Pr em ier
Iss ue
BEYOND THE EVENT HORIZON June 2014
Uncovering mysteries of the
Grandfather Paradox Marie Curie A profile on the most underrated scientist of the 20th Century
Contact How Carl Sagan & Kip Thorne joined forces to create one of the most intriguing sci-fi movies of all time
Is Time Travel Really Possible? Three Conditions Must Be Met See page 14 for details
Abell1689 2.2 Billion light-years away Image Credit: NASA, NOAO, ESA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
Can the curvature of the space-time continuum allow for the possibility of time travel? We take a closer look on page 14.
In this Issue
Beyond the Event Horizon uncovers the mysteries of the Grandfather Paradox on page 16.
Infinity and Beyond... Welcome to the premier issue of Beyond the Event Horizon, a magazine dedicated to exploring the wonders of our universe. Pictured to the left is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the inner region of Abell 1689, an immense cluster of galaxies located approximately 2.2 billion light-years away from earth. Looking at the vastness of this striking image can make one feel rather insignificant. Our universe is boundless, dynamic, and
This issue we pay homage to two of the greatest minds of the 20th century, Nikola Tesla and Marie Curie.
above all, breathtaking. In this issue we explore the “Beauty of our Universe�, presenting several astonishing images of nebulae formations courtesy of the Hubble Space Telescope. This telescope has allowed us to view many astounding images of the universe since its launch on April 24, 1990. Unfortunately, the aging apparatus is in need of some serious repairs. You can help prolong the life of the Hubble by donating directly to NASA at http://www.penny4nasa.org/donate.
Anna Simms
Anna Simms Editor-in-Chief
Anna@BeyondHorizon.com Facebook.com/AnnaHorizon Twitter:@AnnaSimms
Beyond the Event Horizon investigates the possibilities of utilizing a wormhole as a tunnel for time travel.
BEYOND THE EVENT HORIZON Table of Contents
2. Innovators Profile: Marie Curie A profile on the trailblazing scientist whose discoveries lead to the radiation therapy we use today to treat cancer
4. Innovators Profile: Nikola Tesla A profile on the eccentric scientist who helped usher America into the second industrial revolution
Marie Curie hard at work in her laboratory
8. Contact: Are we Alone in the Universe? A look back on the iconic movie Contact and the contributions of Carl Sagan and Kip Thorne
14. Is Time Travel Possible? These three conditions must be met in order for time travel to be considered a possibility
Jodie Foster as Ellie Arroway in the film “Contact�
16. Uncovering Mysteries of the Grandfather Paradox Several problems arise with the possibility of time travel, here we will examine the paradoxes that can occur
18. The Beauty of our Universe Stunning images of the universe taken by the Hubble Telescope
24. Exploring Nebulae: The Artwork of the Universe
The “Tarantula� Nebula
A look at the formation of nebulae in the universe and the technology behind these captivating images
26. Inside Wormholes
Can wormholes provide a tunnel for time travel? An inside look at time travel through a wormhole The anatomy of a wormhole
The Grandfather Paradox: Exploring the paradoxes of time travel to the past
Innovators
“I am among those who think that science has great beauty...� -Marie Curie
The
PIONEER
Profile: Marie Curie The only woman at the Solvay Conference on Physics in 1927, Marie Curie is in the second seat over to the left of Albert Einstein
Marie Curie (born Marie Salomea
Sklodowska) was born on November 7, 1867 in Warsaw, Poland. Growing up she acquired her love of science from her father, Ladislas, who was a physics instructor. Throughout her academic career Marie excelled in her studies and was always at the top of her class. Despite this, she was denied admission to the University of Warsaw because she was a woman and only men were allowed to attend higher education institutions. Undeterred, Marie traveled abroad to attend Sorbonne University in Paris. She then went on to complete her master’s degree in both physics and mathematics. In 1906 she would return to Sorbonne University to become the institutions first female professor. While attending Sorbonne she met her husband, Pierre, who was a professor of physics. They were married in 1895 and worked together closely while researching radioactivity.
Marie is most recognized for the research she and Pierre conducted on radioactivity (a term that she coined). In 1903 Marie Curie was awarded the Nobel Prize for her contributions to Physics, which she shared with her husband. In 1906, Pierre was struck by a carriage and killed. Marie devoted herself to continuing the research that she and her husband had started together. In 1911 she received another Nobel Prize, this time for her work in Chemistry. Marie is the only person to ever win the Nobel Prize in two separate fields of science and she is also the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize. Marie Curie’s research started when she became interested in learning more about minerals that contained uranium because of the strong radiation that they released. She named the emission of radiation “radioactivity”. 1898, Marie Curie and her husband Pierre discovered polonium and radium. 2
Profile: Marie Curie Polonium is a radioactive metal occurring in nature only as a product of the radioactive decay of uranium. Radium is a rare radioactive metallic element found in very small amounts in uranium ores. Marie Curie was a pioneer in the field of both Physics and Chemistry and a trailblazer for women working in the science industry today. Her legacy continues to live on in the world of modern medicine. Her scientific discoveries lead to the radiation therapy that is used today to treat cancer patients. Radiation therapy uses high-energy radiation to shrink tumors and kill cancer cells by damaging the DNA of the cancer cells. Once the cancer cells are damaged they will stop dividing. This will either slow down the cancer process or the cancer cells will die off completely. When the damaged cancer cells die off the body breaks them down and they are eliminated indefinitely. Marie was so dedicated to her scientific research that it ultimately led to her demise. She died on July 4, 1934 of aplastic anemia, which was said to be caused by her prolonged exposure to radiation. Her eldest daughter Irene would carry on the family legacy by winning the Nobel Prize in 1935 for her work in chemistry. Irene shared the award with her husband, Frederic, and dedicated the prize to her late mother. Marie Curie was truly a pioneer in the field of science. Her contributions, discoveries, and achievements make her the most celebrated female scientist in history. Marie accomplished so much at a time when women were barely given any recognition for their accomplishments, particularly in the field of science. She surpassed all expectations, defied all the odds, and became a voice for women in science at a time when women had no voice. â–Ą
Marie working in her lab in 1910. Exactly one year later she would recieve her second Nobel Prize, this time for her work in chemistry.
Marie Curie and her husband Pierre immortalized on the French Franc
Innovators
“The scientists of today think deeply instead of clearly. One must be sane to think clearly, but one can think deeply and be quite insane.� -Nikola Tesla
The
ECCENTRIC 4
Profile: Nikola Tesla
Tesla in his New York laboratory, demonstrating his latest invention, the “Tesla Coil”.
Nikola Tesla was born to Serbian parents on July 10, 1856. Nikola’s father, Milutin, was an orthodox priest and it was expected that Nikola would follow in his footsteps. Although, he acquired his innovative spirit from his mother, Djuka, who was an inventor in her own right. Djuka invented several household appliances, including the mechanical egg beater. Nikola grew up being fascinated by the concept of electricity which was, at the time, still in its early stages of development. Nikola received his education at the Polytechnic Institute in Graz, Austria. Soon after graduating he started his first job as an electrical engineer for a telephone company. Tesla desired to build an induction motor that would create a stream of alternating current. After failing to get his AC motor produced in Europe, he agreed to travel to the United States and work for Thomas Edison. Tesla was intrigued by Edison’s work with electricity and was anxious to discuss his plan for an AC motor. Tesla accepted an offer of
$50,000 from Edison for a partnership. However, when Tesla approached Edison to collect his payment Edison allegedly laughed and stated “you just don’t understand American humor do you Mr. Tesla?” With financial help from some investors Nikola was able to cut ties with Edison and open up his own laboratory only a few blocks away from Edison’s. It was at this laboratory that Tesla began to construct the prototype he had been planning for many years. In 1883, Tesla unveiled his AC motor to the public. People were fascinated by Tesla’s invention. However, in an attempt to discredit Tesla, Edison soon launched a smear campaign to demonstrate the dangers of alternating electrical current. Edison would use scare tactics to incite fear into the public by electrocuting animals with the AC motor. Most famously, Edison electrocuted an abused circus elephant named Topsy in front of a large crowd using AC technology and filmed the event to aid in his campaign against Tesla.
Profile: Nikola Tesla Tesla continued to dedicate his time and energy to his work and he rarely took the time to leave his laboratory. After the AC motor, Tesla created an electric coil in 1890 that utilized alternating currents to create a series of high voltage electrical fields. This became known as the “Tesla coil.” Tesla created this coil with the intention of transmitting electricity through the air. Investors found this idea to be both impractical and potentially dangerous, and the Tesla coil never took off. This was not a total waste of time however. The coil would lead to Tesla’s next big invention in 1897. The wireless power research Tesla conducted on his coil lead to the invention of radio transmission. Tesla created a radio-controlled boat that featured an antenna which transmitted the radio waves. Tesla sent the first wireless transmission from his lab in New York City to a boat on the Hudson river which was located about 25 miles away. Guglielmo Marconi would go on to win the Nobel Prize in 1909 for his contributions to the development of wireless technology. In fact, Marconi is still widely recognized as the “father” of radio technology. However, Marconi was utilizing several of Tesla’s patents when he began building a device for wireless telegraphy. Tesla attempted to sue Marconi for copyright infringement in 1915, however he did not have the financial means to open up a case against him. It wasn’t until 1943, just months after Tesla’s death, that the Supreme Court would overturn Marconi’s patent and finally give recognition to Nikola Tesla as the first person to conceive the idea and lay the foundation for radio technology (or “World Telegraphy” as it was then known). Tesla’s final days were spent in isolation inside his laboratory. He was seen on occasion wandering the streets of New York City and feeding the pigeons. He died on January 7,
Tesla was quoted as saying “I don’t care that they stole my idea... I care that they don’t have any ideas of their own”.
1943 at the age of 85. Tesla was a man that was dedicated to his life’s work, a man who helped usher humanity into the second industrial revolution. He was a pioneer of wireless technology and he revolutionized the way we use electricity in modern society. Many people became very wealthy by using Tesla’s ideas and patents. Yet, Tesla died alone in a hotel room without a penny to his name. Tesla had hundreds of patents, yet he never won the Nobel Prize for any of his work. Nikola Tesla was hardly given the recognition he so greatly deserved for his work with electricity and spent his whole life watching others take credit for his work. Despite all of this, Tesla did not stay bitter or resentful. He was famously quoted as stating, “All of my money is invested into experiments with which I have made new discoveries enabling mankind to live life a little easier.” □ 6
“Carl’s dream was to write something that would be a fictional representation of what contact would actually be like, that would convey something of the true grandeur of the universe.” -Ann Druyan
8
Contact A look back on the thought-provoking novel and film that left us all asking the same question:
Are we alone in the universe?
8
Contact The 1997 film Contact was originally adapted from a screen play devised by Carl Sagan and his wife Ann Druyan in 1979. After struggling for some time to get the screen play turned into a movie it was converted into a bestselling science fiction novel that was published in 1985. The core plot of the book dealt with the intriguing matter of humankind communicating with a more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilization. The beauty of Contact is that unlike most of the films that deal with the premise of alien encounters, the correspondence with the extraterrestrials is depicted as non-violent and non-threatening. Contrary to the belief that aliens would be harmful and destructive to mankind, Carl Sagan was adamant about the script portraying the extraterrestrials as good-natured, intelligent, and inquisitive beings. After many years and many issues with the development of Contact, the movie
Pictured above: the late Carl Sagan.
finally began pre-production in December of 1993. George Miller was hired on as director and Jodie Foster was cast in the lead role of Ellie, the story’s protagonist. Despite being recently diagnosed with myelodysplasia, Carl Sagan became actively involved with the production of the film. Sagan even took the time to educate the cast and crew on astronomy with an academic conference that incorporated a detailed history of the universe. When Carl Sagan was originally writing Contact he consulted with theoretical physicist Kip Thorne to help him find a way to transport the main character Ellie to a planet that was light years away and have it appear that no time had passed on earth. Kip Thorne is the world’s leading expert on wormholes. Thorne was even mentored by John Wheeler, the man
Pictured above: the novel Contact went on to sell over 5 million copies world wide.
who coined the term ‘wormhole’, as he wrote
Contact
Ellie travels through a series of wormholes to reach the planet Vega.
his Ph.D. thesis. Thorne was one of the first
to production of the film, there were many
people to conduct scientific research on
disagreements on set. Several
whether the laws of physics permitted space
writers on the script wanted Ellie to have a
and time to be connected by traversable
child near the end of the film. It was also
wormholes. He discovered that wormholes
suggested that she have an estranged teenage
could act as time machines and that you could
son in order to give her character “more depth”.
travel through a series of wormholes and end
One of the producers, Peter Gruber offered up
up in another place or time. Sagan ultimately
the following suggestion by stating “Here is a
ended up incorporating Kip Thorne’s study of
woman consumed with the idea that there is
wormhole space travel into the script. In the
something out there worth listening to but the
film there is evidence that Ellie went through
one thing she could never make contact with
a wormhole because time slowed down. Ellie
was her own child. To me, this is what the
was seemingly gone for only a fraction of a second but 18 hours of static were recorded on her device. The machine constructed by the extraterrestrials transported Ellie though a series of different wormholes in order to have her travel instantaneously (from earth’s perspective) to the planet Vega. The production crew of the film gained inspiration for this film sequence by making several trips to the Kennedy Space Center where officials allowed them access to sites that were normally off-limits to visitors. When it came
Pictured above: Ellie prepares for her journey inside the pod of the intergalactic sphere.
10
Contact As Ellie arrives on planet Vega, she spots a mysterious figure in the distance.
film had to be about.” Thankfully, Carl Sagan
to complications from myelodysplasia and was
refused to incorporate Gruber’s absurd ideas
unable to see the completed film. The movie
into the story line.
was well received by fans and critics alike
The defining moment of the film Contact was
and the movie went on to become a box office
the climactic scene depicting the planet Vega.
success grossing nearly $170 Million. Carl
The Vega beach featured billowing palm trees,
Sagan was passionate about the notion of life
miles of sandy beach, and an ocean with waves
on other planets. He persistently
rolling in the opposite direction. The night sky
encouraged NASA to continue the exploration
was set ablaze with millions of vivid stars. All
of our solar system to search for signs of life.
of these elements illustrated the planet Vega
Sagan was a gifted story teller, astronomer,
with a sense of familiarity and a touch of
and educator who encouraged millions of
ethereal beauty. After Ellie lands, a blurry
people to explore the possibilities of the
figure slowly approaches her. As it gets closer
universe. The film Contact did just that.
Ellie discovers that it is her deceased father.
Sagan’s wife Ann summarized Carl’s vision
The sequence leaves Ellie wondering if the
for the film beautifully stating, “Carl’s dream
extraterrestrials downloaded her thoughts and
was to write something that would be a
memories. The experience put Ellie in a
fictional representation of what contact would
position where she had to believe in
actually be like, that would convey something
something with complete certainty without
of the true grandeur of the universe.” □
absolute proof. Contact was released in the United States on July, 11 1997. Unfortunately, Carl passed away on December 20, 1996 due
Be sure to check out other books by Carl Sagan, including “Cosmos”, which was also turned into a television series by the same name in 1980. The show went on to become the most watched television series ever broadcast.
Pictured: The intergalactic transportation device used for Ellie’s journey. The machine is composed of a central sphere with whirling metal rings and a passenger pod. The acceleration from the metal rings create a series of wormholes that will transport Ellie to the planet Vega.
12
Is Time Travel Possible? These Three Conditions Must Be Met:
The past, present and future must exist at the same time
1
Einstein believed that there was no division between the past and the future, he insisted that there is only one single existence. Einstein was quoted as saying “the separation between the past, present, and future is just an illusion, though a convincing one!” The picture to the left illustrates Einstein’s theory: we are never truly young or old. According to Einstein, each moment we experience in time will exist forever.
The space-time continuum needs to be curved
2
3
Einstein was also the first to propose the notion of the space and time being curved. Up until that point most had assumed that space was flat. However, he discovered that rays of light bend around the sun, proving that the presence of energy will curve space-time. The picture to the left illustates the curve in the space-time continuum. Since earth has mass, it will bend the fabric of space-time.
Alternate timelines need to exist Hugh Everett was the first to propose the Many-Worlds interpretation of quantum theory. This interpretation implies that all possible alternative histories and futures are real, they just happen to exist on a parallel timeline that make it invisible to us. In the movie Source Code (left), US army pilot Colter Stevens ends up living in an alternate universe on an alternate timeline. After successfully dismantling a terrorist bomb, he continues to live in a parallel universe in someone else’s body 14 but with his own consciousness. □
Uncovering Mysteries of the
The Grandfather Paradox
Several problems arise with possibilities of time
travel. Let’s say you’ve constructed the first ever time machine. You decide to take your first trip back in time to visit your grandfather when he was a young man, way before he ever met your grandmother. Startled by your statement of being a time traveler from the future and your claim of being his future grandson, he pulls out a gun and aims it directly at you. You wrestle it out of his hand and accidentally shoot him in the chest during the altercation, killing him. If your grandfather is now dead, would you then cease to exist? Scenarios like this one provide a paradox for the possibility of time travel. The grandfather paradox was first proposed by science fiction writer René Barjavel in his 1943 book Le Voyageur. The grandfather paradox illustrates the problems and inconsistencies involved with time travel to the past. The paradox is described with the same synopsis; a time traveler goes back in time before his grandfather has met his grandmother and kills him, preventing his grandfather and grandmother from meeting and therefore erasing his own existence in the process because he was never born. This scenario is just an illustration, the Grandfather Paradox ultimately regards any action or situation that would make time travel to the past impossible.
There are three possible solutions to overcome this paradox: 1. You cannot travel to the past Simple and straightforward, you simply cannot time travel to the past. Nature prevents these paradoxes from happening by making time travel impossible. 2. You can travel to the past, but you can not change events of the past This would illustrate the fact that everything in the universe is predetermined. Meaning, even if you attempted to prevent your grandmother and grandfather from meeting, it would find a way to happen eventually regardless of your attempted actions. 3. You can travel to the past, but you will create an alternate timeline If you travel to the past, your reality will branch off into a parallel universe that will not have any impact on the events of the past. An equivalent paradox exists called auto-infanticide, which includes the act of going back to the past and killing oneself as a baby. Some have proposed that the notion of auto infanticide itself is proof enough that time travel to the past is impossible due to all of the inconsistencies it carries. However, the Grandfather Paradox says nothing about the possibility of time travel to the future... □
“A good traveler has no fixed plans, and is not intent on arriving.� -Lao Tzu
Photo Credits: ourprg.org
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The beauty Beauty of
NGC NGC2070 2070 The TheTarantula TarantulaNebula Nebula 159,800 159,800light-years light-yearsaway away Image Credit: NASA, NOAO, ESA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA) Image Credit: NASA, NOAO, ESA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
Our universe
18
NGC 1952 The The Crab Crab Nebula Nebula 6,523 light-years away Image Credit: NASA, NOAO, ESA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
Credit: NASA/ESA and Jeff Hester ASU
NGC 7293 The Helix Nebula 694.7 light-years away Image Credit: NASA, NOAO, ESA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
20 Credit: NASA Helix “Eye of God” nebula infrared
IC 434 The The Horse Horse Head Head Nebula Nebula 1,500 light-years away Image Credit: NASA, NOAO, ESA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
Credit: X-ray: NASA Infrared JPL-Caltech
NGC 2359 Thor’s Helmet Nebula 15,000 light-years away Image Credit: NASA, NOAO, ESA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
22
Exploring Nebulae The Artwork of the universe These striking images of the universe are
possible thanks to the Hubble Space Telescope that has captured many breath taking images of the cosmos throughout the years. The Hubble Space Telescope was launched by NASA in 1990 and is named after Edwin Powell Hubble, who is often regarded as the most important observational cosmologist of the 20th century. The telescope orbits high enough above the earth to capture light that would otherwise be blocked and not visible from earth. The Hubble telescope operates using a charge-coupled device (CCD) to record and capture the incoming photons of light. The telescope utilizes several filters that will only pick up a specified wavelength or color of light. The telescope can also detect light that is invisible to the naked eye, like infrared and ultraviolet light. Since nebulae emit colors that are too faint for the human eye to pick up, the CCD lets the light build up over time to enhance the image and allow us to see these vibrant colors that are displayed. This technology allows us to see the universe in new and exciting ways. Aside from capturing these astounding images of nebulae, the Hubble has helped scientists predict the age of the universe which they say is approximately 14 Billion years old. It has also lead to the discovery of dark energy and has help assist scientists in discovering more information on black holes. The telescope is in need of some serious repairs and even after these repairs are made, most astronomers believe that the Hubble only has about 5 more years of life left in it before it will stop working. The word “nebula” comes from the Greek word for “cloud”. Nebulae are just interstellar gas and dust clouds that are not visible
to the naked eye. They are scattered across the universe and thanks to the Hubble Telescope, their beauty is profoundly revealed. Nebulae invoke stunning imagery, truly making them the “artwork” of the universe. The Tarantula Nebula This nebula is located approximately 159,800 light-years away. The Tarantula nebula is a massive region of ionized gas encompassing a collection newly formed stars. The Crab Nebula The Crab nebula is located approximately 6,523 light-years away. The nebula is a supernova remnant that is powered by pulsar wind. Pulsar wind nebulae are commonly found inside shells of supernova remnants. The Helix Nebula This nebula that is located 694.7 light-years away in the constellation of Aquarius. The helix nebula is the result of a dying star that is unraveling into space. Once the fuel is exhausted, the star will die off completely and leave behind nothing but a hot, dense core that is known as a “white dwarf ”. The Horse Head Nebula This nebula is located approximately 1,500 light-years away in the Orion constellation. The distinct shape of the horse head nebula make it one of the most easily recognizable cosmic formations discovered. Thor’s Helmet Nebula The Thor’s Helmet nebula is an emission nebula located 15,000 light-years away in the Canis Major constellation. The Eagle Nebula The Eagle Nebula is located 7,000 light years away and features a formation that is known as the “pillars of creation”. This name is given due to the fact that nebula is in the process of forming new stars. □
IC 2177 The Eagle Nebula “The Pillars of Creation” 7,000 light-years away Image Credit: NASA, NOAO, ESA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
24
Inside Wormholes
Can Wormholes Provide a Tunnel for Time Travel? What are Wormholes?
Wormholes are essentially theoretical shortcuts through space and time. The wormhole acts as a traversable connection between two separate regions of the universe and would ultimately reduce the travel time and distance between those regions. The picture to the right illustrates the anatomy of a wormhole. A wormhole contains two mouths, an opening and an exit, that are connected by a funnel that is referred to as the “throat”.
History of Wormholes
In 1935, Albert Einstein and his research partner, Nathan Rosen, utilized the theory of general relativity to calculate the mathematics of a hypothetical “bridge” through space-time. This path eventually became known as the Einstein Rosen bridge. Years later, John Wheeler would actually coin the term “wormhole” while he was conducting his own research on Einstein’s equation. Wheeler would later mentor a Ph.D. student named Kip Thorne, who would subsequently become a world-renowned theoretical physicist. Today Kip Thorne is considered the world’s leading expert on wormholes.
Time Travel Through a Wormhole
Though wormholes still remain theoretical, we do know that they are absolutely consistent with Einstein’s theory of relativity due to the fact that mass can bend the fabric of space. However, the wormhole would need something to stabilize the mouth in order to keep it open so that objects could travel through it before it closes up and pinches off. Some scientists believe that exotic matter is needed to keep the mouth of a wormhole open. Very little is known about exotic matter, but scientists do know that it exists in the universe and does contain negative energy that is repelled by gravity rather than attracted to it. Exotic matter could provide the opposing force needed to counteract the effects of gravity in order to keep the mouth of the wormhole from closing off.
Credit: edobric
The Dangers of Wormholes
Wormholes bring with them the dangers of sudden collapse, exposure to high levels of radiation and potentially dangerous contact with exotic matter. The most treacherous part of traveling through a wormhole is that you never know where you may end up. The opposite end of the wormhole may be connected to a dangerous and violent part of the universe. You may end up in the center of a black hole. There are many uncertainties when it comes to the possibility of harnessing a wormhole for space-time travel.
The future of Wormholes
Recently, a new theory developed that suggested that the super-massive black hole at the center of our Milky Way galaxy might in fact be a wormhole that was created in the early stages of the universe. Astronomers are currently developing an Event Horizon telescope which will allow scientists to see a black hole in detail and potentially gain more information on the possibility of wormholes existing within our universe. Scientists do continue to explore the concept of wormholes with the hope that one day in the future we can utilize them. As new technology emerges, it will continue to provide us with new ways to discover more fascinating details about our universe. □ 26
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“ T h e n i t ro g e n i n o u r D N A , the calcium in our teeth, t h e i ro n i n o u r b l o o d , the carbon in our apple p i e s we r e m a d e i n t h e interiors of collapsing stars.
We a r e m a d e o f star stuff.� -Carl Sagan