterone levels than men who had committed property crimes.

Dabbs & Morris (1990) Aims & Assumptions: ● The relationship between testosterone, sex and aggression and its effects. ● Previous studies into the relationship between testosterone, sex and aggression have been limited by small sample sizes and failure to control effects of social class.

Methods: ● Quasi Experiment ● Used a very large sample = 4,462 that were representative of American men in race, education, income and occupation. ● All had been enlisted in the US army and had been followed longitudinally from 1985 as part of a study of the effects of the Vietnam military experience. ● Men’s testosterone levels were measured during their induction into the Army. ● Extensive information relating to the men’s sexual behaviour, aggressive and criminal behaviour, and social class (education and income) since their discharge from the Army was collected.

Results: ● Association between testosterone levels and SES: low SES men were significantly more likely than high SES men to have high testosterone levels. ● Second, men with high testosterone levels were significantly more likely to have been involved in childhood delinquency, adult crime, hard drug use, marijuana use, alcohol abuse, to have gone AWOL in the army, and to have had “many sex partners.? ● Dabbs and Morris also found the relationship between testosterone levels and these outcome variables differed by social class. ● Dabbs found that a higher socioeconomic status moderates the effects of testosterone on criminal behaviours. He argues that persons of greater social status have access to other ways of expressing dominance than simply aggression. Therefore, they are less likely t end up in criminal trouble. ● Men with higher income and more education were, on average, significantly less likely to have high levels of circulating testosterone than men with low income and less education.

Only in those men with lower socioeconomic status was there a tendency for high levels of testosterone to be linked to antisocial behaviour.

Dabbs and Morris concluded that testosterone has many profound effects, especially on male behaviour. ● This study relates to the simplistic view that testosterone leads to aggression and violence, and various other aspects of behaviour in humans, such as antisocial or prosocial behaviour. ● It establishes that testosterone has almost the same effects in both animals and humans because of similar biological processes and evolution. ● Testosterone affects behaviour, but the outcome of behaviour also affects testosterone levels.

Conclusion ● Both hormones show considerable influence into human behaviour. ● Significance of supporting studies into effects of hormones on behaviour: ○ Both hormones are supported by valid studies, proving that these hormones do in fact have an effect on human behaviour. ● BLA principles and hormones ○ Behaviour has physiological origins.

■ Hormones are a biological factor contributing to behaviour. ○ The relationship between physiological factors and environmental stimuli is bi-directional.

■ Hormone levels are affected by the environment. ○ There are biological correlates of behaviour.

■ Research has identified specific hormones with specific behavioural functions.

■ Example: Testosterone Aggression ○ Cognitions, emotions and behaviours are products of the anatomy and physiology of our nervous and endocrine systems.

■ Hormones are produced by the glands of the endocrine system. ○ Animal research provides insight into human behaviour.

■ Much research on hormones has been conducted on animals and extrapolated to humans to find the correlation between hormones and behaviour.

Concluding Statements and assumptions ● Therefore a bidirectional relationship exists between hormones and behaviour, where hormones affect behaviour and behaviour feeds back to affect hormones. ● Hormone-behaviour relationships are complex.

● It is NOT appropriate to say that hormones “cause” behaviour rather that hormones change the probability that a particular behaviour will be displayed. ● Therefore, hormones simply influence behaviour. (​7​) Discuss two effects of the environment of physiological processes “This essay will attempt to offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors and hypotheses on two effects of the environment on physiological processes, supported by research studies which investigate both effects.” ● It is said that certain effects of the environment can affect physiological processes such as hormones, neurotransmitters, but in particular, the human brain. Therefore the relationship between the environment and physiology is often said to be “bidirectional,? where environmental enrichment changes the cerebral cortex and therefore the brain changes our experiences and behaviour. (DEFINE BIDIRECTIONAL) ● The two effects of the environment on physiological processes that will be discussed include: ● Enrichment of certain environments on brain plasticity ● And the observation of experienced actions on the activation of mirror neurons.

Body ● Effect 1: Brain plasticity ○ The brain's ability to rearrange its connections with its neurons; that is the changes that occur in the structure of the brain as a result of learning or experience (exposure to different environments). ○ The changes that can take place are related to the challenges of the environment and thus represent an adaptation to it. ○ Brain plasticity ■ Def: the lifelong ability of the brain to reorganize neural pathways based on new experiences.

■ The brain has the ability to reorganise itself and form new connections between neurons.

■ It is stimulated by the environment.

■ Plasticity occurs every time something new is learnt ■ Brain plasticity is explicitly shown after brain injury when the brain reorganizes and forms new connections with healthy neurons to compensate for the functions of the damaged area.

Rosenzweig & Bennett (1972) An example of a study which investigates the effects of a deprived or enriched environment on neuroplasticity is an experiment conducted by Rosenzweig and Bennet (1972).

Aim:

● To investigate the effects of a deprived or enriched environment on neuroplasticity, in particular, the development of neurons in the cerebral cortex.

Method: ● The participants used were rats (unspecified type). ● The independent variable was the type of environment that the rats were exposed to. ● Stimulating environment contained interesting toys ● Deprived environment had no toys ● The dependent variable was the weight of the rats? brains, showing the amount of brain plasticity that occurred in the rats. ● The rats were separated and exposed to the two environments for 30-60 days before being euthanized.

Results: ● Rats in the stimulating environment had a thicker cortex and heavier frontal lobe (associated with thinking, planning, and decision-making) compared to rats in the deprived environment.

Conclusion: ● Resulted from the exposure to the toys in the stimulating environment, → develop neural connections in the rat’s brain. ● Short Evaluation: ○ Limitations: ■ Lacks ecological validity, because the findings cannot be generalised to humans as the brain and environmental inputs differ between humans and animals such as rats. ● This study showed the effect of the environment on physiology because more enriched environments helped develop neurons in brains of the rats.

Gaser and Schlaug (2003) Method: ● Compared the brains of professional musicians (who practice at least 1 hr. a day) Results: ● Grey matter volume ○ Highest in the professionals' brains ○ Lowest in the non-musicians ○ In several brain areas involved in playing music such as motor regions, anterior superior parietal areas and inferior temporal areas ● This study shows how environmental enrichment (in the form of music) contributes to neural connections in the brain – demonstrating brain plasticity.

Draganski et al. (2004) Another example of a study investigating environmental enrichment on brain plasticity is a study conducted by Draganski et al. (2004)

Aim: ● To determine whether functional and structural changes could be detected in the human brain as a result of learning a new motor skill Method: ● 21 females and 3 males were split into two groups ● One group had to spend 3 months learning a juggling routine for a minimum of 60 seconds, then spend 3 months not practising juggling Results: ● MRI scans showed no structural differences in groups' brains before juggling. ● There was an increase in volume of two regions of the jugglers' brains associated with the retention of visually detected movement information of learning ● This difference decreased after 3 months of no practice.

Conclusion ● Practising watching balls move and learning to move in response has strengthened the neural connections in brain areas responsible for the activity.

This study demonstrates the effect of enrichment (in the form of juggling) on brain plasticity in participants who juggled What is the effect of environmental enrichment on brain plasticity (physiological process)? ● The research studies outlined above demonstrates that the more a person performs a particular activity, the more neural connections are formed in the area of the brain responsible, creating a physical change in the brain. ● This represents the bidirectional relationship between the environment and physiological processes occurring in the brain.

EFFECT 2: MIRROR NEURONS Another way in which the brain interacts with the environment has to do with how people learn is through a unique physiological process called mirror neurons. ● People learn by observing others → imitating their behaviour. ● Mirror neurons are special neurons which may play a vital role in the ability to learn as well as empathize with another person. ● Def: Mirror Neurons (MN) ○ A neuron that fires when an animal (or person) performs an action or when the animal observes someone else perform the same action; it “mirrors? the behaviour of another. ○ A small circuit of cells in the premotor cortex and inferior parietal cortex that are activated by the observation or performance of a behaviour, internally firing/activating the motor neurons of the corresponding behaviour. ○ Activated when action performed and observe someone else performing that same action ● Discovered in 1980s accidentally by a group led by Rizzolatti.

Method: ● They placed electrodes in the inferior frontal cortex of macaque monkeys' brains to study neurons dedicated to control of hand movement. ● This led to the observation that some neurons responded in the same way when monkeys saw a person pick up a peanut as when they were doing it themselves ● Much research has been done to investigate whether MN are present in humans ● MN help us understand others by providing some kind of inner imitation of actions of other people, which leads us to "stimulate" the intentions and emotions associated with those actions. ● Mirror neurons cannot be directly observed in humans because electrodes cannot be inserted into their brains. ● Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain has shown patterns of brain activity consistent with the firing of motor neurons (much like in the macaque monkeys) ● Thus it has been assumed that MN also exist in humans ● MN activate during social learning: ● Observational learning - learning through observation and imitation ● MN make us feel as though we are performing an action by just observing it - we experience an inner imitation of the action ● The purpose of MN is that it has evolved so that we can better understand and interact with other human beings.

Iacoboni (2004) A study supporting the effect of mirror neurons as a result of observing people’s behaviour is conducted by Iacoboni (2004).

Aim: ● To determine whether looking at the emotion expressed on someone's face would cause the brain of the observer to be stimulated.

Method: ● Asked participants to look at human faces while in an fMRI. ● Participants had to imitate the faces shown and then they watched as the faces were shown again.

Results: ● The same brain area was activated both times (in both animals and humans). ● The limbic system was stimulated - observing a happy face activated pleasure centres in the brain.

This study demonstrates the effect of observing experienced actions on mirror neurons as the participants' mirror neurons were activated when they observed and imitated facial expressions.

Keysers (2003) Aim: ● Studied MN in relation to the emotion - disgust

Method: ● He put his volunteers in a brain scanner and wafted disgusting odours ● For example, rancid butter and rotten eggs into their nostrils ● He wafted some non-disgusting ones too, as a control Results: ● The disgusting odours, he found, activated part of the brain called the anterior insula. ● He then played film clips of people's faces registering disgust to his volunteers, and found activity in exactly the same part of the brain.

Keysers (2004) Results: ● Part of the brain that was activated by touching the leg of a person in a brain scanner also reacted if the subject was shown film of another person being touched on the leg.

Conclusion: ● This suggests that understanding experiences and emotions of others and ourselves is mediated by mirror neurons The study shows that observing the film of someone touching another's leg (environmental stimuli) after experiencing the action activated the mirror neurons (physiological process) in the participants' brains.

Simon et al (2006) A study of how (insert method) the anterior cingulate cortex awake human subjects.

Method: ● Studied the anterior cingulate cortex of awake human subjects Results: ● Certain neurons that typically fire in response to pain also fired when the person saw someone else in pain.

The study shows that the same neurons fire in response to pain for a variety of human subjects, which reinforces how the environment affects physiological processes similarly across most humans.

Studies countering mirror neurons Lingau et al (2009) ● Lingau et al (2009) did not find mirror neuron activity for acts that were first done and then observed, only the other way round. ○ System is merely priming the motor neurons for subsequent activity ● MN have been used to explain language, culture and empathy ○ Monkeys have mirror neurons, but no language, culture or empathy. ● There are other ways of understanding and explaining other people's actions than MN. ○ The MN system is not needed

● Neuroimaging techniques have provided evidence to suggest that MN exist in humans ○ However, fMRI studies cannot prove the existence of mirror neurons – only the oxygen use of sections of the brain with many neurons.

Conclusion ● In conclusion the two discussed effects of the environment on physiological processes are: ○ Enrichment on brain plasticity ○ Observation of experienced actions on the activation of mirror neurons ● Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to reorganize neural pathways (physiology) based on new experiences (environment). ○ The interaction occurs when the enriched environments affect the neural connections in the brain by reorganising the neural connections in brain areas related to functions that are required in the enriched environment/condition. ● Mirror neurons in the brain activate (physiology) when we perform an action and observe someone else performing that same action (environment) and therefore “mirror? the behaviour of another individual. ○ MN makes us feel as though we are performing an action by just observing it - we experience an inner imitation of the action. ○ The relationship exists when observing another person’s behaviour in the environment which therefore generates a response from the neurons in our brains, which are physiological processes of behaviour. ● “​Bidirectional relationship​ exists between the environment and physiological processes, forming a strong interaction.” (​8​) Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology- on behavior This essay will attempt to uncover the assumptions and interrelationships of the interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of ​amnesia​. (def) Cognition and physiology ● Cognition→ mental process of acquiring and processing knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses. Cognitive processes include perception, attention, language, memory and thinking. ● Physiology → internal, biological mechanisms of living organisms – the way the organism functions Amnesia​ → ● Inability to learn new information or retrieve information that has already been stored in memory. ○ Condition in which people lose their ability to memorize/recall information. ○ There is an interaction between biological and cognitive factors in amnesia

○ Has a biological cause (e.g. brain damage) and affects cognition (e.g. memory) ○ In patients, episodic memory is affected to a greater extent than semantic memory ■ Episodic memories are memories linked to a certain time and place.

■ Semantic memories are memories for the meaning of information. ● Causes ○ Injury ○ Strokes ○ Infections ○ Specific drugs – usually sedative ○ Closed head injuries ○ Bilateral strokes ○ Chronic alcoholism leads to Korsakoff’s syndrome ● Regions affected in the brain ○ Diencephalon (subcortical) ○ Medial temporal lobe (cortical) ○ Hippocampus ● Symptom of some degenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease. ● Types of amnesia ○ Neuroscientists distinguish between two key types of amnesia, anterograde and retrograde: ○ Anterograde Amnesia ■ Impairment in ability to recall new information after the onset ■ Inability to form new memories ■ Antero = new ○ Retrograde Amnesia ■ Impairment in ability to recall old information before the onset ■ Inability to recall old memories ■ Retro = old ● Amnesia and physiology ○ Caused by damage in the hippocampus region of the brain. ○ Physiological effects of amnesia are what influences or affects cognition, particularly the mental process of memory.

Varga-Khadem et al. (1997) Method ● 2 patients – Beth & Jon - who both suffered bilateral hippocampal damage in early life before developing semantic memories.

Results ● They both had poor episodic memory. ● They had normal speech, language development and semantic memory.

● A follow-up study on Jon (2002) found that he had high intelligence and his semantic memory was better than his episodic.

Conclusion: ● Researchers concluded that different types of memory was localised to different brain regions. ● Biology and cognition form an interaction between ​Brain damage​ (biology) ​impaired memory​ (cognition) KF - Shallice and Warrington (1974) Background: ● KF was in a motorcycle accident and suffered memory impairment ● Brain damage to the left parietal and occipital lobes Results: ● He could transfer information from STM to LTM ● He suffered problems with STM of different types of information ● digit span was severely impaired ● visual and auditory information (e.g. telephone ring) was unaffected KF's case provides evidence to suggest that biological factors (brain damage to the left parietal and occipital lobes) affect cognition (memory) ● Supports the interaction of biology and cognition in amnesia Milner & Scoville (1957) – HM Background: ● H.M first fell off a bicycle at 9 years old resulting in brain damage. ● Epileptic seizures started at age 10 ● Major seizures happened since age 16 ● Drugs failed to control seizures Method: ● At age 27 (1953) H.M had brain surgery to control his epilepsy and to stop seizures. ● He had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy. ● They removed tissue from the temporal lobe, including the hippocampus. ● H.M. was studied extensively for 40 years. ● In 1997, researchers used an MRI scan Results: ● After the operation, HM had anterograde amnesia – he was unable to create new memories ● Nothing could be stored in his long-term memory (LTM). ● His childhood memories were intact ● Memories immediately before the operation were lost. ● His working memory was intact. ● MRI Scan Results (1997) –

○ Brain damage was pervasive and included the hippocampus, the amygdala, and other areas close to the hippocampus.

Conclusion: ● The hippocampus is needed for memories to be transferred to long-term memory.

The case of HM reveals the interaction of cognition (memory) and physiology (brain damage in the hippocampus) in amnesia. ● Brain damage in relevant areas caused memory impairment ● This study suggests that certain brain regions are responsible for the cognitive process of memory Evaluation

Sacks – Clive Wearing (2007) ● Clive Wearing suffered from a severe and rare case of amnesia → studied by Oliver Sacks (2007).

Background: ● Clive Wearing was a musician who got a viral infection - encephalitis. ● This left him with serious brain damage in the hippocampus (biological cause), which caused memory impairment (effect on cognition) ● He suffered from anterograde and retrograde amnesia Results: ● He could not transfer information from STM to LTM. ● His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories. ● Wearing still had the ability to talk, read, write, conduct and sight-read music (​procedural knowledge​) ● Wearing’s episodic memory and some of his semantic memory were lost. ● MRI scans of Wearing’s brain showed damage to the hippocampus and some of the frontal regions.

Conclusion: ● Insight into the biological foundation of different memory systems → cognitive process. ● Highlights the interaction between cognition and physiology ○ Establishes the link by illustrating the effect of physiological causes in the brain (brain damage occurring in hippocampi region, on the social and cognitive interactions of the individual.

Evaluation: ● Strengths ○ Supports interaction of physiology and cognition ○ Study is in-depth and realistic ○ Enriched data ○ Achieved (difficult given ● Weaknesses ○

Conclusion ● Interaction between cognition and physiology in amnesia: ○ Damage to certain brain areas impaired the patient's' memory → connection between the physiology (of the brain) and cognition (of memory) in amnesia. ● → Amnesia has a bidirectional relationship between its physiological cause occurring in the brain and the cognitive process of memory. ● Assumptions of amnesia:

○ There are correlations between brain areas and memory and damage to these relevant areas results in memory impairment. ○ Supporting studies (patients all experienced damage to specific brain areas and suffered amnesia) ■ Varga-Khadem et al. (1997) ■ Shallice and Warrington (1974) ■ Milner and Scoville (1957) ■ Sacks (2007) ● 2 types- anterograde and retrograde ○ Supported by HM who only suffered anterograde amnesia. (​9​) Discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behavior Introduction ● “This essay will attempt to offer a balanced review of the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationships between biological factors and behaviour” Different types of brain imaging technologies used at the BLA ● PET: Positron Emission Topography ● MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging ● fMRI: functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging ● EEG: Electroencephalogram ● CAT: Computerised Axial Tomography **Methods have advantages and disadvantages and are appropriate in varying situations** Why Brain imaging technologies are used at the BLA ● Brain imaging technologies are methods used in psychology to examine the human brain. ● They are particularly useful in neuropsychology ○ Provides an opportunity to study the active brain ● Allows researchers to see where specific brain processes take place ● Enables researchers to study localisation of function (specific areas of the brain are responsible for different functions) in a living human brain ● It also provides correlations between brain activity and behaviour – though it does not necessarily detail a cause-effect relationship.

State the brain imaging technology being discussed

● “In the following essay, the brain imaging technologies that will be discussed are MRI and PET scans, which will be investigated in terms of its role in investigating the correlations/relationships between biological factors and behaviour.”

Body Biological Factor 1: Neuroplasticity; Brain Damage Brain Imaging Technology 1: MRI Scans ● Introduce the physiological process of neuroplasticity ○ The first brain imaging technology, MRI scans, will be firstly investigated in its relation to the biological process of neuroplasticity. ● Describe the MRI brain imaging technology ○ This technique uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated images. ○ MRI scans involve people to remove all metal objects and clothing where they lie within an MRI machine. ○ It can distinguish among different types of soft tissue and allows researchers to see structures within the brain.

Maguire et al. (2000) Connection of study to question: ● An example of a study which utilizes MRI scans to investigate the relationships between biological factors and behaviour is a study conducted by Maguire et al.

(2000). ● Aim​: ○ Maguire hypothesised that full licensed taxi drivers in London would have a different hippocampi structure in their brains compared to “normal? people. ● Methods: ○ This was based on the knowledge that London taxi drivers must do a two-year training course where they end up being able to find their way around the city without a map. ○ MRI scans were used to scan the structure of their hippocampi, which were compared to already existing MRI scans of healthy males who did not drive taxis. ● Results: ○ Taxi drivers? left and right hippocampi had a larger volume compared to the non-taxi drivers. ○ Some parts of the hippocampi were smaller in the taxi drivers. ● Conclusions: ○ Maguire concluded that there was probably a redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampi of taxi drivers due to the regular use of the spatial memory skills required to remember roads; the neurons are stronger in areas of the brain which are used most.

● Connection of study to question ○ By using an MRI, Maguire was able to observe the structures in the brain and find a correlation between environmental enrichment on neuroplasticity, a physiological process occurring in the brain, particularly around the hippocampi region which then affects behaviour in terms of memory. ○ Maguire used MRI scans to investigate the structure of the hippocampi, which would not be able to be seen using other technologies such as an EEG or a PET scan. ○ Biological Factor: Brains areas, hippocampi ○ Behaviour: Remembering, Memory HM - Milner and Scoville (1957) ● Connection of study to question: ○ Another study which utilizes MRI scans to investigate a physiological process is a study conducted by Milner and Scoville (1957). ● Background: ○ HM suffered epileptic seizures after a head injury at age 9 ○ Doctors performed surgery to stop seizures ○ Tissue from temporal lobe, and hippocampus was removed ○ HM suffered anterograde amnesia ○ He could recall information from early life but could not form new memories ○ HM was studied using an MRI in 1997 ● Findings: ○ The brain scan showed that there was damage to the hippocampus, amygdala, and areas close to the hippocampus ● Connection of study to question ○ By using MRI scanning technology, researchers were able to investigate the effects of biological factors on behaviour and make a correlation between certain brain areas and memory and other behaviour. ○ MRI scans were used to see the structures of the brain to determine the extent of brain damage ○ The structures would not be able to be clearly seen using other technologies such as EEGs or CTs. Biological Factor 2: Localization of Function/Brain Damage Brain Imaging Technology 2: PET Scans ● Introduce the cognitive process of language ○ The next biological factor which will be discussed with the brain imaging technology of PET Scans are brain interactions and functions. ● Describe PET brain imaging technology

○ PET scans require patients to be injected with a radioactive glucose tracer which shows the areas where glucose is absorbed in the active brain. ○ More glucose metabolism means more brain activity. ○ PET scans show a coloured visual display of brain activity; where radioactive tracer is absorbed ■ Red indicates areas with the most activity ■ Blue indicates areas with the least activity Tierney et al (2001) ● Introduction ○ An example of a study which utilizes PET scans to investigate the result of brain damage is a study conducted by Tierney et al. (2001). ● Aim: ○ To evaluate, using PET scans, the bilingual language compensation following early childhood brain damage ● Background: ○ 37 year old man (known as MA) with normal speech functions who was participating in a normal speech study ○ It was discovered that he had a lesion in his left frontal lobe ■ Probably as a result of encephalitis he suffered at the age of 6 weeks ■ He had no significant long-term, clinically consequences ○ Both his parents were deaf and he used sign language at home from a very young age. ○ Researchers were curious to know if this might have had something to do with his ability to speak despite the brain damage (that should have prevented him from doing so. ● Methods ○ Researchers compared MA to 12 control participants, who were fluent in sign language ○ PET scanning technologies were used while the participants produced narrative speech or signs ● Results: ○ MA's right hemisphere was more active than the controls' during the production of both speech and sign language ● Conclusion: ○ Language function seems to have developed in the right hemisphere instead of the left hemisphere as an adaptation following his early brain damage ● Connection of study to outcome

○ Tierney utilised PET scans to investigate the biological factors in MA and observe the areas of the brain (LOF) linked to language and language acquisition.

■ The ongoing activity in the brain would not be able to be seen using other technologies such as EEGs or MRIs. ○ Biological Factor: Damage to brain, specific areas ○ Behaviour: Language, language acquisition Raine et al. (1997) ● Introduction ○ Another study which uses PET scans to investigate the result of brain damage on behaviour/personality is a well-known study conducted by Raine et al. (1997). ● Aims: ○ The aim of the experiment was to discover (using PET scans) if murderers who pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) show evidence of brain abnormalities. ● Methods: ○ 41 participants (39 male, 2 female) NGRI’s (average age of 34.3) ○ 41 participants (controls), selected based on sex, age and matched to a NGRI participant ○ Each participant was injected with a glucose tracer (bonds to glucose) (for PET scans) ■ Glucose tracers tracks brain activity as the brain absorbs glucose (as energy) ■ Radioactive glucose tracer emits positively charged particles called positrons, which are picked up by the scan ■ PET scans show colourful maps of brain activity; red = most active, blue = least active. ○ They had to perform tasks requiring them to detect target signals for 32 minutes ● Results: ○ NGRIs had less activity in the pre-frontal cortex ■ Linked to self-control and emotion ○ NGRIs had lower activity in the amygdala and medial temporal hippocampus ■ Lack of inhibition of violent behaviour ■ Fearlessness - Inappropriate emotional expression ■ Failure to learn consequences for violence ○ Connection of study to outcome ○ Raine utilised PET scan technology to investigate relationships between biological factor in criminals (NGRI’s) and their behaviour.

○ Through Raine’s study, which involved PET scans, psychologists were able to determine a link between the amygdala (biological factor) and crime (behaviour). ○ Biological factor: damage to specific brain areas ○ Behaviour attributed/linked to: Criminal/unlawful acts ■ Lack of inhibition of violent behaviour ■ Fearlessness – inappropriate emotional expression ■ Failure to learn consequences for violence ■ Aggressive behaviour ● Conclusion: What is the significance of using brain scans? ○ In conclusion, brain imaging technologies are very useful in determining the relationship between biological factors and behaviour ○ Useful in different situations. ○ All these methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, primarily involving invasiveness and levels of radioactivity. ○ However, all of these methods contribute to investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour. (​10​) Discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behavior This essay will attempt to offer a balanced review of the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationships between biological factors and behaviour Types of brain imaging technologies ● PET: Positron Emission Topography ● MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging ● fMRI: functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging ● EEG: Electroencephalogram ● CAT: Computerised Axial Tomography Why they are used ● Useful in neuropsychology to study the active brain ● See location specific brain processes take place ○ Enables researchers to study localisation of function (specific areas of the brain are responsible for different functions) in a living human brain ● It also provides correlations between brain activity and behaviour ○ Not necessarily causation

Biological Factor 1: Neuroplasticity Brain Damage Brain Imaging Technology 1: MRI Scans Physiological process of neuroplasticity ● MRI scans →in relation to the biological process of neuroplasticity. ○ Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated images. ● MRI scans involve people to remove all metal objects and clothing where they lie within an MRI machine. ● It can distinguish among different types of soft tissue and allows researchers to see structures within the brain. ● Advantages ○ Excellent resolution ○ Non-invasive ○ Practical (easy to use- most hospitals already have) ○ Safer ○ Individuals can be tested repeatedly ○ Fast (½ minutes) ○ Controlled experimental conditions ● Disadvantages ○ Expensive ○ Limited to activation studies ○ Correlation but not causation ○ Inaccurate → slight movement makes MRI images hard to interpret ○ Can’t use it with everyone ○ Limited space and volume of testing stress out patients and affect their ability to complete test ○ Spacial limitations- some can’t fit in the machine ● Anyone with pacemakers and metal implants can’t use machine Maguire et al. (2000) ● Utilizes MRI scans to investigate the relationships between biological factors and behaviour is a study conducted by Maguire et al. (2000).

Aim: ● Maguire hypothesised that full licensed taxi drivers in London would have a different hippocampi structure in their brains compared to “normal? people.

Background: ● London taxi drivers must do a two-year training course where they end up being able to find their way around the city without a map.

Method

● MRI scans were used to scan the structure of their hippocampi, which were compared to already existing MRI scans of healthy males who did not drive taxis.

Results ● Taxi drivers? left and right hippocampi had a larger volume compared to the non-taxi drivers. ● Some parts of the hippocampi were smaller in the taxi drivers.

Conclusions: ● Maguire concluded that there was probably a redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampi of taxi drivers due to the regular use of the spatial memory skills required to remember roads; the neurons are stronger in areas of the brain which are used most. ○ MRI → observe the structures in the brain and find a correlation between environmental enrichment on neuroplasticity, a physiological process occurring in the brain, particularly around the hippocampi region which then affects behaviour in terms of memory. ● Maguire used MRI scans to investigate the structure of the hippocampi, which would not be able to be seen using other technologies such as an EEG or a PET scan. ● Biological Factor: Brains areas, hippocampi ○ Behaviour: Remembering, Memory HM - Milner and Scoville (1957) ● Utilizes MRI scans to investigate a physiological process Background: ● HM suffered epileptic seizures after a head injury at age 9 ○ Doctors performed surgery to stop seizures ● Tissue from temporal lobe, and hippocampus was removed ● HM suffered anterograde amnesia ○ He could recall information from early life but could not form new memories ● HM was studied using an MRI in 1997 Results: ● The brain scan showed that there was damage to the​ hippocampus, amygdala, and areas close to the hippocampus ● By using MRI scanning technology, researchers were able to investigate the effects of biological factors on behaviour and make a correlation between certain brain areas and memory and other behaviour. ● MRI scans were used to see the structures of the brain to determine the extent of brain damage ○ The structures would not be able to be clearly seen using other technologies such as EEGs or CTs. Biological Factor 2: Localization of Function/Brain Damage Brain Imaging Technology 2: PET Scans

● Cognitive process of language ● PET brain imaging technology (additional biological factor) ○ PET scans require patients to be injected with a radioactive glucose tracer which shows the areas where glucose is absorbed in the active brain. ○ More glucose metabolism means more brain activity. ○ PET scans show a coloured visual display of brain activity; where radioactive tracer is absorbed ■ Red indicates areas with the most activity ■ Blue indicates areas with the least activity ● Advantages ○ Sensitive good res ○ Receptor mapping possible ○ Metabolic studies track ongoing activity ● Disadvantages ○ Invasive (injection) ○ Expensive ○ Takes longer than MRIs ○ Limited number of injections ○ No longitudinal studies ○ Possible allergies to tracer Tierney et al (2001) ● PET scans to investigate brain damage Aim: ● To evaluate, using PET scans, the bilingual language compensation following early childhood brain damage Background: ● 37 year old man (known as MA) with normal speech functions who was participating in a normal speech study ● Had lesion in his left frontal lobe ● Probably as a result of encephalitis he suffered at the age of 6 weeks ● He had no significant long-term, clinically consequences ● Both his parents were deaf and he used sign language at home from a very young age. ● Researchers were curious to know if this might have had something to do with his ability to speak despite the brain damage (that should have prevented him from doing so.

Methods: ● Researchers compared MA to 12 control participants, who were fluent in sign language ● PET scanning technologies were used while the participants produced narrative speech or signs

Results: ● MA's right hemisphere was more active than the controls' during the production of both speech and sign language Conclusion: ● Language function seems to have developed in the right hemisphere ​instead of the left hemisphere as an adaptation following his early brain damage ● Utilised PET scans to investigate the biological factors in MA and observe the areas of the brain (LOF) linked to language and language acquisition. ● The ongoing activity in the brain would not be able to be seen using other technologies such as EEGs or MRIs. ● Biological Factor: Damage to brain, specific areas ○ Behaviour: Language, language acquisition Raine et al. (1997) Aims: ● To discover (using PET scans) if murderers who pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) show evidence of brain abnormalities.

Methods: ● 41 participants (39 male, 2 female) NGRI’s (average age of 34.3) ● 41 participants (controls), selected based on sex, age and matched to a NGRI participant ● Each participant was injected with a glucose tracer (bonds to glucose) (for PET scans) ● Glucose tracers tracks brain activity as the brain absorbs glucose (as energy) ● Radioactive glucose tracer emits positively charged particles called positrons, which are picked up by the scan ● PET scans show colourful maps of brain activity; red = most active, blue = least active. ● They had to perform tasks requiring them to detect target signals for 32 minutes Results: ● NGRIs had less activity in the pre-frontal cortex ● Linked to self-control and emotion ● NGRIs had lower activity in the amygdala and medial temporal hippocampus ● Lack of inhibition of violent behaviour ● Fearlessness - Inappropriate emotional expression ● Failure to learn consequences for violence ● PET scan technology to investigate relationships between biological factor in criminals (NGRI’s) and their behaviour ● BREAKTHROUGH​: link between the amygdala (biological factor) and crime (behaviour). ● Biological factor: damage to specific brain areas ○ Behaviour attributed/linked to: Criminal/unlawful acts

○ Lack of inhibition of violent behaviour ○ Fearlessness – inappropriate emotional expression ○ Failure to learn consequences for violence ○ Aggressive behaviour Conclusion ● Brain imaging technologies are very useful in determining the relationship between biological factors and behaviour ○ Useful in different situations ● Advantages and disadvantages relate to invasiveness and levels of radioactivity ● However, all of these methods contribute to investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour. (​11​) Discuss the extent to which genetics influence behavior This essay will attempt to consider the merits or otherwise of the influence of genetic inheritance on behaviour. ● 3rd principle of the biological level of analysis (BLA): ○ Behaviour is innate and inherited because it is genetically based ■ Genetic predisposition ● Genetics ○ Genes → segments of DNA inherited by the offspring from the parent ■ Considered responsible for the development of behavioural characteristics ○ Behavioural Genetics → how genetics and environment contribute to individual variations in human behaviour ■ (inheritance of DNA influences behaviour) ● Importance of research into genetics ○ Complexity of genes ■ Single gene isn’t responsible for a specific behaviour – but it is a building block.

■ It is unlikely that a single gene is responsible for such complex behaviours as schizophrenia or depression.

■ There is no causal relationship between a single gene and a specific behaviour. ○ Genetics alone does not affect behaviour ■ Environmental factors (e.g. culture, diet) also influence the development of an organism.

■ It is thought that what is inherited is the gene that can lead to the development of the specific behaviour, not the behaviour itself.

■ This means that an individual may have a genetic predisposition to a behaviour but without appropriate environmental stimuli, the behaviour will not be manifested ■ Behavior is ​bi-directional

Types of genetic studies ● Twin studies ○ Used in genetic research to study the correlation between genetic inheritance and behaviour due to the common genetics shared by twins. ○ Monozygotic twins (MZT) identical - share 100% genetic material. ○ Dizygotic twins (DZT) fraternal - share 50% genetic material. ○ It is usually further explored, by studying the twins either separated or together to make a correlation of their behaviour. ● Adoption studies ○ Allow researchers to study the comparison between genetic and environmental influence on behaviour. ○ Adopted children share no genes with their adoptive parents but 50% of genes with their biological parents. ● Family studies ○ Study behaviour between family members who have similar genetics to different degrees. Inheritance Intelligence ● Intelligence is an aspect of behaviour that has been studied in relation to genetics. ○ Intelligence attributed to genetic or environmental factors? ○ Difficult to define ● Binet’s IQ tests Bouchard and McGue (1981) Method: ● Conducted a meta-analysis – statistical synthesis of data that yields a quantitative summary of pooled results ● Reviewed 111 studies of intelligence correlations between siblings.

Results: ● The closer the kinship, the higher the correlation for IQ, which supports the influence of genetics on intelligence.

Bouchard et al. (1990) - Minnesota Twin Study Aim: ● To determine how much of intelligence is attributed to genetics and environment.

Method: ● Longitudinal study

● Over 100 sets of MZT (monozygotic – identical twins raised together) and DZT (dizygotic – fraternal twins raised together) from around the world who were reared/raised together and apart. ● Researchers gave them approximately 50 hours of psychological and physiological testing.

Results: ● Similarity rates between MZTs reared apart was approximately 76% ● Bouchard determined a heritability estimate of 70% of intelligence attributed to genetics, and 30% to other factors. ● Relates to the effect of genetics on behaviour ○ (70%) by genetics ○ other 30% may be attributed to other factors (like environment) ● Evaluation ○ Strengths ■ Research supports these findings ■ Large sample of participants-- study inherently more valid ○ Limitations ■ Media coverage to recruit the sample ■ No control over the frequency of contact between twins before the study ■ Equal environment assumption → Assumed that the twins reared together experienced the same environment Shields (1962) Method ● Obtained 44 pairs of MZTs reared apart via the media Results: ● They had a similar 0.77 correlation in IQ. ● This was very similar to that of MZTs reared together (0.76) ● This means that the environment had very little influence on the twins? intelligence. ● DZTs reared together had a significantly lower similarity in IQ (0.51) ● R) MZTs reared apart had a higher similarity in IQ compared to the DZTs reared together Evaluation: ● Strengths: ○ Similar findings have also been found by other, better-controlled studies ○ Pederson et al. (1992) studied the aging of DZTs and MZTs in Sweden. ○ Half the twins were separated before the age of one. ○ It was found that MZTs reared together had a similarity rate of 0.80 and DZT reared apart had a rate of approximately 0.32.

■ This shows that genetics play a significant role in the similarity between twins, thus supporting Shields? findings. ● Limitations: ○ Kamin (1977) argued that the MZTs spent a substantial amount of time together, suggesting that their environments were not completely different. ○ Environmental factors such as race have also been found to have an influence on intelligence levels ● Studies to reveal environmental factors: Scarr and Weinberg (1976) Assumptions, aims and introduction: ● Focused on parents who had raised both natural and adopted children. ● The assumption was that all children will have similar behaviour/characteristics, having the same upbringing, and being raised in the same environment,with the same parents. ● Any significant differences between parent-child IQ correlations for adopted and natural children were attributed to genes.

Method: ● Transracial adoption participants who were African American children adopted by middle-class White families Results: ● The researchers found no significant difference in IQ correlations. ● Average IQ of 106 at the age of 7 ● Whereas children of a similar background brought up in low income biological families had an average IQ of 97. ● The IQs of the adopted African American children in Scarr and Weinberg’s study was tested years later. ● By age 17, their IQs had dropped to 97 – same as the average for children of similar background brought up in their biological families. (Weinberg et al., 1992) ● Environment > behavior ○ Intelligence is composed of genetic and environmental factors ● → “an enriched environment may raise IQ in children” ○ However, it is also likely that there is a strong interaction between genes and the environment to produce intelligence level.

Evaluation: ● Limitations: ○ IQ of parents was unknown

○ There may have been a correlation between the IQ of the parents and the children which was unaccounted for. ○ No consideration of the selective placement of children ○ Often adoption agencies attempt to place children into families that they are similar to ○ This may be the cause of the concordance rate between the adopted children and their adoptive family ○ Lack of consideration for children who were adopted at a late age and may have been brought up in care ○ Weinberg et al.'s findings support the “niche picking? hypothesis proposed by Scarr and McCartney (1983) ○ Genes affect an individual’s preference for particular environments ○ The environment then affects the development of the individual. ○ Genetically similar people will tend to select similar environments, thus leading to similar IQ. ■ Supported by Plomin and Petrill (1997) ■ Found concordance rates of IQ between biological parent and child increase over time ■ It is possible that genetic predisposition influences individuals to tend towards environments that accentuate that disposition, thus leading to increased heritability throughout their lifespan. ○ The niche picking hypothesis supports the influence of genetics on IQ. Conclusion ● Genetics can influence intelligence as shown by supporting studies on influence of genetics. ● Scarr and Weinberg​ → environmental factor of race affects intelligence ● Adopted children have a higher IQ correlation with the race of the adoptive family, rather than biological race. ○ However, upon later testing, the adopted children’s IQs correlated with that of biologically similar children, rather than adoptive race. ● Explained by niche picking (Scarr and McCartney, 1983), which supports genetic influence on intelligence. ● Genetic inheritance influences intelligence, and thus behaviour, to a great extent. ● large amount of supporting research ○ Niche picking hypothesis refutes environmental factors ● Role of genetics in determining human behaviour and physical characteristics is significant ● Characteristics are strongly affected by genetic inheritance NOT CAUSATION ○ Environmental factors still prevalent

(​12​) Examine one evolutionary explanation of behavior ● Assumptions and interrelationships of the evolutionary explanation for emotion, in particular, disgust. ● Evolution → changing in the inherited traits of a species over time. ● Evolutionary Psychology- Charles Darwin ○ Theory of evolution ■ Charles Darwin – the father of evolutionary psychology – proposed the theory of evolution.He suggested those who adapt best to environmental challenges will have a greater chance of survival, reproduction, and passing on genes. ○ Natural selection ■ Members of a species that survive competition and breed will have characteristics better suited to the environment and are more likely to pass on these traits.

■ Results in successive generations of a species developing characteristics that make it more competitive in its field – adaptation. ● Principles of evolution with behaviour ○ Predisposition for certain behaviours is inherited through genetics ○ Principles of evolution dictate that genetically based behaviours of an individual who has reproduced are passed on (while genetically based behaviours of unsuccessful individuals are lost over time) → behaviours observed today should have an evolutionary explanation. ● In essence, if behaviour exists in humans today, then it must have in the past helped in human survival and reproduction. ● Behaviour that has helped a species survive, thus reproduce is described as adaptive. ● The key assumption of all evolutionary psychological research is that human behaviour must have been adaptive under some circumstances in the past.

Study 1: Fessler (2006) Background ● Hormones lower women’s immune systems in 1st trimester- can’t fight the new foreign genetic material in the womb. ● Argue: motion of disgust allowed our ancestors to survive long enough to produce offspring, who in turn passed the same sensitivities to us Aim ● Fessler hypothesised that disgust helps to compensate for the suppressed immune system.

Method: ● Women asked if they were experiencing morning sickness

● 496 healthy pregnant women between ages 18 – 50 asked to rank 32 potentially disgusting scenarios. ○ Ex: maggots on a piece of meat in an outdoor waste bin.

Results: ● Women in their first trimester scored higher in disgust sensitivity than women in the second and third trimesters ● When controlled the study for morning sickness, the response only applied to scenarios involving food Conclusion ● Fessler explained this in terms of the large extent of dangerous diseases, which are food-borne. ● Natural selection may have helped human ancestors to be pickier with food to compensate for increased susceptibility to disease. ● Being pickier with food would also help humans avoid diseases that could harm unborn offspring, and thus, threaten the species. ● ● Fessler’s study supports that disgust may be an evolutionary behaviour as it may assist reproduction of offspring and protection against disease, thus having a greater chance of surviving or living a longer life, having children passing on genes to their offspring. ○ This study supports the role of disgust in aiding reproduction, and thus, as an evolutionary behaviour.

Study 2: Curtis et al. (2004) Method: ● Tested whether there were patterns in disgust responses via an online survey ● 77 000 participants from 165 countries. ● Asked to rank their level of disgust for 20 images. ○ Within the 20 images were 7 pairs where one was infectious or harmful to the immune system and the other was similar but non-infectious. ○ For example, one image was a plate of bodily fluid and its pair was a plate of blue viscous liquid.

Results: ● The disgust reaction was strongest for images which threatened the immune system. ○ Disgust also decreased with age and women had higher disgust reactions than men. ● → Disgust is evolutionary. ○ Natural selection may have helped human ancestors to be more disgusted at things which threatened the immune system to avoid things that could potentially lead to diseases or sickness. ● Allowed for better chances of survival and reproduction to pass on their genes.

○ The decrease of disgust with age may be explained by the fact that the older a member of a species, the less likely they are to reproduce. ○ Therefore, their disgust reaction (that can prevent death of offspring) decreases. ● The stronger disgust reaction of women may be the result of natural selection and adaptation. ○ As women are the carriers for offspring, they have a stronger disgust reaction so as not to threaten the lives of unborn offspring and consequently, the species. ● Role of disgust in aiding reproduction, and thus, as an evolutionary behaviour.

Conclusion ● Darwin’s theory of evolution is based on assumption ○ Natural selection - those who adapt best to environmental challenges will have characteristics better suited to the environment and are more likely to reproduce and pass on these traits. ○ Natural selection results in adaptation – successive generations of a species developing characteristics that make it more competitive in its field. ○ The principle of evolution is based on how our genes mutate and change, with those that are advantageous being passed down through a process of natural selection. ● Evolutionary explanation of disgust ○ Fessler (2006) ■ Disgust as an evolutionary behaviour ■ May assist reproduction of offspring by compensating for a suppressed immune system. ○ Curtis et al. (2004) ■ Disgust reaction may help to prevent illnesses. ○ C: ​Disgust aids the survival of the human species and is therefore an evolutionary behaviour. (​13​) Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behavior Genetic research ● Determine the influence of genes on behaviour and identify genes involved in hereditary diseases and disorders.

Ethical considerations ● This kind of research may pose risks to participants because there are consequences for any individual, and their family, who finds out that they have a genetic predisposition to a disorder or behaviour that is harmful ● In psychology, ethics must be considered to ensure participants (humans and animals) are not harmed and that research conducted is ethically valid. ● Specifics

○ Revelations of carrying genes for genetic conditions ○ Informed consent for genetic research ○ Confidentiality of participants ○ Stigmatization of individuals on basis of knowledge of genetic conditions ● These main ethical considerations will be investigated with supporting studies in the body of the essay. ● 1) Revelations of carrying genes for genetic conditions ● Ethical consideration → ○ E.g. evidence of unrevealed adoptions or discovery that the participant carries the gene for a particular genetic disorder. ○ Genetic research can reveal unexpected information that may harm participants Nurnberger and Gershon (1982) ● Carrying genes linked to depression is a study by Nurnberger and Gershon (1982).

Method ● Reviewed the results of seven twin studies.

Results: ● Concordance rate – correlation – for major depressive disorder was consistently higher for monozygotic twins (MZTs) than dizygotic twins. ● This study supports that there are genetic predispositions to depression.

Ethical considerations: ● Knowledge of a genetic predisposition to depression may cause people undue stress as they may fear the onset of the disorder. ● Self-fulfilling prophecy: ○ If one MZT has depression, their twin may express the self-fulfilling prophecy and demonstrate symptoms of depression as well. ● Stigmatization : ○ Twins may be stigmatized – social discrimination of an individual with characteristics that distinguish them in society ○ People may be stigmatized because their twin has a disorder, even if they themselves do not ● Informed consent: ○ The potential harm of participants due to knowledge of genetic predispositions is why genetic testing requires informed consent from the individual involved or from family members responsible for them. ○ Participants should be informed of the risk that they may experience revelations of a genetic predisposition. ○ They must give informed consent to show that they have a clear understanding of true aims and nature of the study they are participating in, and the implications, including potential harm.

○ 2) Informed consent for genetic research ● Explain ethical consideration: ○ It is important, especially for genetic research that the individual must be specifically informed about the true aims of the experiment and must require consent from the person involved and or from the parent/family guardians responsible for them before commencement of research. ○ Uninformed consent may lead to serious a problem if the study proves to be controversial, which, for example, is demonstrated by...

Supporting Study 2: Dr. Money (1974) ● Study lacking informed consent for genetic research by Dr. Money (1974).

Background: ● Money was contacted by parents of identical twin boys, one of whom (Bruce) had his penis burnt off in a circumcision accident. ● Money advised parents to castrate Bruce and turn him into a girl (Brenda).

Ethical considerations: ● Genetically, Brenda was still a boy, but she was lied to and forced to live as a girl without informed consent. ● In genetic research, there is a risk that participants may learn something about themselves they are not prepared to deal with. ● Counselling should be offered as part of a full debriefing to genetic studies. ● Neither Brenda nor her parents were debriefed about the case study that the twins were involved in. ● Money used this case as a study for his publication without knowledge of the parents Specifics ● Violation of informed consent ● Deception ● Lack of confidentiality and privacy ● 3) Confidentiality of participants ○ Participants should know how their privacy and confidentiality will be protected, and what will happen to any information obtained from the study. ○ As there might be consequences for any individual who finds out that they have a genetic predisposition to a disorder or behaviour, which they might consider unpleasant or harmful. ○ Additional problems include future disadvantages regarding work and applying for other things – where the knowledge of a person’s genetic disorder or behaviour by other parties, such as insurance companies, who might prevent a person from receiving life insurance, or employers, who might refuse employment due to this regard. ● Confidentiality and privacy of participants can be protected by:

○ Coding information (so that only a small number of researchers have access to the information) ○ Fully anonymizing the sample (where researchers cannot link results to particular participants). ○ Anonymizing the sample can limit the scientific value of the study by preventing follow up investigation. ○ But it protects participants from insurance companies, employers, police, and others.

4) Stigmatization of individuals on basis of knowledge of genetic conditions ● If other people know about an individual’s genetic predisposition to a disease, the individual can be stigmatized. ● Stigmatization is another ethical consideration as it may lead to institutionalisation and differential treatment from others. ● For example, an insurance company may deny insurance to individuals due to a genetic predisposition of a disease. ● Or employers might refuse employment.

Supporting Study 4: Caspi et al. (2003) Method: ● 1037 adults aged 26 years ● Researchers assessed the participants? tendency to depression via self-reports Results: ● Variation in the 5-HTT gene moderates the influence of stressful life events on major depression ● Researchers attempted to establish a correlation between the gene and the condition Ethical considerations: ● Stigmatization ○ Participants may be stigmatized due to their genetic predisposition for major depression ○ Other people may not wish to be around individuals with a genetic predisposition for a disorder or disease ○ Participants may fear the onset of depression ● Self-fulfilling prophecy show tendency towards expressing the symptoms associated with depression Conclusion ● It is important to carry out, implement and consider ethical implications before commencement of research, especially into genetic research as there are many controversial consequences which could occur if not carried out properly. ● Ethics should always be considered in research to protect individuals and avoid harming participants