Vernacular Architecture Jammu and Kashmir
Vernacular Architecture Vernacular architecture is a category of architecture based on local needs, construction materials and reflecting local traditions. It tends to evolve over time to reflect the environmental, cultural, technological, economic, and historical context in which it exists. It is also made by the common people for their own use without the help of an architect. In Jammu and Kashmir factors governing the popularity of construction methods of vernacular architecture and materials are (a) Economics in relation to people’s spending capacity and availability of recourses. (b) Easy maintenance by the common person and (c) Effective response to local natural conditions such as extreme cold, strong winds or high earthquake risk. (d) Seismic attributes, as it’s a high earthquake prone area
Economics and availability of resources
This is demonstrated most clearly by the use of brick for construction, which is most economical in the plains of the Kashmir Valley, and the use of stone, which is most economical in the hills, on account of their easy availability in the respective areas. The valley has soil that is most suitable to make bricks, baked or unbaked. The mountains, on the other hand, offer very little soil but have lots of stone and rock. When people in the hills consider switching from stone to Brick. Where roofing is concerned, even today CGI sheets have made no inroads where timber is cheaply available and where access to the area is only by foot over long distances and steep terrain. In other areas, cheaper timber varieties with shorter life are gaining acceptability, since the CGI roofing protects such timber from the natural elements and timber no longer gets exposed as it did when it was used for shingles or plank roofing.
Maintenance
Maintenance requires materials and skills. Since these are no different from what is required in construction, the maintenance of rural structures is easy and within the reach of ordinary people. However, if materials from outside the locality were to be used, the maintenance of the structure would become expensive.
Local Natural Conditions
Winter cold is the most common natural factor governing most of Kashmir. Thick walls of brick and stone with mud plaster provide excellent protection against this, as does a thick mud-timber roof. The lighter, pitched roof made of timber and CGI sheets in combination with the attic floor also ensures livable conditions inside the house in winter and summer. The steep pitch of the light roof permits little accumulation of snow and prevents any water leakages.
Seismic Attributes
As Jammu and Kashmir lies in a seismic zone and is prone to frequent earth quakes therefore all the structures need to be aided with measures to prevent collapses. Such measures include dhajji dewari walls and taq system. The material used for such systems are locally and easily available. These construction techniques are more popular than conventional reinforcement constructions.
Culture Kashmir
The culture of Kashmir is a diverse blend and highly influenced by northern South Asian as well as Central Asian culture. Along with its scenic beauty, Kashmir is famous for its cultural heritage; it amalgamates Muslim, Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist philosophies and has involved. The most important part of the cultural identity of the Kashmiri people is the Kashmiri (Koshur) language. This language is spoken only in the Valley of Kashmir by the Kashmiri Pandits and Kashmiri Muslims. Cultural music and dance like Wanvun, Rouf, carpet/shawl weaving, cuisine and Koshur Sufiana (poetry) forms a very important part of Kashmiri identity. It is important to note that Kashmiri culture is predominantly only in the Valley of Kashmir. The other regions of the Larger J&K state, such as Jammu and Ladakh are very different from Kashmir.
Kehwa, traditional green tea with spices and almond, is consumed all through the day in the chilled winter climate of Kashmir. Kashmiri handicrafts are also very famous all over India.
Jammu Jammu's Dogra culture and tradition is very different from the Kashmiri culture. The Dogra culture is instead much similar to that of neighboring Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Traditional Punjabi festivals such as Lohri and Baisakhi are celebrated with great zeal and enthusiasm throughout the region, along with Accession Day, an annual holiday which commemorates the accession of Jammu & Kashmir to the Dominion of India. After Dogras, Gujjars form the second-largest ethnic group in Jammu. Known for their semi-nomadic lifestyle, Gujjars are also found in large numbers in the Kashmir valley. Gaddis are primarily herdsmen who hail from the Chamba region in Himachal Pradesh. Gaddis are generally associated with emotive music played on the flute. The Bakkarwalas found both in Jammu and the outskirts of the Valley of Kashmir are wholly nomadic pastoral people who move along the Himalayan slopes in search for pastures for their huge flocks of goats and sheep.
Evolution of Constructions in Rural Kashmir Rural buildings constructed in a traditional way by the people (often referred to as vernacular buildings)become an integral part of the local cultural heritage. These buildings often reflect the strength of the community to house itself independent of any outside intervention. They are a manifestation of architectural systems optimized over time for a particular context with regard to climate, soil or the threat of natural disasters. Constructed from local materials with local skills and a deep understanding of local social and economic constraints, traditional architecture is in many aspects sustainable architecture. Traditional architecture in many
CGI roofing on timber with walls of wood planks and logs
places continues to evolve, and Kashmiri rural architecture is no exception. A number of building systems in various parts of Kashmir have developed over time to accommodate local natural and cultural factors, including the impact of earthquakes. These systems are not only part of the cultural heritage of Kashmir but also add to its beautiful landscape. Historically, the buildings have depended completely upon stone, mud, bricks and wood for roofing as well as walling
Traditional flat mud roof on timber under structure with stone masonry walls
Until very recently, non-local materials did not represent a valid option for local constructions. They were expensive, and their use added logistical complications to the construction process. However, in recent times new materials have made their way into the valleys of Kashmir on account of their favourable economics as well as people’s aspiration to modernity.
Until the 1970s the most common building systems in Kashmir were brick or stone walls. Some of them timber framed, with timber and mud roofs. But as durable wood like Deodar became very expensive, corrugated galvanized iron (CGI) sheets came to replace wood planks and shingles. In areas where it is easy to transport these sheets, the change has been so far-reaching that CGI sheeting now constitutes the most common form of roofing in the region. Even in areas where just twenty years ago houses were mainly built with flat mud roofs, CGI sheets have become the predominant roofing material. Apart from this, the reinforced concrete (RC) slab is gradually replacing the timber floor and load bearing masonry walls are replacing the timber framing. Again, changing economic forces as well as people’s aspirations to a more contemporary lifestyle are encouraging such changes.
Thatch roofing on timber and burnt brick masonry wall
CGI sheet roofing on timber and burnt brick masonry wall
CGI sheet roofing on stone masonry and timber wall
CGI sheet roofing on timber and stone masonry wall
Dhajji Dewari Walls As Jammu and Kashmir lies in a seismic zone and is prone to frequent earth quakes therefore all the structures need to be aided with measures to prevent collapses. One of the measures is ‘ Dhajji dewari ’ which is even more popular than conventional reinforcement constructions . “Dhajji” is a Persian word meaning Patchwork quilts in ancient language of carpet weavers. Because of its visual similarity to the type of patchwork construction in Kashmir, this term is applied to this type of construction.
It mainly consists of a braced timber frame where the spaces between the bracings and frames are filled up with stone and brick masonry laid in mud mortar. Availability of timber in abundance, local expertise in construction supported by affordability has made this technology of construction very popular. During 2005 Earthquake in Jammu & Kashmir, houses made-up of Dhajji technology proved to be more resilient and suffered minimal damage compared to modern buildings made up of reinforced concrete.
Seismic Attributes Compared to conventional House of Concrete, Dhajji house is more earthquakes resilient. When an earthquake occurs in a conventional house, it usually makes one big crack followed by another crack and then the wall gets collapsed as the energy is concentrated at a point. In case of a Dhajji House, there are many small cracks and these small cracks fall out, but the wall remains as the small panels distribute the energy evenly.
This can also be explained by this fallacy; when we hit the stone, either stone breaks or the person get injured, but if a heap of sand is pressed, no harm is occurred and the grains move away, since the friction breaks down the energy.
Infills and Plaster: Cement-Sand in fills makes the wall too rigid, due to which the small panels cannot move individually and absorb the energy. Mud mortar is more effective, which can be made more elastic by adding pine needles and straw. Mortar must be same throughout the building. Infill is filled with stone and mud mortar. Stones used should not be too large and use of small and irregular stones is preferred.
Dhajji Wall: An alternative to thermal insulation In cold places, a house must insulate its inhabitants from the outside temperature. This is achieved by creating walls that are made from materials that insulate. well, often requiring layers of different materials. A typical “Dhajji House” is composed of small panels of stone masonry and timber of thickness 45-60 cm which have a time lag of 8-9 hours which keeps the houses warm in winter and cool in summer for maximum part of the year. Apart from pine needle and straw, other materials which can be added in the infills for Dhajji wall construction are rice, wheat, maize, wool, cotton etc. which has a high insulation value. Roofing of Dhajji House is composed of twigs or reeds of sizes 6” to 8” which when covered by topping of mud or earth leads to thermal insulation providing comfort to the inhabitants. Apart from the resources available, passive solar heating can be applied by orienting and clustering the livable spaces towards the sun for solar heat gain. At the ground floor, cattle are kept to keep the house warm and the livable spaces are at the first floor
Taaq system Taaq construction is a load bearing wall masonry construction with horizontal timber lacing embedded into the masonry to keep it from spreading and cracking. It is a system with modular layout of masonry piers and window bays tied together with ladder like constructions of horizontal timbers embedded in the masonry walls at each floor and lintel level. The masonry piers are thick enough to carry the vertical loads, and the bays may either contain a window or a thinner masonry wall. The ladder like sets of timber beams laid into the exterior and interior faces of the walls are connected together through the wall either by floor beams, and joists or short connector pieces.
A building with a five sets of piers and bays, will be recognized as a five taq house, alternatively a measurement system for such houses, with the masonry piers (around 2ft) and window bays (34ft) almost always of standard size. An important factor in the structural integrity of taq is that the full weight of the masonry is allowed to bear on the timbers, thus holding in place, while the timbers in turn keep the masonry from spreading. The masonry piers are around 2 feet thick and would usually have fired small bricks on the faรงade, and unfired mudbricks in interiors. The piers stand at a distance of three to four feet joined or separated from each other by a window bay, the window bay would have a door or a thinner wall, when a window is not required at the place.
The whole elements are held together by the timber beams, helping the structure to act as one unit, and at the same time keep it flexible enough to limit the damage. An unusual element of taq system is the existence of a deliberately unbounded butt joint between the masonry piers and the wall and the window panels. The taq system exploits the combination of a weak mortar, bricks and timber in a manner that the apparent weakness of the structure becomes its strength. The structures hold good on soft soils as well as perform well in earthquakes. Even if some part of the house give into stronger forces of nature, the architecture ensures that the damage is not transmitted to the whole structure.
House boats The houseboats in Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir are usually stationary. Some of the houseboats there were built in the early 1900s, and are still being rented out to tourists. Many tourists are attracted to Srinagar by the charm of staying on a houseboat. Like hotels, houseboats vary in degree of luxury and have been accordingly graded by the Department of Tourism. Houseboats are generally made from local cedar-wood and measure 24–38 meters (79–125 ft.) in length and 3–6 meters (9.8–20 ft.) in width and are graded in a similar fashion to hotels according to level of comfort. Many of them have lavishly furnished rooms, with verandas and a terrace to serve as a sundeck or to serve evening cocktails. They are mainly moored along the western periphery of the lake, close to the lakeside boulevard in the vicinity of the Dal gate and on small islands in the lake. They are anchored individually, with interconnecting bridges providing access from one boat to the other. The kitchenboat is annexed to the main houseboat, which also serves as residence of the boat keeper and his family.
ARCHITECTURE BY REGION From the point of view of architecture, Kashmir can be classified into several regions with the following Characteristics: The Valley of Kashmir - Rural The major factors that dictate the local architecture are: (a) Easy access to good soil for brick-making and water (b) Snow in winter (c) Possibility of earthquakes As a result, walls are made mainly out of timber and bricks, baked or unbaked. The most common wall types are load bearing: (a) Brick (external wall) masonry with mud or Cement mortar, with or without plaster. (b) Unbaked brick (internal wall) with mud mortar and mud plaster. (c) Unbaked brick with baked brick veneer (external wall) masonry with mud mortar, with or without plaster. (d) Dhajji timber framed constructions with infill of baked brick in cement mortar or unbaked brick masonry in mud mortar, both 4" thick with timber frame.
Many structures which are typically single- and double-storey have Dhajji walls in the upper storey and the gables. Roof slope steeply in two directions. Although planks or shingles of hardwood like Deodar were formerly the main roofing materials, today CGI sheets on timber supports have become the most common type of roofing.
The Valley of Kashmir – Urban The urban areas of the Valley have architecture that is distinct from all other areas. The main factor determining this architecture is the high density of development. This calls for vertical growth, resulting into three to four-storey structures. The two most common walling systems observed are: (i) Dhajji type, with timber frame and infill consisting of baked or unbaked bricks. (Ii) Taaq type, consisting of brick masonry interlaced with heavy timber bands supported on large masonry piers made of baked bricks.
structures with Dhajji walls, as well as those with the Taaqsystem of construction, are known to resist earthquake forces effectively. Hence, old structures that have withstood many quakes are still standing.
The timber frames in the Dhajji walls are generally well laid out with a system of diagonal bracings that provide a distinct path to the ground for the stresses caused by lateral seismic forces. In addition, the walls are lightweight and hence have less mass and less lateral seismic loads. Thus this type of wall is able to withstand ground settlement and major earthquakes without suffering much damage. The Taaq type of construction has a large number of windows (“Taaq� means window), one in each gap between the piers. The roofs are two- and four-sided pitched. The wood shingle roofing that was once used in most structures has been replaced by the CGI sheeting on account of economics and availability.
High-Elevation Hilly Regions Surrounding the Valley The major factors that dictate the local architecture in this zone are: (a) Easy access to building-quality stone (b) Limited availability of topsoil (c) Varying availability of water, ranging from abundant to very little (d) Better availability of timber than in other zones due to lesser deforestation (e) Difficulty in carting non-local materials (f) Heavy snow in winter (g) Possibility of earthquakes The most common wall types are: (a) Coursed random rubble masonry with or without mud mortar, with or without mud plaster. (b) Dhajji wall made of timber frame with small stones and plenty of mud mortar as infill, mainly for the interior walls. The roof can be sloping or flat. The flat roof is made with timber understructure supporting the mud and vegetal roofing is often used for summer dwellings in high altitude pastures. It is also used in animal shelters in this region on account of the warmth that it can provide. This type of roofing requires extraordinarily heavy roofing elements on account of heavy snow buildup in winter. More commonly, roofing consists of pitched CGI sheet roof on timber supports, since it encloses a large volume which provides insulation in the cold winters because of the attic floor.
Low-Elevation Hilly Regions (Surrounding the Valley and Other Parts of the State) The main factors that dictate the local architecture in this zone are: (a) Easy access to building quality stone (b) Limited availability of topsoil (c) Greatly varying availability of water (d) Varying availability of timber (e) Little snow in winter (g) Possibility of earthquakes The most common wall type is coursed random rubble masonry with or without mud mortar. Since availability of mud and water vary greatly. Historically, the flat roof has been the most popular on account of low snowfall. Even today, this type of roof is visible in plenty along the Jammu-Srinagar route as well as in many parts of Poonch area. However, the escalating cost of timber along with the easy availability of CGI sheeting has made the latter the most popular roof type in this region also.
Spatial Planning and Organization of Houses in Jammu and Kashmir Most of the buildings constructed on the above mentioned structural systems show a common spatial arrangement and decorative elements. The buildings can thus be subdivided into two categories on the basis of plan form: • Square Plan • Linear Plan Many of the smaller traditional buildings are based on a square plan with the main entrance opening into a centrally located staircase lobby. The lobby is flanked by one or two rooms on either side, in ground as well as first floor.
A part of the lobby on the first floor is usually converted into a smaller room (kuther) over the main entrance on ground floor. This in some cases also encloses a projecting wooden bay window (dub). The wooden staircase comprises a series of winders and thus the space occupied by it is negligible in comparison with the overall building size. The space underneath the staircase is used as a storage space (ganjeen). The second floor (kani) normally comprises a single large hall which can be subdivided into three smaller rooms whenever required with the help of foliated wooden varusis or partition screens. A series of rectangular, square or octagonal wooden bay windows or dubs usually project out on the main facade. In certain cases the clear height of the ground floor would be around 8-9 ft. while the upper floors would have higher ceilings. Toilets and bathrooms would be accommodated in a separate building block. In many cases, the second floor is surmounted by a cruciform shaped attic space, brair-kani or cats crawl which was used for storage. In certain isolated cases, the roof itself is surmounted by an open square pavilion, covered with a pyramidal roof known locally as zoon dub.
Many of the larger and more aristocratic houses, also known as havelis comprise a linear, two or in certain cases three storey buildings. These havelis would generally have two or more buildings serving as living quarters (dewan-khana)and sleeping quarters (mahal-khana) aligned around an open courtyard. The entrance to these buildings was from a staircase lobby located near one of the corners of the house. Internally the house would have large halls which could be sub divided by means of a wooden partition screen called varusi. In some cases the house is connected to a long narrow corridor running at the back along its entire length. Many of these havelis have small Turkish baths or hammams on the ground floor. The courtyards would sometimes be paved with locally available Baramulla stone (paetri). The main decorative building elements in both the plan forms remain same. Lattice work screens and window shutters, profusely carved wooden brackets, eaves board (morakh patt), pendants (dour) are some of the main architectural elements associated with them. Internally, the walls are covered with moulded or incised mud plaster work or with intricately done naqashi. Ceilings were generally covered with a variety of khatamband patterns or in some cases with papier-mache work giving a very sublime and sombre appearance to these buildings.
Typical Kashmir House in Rural Areas Rural buildings in Kashmir are generally made by the people for their own use without the help of architects. The various forms of construction have evolved over time with the input of each generation of artisans. Traditional rural buildings use locally available materials and skills. A typical rural Kashmiri house today is a large two storey structure, with an aspect ratio generally not exceeding 1.2 to 1.3, with walls that are not plastered from outside and a shining CGI roof that is pitched, with one or more projections. In the ground storey it has approximately four rooms including a kitchen and a front veranda, with a central corridor stretching from the main entrance in front to a large bathroom cum- toilet in the rear. The stairs lead from the front end of the corridor to the upper storey. The upper storey has a similar arrangement of rooms and passage as found on the ground floor, and also has stairs
that lead to the attic. The number of storeys depends on the resources at the disposal of the owner. Unlike in other parts of the country, where rooms are gradually added as and when the need arises, here the basic structure is built in one go. But the upper storeys are enclosed and finished at a later date. The ground-storey rooms are used as a sitting area, bedrooms, and kitchen. The upper storey rooms may be used as for storage as well as bedrooms. On account of the joint-family system with several families living under one roof, there is often more than one kitchen in the house. The attic area is invariably used for storage, since the people are predominantly agriculturists. In the case of singlestorey houses, the attic space is often divided with lightweight internal walls to create more utilizable spaces. Traditionally, timber has been the most used domestic fuel in the region. Wood-burning stoves are made from mud by the lady of the house. An ingeniously efficient water heating system used to be incorporated in the construction of the kitchen wall just to one side of the stove.