ANTHROPOLOGY Special Issue: Archaeology and Human Sacrifice Issue No.1 March 2014
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Editor’s Note Human sacrifice is certainly not without its controversy. In attempting to discuss what to many is a taboo and objectionable practice, we took care to present our research based on the most current studies and academic discussion. Recognizing that the history of some of these cultures is strongly linked to present day communities, some of which can even claim descent from these groups, we attempted to portray these cultures with the utmost respect. Human sacrifices have been presented in popular books and media for generations, often sensationalizing and historically misappropriating the practice. Our articles attempted to steer away from this trend and illustrate the archaeological understandings of such practices instead. We would also like to warn our readers that several images may be found unsettling. Except for E.W.’s article “Ritualistic Sacrifice and Cannibalism in the Aztec Culture”, explicitly graphic depictions of violence are not contained within these pages. We would also like to acknowledge each and every owner of the photos and pictures we chose to present. We in no way claim ownership or rights to these images and have included them for educational purposes only.
Front cover image credit: http://scienceblogs.com/aardvarchaeology/2013/06/10/900-years-of-humansacrifice-in-kent/
Photo credit: http://baylorbarbee.com/blog/how-to-change-the-world/
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About the Editor’s
A.C. is currently in his third year at UVic and is working towards a Double Major in Anthropology and English. After completing his undergraduate studies he hopes to get a MA – and one day – a PhD in Archaeology. In the meantime he’s just enjoying the journey. He’d like to thank each of the coeditors and everyone that read his rough drafts and offered suggestions.
Photo credit: http://osteography.wordpress.com/2010/12/22/
E.W. is currently in her third year at the University of Victoria, pursuing an Anthropology major. She would like to thank her Anthropology of Death teacher, Dr. McGuire for giving her the opportunity to participate in such an interesting class, as well as her fellow authors: Kay, Aaron and Graeme for their support, hard work, and dedication to our projects. She hopes a good time and a fun learning experience was had by all this semester!
K.I. is a third year student attending the University of Victoria to complete an undergraduate degree in anthropology with a minor in English literature. Her passion for anthropology started at a young age and she hopes to devote her life to studying different cultures all over the world. She would like to thank her fellow editor’s for the help and fantastic work in this publication!
G.M. is an undergraduate student majoring sociology and minoring in anthropology coming to the end of his tenure at the University of Victoria. While he is focused on cultural anthropology, archaeology is a hobby and interest.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Editor’s Note
Page 1
About the Editor’s
Page 2
Table of Contents
Page 3
Introduction
Page 4
Capacocha: Child Sacrifice in the Incan Empire and the Llullaillaco Mummies
Page 5
Did They Do It? Phoenician Infant Sacrifice Debate Around Cathrage
Page 9
Ritualistic Sacrifice and Cannibalism in the Aztec Culture
Page 12
Human Sacrifice in West Africa: Historical Narratives From Pre-Colonization to Modernity
Page 15
Fun Quiz!!
Page 17
Works cited
Page 19
Phoenician Empire Aztec Empire
West Africa Inca Empire
*Note: Highlighted Empire regions are estimations not exact borders and may not be a fair representation of the empires. Basic map came from http://www.freeusandworldmaps.com/html/World_Projections/WorldPrint.html however changes were made by K.I.
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Introduction These four articles offer only a small glimpse of the multitude of human sacrifice practices seen cross-culturally and around the world. In compiling these articles, we aimed to present the reader with some of the most current research and findings related to four separate cultural groups and their geographical territories. G.M.’s article examined North African sacrificial practices in ancient Carthage at the height of the Punic Wars with Rome; the article by K.I. concerns the Incan practice of capacocha, or child sacrifices, and presents some of the current scientific studies involved in ‘recreating’ the life histories of the individuals; E.W’s article moves northward and discusses the very famous examples of human sacrifice in the Central American Aztec state; lastly, A.C.’s article returns to the African continent, focusing on the European historical narratives of West African sacrificial practices and the implications of those accounts in the absence of archaeological data. We recognize that these articles merely skim the surface of what has been made available to us during the writing of this issue. Human sacrifices are a complex and multifaceted topic within the vast milieu of humanity’s existence. We hope that this issue might shed light on an otherwise poorly-understood topic, and that our readers will continue to learn more and acquaint themselves with the incredible work being done by archaeologists, scientists, and other scholars around the world.
Photo Credit: http://www.nbcnews.com/id/6853177/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/fresh-look-tales-human-sacrifice/
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Capacocha: Child Sacrifice in the Incan Empire and the Llullaillaco Mummies By K.I.
The Inca Empire was the largest pre-Columbian empire in the Americas and was located across parts of modern day Peru, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Columbia, and Ecuador. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, in Quecha their native language. Translated, it means “four parts together� in reference to the four principal regions of the Incan Empire: Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Kuntisuyu, and Qullasuyu. Each region met at the capital, Cusco the political and religious hub of the empire.1 Archaeological evidence for human sacrifice has been seen in many forms within the Incan Empire. One form was Capacocha, a ritual that was practiced during important events and the sacrifices, usually of objects and animals but occasionally of children, were placed at religious shrines called huacas.2 It has long been inferred that the children in Capacocha rituals were of a social high status because their overall health and diet was so comparatively exceptional to other nonsacrificed children.
Figure 1- shows the extent of the Incan Empire
However others Figure 1- shows the extent of the Incan have argued Empire:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inca_Empire_S that this may outh_America.png not be the case http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inca_ because of the greatEmpire_South_America.png variability in terms of ethnicity in the Capacocha victims.2 Using both archaeological evidence and ethnohistoric documents archaeologists have strived to understand the workings of Capacocha ceremonies. While sacrifices of objects and animals were placed at all huacas, children were only placed in the most important religious shrines.2 The selection process for picking the children who were to be sacrificed appears to have been complex and involved both political negotiations and social obligations. While little is known about the selection process of children it has been speculated that children were offered voluntarily in order to create an alliance with the Inca king.3 One of the most famous sites where Figure 2- Mt. Llullaillaco on the border of Argentina and Chile www.trekearth.com/gallery/South_America/Chile/Norte_Grande/Antofagasta/p hoto782896.htm
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Capacocha sacrifices have been discovered is on the summit of Mt. Llullaillaco. To date, archaeologists have uncovered three tombs with child sacrifices, all in nearly perfect condition. The first named, “Llullaillaco Maiden” was a 15 year old girl; the second, “Llullaillaco Boy,” was a seven year old; the third was given the name, “Lightning Girl,” because she appeared to have been struck by lightning, post mortem – she was six years old.4 Llullaillaco Boy was found in tomb-1 with miniature figurines, spondylus shells, pottery vessels, slings, extra sandals and several woven bags that contained coca leaves and traces of human hair.2 In tomb-2, Llullaillaco Maiden, was found buried with ceramic vessels, wooden cups, several woven bags (also with food and one with human hair), a woven belt, shells and three Figure 3- Llullaillaco Maiden found in Tomb-2 at Mt. Llullaillaco Site. http://hypescience.com/mumias-incas-criancas-sacrificadas-tinhamingerido-drogas-e-alcool
miniature female figurines.2 She was wearing leather moccasins and a sleeveless brown dress with a shawl held in place by a gold pin. Her face was painted with a red pigment and her hair was intricately braided.4 The third Capacocha sacrifice, Lightning Girl, had the richest burial goods found on Mt. Llullaillaco. Buried with her were “eleven ceramic vessels, wooden cups, combs, sandals, moccasins, woven bags (carrying food, hair, and feathers), a sling, and five miniature female figurines made with gold, silver and spondylus shells.2 Also found Girl’s, tomb it is speculated that she had the highest status out of the individuals found in at Mt. Llullaillaco.5 With the excellent preservation of the Capacocha Sacrifices at Mt. Llullaillaco, these children have been intensely studied. Using CT scans it was
Figure 4- Lightning Girl found in Tomb-3, pictured here with grave goods and feather headdress. http://www.goeringo.com/2013/02/24/mummies-of-the-world/
Figure 5- Llullaillaco Boy found in Tomb-1 at Mt. Llullaillaco Site. http://www.goeringo.com/2013/02/24/mummies-of-the-world/
determined that all children had good muscular development and a healthy amount of fat tissue leading to the conclusion that they were well fed, at least before death. Also discovered in the analysis was that all the children had excellent bone mineralization and a lack of growth arrest lines (also known as Harris lines), which usually point to periods of juvenile malnutrition, trauma, or illness. Due to these findings, archaeologists have speculated that these children were in fact, of a high status throughout their lives.3 Using isotope analysis the diets of the Llullaillaco mummies were tested and it was found that the two younger children had little change to their diet but that the nitrogen levels increased in the year prior to their deaths which signifies an increase in maize (corn) consumption, while maintaining their previous diet of meat and vegetables. Llullaillaco Maiden’s diet, on the other hand, changed quite dramatically in the year before her death with evidence suggesting that up until a year before it, she ate very little meat. In her case, archaeologists suggest that her change in diet is linked to her change in status in the last year of her life. Studying human sacrifice is a difficult task and although it has its challenges, examining rituals such as Capacocha are vital for archaeologists trying to understand the role of children within such a politically and religiously hierarchical and complex society.
On the left is Llullaillaco boy and on the right is Llullaillaco Maiden pictured with grave goods at the Mt. Llullaillaco site. http://ucfant3145f09-02.wikispaces.com/Incan+Sacrifice
Did They Do It? Phoenician Infant Sacrifice Debate Around Carthage. By G.M. The Phoenicians were a seafaring people and settled the Western Mediterranean before the Greeks. They are known for their skillful trading, the developing a signature purple cloth dye1, and spreading an alphabet. However, the Phoenicians are also accused of perpetuating infant sacrifices. This challenge to their proposed civility has swayed back and forth in the archeological community for the second half of the 20th century.2 At the heart of the debate is the archeological site of the Carthage Tophet located on the African coast of the Mediterranean Sea. image form http://edsitement.neh.gov/alphabet-historic-world-phoenicians-greeksand-romans
The Tophet was an infant cemetery located just outside of the city Carthage, today it is an archeological site where hundreds of urns filled with the cremated remain of animals and humans have been excavated and examined.2 The accusation of infant sacrifice comes from several ancient and biblical texts authored by men such as Diodorus, Kleitatchos, Plutarch and Tertullian, of which only the former two may be eye-witnesses2, have made references to the practice amongst the Phoenicians. This raises the question of whether or not the Phoenicians engaged in this ritual is true or exaggeration and propaganda. Two teams of archeologist have recently tackled this issue by examining the remains of the cremated infants found in the Tophet urns. Smith et al published their conclusion which supported the accusations in October of 2011 in Antiquity. The team addressed the issue of finding the age of the cremated infants through examining the teeth rather than using other partial bones. They challenged the earlier idea of prenatal infants being cremated by hypothesizing the teeth Image from http://www.biblewould shrink during the cremation history.com/past/phoenician_ships.html process, by about 6mm, thus making earlier attempts to age the infants invalid. Smith et al. used this method to determine the average age of the infants present ranged from 1-1.5 months old.2 Then using this information in conjunction with the reports from period writers, a pictogram, and interpretation of some writing on a stone tablet to come to conclude the Phoenicians did practice infant sacrifice. One years later, Schwartz et al. challenged this result.
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Schwartz's team conducted their own research on the urns containing the cremated remains in an attempt to find the age of the infants. They came to the conclusion the infants were prenatal and most likely stillborn children.3 Therefore, this leads them to rule out the sacrificial nature of the cremations. Schwartz et al. challenge each of the pieces of evidence Smith and his team used to come to their conclusion. The debate surrounding Phoenician infant scarifies at the Tophet comes down to an issue of age. Smith et al. used teeth as their primary source for finding the age of the babes however their method was brought into question by Schwartz et al. for several reasons. First, is the neonatal line, an observable line marking a change in the growth of a tooth before and after birth. Smith and the his team speculated this line was destroyed during the incineration process yet Schwartz's team raises the point none of the other tiny structures of the teeth were affect by the cremation. This caused Schwartz et al to refer to the speculation as “unfounded.�3 In addition, Schwartz's team also confronts the uniform nature of tooth growth and shrinkage proposed by Smith's team as well as the different impacts incinerating a tooth in an earth oven, as Smith's team did, and on a pyre of olive branches would have on the shrinkage process.3 The other main point of Smith's team the Schwartz's team tackles is the interpretation of an engraving on a stelae of a man carrying an infant (see figure right). Smith et al. address this as a priest carrying a child to sacrifice. However, Schwartz et al. propose in the image the infant is already deceased and is simply being carried towards a cremation. This is where archaeology gets tricky. We have placed the image next to the article for our readers to make their own interpretations and see with whom they agree. The interpretation of this image vary as previously stated and it is the only such image at the Tophet site. While smith's team used it as a secondary piece of evidence for their conclusions, the Schwartz team raises the point there are any number Image on stelae at the Tophet – Swchartz et al. of interpretations available and that it should not 2012 now be used as a source of evidence because of the lack of Phoenician cultural view point. Infant sacrifice is a gruesome thought to most people living today however it was a practice at some point along human history. Whether or not the civilized and cultured Phoenician peoples engaged in these activities is still being debated amongst archaeologist and it will take more research and excavation to determine if the old texts are true.
“Ritualistic Sacrifice and Cannibalism in the Aztec Culture” by E.W. (WARNING-SOME DISCRIPTIONS AND PHOTOS MAY BE QUITE GRAPHIC IN NATURE)
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he ancient stories of the Aztec people of Mexico in the 16th century, tell us a greatdeal about their culture. These people were especially known for being human sacrifice specialists, and their culture has become known to be deeply associated with bloodshed, mass sacrifices, extreme torture and regular cannibalistic practices. “[The Aztecs] have often been condemned as evil, bloodthirsty, and hopelessly misguided, dominated by an elite which cynically imposed human sacrifice.”1 This article focuses on whom the Aztecs sacrificed and why. When were these sacrifices taking place, and what did the practice of sacrifice say about the Aztec culture? Although the Aztecs did not invent the custom of sacrifice, there are proven accounts of the extreme practice of human sacrifice through the overwhelming evidence of both indigenous and Spanish accounts. The Aztecs regarded themselves as the children of the sun and felt the obligation to the sun God to continue the idea of universality. According to tradition, in order to keep him nourished, he had to be continuously supplied with the most sacred of foods-human blood.2 Most of these Figure 1- The Aztec Sun God http://farm4.staticflickr.com/3210/2599178 mass sacrifices took place on the steps of The Temple 179_10487b79d5.jpg Mayor, in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (modern day) Mexico City.2 While there has been a lot of debate over how many people were sacrificed (as a percentage of the overall population), it is very difficult to say how many individuals were sacrificed as well as how frequently. Most often, sacrifice can be seen as having a connection to special feasts and festivals that fall in the Aztec calendar. That calendar is composed of eighteen months, which includes these specific dates of mass sacrifice.3 The most regularly sacrificed individuals were children but overwhelmingly the victims were for the most part, warriors (indigenous and strangers captured by wars).3 However, it is known that occasionally, an individual would offer themselves for sacrifice. In general, the practice of sacrifice is not without historical debate. Some people may view mass sacrifice as homicide and hence, mass murder, however, it has been established that there were two separate views that account for the killing of individuals in this society. Either the sacrifice was an illegal act of outright, premeditated murder or, conversely, was an established, accepted ritual, contained with Aztec societal laws.1 By observing Aztec society, Spaniards came to An individual having his heart torn out as an offering to the Gods understand that sacrifice was not to be cruel or used as Figure 2- The Sacrifice punishments, but to only take place during devout Christian http://www.wermodandwermod.com/ offerings to the Gods in a deeply religious manner, and the newsitems/Aztec%20%20Human%20Sacrifice.jpg underlying reason was extremely obvious. The Aztecs considered themselves to be the chosen people of the Sun God Huitzilopochtli and needed to keep him, as well as their other 12 Gods nourished and well taken care of.2
Although the Aztec’s ways of sacrifice were probably known as the worst, most sensationalized and bloodied mass killings in history, they tend to be the least understood. Although they were not the first group to practice mass sacrifice, it seems that “religious and political imperatives combined to drive their culture increasingly toward warfare and sacred violence, the Aztecs pursued a policy of human sacrifice which brought about the deaths of thousands of individuals.”1 Three reasons can be argued for the sacrifice of humans in such large groups and at certain times. When discussing the practise of human sacrifice, three different theories are present. “Whether these figures were honoured or murdered clearly depends on your perspective,”1 and the reality usually falls somewhere in the middle. Some festivals that were held, included ritual cannibalism, of which the idea of communication with the Gods was present. As well, again, cannibalism was seen as a way, not only to give sacrifices to the Gods, but also as a means to feed the noblemen and the elite. At a different level, human meat to feed individuals because when animals were not abundant enough to meet everyone’s dietary needs. Bodies are a good source of amino acids, fatty acids. Another idea forwarded, is that of population control: humans were sacrificed to ensure a sustainable population control.3 According to Pennock, “although it is difficult for a modern observer to empathise with their motivations and to appreciate the violent drama of their rituals, the Aztecs were a deeply human, compassionate, refined, and sophisticated society. They may not have conformed to our expectations of civilization, but it is hard to argue that they were 'uncivilized', despite the bloody rituals which shaped their lives and have dominated their history.”1 The time of sacrifice usually had a few stages. The first, being the people being captured and kept in a cage. They would be fed in order to prepare them for sacrifice. Once that happened, occasionally they would have their necks broken as a first step. Next, their hearts would be ripped out of their chests (still beating), and the blood would be smeared on the walls, and the heart would be sacrificed to Huitzilopochtli.1 The sacrificed body/bodies would then be rolled down the front steps of The Temple Mayor, where arms, legs and Figure 3: The Skull Rack http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_l3 head were cut off. The head would be placed on the beeu9kMO1qzix81o1_500.gif local skull rack, while the other parts of the body This is the rack of skulls that was discovered. There were over 136,000 15 would be consumed for their dietary advantages. It sacrificed skulls found in total. was common for the owner of the deceased to have a feast with elaborate dishes, including the flesh of the sacrificed. There was one part of the body that was not used ritually in meals and feasts, and that was the torso. It was given to elite zoos to feed the carnivorous animals.4 This practice of intense human sacrifice only lasted until the end of The Spaniards conquered the entire city which ended the war in the Valley of Mexico. Eventual Spanish rule marked the ending of native warfare and cannibalism, in order to adhere to, and reinforce the new Spanish laws.4
HUMAN SACRIFICE IN WEST AFRICA: HISTORICAL NARRATIVES FROM PRECOLONIZATION TO MODERNITY By Aaron Cathers n the broad scope of these articles, human sacrifice on the coast of West Africa presents very little if any archaeological evidence to work from. Instead, most of our evidence comes from historical accounts, written first by Arabic travellers at the turn of the first millennium and later by early European explorers and settlers in the 1600s. As presented through the lenses of colonial encounters, a cultural practice as dramatic and visceral as human sacrifice is bound to be caught up in an awareness that needs to be carefully approached. The surviving historical documents represent an undeniable contention for not only the practice itself but for the entire geographical region and the cultures that populated the coast. In our postcolonial era, these narratives have remained a persistent association and continue to influence the ways in which West African cultures are viewed. Indeed, there is consistent evidence that human sacrifices still occur throughout West Africa and the continent; debates concerning the issue are ongoing, having reached the upper levels of international dialogues and platforms like the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights (ACHPR).1 Plate 1 – From Petit Journal, No. 106, 1892, of the Dahomey” Approaching the discussion with both its “Cremation Photo:http://monlegionnaire.wordpress.com/201 pre- to post-colonial contexts in mind remains 1/12/03/le-petite-journal-covers-4/ mostly in the realm of history, yet, as archaeologists are well aware, the anthropological perspective is vital to any understanding of cultural practice and belief, even when those practices and contexts have ended. The earliest pre-colonial accounts of human sacrifice in the region survive in the texts of Arabic and Islamic scholars from as early as the tenth century. The famous Ibn Battutta who travelled extensively in the 1300s even makes reference to funerary human sacrifices in the region. European accounts begin to appear shortly after the first Portuguese voyages down the coast in the 1500s. One of the most paradoxically important works comes from a 1668 publication by the Dutch scholar, Olfert Dapper. Contrary to his “explorations,” Dapper never left the Netherlands – if anything, his frequent and vivid descriptions of human sacrifice amongst several West African societies displays an early European conception of Africa’s coastal inhabitants as barbaric and savage.2 During the Atlantic Slave Trade’s zenith in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, scholars like Robin Law have pointed towards a shift in the discourse of colonial European accounts which began to advocate slavery as a humanitarian pursuit, giving opportunity and use to captive slaves who would otherwise be the victims of sacrifices.2 In West Africa, as it is and has been elsewhere in the world, human sacrifice is consistently tied to narratives which become propagated through cultural encounters. In this case of colonial expansion, the narratives often sought to denigrate and demonize ethnic groups for both political and economic reasons and
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because of the significant cultural impasse between African religious beliefs and traditions in conflict with those of Arabic and European cultures. s West Africa’s own Asante and Bambara Empires, as well as the Kingdom of Dahomey, emerged in parallel to European colonial incursion and economic lucre, human sacrifices appear to have formed an increasingly large part of these states judicial systems. While this issue continues to be scrutinized, there appears to be strong evidence for an increase in sacrifices concurrent with the rise of West African empires. Clifford Williams extensively analyzed nineteenth century British texts concerning the Asante Empire which, in attempting to ‘humanize’ West Africans, argued that sacrifices were merely an extension of their form of capital punishment. Although these Victorian writers were benevolently well-intentioned, Williams interprets this as a means for the growing movement of anti-abolitionist leaning Europeans to sympathize with the Asante – capital punishment was still a justified means of dealing with crime and remained a very public spectacle for many Europeans. In effect, this narrative shift excluded the cultural agency of West Africans in an attempt to make them more congruent with European values, and thus, less savage and barbaric.3 Modern evidence and evaluation refutes the underlying premise of this narrative yet it’s clear that the nature of sacrifices did change in this period with a marked increase in its scope and extravagancy. While nineteenth and twentieth century scholars argued that sacrifices were only performed as a form of capital punishment, non-criminals (mostly slaves and captives) were often and more frequently put to death in elaborate rituals; during this period, funerary sacrifices became much more elaborate and the foci event of royal funerals in the new empires; in one case, mass sacrifices were performed to prevent an invasion, appealing to the group’s ancestors for deliverance. While we have lots of historical evidence for understanding human sacrifices in West Africa, the social and cultural impetus, as well as the material context of especial relevance to archaeologists, is only available through historical documents, texts which very rarely attempted to contextualize the insight of their subject’s social, cultural, and religious beliefs.3
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ontemporary concerns regarding human sacrifice are no less linked to a type of narrative understanding, albeit with different emphases and political aims. At the close of the Second World War and the advent of African nation-building, human sacrifice was effectively banned in every country on the continent. Modern cases, not exclusive to West Africa, surface every few years and are commonly discussed as ‘ritual killings’ – a word much more synonymous with murder than sacrifice. Like our earliest Plate 2 – “Victims for Sacrifice” by Archibald Dazel documents relating to West Africa, these cases are PhotoCredit:http://www.grosvenorprints.com/sto often highly sensationalized and are often ck_detail.php?ref=17775 misunderstood – a quick Google search will give you lists of the grizzliest modern cases, complete with as much shock value and hyperbole as necessary to go viral. A culturally sensitive awareness of this issue does not need to sympathize or condone the practice of human sacrifice. There does however need to be an ethical concern and awareness for the ways in which we choose to identify people and their cultures – without this concern we run the risk of, again, heedlessly vilifying and dehumanizing entire ethnic and cultural groups.
Quiz Time! 1. What are Harris Lines? a) Petroglyphs at Incan religious shrines b) Lines of increased bone density that can show juvenile malnutrition, trauma, or illness. c) A test done on hair follicles to see juvenile malnutrition, trauma or illness. d) None of the above. 2. What is Capacocha a) A ritual of sacrifice conducted by the Inca at huacas, and often involved children. b) A type of food eaten at n Incan religious ceremony c) Can include the sacrifice of valuable objects and animals. d) Both a) and C) 3. What food item was found with all the Llullaillaco mummies? a) Wheat b) Corn c) Sweet Manioc d) Coca leaves 4. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu in their official language Quecha. What does this mean? a) Four parts together b) Four parts divided c) Ruled land d) None of the Above 5. Where the cremated remains of the infants found at the Tophet of Cathage? a) In a burial chamber b) A tomb c) In small sarcophagi d) In Urns 6. What type of wood was used for the pyres? a) Olive Branches b) Cedar bows c) Material from old boats d) Scraps provided by the family 7. What was the main item of debate whether or not the infants were sacrificed? a) Siaxe of the cranial bones b) Age c) Inscription at the Tophet d) Teeth e) All the above 8. What age does the Smith team claim the infants to be at the time of cremation? a) 1-2 weeks b) 1-1.5 weeks c) 3-4 months d) 1 year old
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9. Huitzilopochli was the ? God a) Rain b) Sun c) Moon d) Ocean 10. What is the main body part sacrificed to the Gods? a) Limbs b) Torso c) Eyeballs d) Heart 11. What was the group most commonly sacrificed? a) Warriors b) Children c) Prisoners d) Volunteers 12. Another theory for human sacrifice? a) Population Control b) The need to feed humans c) The Aztecs were made to do such things by the Spanish invaders d) A) and B) 13. When do the earliest historical accounts refer to human sacrifice in West Africa? a) 9th Century b) 10th Century c) 16th Century d) 17th Century 14. Which of the following was not a West African empire? a) Asante Empire b) Bambara Empire c) Zulu Empire d) The Kingdom of Dahomey Answers: 1.B, 2.D, 3. D, 4. A, 5. D, 6. A, 7. E, 8. B, 9. B, 10. D, 11.A, 12. D, 13.B, 14.C
Photo Credit: http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2011-02/08/archaeology-burial-law
Works Cited
*Note: The numbers used here correspond to the numbered superscript used in each article “Capacocha: Child Sacrifice in the Incan Empire and the Llullaillaco Mummies” by K.I. 1. 2. 3. 4.
5.
“The Incas: History of the Andean Empire.” Live Science. Owen Jarus, 19 November 19, 2013. Web. 22 March 2014. Faux, Jennifer. “Hail the Conquering Gods: Ritual Sacrifice of Children in Inca Society.” Journal of Contemporary Anthropology 3.1 (2012): 1-15. Web. 22 March 2014. Previdliano, Carlos. Et al “Radiologic Evaluation of Llullaillaco Mummies.” American Journal of Roentgenology181.6 (2003):1473-1479. Web. 22 March 2014. Wilson, Andrew. Et al. “Stable Isotope and DNA Evidence for Ritual Sequences in Inca Child Sacrifice” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104.42 (2007): 16457-16461. Web. 22 March 2014. Ceruti, Constanza. “Human Bodies as Objects of Dedication at Inca Mountain Shrines (North-Western Argentina). World Archaeology 36.1: 103-122. Web. 22 March 2014
“Did They Do It? Phoenician Infant Sacrifice Debate Around Carthage” by G.M.
1. 2. 3.
Herm, Gerhard. The Phoenicians: the Purple Empire of the ancient world. New York: Morrow, 1975. Print. Smith, P., G. Avishai, J.A. Greene, and L.E. Stager. "Aging cremated infants: the problem of sacrifice at the Tophet of Carthage."Antiquity 85 (2011): 859-874. Antiquity Publishing. Web. 1 Mar. 2014. Schwartz, J.H., F.D. Houghton, L. Bondioli, and R. Macchiarelli. "Bones.Teeth, and estimation of as age of perinates: Cartheginian Infant Sacrifice at Tophet revisted."Antiquity 86 (2012): 738-745. Antiquity Publishing. Web. 1 Mar. 2014.
“Ritualistic Sacrifice and Cannibalism in the Aztec Culture” by E.W. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Pennock, Caroline Dodds. “Mass Murder or Religious Homicide? Rethinking Human Sacrifice and Interpersonal Violence in Aztec Society.” Historical Social Research, 37.3 (2012). 276-302. Web. 2 March 2014. Anawalt, Patricia R. “Understanding Human Sacrifice.” Archaeological Institute of America, 35.5 (1982). 38-45. Web. 2 March 2014. Ingham, John M. “Human Sacrifice at Tenochtitlan.” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 26.3 (1984). 379-400. Web. 2 March 2014. Harner, Michael. “The Ecological Basis for Aztec Sacrifice.” American Ethnologist. 4.1 (1977). 117-135. Web. 2 March 2014.
“Human Sacrifice in West Africa: Historical Narratives From Pre-Colonization to Modernity” by A.C. 1. 2. 3.
“The Practice of Ritual Killings and Human Sacrifice in Africa.”Human Rights Brief. 6 September 2012. Web. 20 March 2014. Law, Robin. “Human Sacrifice in Pre-Colonial West Africa.” African Affairs 84.334 (1985). 53 – 87. Web. 3 March 2014. Williams, Clifford. “Asante: Human Sacrifice or Capital Punishment? An Assessment of the Period 1807-1874” The International journal of African Historical Studies 21.3 (1988). 433-441. Web. 20 March 2014.
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