CREATED BY: SAMANTHA M., EMILY S., KENDALL M., TESSA H., & CHLOE M.
Child sacrifice V O L U M E
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
3
Aztec Culture
4
Aztec Child
8
Sacrifice
Incan Child Sacrifice
I S S U E
1
M A R C H
2 8 ,
Introduction to Child Sacrifice:
Introduction
Incan Culture
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15
Conclusion & Glossary
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Word Search
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References
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Most modern day North Americans will agree that the loss of human life is tragic, but this modern day moral does not always match those of ancient cultures. Human sacrifice has taken place throughout many cultures and eras throughout the world, although it is not always a pleasant fact to accept. As Pfluger (1995) “We might all prefer to believe that such things had never happened, or at least that they were done only very long ago, by people with no connection to ourselves. But this bit of history shows only too plainly that human sacrifice, at least as an occasional emergency measure, persisted far longer than it is comfortable for us to admit.� (p. 68)
states:
Figure 1: Map of South America with chosen archaeological sites
In this issue of The Archaeology of Death the focus is specifically on the sacrifice of children in ancient Inca and Aztec cultures. In both cultures the reasons behind child sacrifice will be explored and evidence from archaeological sites will be examined. The Incan site of Choquepukio in the Cuzco Valley of Peru and the Aztec site of Tenochtitlan in modern day Veracruz, Mexico will be analyzed.
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Aztec Culture The Aztecs are one of the more well-known ancient polytheist and advanced civilizations that had a vast empire in Mesoamerica. They were first known as Mexica and later became known as the Aztecs. They started out as mercenary nomads when they arrived in Cha-
pultepec around 1248 (Aguilar-Moreno, 2007,p.18 ). Later they made the island in Lake Texcoco their home, building their capital Tenochtitlan in 1325 (Aguilar-Moreno, 2007,p.19). Tenochtitlan became the economic, political, religious and cultural centre of their empire.
They learned from their neighbors through trading and tribute- how to build chinampas, astronomy, and the different uses of various plants. The Aztecs through trade, tribute and war grew rich and became the strongest society in Mesoamerica.
The Aztec empire in its prime before being overthrown by the Spanish and their native allies. Tangient LLC, (2015). Aztec Empire [Online image] Retrieved from Wikispaces https://mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/UNIT+9+-+AZTECS+%
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Aztec society was highly complex and socially stratified with the ruling class at the top and the slaves at the very bottom. What was unique about the Aztecs was all children were expected to attend mandatory public education; though the nobility and commoners were divided into separate
schools. There they were educated on the prospective jobs that their station allowed, cultural pursuits, and everything else about their society (Soustelle, J. 1970,p. 37-70 ). Someone’s social standing was determined by their lineage. Both matriarchal and patriarchal lineage were
considered, but the patriarchal lineage was preferred . Ancient Aztec society was mostly a patriarchal society, women were (AguilarMoreno, 2007,p.74, Soustelle, J. 1970, P.54 -60). Women who died in childbirth were honoured like warriors who were slain in battle.
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The Aztecs’ considered childbirth to be a battle with the infant and mother fighting. Family and lineage were important parts of their society. Each extended family made up a Calpullis which was ruled by a chief who was normally related to the calpulli members (Conrad, G. W. 1984, p.24). Multiple calpullis formed an altepetl which was a citystate that controlled a territory. It was ruled by a Tlatoani who was its city’s
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high priest and warlord. All city-states in the Aztec empire had their own Tlatoani. The female rulers were called cihuātlahtoāni. In times of war the Tlatoani was the strategist for his warriors. In the Aztec creation myth the dual god Omecihuat gave birth to himself out of nothing. Omecihuat later gave birth to the gods: Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, Tlaloc, and Xipe Totec. They created the world, the people and the
other gods except for the sun (Soustelle, J. 1970,p 97). To create the sun one of the gods would have to be sacrificed. Tezcatlipoca became the first sun. The First Age ended when Quetzalcoatl used a club to knock Tezcatlipoca from the sky, ending his reign as the sun and the world grew dark. Enraged, Tezcatlipoca had the people of that age destroyed by his jaguars.
A well-known image of the Aztecs sacrificing someone by tearing out the heart. Done in honour of their patron god Huitzilopochtli of their city and deity of war, sun, human sacrifice. If he was defeated, his people were defeated.
Tangient, LLC. (2015). Tenochtitlan In. [Online image]. Retrieved from Mr Gray History, https:// mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/UNIT+9+-+AZTECS+%26+INCAS
Tezcatlipoca went on to destroy the other ages, out of spite for his First age ending. Quetzalcoatl was the sun for the Second Age. Tezcatlipoca turned Quetzalcoatl’s beloved people into monkeys, upsetting Quetzalcoatl, who blew them away and stepped down. The Third Age had
Tlaloc as the new sun. Tezcatlipoca seduced Tialoc’s wife away, and Tialoc, grief-stricken, refused to send rain. Eventually Tialoc destroyed his own age by causing it to rain fire in answer to the people’s prayers to end the drought that Tialoc had caused. The earth was reduced to ash and
had to be rebuilt. The Fourth Age was ruled by Chalchiuhtlicue which ended when Tezcatlipoca caused Chalchiuhtlicue to fall, and flooded most of the world.
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Tangient, LLC. (2015). Tenochtitlan In. [Online image]. Retrieved from Mr Gray History, https:// mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/ UNIT+9++AZTECS+% 26+INCAS
The five ages in order were called the Black Sun, the Wind Sun, the Rain Sun, the Water Sun and the Earthquake Sun.
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The Fifth Age is still ongoing. it was thanks to The Brave Nanauatzin who became the new sun but his weakness forced the other gods to give him blood. According to myth, the fifth age is still ongoing however it shall end in catastrophe like all the other ages, this time, by Depending on the month different Aztec gods were more important. There would be feasts, rituals, offerings and celebration depending on the the month, in addition to human sacrifices. Each god had their own type of sacrifice, from warriors to virgins and even children, as well as a method of sacrifice. The officiating priest would follow a specific style of sacrifice in order to appease the god. For example Taiolic’s priests would sacrifice crying children to him asking for rain to end the dry season. Human sacrifice was not only for religious purposes, but also a sociopolitical tool to control the conquered city states. The methods of obtaining sacrifices and slaves demon-
earthquake. This myth demonstrates that death and sacrifice were needed to fuel and maintain the world. It is a spiritual justification as to why they engaged in warfare, mock battles and contests to acquire sacrifices. Those that were to be sacrificed normally had their every need taken care of and purified until they were to be sacri-
ficed. The Aztec’s believed that human sacrifice was needed to repay the gods as it allowed them to replenish themselves. The Aztecs considered it their sacred duty to feed the gods so that the world will not end allowing life to continue. The Aztecs would offer these sacrifices during their monthly festivals dedicated to different gods.
Tangient, LLC. (2015). Tenochtitlan In. [Online image]. Retrieved from Mr Gray History, https://mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/UNIT+9++AZTECS+%26+INCAS
strated the Aztecs’ dominance over their neighbors and were a political message to foreign leaders (Conrad, G. W. 1984,p.4-
11). It was an excuse to wage war to expand their empire, gain slaves and obtain needed resources (Hassig, R.1995, P. 4-25).
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The Aztecs assimilated conquered civilizations thinking it was for the greater good, forcing them to stay obedient. The tributes that the conjured states sent were meant to keep them weak and prevent rebellion.(Hassig, R.1995, P. 425). These practices made enemies which allowed the Spanish to lead new allies against the Aztecs, causing the collapse of the empire. Their empire lasted from the 14th to
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the 16th century, ending with the Spanish conquering and destroying the Aztecs.
The month Tozoztontli lasted from March 14 to April 2. During it children were sacrificed to Coatlicue, Tlaloc, Chalchitlicue, Tona.
Tangient, LLC. (2015). Tenochtitlan In. [Online image]. Retrieved from Mr Gray History, https://mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/UNIT+9+-+AZTECS+%26+INCAS
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Chalchiuhtlicue is the second wife or sister to Tialoc. She is the goddess of large bodies of water. Her sacrificial victims were always killed by drowning. Children and infants were mainly sacrificed to her and Tialoc. The months when sacrifices took place for her were Atlacacauallo and Tozoztontli.
Barker, Brandi. (Artist). (unknown). Tenochtitlan. [Online image] Retrieved from Class Education, http:// www.class.uh.edu/ courses/engl3396/ bnbarker/
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Aztec Archaeological Sites To the Aztecs, sacrifice was the mechanism of social control through which they could control time. It was an integral portion of their personal and spiritual religion. Sacrifice to the Aztecs could be something as small as a small blood letting and auto-sacrifice, when a small wound
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is made by the individual to show their devotion, to ritualized slaughter en masse of both humans and animals. Many of the sources the general population has access are from first-hand witnesses by the Spanish invasion. These sources, as would be expected, are very skewed and
therefore must be taken, as it is said, ‘with a grain of salt’. Further excavation of sites, such as Tenochtiltan and Tlatelolco, have given insight into what was likely a very complex religion that the Aztec people used in order to understand time, the heavens and the world around them.
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RamĂrez Codex. (Artist) (1587). Fig Pierced Skull and A tzompantli,(skull rack) from Juan de Tovar’s 1587 manuscript, also known as the RamĂrez Codex. [Online image]. Retrieved from Historicagraphica, http:// www.historicagraphica.com/aztec-offerings-and-skull-rack-victims-found-in-mexico-city-past-horizons/
Excavation for Tenochtiltan began in the early 20th century. Originally thought of as a smaller site, the excavation revealed a complex city with more than eighty temples, schools, skull racks, and other significant structures (Carrasco, 2011). In the middle of this immense complex lies the Great Temple, a colossal temple where a significant portion of the sacrifices, especially human, took place. According to Carrasco, 2011, at the base of the Great Temple there are human remains from a staggering 126 individuals. Of these
remains, there was evidence of remains for 46 children, individuals under the age of 16. The vast majority of these child remains had evidence on their cervical vertebrae indicating their throat had been cut. Some of these remains also show evidence of having been mounted on a skull rack, which are most often used for sacrificed enemies. However, the majority of the child remains also show evidence of having been ill prior to their sacrifice. According to De La Cruz
(2008), diseased children were chosen to be sacrificed as the markers of disease were considered to be markers of the gods. These sick children were selected by their tribe because they believed the gods had chosen them, made them ill, in order to be sacrificed. Is was also mentioned that no significant portion of the child remains at Tlatelolco were certainly sick, as pathological markers are absent.
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Fresque de Diego Rivera. (Artist). (1952) Tenochtitlan- Le MarchĂŠ de Tlatelolco. [Online image] Retrieved from Viva Mexico, http:// www.vivamexico. info/Index1/ Tenochtitlan.html
Children were most often used as a sacrificial victim to the gods that the Aztecs believed to control the rain. The children were either fattened of starved depending on the time of year, ritually bathed and sacrificed to the demanding god. From the remains at the Great Temple in Tenochtiltan, Carrasco extrapolates that child sacrifice was considered more sacred than the sacrifice of an adult .The rain gods were thought as small-bodied gods, resembling children more than adults . The Az-
Caption describing picture or graphic.
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tecs used children because it was believed the child’s tears would entice the god into giving them rain (James, 2002, p.345). It was a form of sympathetic magic and the priests believed that the tears would make the god feel sympathy and cry themselves, their tears being rainfall. Children were used for selfsacrificing, blood letting and for full sacrifice, depending on the god being worshipped.Isabelle De La Cruz (2008) researched a sister site to Tenochtiltan, now called Tlatelolco. Here
there were human remains for upwards of 40 individuals. Upon osteological examination of the bones their age and gender was ascertained with some certainty. Of those 40 individuals, 37 of them appeared to be sub-adult, under the age of 16. Of those 37 skeletons 66% of them were under the age of three. It would appear that at Tlatelolco child sacrifice was much more prominent than at Tenochtiltan. With the two sites combined more information about gender patterning in child sacrifice is clear.
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Tlatelolco provides us with a significant amount of information, such as the abundance of child sacrifices evident with the Aztecs. Due to the young age of some of these individuals, sex identification is much less certain. For these De La Cruz (2008) and her team used tooth calcification and eruption patterns
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to better estimate age. Using this technique, it was discovered that 66% of the subadults were under the age of three, 6 could not be identified due to lack of teeth and there were two adolescents, both male. Almost all of the subadult skeletons, between 22 and 32, were also identified to be male. This clearly
shows a gender bias towards those chosen for sacrifice. Due to the amount of males sacrificed at Tlatelolco, it is believed that they were being sacrificed to a male deity, specifically Ehecatla Quetzalcoatl.
Tangient, LLC. (2015). Tenochtitlan In. [Online image]. Retrieved from Mr Gray History, https:// mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/ UNIT+9+-+AZTECS+%26+INCAS
Child sacrifice was an integral piece of Aztec culture used to understand the world around them. The use of children was limited to specific gods, and they were sacrificed about four times a year, most often to rain gods so that good crops and drinking water
would be in abundance. More common was adult sacrifice, having a large variety of different ceremonies to control their world. A significant portion of the human sacrificing was done to their enemies, conquered in war. It was also used to settle angst and anxi-
ety within the tribe, to quell arguments and to control the population through fear and reverence.
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Incan Culture The Inca’s were a great civilization in South America that was extremely complex prior to European contact and was the largest empire ever established in the western hemisphere. The Inca’s had complex and well refined rituals when it came to their ways of child sacrifice (Duviols 1964, p. 37). The main times for child sacrifice were in times of disaster and celebration. The majority of child sacrifices took place during times of disaster or celebration.. The preparation
that went into a ritual children had come this complex took from (Andrushko et years to plan and pre- al., 2011, p. 323). The pare. reach of the Incan emThe Inca territory pire is evident in the covered a massive archaeological rearea in South Ameri- mains of its people; ca.The Incas had a isotope analysis complex road system proves people travto stay connected with elled and moved all its citizens, this across the empire ranged from the flat (2011, p. 323). The grass lands to the Inca’s had a very well high peaks of mounconnected empire and tains at extremely high this embodied the altitudes (LaLone, idea of unity and 1998, p .602). This strength even in times can be seen in their of disaster (2011, p. child sacrifices when 323). seeing the regions the
A llama looks at the ancient ruins of Machu Picchu, Peru.
Klum, Mattias (photographer) (n.d). Llama. [Online image]. Retrived from National Geographic, http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/llama/ CHILD
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The survival of Machu Picchu over hundreds of years, on a mountaintop subject to erosion and mudslides, is a testament to Inca engineering. Bartosz, Hadyniak. (photographer) (n.d). Matchu Picchu. [Online image]. Retrieved from NOVA, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/ lost-inca-empire.html
In the times of difficulty such as the death of an emperor, natural disaster, drought, or a new emperor was ascending to power a ritual of child sacrifice took place called the Capacocha (Wilson et al., 2013, p. 13323). The children being sacrificed in the Capacocha is what makes it different from all other sacrifices (p. 13322). Children were only sacrificed in times of great need or celebration to the Gods. (Duviols, 1964, p. 38). Sacrifice took place in South America before the Incan Empire came to power, but it did not hold the same meaning; the Incas had different gods, a highly complex belief system, and a stratified society (1964, p. 37). The children that were chosen for sacrifice ranged from infants to the age of sixteen and were selected based on their physical appearance (Andrushko et al., 2011, p. 324). The archaeological evi-
dence shows females were sacrificed more frequently than males; it also shows the children were sacrificed by strangulation, exsanguination, or interment while still alive (2011, p. 324). The complex stratification within this society can even be seen in the placement of these sacrifices. The sacrifices are often placed on mountain tops to assert their power within that area and their territories (Wilson et al., 2013, p. 13323). Children were chosen one year in advance for sacrifice and gained an elevated status prior to the sacrificial ritual; this suggests that the children who were sacrificed were born into a lower status when looking at the teeth though isotope analysis (Andrushko et al., 2011,
p.331 ).There were three ways that children were selected for sacrifice.The first being physical appearance, beauty was demanded when it came to being sacrificed to the gods (Andrushko et al., 2011, p. 324). The second was for parent to volunteer their children: volunteering a child came with a great reward, and offered great prestige within the society (2011, p. 324). The third way was for children to be “donated� (Wilson et al., 2013, p.13324). This involved parents being obligated to give their child over to the sacrifice with happiness and no sorrow, for being sad and resisting was considered very disrespectful to the empire and the gods (2013, p. 13324).
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A gold-sheet mask representing the sun god Inti from the La Tolita part of the Inca empire. The design is typical of masks of Inti with zig-zag rays bursting from the head and ending in human faces or figures
An element of child sacrifice was intoxication. Intoxication came from two separate substances: an alcohol called chicha and coca (Wilson et al., 2013, p. 13325). Chicha is made from fermented maize and was important to most of the Incas social and ceremonial gatherings. The Inca’s believed that intoxication opened the portals between reality and the spiritual world thus the children to be sacrificed began drinking chicha the year prior to the sacrifice (2013, p. 13326). Chicha not only served a spiritual purpose, when coupled with coca it served as a sedative (2013, p. 13326). When a sacrifice was made on top of a mountain in extremely cold temperatures that alcohol gave the illusion of being warm by reducing the bodies awareness to the cold and holding off shivering (2013, p. 13326). The re-
duced shivering allowed the children being sacrificed to pass on faster, for many sacrifices involved internment while still alive. The coca was often used to keep the individuals being sacrificed calm and in a dazed mind set (2013, p. 13326). The amount of chicha and coca consumed increased drastically in the weeks leading up to the sacrifice (2013, p. 13322). The main reason child sacrifice took place was to appease the gods; if there was a drought or natural disaster the rituals would take place in hopes that Inti, the sun god, would help the people (Andrushko et al., 2011, p. 323). The Incas had a myth to trace the sun to be one of their gods. The story of Manco Capac, who was believed to be the son of the sun, was the founder of the Incan society. Because Manco was the founder of the Inca society, he was also seen as a type of Messiah . The Inca’s believed that the sun had taken pity on the “Indians” (Duviols,
1964, p. 39) and their barbaric life style, so he decided to send down his son and daughter to guide the people and create a vast complex empire (1964, p. 39). In return for giving the people Manco and his sister the Sun was to be worshipped as their god (1964, p. 39). It was believed that the sun was the giver of life and the only thing that stood between the Inca’s and the ugliness that the world could be (1964, p. 39).The sun was the Incas main god, because it was the only visible god they had. Many temples and gifts were given to the sun and many sacrifices including that of children were made (1964, p. 37). Child sacrifice in the Incan culture was a highly regarded ritual. The build up for this ritual took over a year of planning and had many variations depending on the nature of the child sacrifice. The Inca empire was great and vastly spread over South America and kept in closely united though many ways including child sacrifice.
Howe, Andrew (photographer) (07 March 2014). Inca Gold Sun Mask. [Online image]. Retrieved from Ancient History Encyclopaedia, http:// www.ancient.eu/image/2356/
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Incan Capacocha (Child Sacrifice) Sites Choquepukio Site Site location: Choquepukio, Cuzco Valley, Peru (Andrushko, Buzon, Gibaja, McEwan, Simonetti, & Creaser, 2011). Date of excavation: 2004 Seven children from ages 3 to 12 years old were discovered buried together along with an elaborate assemblage of high status artifacts. Through the use of radiogenic strontium isotope analysis, it appears that they were selected from various regions of the Incan empire (Andrushko et al., 2011). Archaeological analysis: Several stone slabs were inlaid in an Incan building with an intact floor. Using radiocarbon samples of burned roof material and wooden columns, the building dated to 1410-1520 AD. These slabs held two large ceramic jars which contained the re mains of six adult skeletons, and next to these jars there were six juveniles found through the floor and back wall of the building. These six juveniles represent a single burial event because of the undisturbed nature of the primary interments. The burial sites contained various high status artifacts, such as gold and silver miniature female figurines,
red shell figurines of females and llamas, pins of various fine materials, large amounts of cloth, and a garment covered with gilded metal disks (Andrushko et al., 2011).
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Map of Choquepukio site location and region. Andrushko, V. A. et al. (Author) (2011). Map of Choquepukio site location and region [online map image], Retrieved March 17, 2015, from: http:// www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/science/ article/pii/S0305440310003195
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Capacocha means solemn sacrifice which translates into royal obligation (Andrushko et al., 2013).
Gold, silver, and Spondylus figurines of human males and llamas. Andrushko, V. A. et al. (Author) (2011). Gold, silver, and Spondylus figurines of human males and llamas. [online image], Retrieved March 17, 2015, from: http:// www.sciencedirect.com.ezp roxy.library.uvic.ca/science/ article/pii/
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Approximately 3 meters from the group burial, an additional child was uncovered with a highly elaborate artifact – a silver male figurine wearing a headdress and fragments of cloth, amounting to approximately 25 cm in height. It was surrounded by other human and llama figurines, a miniature bracelet, and pieces of gold foil (Andrushko et al., 2011).
vation of the bones when found (Andrushko et al, 2011).
Strontium isotope analysis: This analysis is based on the premise that individual’s teeth can reflect geographic area of childhood residence through viewing radiogenic strontium isotope ratios in soils and groundwater, which vary based on local geological conditions. Comparing the ratios of the strontium isotope can Osteological analysis: Through the analysis of the indi- reveal presence of foreigners viduals’ dental development and through deviations from the local isotope signature. Two of the severuption dates, the individuals en children were identified as were categorized as one 3-4 year having a non-local isotope signaold; one 4-5 year old; two 5-6 ture – one seemingly from the Tiyear olds; one 6-7 year old; one 8 wanaku range of Bolivia and another from the Ayacucho region. -9 year old; and one 11-12 year Capacocha appears to have been old. Due to the juvenile status of enacted on both a village level the individuals, sex identification and a state level, and varied by was impossible. There was no age and number of victims, type visible evidence of physical trau- of grave goods, and location (Andrushko et al., 2011). ma; however, this could be because of the poor state of preser-
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Many capacocha rituals occurred just outside the empire's capital, Cuzco.
Discussion and Conclusions By combining the archaeological, osteological, and isotope evidence, one can strongly interpret the Choquepukio site as including a child sacrifice event. The ages of these children closely match colonial accounts of capacocha; also they represent a single interment episode – a significant deviation from normal children burials, who are usually buried alone or with
an adult. The types of artifacts found (tiny gendered human and llama figurines) match those of the Ampato capacocha archaeological site. Capacocha tributes were often chosen from throughout the Incan empire, which would explain the two nonlocal individuals. Choquepukio was a historically important site: prior to rise of the Inca empire, the Panagua ethnic group
chose the location to build monumental temples for feasting and forming alliances, and this historical importance could have been passed down into the Incan empire for ceremonial value. Overall, the findings at Choquepukio support the Spanish ethnographic chronicles for child sacrifice (Andrushko et al., 2011).
Mount Llullaillaco Site Site location: Mount Llullaillaco summit – 6715m above sea level (the world’s highest archaeological site) (Ceruti, 2004, p.108) Date of excavation: 1999 Archaeological analysis: A rectangular platform which held three separate burials (a young woman, a girl, and a boy) and several offering assemblages made of shell, CHILD
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metal, pottery, feathers and textiles. Due to the high elevation and cold, everything was well preserved. The Llullaillaco site comprises of multiple archaeological sites connected by a trail ascending towards the summit of the mountain. This included the base camp lodging pilgrims, priests and victims at 5200m and intermediate stations at 5600m
and 6300m (Ceruti, 2004, p.108). The rectangular platform is 10m long and 6m wide that held three frozen sacrificial bodies. The burials themselves were constructed by enlarging natural niches in the bedrock where the mummies could be rested in a few meters deep, and then covered with an artificial fill.
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The boy, approximately 7 years old, was dressed in a tunic (Ceruti, 2004, p. 109) and carried some small bags carrying coca leaves and hair, and some figurines in the shape of a man and llama were placed nearby the body. He was found in a sitting position with his legs tied to his body. The young girl, approximately 6 years old, was in a flexed position and had been hit by lightning after she was buried, which damaged her
neck, shoulder, and chest area (2004, pp. 110-111). She wore a sleeveless dress, and textiles, ceramic items, and figurines were placed around her body (2004, p.111). The young woman, approximately 15 years old, was wearing a headdress and a sleeveless dress and shawl. She also wore various metal
and bone adornments, had red pigment on her face, and had intricately woven hair. She had various ceramic and textile items around her body, as well as three female figurines made of gold, silver and Spondylus shell (Ceruti, 2004, p.112).
Young woman from the Llullaillaco sacrifice discovery. Waugh, Rob. (photographer) (n.d). Inca Ice Maiden. [Online image]. Retrieved from Mail Online, http:// www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article2179217/Inca-ice-maiden-frozen-humansacrifice-infection-lungs.html
Discussion and Conclusions Because of the high altitude, the assemblage of this site most likely reflect the broad spectrum of Inca imperial offerings due to the excellent preservation of the items. Summits of mountains are often mentioned in ethnohistorical accounts of capacocha ceremonies, and this site lines up with this normality. Various reasons
for sacrifices are assumed to exist, such as important events of the Incan emperor, to stop natural calamities, or to appease mountain deities in control of weather and fertility (Ceruti, 2004, p.113). The sacrificial individuals were believed to be chosen as messengers or representatives of their communities in the
presence of the gods, and chosen women around the age of 14 would be wives of local nobles, consecrated as priestesses, or sacrificed in capacocha ceremonies, which is most likely what occurred with the 15 year old woman on the Llullaillaco summit (2004, p.114).
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Conclusion
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.
In the previous articles the reasons behind child sacrifice were explored in both the ancient Inca and Aztec cultures. The societies had some similarities in their sacrifice rituals. For instance in both cultures children were sacrificed to appease a particular god, especially in times of need. Furthermore, in both the Inca and Aztec cultures it was seen as a great privilege to be selected to for sacrifice. The two cultures also have differences
in the sacrificial rituals. The Aztecs used sacrifice as a form of social control. They had specific ways to perform the ceremony to meet the needs of the particular god the sacrifice was being made to. The Aztecs believed those with illness were marked by the gods to be chosen for sacrifice. In comparison children from Inca society were selected to be sacrificed because of their looks or their parents volunteering them for sacrifice. The Inca also
planned sacrifices well in advance and those who selected for sacrifice were given an elevated status prior to the ritual taking place. Both the Inca and the Aztec were powerful empires of their times, and firm believers of ritual human sacrifice. Although modern beliefs can be in contrast to ancient ones it is important to understand the cultural background that lead these societies to such practices.
Glossary Self Sacrifice: A small blood letting given to a god instead of full human sacrifice. Usually a small incision is made in the mouth or on the leg in order to give blood. Skull Rack: A rack designed to hold skulls of sacrificial victims. The skulls are punctured, threaded onto a wooden bar and hung as a warning to rivals. Polytheist: A religion that has more than one ruling god. Interment: Human burial in the earth. Exsanguination: To bleed an individual out until death occurs. Chinampas: A method of Mesoamerican agriculture using small rectangular areas of land floating on shallow lake beds. Tlatoani: The ruler of the altpetl (city-state) of the Mexica state. Cihuatlahtoani: the female equivalent of the Tlatoani CHILD
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Glossary Continued
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Osteological: Of or relating to human bones. Strontium Isotope Analysis: The method of identification for an isotopic signature, specifically for the chemical element strontium. Isotopic Signature: A ratio of stable isotopes and chemical elements within chemical compounds of an investigated material. Assemblages: A group of different artifacts found in association with one another. Stratification: The layers within a society or bedrock. Chicha: Fermented maize alcohol drank by the Inca’s. Capacocha: Incan child sacrifice Coca: Plant that the Inca’s chewed on to induce an altered state. Messiah: The one who has come to save/liberate a group of people Inti: Incan sun god Pathological: Involving, caused by, or of the nature of a physical or mental disease.
Seilder. Ned, M. (Painter) (n.d). A Victorious Inca Emperor And His Army. [Online image]. Retrieved from Fine Art America, http://fineartamerica.com/featured/a-victorious-inca-emperor-and-his-army-ned-m-seidler.html
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Aguilar-Moreno, M. (2007). Handbook to life in the Aztec world. N.p.: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books? id=ZseasJq3WzEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=aztec&hl=e n&sa=X&ei=Bg0OVdacHoiqyQTL8ILQBA&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=azt ec&f=false Andrushko, V. A., Buzon, M. R., Gibaja, A. M., McEwan, G. F., Simonetti, A., & Creaser, R. A.(2011). Investigating a child sacrifice event from the Inca heartland. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38(2), 323-333. Andrushko, V.A., Buzon, M.R., Gibaja, A.M., McEwan, G.F., Simonetti, A., & Creaser R.A. (2011)[Gold, silver, and Spondylus figurines of human males and llamas.]. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/science/article/ pii/S0305440310003195 Andrushko, V.A., Buzon, M.R., Gibaja, A.M., McEwan, G.F., Simonetti, A., & Creaser R.A. (2011) [Map of Choquepukio site location and region.]. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/science/article/pii/ S0305440310003195 Barker, Brandi. (unknown). [Tenochtitlan]. Retrieved, http://www.class.uh.edu/courses/ engl3396/bnbarker/ Bartosz, Hadyniak (n.d). [Matchu Picchu]. Retrieved http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/lost-inca-empire.html Ceruti, C. (2004). Human bodies as objects of dedication at Inca mountain shrines (northwestern Argentina). World Archaeology, 36(1), 103-122. doi:10.1080/0043824042000192632 Conrad, G. W. (1984). Religion and empire: The dynamics of Aztec and Inca . N.p.: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books? id=IqecX148zLsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=aztec&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Bg0OVdacHoiqy QTL8ILQBA&ved=0CFIQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Aztec&f=false Carrasco, D., (2011). Cp. 4 Cosmovision and human sacrifice. In The Aztecs: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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References De La Cruz, A.m González‐Oliver, B., Kemp, B. M., Román, J. A., Smith, D. G., Torre-Blanco, A., (2008). Sex Identification of Children Sacrificed to the Ancient Aztec Rain Gods in Tlatelolco. Current Anthropology, 49(3). DOI: 10.1086/587642 Duviols, P., & Velen, V. A. (1964). The Inca Garcilaso de la Vega humanist interpreter of the Inca religion. Diogenes, 12(47), 36-52. . doi:10.1177/039219216401204704 Fresque de Diego Rivera. (1952). [Tenochtitlan- Le Marché de Tlatelolco]. Retrieved http://www.vivamexico.info/Index1/Tenochtitlan.html Hassig, R. (1995). Aztec warfare: Imperial expansion and political control. N.p.: University of Oklahoma Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/booksid=7M1o9g8MARgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=azt ec&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Bg0OVdacHoiqyQTL8ILQBA&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=on page&q=aztec&f=false Howe, Andrew (07 March 2014). [Inca Gold Sun Mask]. Retrieved http://www.ancient.eu/image/2356/ Ingham, J. M., (1984). Human Sacrifice at Tenochtiltan. Comparative studies in Society and History, 26(3), 379-400. URL:http://www.jstor.org/stable/178547 James, S. E., (2002). Mimetic Rituals of Child Sacrifice in the Hopi Kachina Cult. Journal of the Southwest, 44(3), 337-356. URL:http://www.jstor.org/stable/40170187 Klum, Mattias. (n.d).[ Llama]. Retrived http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/llama/ LaLone, D. (1998). Daily life in the Inca empire. Ethnohistory. 45(3), 602-604. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/483336 Pfluger, C. (1995). Progress, irony and human sacrifice. The Hudson Review, 48(1), 67-92. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3852059 Odessa, CS. (n.d.). [Map of Latin and South America]. Retrieved http://www.conceptdraw.com/How-To-Guide/geo-map-south-america-mexico Ramírez Codex. (1587). [Fig Pierced Skull and A tzompantli,(skull rack) from Juan de Tovar’s 1587 manuscript, also known as the Ramírez Codex]. Retrieved http://www.historicagraphica.com/aztec-offerings-and-skull-rack-victims-foundin-mexico-city-past-horizons/
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Seilder. Ned, M. (n.d). [A Victorious Inca Emperor And His Army]. Retrieved http://fineartamerica.com/featured/a-victorious-inca-emperor-and-his-army-ned-m -seidler.html Soustelle, J. (1970). Daily life of the Aztecs, on the eve of the Spanish conquest. N.p.: Stanford University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?id=Xm67kMSlXpAC&pg=PA163&dq=aztec+societ y&hl=en&sa=X&ei=fUYPVYjNDYK0ogTJq4H4CA&ved=0CE8Q6AEwCQ#v=onep age&q=aztec%20society&f=false Tangient, LLC. (2015). [Tenochtitlan In.] Retrieved https://mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/UNIT+9+-+AZTECS+%26+INCAS Waugh, Rob. (n.d). [Inca Ice Maiden]. Retrieved http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2179217/Inca-ice-maiden-frozen-humansacrifice-infection-lungs.html Wilson, A. S., Brown, E. L., Villa, C., Lynnerup, N., Healey, A., Ceruti, M. C., Taylor, T. (2013). Archaeological, radiological, and biological evidence offer insight into Inca child sacrifice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(33), 110(33), 1332213327. doi:10.1073/pnas.1305117110
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