Unearthing the Truth: Egypt's Pagan and Coptic Sculpture by Anya

Unearthing the Truth

Unearthing the Truth Egyptâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Pagan and Coptic Sculpture

Edna R. Russmann

Contents

Foreword

The Late Antique Period in Egypt (313â&#x20AC;&#x201C;642 c.e.)

Late Antique Egyptian Sculpture in the Brooklyn Museum

Evocations of Late Antique Sculpture in the Brooklyn Museum

Bibliography

Brooklyn Museum Board of Trustees

Opposite: Top of an Arch with a Nymph Riding a Sea Monster (detail of no. 7)

Foreword

It has been more than ten years since the Late Antique Egyptian sculpture in the Brooklyn Museum was last exhibited. We now call these monuments Late Antique rather than Coptic as in the past, because—as the subtitle of this exhibition indicates—they were made for the tombs of pagans as well as Coptic Christians, and for Coptic Christian churches and monasteries. Whether pagan or Christian, these reliefs have a fresh, almost naïve quality quite different from the style of objects in the Museum’s much larger collection of Egyptian material from the earlier Pharaonic Period. Our Late Antique sculpture was always popular with Museum visitors, and we are pleased to present it here. This time, however, there is an important difference. For the first time, the Museum is acknowledging that a certain number of the Egyptian stone sculptures that used to be considered Late Antique are actually modern forgeries. Collections curators at the Brooklyn Museum constantly study and review the objects in their collections, and on rare occasions they find it necessary to identify as forgeries pieces that were acquired by their predecessors. That is never a welcome development, but it can be very instructive. In this case, the curator’s suspicions led her to study all our Late Antique Egyptian sculpture together with members of the Museum’s Conservation Department and authorities from outside the Museum. The results of that study are presented in the catalogue here, first the ancient pieces and then the modern forgeries. Those who are interested will be able to see the many factors that betray the work of the forgers of this material, from the choice of subject matter to the carving of certain features such as the hair and even, in some cases, the use of

Opposite: Funerary Stela with Male Figure (detail of no. 4)

an inferior quality of stone. One may also reflect on the ways in which forgeries can distort our knowledge of the past, and on the vigilance that is a small but essential part of the curatorial oversight of our collections. I thank Edna R. Russmann, the curator who initiated this study, and the conservators who worked with her on the project: the Objects Conservators Lisa Bruno and Tina March, their former colleague Ellen Pearlstein, and all who worked with them on the examination of these pieces. We are all grateful to Gary Vikan, Director of the Walters Art Museum, and Thelma Thomas of the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, for sharing their authoritative judgments on the authenticity of our Late Antique sculpture, and to James Harrell, Professor of Geology at the University of Toledo, for contributing his unparalleled knowledge of Egyptian stone types and quarries. Many other members of the Museum’s staff have collaborated to produce this unusual exhibition and catalogue. I especially want to thank Charles Desmarais, Radiah Harper, Deirdre Lawrence, Kenneth Moser, Kevin Stayton, Sally Williams, and the teams they head. Matthew Yokobosky designed the exhibition for which this catalogue was produced. Deborah Wythe and her staff produced the images for the catalogue, almost all of which are new photography. John Antonides edited the text, and Mónica Páez Pérez designed the catalogue. Walter Andersons and his crew have been unfailingly helpful in the frequent moving of these heavy stones. Kathy Zurek-Doule was indispensable in keeping the project moving and on track. For the ongoing support of the Museum’s Trustees, we extend special thanks to Norman M. Feinberg, Chair, and every member of our Board. Without the confidence and active engagement of our Trustees, it would not be possible to initiate and maintain the high level of publication and exhibition programming exemplified by Unearthing the Truth: Egypt’s Pagan and Coptic Sculpture. Arnold L. Lehman Director Brooklyn Museum

Opposite: Part of an Arch with the Nile God and Earth Goddess (detail of no. 6)

Ruins of the Coptic monastery of St. Jeremiah at Saqqara, Egypt. This photograph, taken circa 1950, shows the condition in which cemeteries and Christian structures of the Late Antique Period were left after centuries of looting. Only fragments of the original stone and mud brick structures remained. Photograph by B. V. Bothmer.

The Late Antique Period in Egypt (313â&#x20AC;&#x201C;642 c.e.)

The Late Antique Period is usually considered to begin with the recognition of Christianity by the emperor Constantine in 313 c.e. In Egypt, it lasted until the beginning of the Islamic Period in 642 c.e. Another umbrella term for these centuries is the Byzantine Period. That term is not used here, because Egyptian art and culture seem to have been little influenced by the cultural sphere of the late Roman Empire at Byzantium. Many people whose interests lie primarily in Egypt refer to these centuries as the Coptic Period. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Coptic,â&#x20AC;? however, properly designates the Egyptian branch of Christianity, which is still active today. In historical terms, it does not include even all of the forms of Christianity known at that time in Egypt. More importantly for our purposes, it ignores the large number of believers in the Greco-Roman gods, people who lived in Egypt in considerable numbers during the Late Antique Period and who commissioned sculpture and other works of art for their funerary monuments. Relatively little is known about this pagan population, and its existence has sometimes been overlooked by scholars. In the earlier part of the Late Antique Period, pagans were more numerous in Egypt than Christians, and their tombs dominated the main cemeteries. Pagans and Christians seem often to have had quite similar burial structures and types of decoration, and they would have hired the same local builders and sculptors. Thus, despite different subjects in many of their reliefs, styles in the tomb decorations of the two religions may often have differed less according to their creeds than to local traditions and their changes over time. As the decades and the centuries passed, some tombs would have fallen into disuse;

Opposite: Frieze Fragment with Leda and the Swan (detail of no. 11)

as a result, some pagan reliefs, including images of the deceased, were reused in Christian tombs. During the Late Antique Period, Christian churches and monasteries were built throughout Egypt. In these buildings, stone reliefs served to decorate both architectural features, such as column capitals (see no. 9) and walls. It is often difficult to distinguish the wall reliefs made for churches or monasteries from those of Christian tombs, especially since archaeological documentation is so frequently poor or lacking altogether. It seems possible, however, that a representation of an unnamed holy man (no. 13) as well as a pair of reliefs depicting early Christian saints (nos. 2 and 3) were intended to be seen by monks or by worshippers, rather than by mourners at tombs.

The Subjects of Late Antique Sculpture

In Late Antique Egypt, as in many other places and times, including pharaonic Egypt, the deceased was often represented in the tomb or in front of it. In the Late Antique Period, Egyptian images of the tomb owner seem always to have been carved in high relief. Very often, the figure was portrayed within a niche, the faรงade of which might be decorated with columns and other architectural details to suggest a religious structure (nos. 14 and 20). These images were often rather small, but they might be life-size or even slightly larger (no. 18). Inside the tombs, a false arch was often constructed over the actual underground burial. In pagan tombs, this arch was filled with a relief representing a deity or other mythological figure with whom the deceased was in some sense identified. Thus, the god of the Nile River might typify a productive family man (no. 6), and a nymph could stand for a young woman (no. 7). Similar identifications were probably also made with figures shown in wall reliefs, such as the hero Hercules (no. 15). When the families and friends of the deceased visited the tombs, they seem to have felt a real sense of communication with their loved ones through these mythical images.

Green Tunic Front. From Egypt. 6thâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;8th century c.e. Wool, 311/2 x 105/8 in. (80 x 27 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 38.748. This type of tunic, loosely fitted and decorated with contrasting bands, appears on many Late Antique images of men and boys, including no. 14.

Earrings with Beaded Pendants. From Egypt. 6th century c.e. Gold, glass, and pearl, 49/16 in. (11.6 cm) each. Brooklyn Museum, Ella C. Woodward Memorial Fund, 05.464aâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;b. Like the triple-drop earrings worn by the woman of no. 18, this pair is typical of Late Antique Egyptian jewelry in its Greco-Roman style.

In Christian tombs, the arch seems most often to have been filled with a design centered on the cross. Here, of course, the symbolism was focused on the hope of the deceased for eternal life. Representations of the Virgin and Child did exist, although probably more often in churches than in tombs. Images of the risen Christ seem to have been practically nonexistent in this period. Both pagan and Christian buildings were ornamented with reliefs representing plants, often in the form of vine scrolls that enclosed animals or other forms (no. 8). The widespread use of these “neutral” subjects is a sign of the close relationships between pagan and Christian sculpture in the Late Antique Period. From the 1950s into the 1970s, a large number of Late Antique Egyptian stone sculptures appeared on the art market. At first, the specialists who studied this art assumed that all these objects had been made for Coptic Christians. They then had to explain the many representations of figures from another religious system. Today, their attempts seem somewhat foolish or even insulting, ranging from assumptions that the early Copts didn’t much care what subjects were represented, or that they changed the symbolism arbitrarily to suit their private meanings, to the truly offensive suggestion that the monks chose representations of naked female figures for their private enjoyment. Today, there seems little doubt that the mythological scenes were commissioned by believers in that mythology. Some of the pagan reliefs may have later been reused by Christians, but in some of those cases, at least, they seem to have been plastered over or placed with their unfinished side out.

The Problem of Forgeries in Late Antique Egyptian Sculpture The possibility of forgery must always be in the mind of any curator who is interested in acquiring antiquities. In the past, the curators of Egyptian antiquities in the Brooklyn Museum were always on the alert to spot forged objects and, with few exceptions, they managed to avoid acquiring them. With regard to the Museum’s Late Antique Egyptian reliefs, there can be no doubt of the authenticity of the stela of a young

boy that was acquired in Egypt in 1881 (no. 1) or of the four reliefs that were purchased in 1940 (nos. 2â&#x20AC;&#x201C;5), although it is possible that these had been â&#x20AC;&#x153;cleanedâ&#x20AC;? of ancient paint traces, minor chips, and the like. Following World War II, the availability of Late Antique Egyptian sculpture changed dramatically. From the 1950s to the 1970s, hundreds of these pieces came onto the art market in Europe and the United States, and many museums acquired examples. Curators were encouraged to acquire them by the fact that leading European authorities on Late Antique art had endorsed them and published them with enthusiasm. As we have noted above, these scholars tended to assume that all of the pieces were Coptic Christian in origin, and they sometimes went to absurd lengths in attempting to explain the frequent use of pagan motifs. Much more important, however, was the failure of that first generation of specialists to recognize not only that many ancient pieces had been recarved or repainted but that a fairly sizable proportion were entirely new. Thus many museums, including the Brooklyn Museum, acquired both genuine antiquities and a few pieces of completely modern origin. Already in the 1960s and 1970s, a few scholars had begun to raise the alarm. It was not until the 1980s and 1990s, however, that a small number of them began discussing the problem in any detail. When museums recognized the problem, most seem to have responded by simply relegating the bad pieces to their storerooms. There is still very little information in print, and almost nothing available to the general public. In showing and discussing both the good and the bad Late Antique Egyptian reliefs in our collection, therefore, we hope not only to raise awareness of the problem but also to encourage a more widespread discussion of one of the most interesting cases of systematic forgery in Egyptian art.

Late Antique Egyptian Sculpture in the Brooklyn Museum This section presents the ancient sculptures in the Brooklyn Museum’s collection of Late Antique Egyptian stone statuary. None of these works looks today as it did when it was new. All were once colorfully painted, and that paint, which had been applied over a thin coat of stucco, is now partly or, most often, completely lost. The few brightly colored figures in this section were repainted in modern times (nos. 11, 12, 14). Their appearance may help us imagine how such images originally looked, but we must not forget that we are looking at partly or entirely modern color. The same is true, to some extent, of the stonecarving. The same antiquities dealers who had their antiquities “cleaned up” by ordering traces of paint removed often had the carving touched up as well. In many cases, these restorations are so slight that they are very hard to detect. Occasionally, however, when the original carving had been seriously damaged, they constitute major changes in the original designs (nos. 26 and 27).

Arch in Five Segments (detail of no. 10)

Funerary Stela of C. Julius Valerius. From Egypt, exact provenance unknown.

3rd century c.e. Limestone, traces of paint, 141/16 x 103/16 x 113/16 in. (35.7 x 25.8 x 4.6 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Gift of Evangeline Wilbour Blashfield, Theodora Wilbour, and Victor Wilbour honoring the wishes of their mother, Charlotte Beebe Wilbour, as a memorial to their father, Charles Edwin Wilbour, 16.105

[1] Funerary Stela of C. Julius Valerius (16.105) This stela would have been placed in front of the small tomb of its owner, C. Julius Valerius. The Latin inscription at the bottom tells us that he was three years old when he died. His father, C. Julius Severus, was a Roman soldier in a division of the imperial army headquartered near Alexandria. His mother, who is not named, was almost certainly a native Egyptian. The boy is shown with the plump cheeks and round tummy of a small child. His figure is almost entirely Classical in style, from his belted tunic and frontal pose to the offering bowl he holds in one hand over an altar with food, and the ritual vessel for Nile water in his other hand. But the long lock of hair that hangs from the side of his head is Egyptian: it had been worn by young children there since earliest Dynastic times. The rest of the stela also shows a mix of Classical and Egyptian traditions. The temple architecture that surrounds the boy is Classical in design, with a pediment supported on tapering columns. The column capitals, however, resemble heads of Egyptian papyrus, and the animals on their two brackets are the Egyptian gods Anubis, the jackal god of the dead, on the left and Horus, shown as a crowned falcon, on the right. In the lower right corner is the Classical goddess Nemesis, who is shown as a winged griffin holding a wheel that symbolized her control of human life and death. Thus this stela, the oldest sculpture in this catalogue by several centuries, shows the last vestiges of the ancient Egyptian religious tradition that were replaced by the Hellenistic and Christian imagery in the later monuments.

Published Thomas, Late Antique, 8â&#x20AC;&#x201C;9, 36, 60, fig. 18; Thomas in Friedman, Beyond the Pharaohs, 254; Herbert, Greek and Latin Inscriptions, 45â&#x20AC;&#x201C;47, pl. 14; Brooklyn, Late Egyptian, 17, pl. 11; Brooklyn, Pagan and Christian, 22, pl. 33; Wilbour, Travels in Egypt, 74, pl. opp. 88

[2] The Martyrdom of St. Thekla (40.299) This relief is one of a pair acquired at the same time (see also no. 3). The scene depicted here apparently represents the martyrdom of St. Thekla, who was converted to Christianity by St. Paul and was later killed by lions in the arena at Seleucia. The saint, whose upper body is unclothed, holds a cross above her head as the two lions, which are rendered with great naïveté, attack. The rest of the relief is filled by the patterns of plants and of the saint’s draperies. Thekla was a popular saint in Late Antique Egypt, but she was usually represented on a smaller scale, on medals and the like.

The Martyrdom of St. Thekla. From Egypt, exact provenance unknown. 6th century c.e., perhaps

with modern reworking.

Limestone, traces of paint, 133/16 x 2215/16 x â&#x20AC;&#x2020;55/16 in. (33.5 x 58.3 x 13.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 40.299

The crowded design of this relief and the fairly deep cutting of both major figures and details create a busy, rather incoherent effect. The white patches inside many of the details may reflect the original whiteness of the stone. The top surfaces are brown to gray and show the marks of having been raked by a claw chisel or similar tool. These marks, together with the unusual, oddly crowded composition, have led some scholars to suspect that the relief has been reworked to some extent.

Published Brooklyn, Late Egyptian, 18, pl. 20; Brooklyn, Pagan and Christian, 27â&#x20AC;&#x201C;28, pl. 59.

[3] St. Sissinios (40.300) This relief was acquired at the same time as the representation of the martyrdom of St. Tekla (no. 2), to which it appears to be a pair. The saint represented here is apparently St. Sisinnios, a contemporary of the Emperor Diocletian. Sisinnios killed his sister, whose daughter, he believed, had been taken over by the devil, and carried out anti-pagan feats for which Diocletian had him executed. It is apparently the death of his sister that is illustrated here, the hapless woman holding her skirt as she falls beneath her brotherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sword.

St. Sissinios. From Egypt, exact provenance unknown. 6th century c.e., perhaps with modern reworking. Limestone, 151/4 x 2213/16 x 57/16 in. (38.8 x 58 x 13.8 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 40.300

As on the relief of St. Tekla, every part of this scene that is not occupied by the central figures is covered with vegetation that consists mainly of long leaves with deep central depressions. Here, too, the depressed areas are white, possibly representing the original color of the stone. There is much less evidence, however, of claw chisel marks over the carved surfaces.

Published Brooklyn, Late Egyptian, 18, pl. 19; Brooklyn, Pagan and Christian, 27, pl. 58.

Funerary Stela with Male Figure. From Egypt, exact provenance unknown. Circa 500â&#x20AC;&#x201C;600 c.e. or later. Limestone, traces of white (underpainting?), red pigment, 147/8 x 117/16 x 37/16 in. (37.8 x 29 x 8.7 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 40.301

[4] Funerary Stela with Male Figure (40.301) A nude male figure stands within the framework of a peaked roof that rests on two columns with spiraling shafts and simplified leaf capitals. In his right hand, the figure holds an overlarge sprig of laurel. His left hand is raised to touch the laurel wreath on his head, which is decorated with a circular ornament at the front. The figure is very badly proportioned, a fact that can be explained, in part, by the attention lavished on the head and, to some extent, the hands. The head, in particular, is quite detailed, especially as regards the wreath and the large, carefully modeled eyes Not only are both the upper and lower eyelids shown in relief, and the pupils indicated by incised lines, but they are recessed under the long curves of brows that meet at the base of the nose. The short, thick nose and the featureless mouth seem rudimentary in comparison. They are, however, much more detailed than the nipples, which are shown high on the chest in very low relief, the large, off-center crescent that apparently serves as a navel, the tiny genitals, and the short, featureless legs and rudimentary toes. At some point in antiquity, this stela was damaged, whether accidentally or deliberately. The left side was cut back, narrowing the column and the bottom of the roofline on that side. The roofline itself has suffered a gouge or a dent about two-thirds of the way up. Only after that damage did the stela receive a Greek inscription along the roofline, which reads: “Olympios, twenty-eight years of age.” Beneath it, just above the capital on the right, is the ancient Egyptian sign of the ankh, which Coptic Christians had adopted as a form of the cross. There seems little doubt that this stela was used at least twice. The laurel leaf and wreath, as well as the inscription with the name Olympios, suggest that it was at some point used by a pagan. The ankh-cross, however, indicates Christian use. It is also possible that there was once a painted inscription on the base. We will never know the full history of this stela, but it does seem likely that it was rather complicated.

Published Herbert, Greek and Latin Inscriptions, 67–69, pl. 22; Brooklyn, Late Egyptian, 17, pl. 13; Brooklyn, Pagan and Christian, 23, pl. 36.

Lion Attacking an Antelope. From Egypt, exact provenance unknown. 6th century c.e., perhaps

with modern reworking. Limestone, 81/16 x 23/16 x 207/8 in. (20.5 x

5.6 x 53 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 40.302

[5] Lion Attacking an Antelope (40.302) It seems likely that this relief comes from the same monument as the pair of reliefs depicting saints that were acquired in the same year (nos. 2 and 3). Unlike the other two examples, however, this depicts a confrontation between two animals, a lion and an antelope, and includes a large bunch of grapes above the back of each. All these elements were common in both pagan and Christian reliefs. They do not seem to have had any particular moral or religious meaning. Some scholars have suggested that this relief is the work of a sculptor more skilled than the one who carved the panels of saints. Whether that is

true or not, the points of similarity in all three reliefs, from the oval, open centered leaves that fill all available space to the deep carving and the flat, undecorated borders, leave little doubt that this scene was carved at about the same time as the others, and very probably for the same monument.

Published Brooklyn, Late Egyptian, 18, pl. 21; Brooklyn, Pagan and Christian, 28, pl. 60.

Part of an Arch with the Nile God and Earth Goddess. Said to be from Herakleopolis Magna. 5thâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;6th century c.e. Limestone, traces of paint, 153/16 x 253/8 in. (38.5 x 64.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 41.891

[6] Part of an Arch with the Nile God and Earth Goddess (41.891) This fragment, which comes from near the center of an arch, shows the god of the Nile River. He is a mature, bearded figure, crowned with a wreath, and he holds a stylized trident. The pattern that hides his lower body has been interpreted as cloth, but traces of blue paint in its folds suggest that it represents the riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s waters. There are river plants behind his arm. Only the upper body and one arm of the Earth goddess are preserved. She is wearing the crossed straps of a marriage belt (cestis) between her bare breasts and a large round pendant (bulla). She holds a cloth swag, decorated with flowers, which was filled with the riches of nature.

The Nile and Earth were not deified by the ancient Egyptians; rather, they were Hellenistic gods. Each symbolized fertility, and together they also suggested the fruitfulness of marriage. These figures would thus have been considered appropriate for the funerary monuments of mature adults, rather than young people. As on almost all Late Antique funerary arches, the arch and the figures within it curve forward toward the approaching viewer (cf. no. 7).

Published Thomas, Late Antique, 63–67, fig. 45; Thomas, Niche Decorations I, 217–31; II, 94–96, pl. 25; Brooklyn, Late Egyptian, 17, pls. 15–16.

Top of an Arch with a Nymph Riding a Sea Monster. From Herakleopolis Magna. 5thâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;6th century c.e. Limestone, traces of paint, 181/8 x 321/2 x 153/8 in. (46 x 80 x 39 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 41.1226

[7] Top of an Arch with a Nymph Riding a Sea Monster (41.1226) Like the figures on the Brooklyn Museumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s other fragmentary arch (no. 6), these would have been mounted on the wall of a tomb in such a way that they leaned out toward the visitor. The intent was to connect the viewer with the spirit of the deceased, who was symbolized by the mythological figure in the arch. In this case, the owner of the tomb would have been a woman. Although nymphs are usually shown nude, she wears a long-sleeved dress, which might suggest that she was well past adolescence. She sits on the back of a spotty, serpentine, fishtailed monster and pats his toothy head with one hand. Her other hand appears to be holding down her skirt. Her head, with its hat-like hairdo,

looked down at the viewer. Her large eyes may have been intended to convey the spirit of the deceased. In contrast to the central figures, the two borders around the top of the arch would have been parallel with the tomb wall. Their simple designs are a narrow band of leaves below the remains of a classical “egg and dart” design.

Published Thomas, “Greeks or Copts?,” 321, pl. 39.1; Thomas, Niche Decorations I, 232–41; II, 97–99, pl. 26; Brooklyn, Late Egyptian, 17–18, pls. 17–18.

Frieze of Animals in Plant Scrolls. Possibly from Herakleopolis Magna. 4th century c.e. Limestone, traces of paint, 14 x 35/8 x 50 in. (35.5 x 8.2 x 127 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 41.1266

[8] Frieze of Animals in Plant Scrolls (41.1266) Designs with plant scrolls that enclosed animals or birds, or even other plants, were very popular in the Late Antique Period, not only in stone reliefs but also in other materials, such as wood carvings and textiles The Brooklyn Museum collection includes several examples of this type in stone, of which this the finest and largest (see also nos. 16 and 21). Clearly part of a larger original, this fragment comprises four scrolls and a small part of a fifth. Each enclosed an animal moving toward the right. The damaged design at the left holds what appears to be a boar, which chases a gazelle-like animal in the second scroll; in the third is a hyena (?), which pursues an animal with claws, possibly a dog. At the right end, a small part of the next scroll shows part of the haunch of a spotted predator, probably a leopard. Both of the prey animals turn their heads back toward the attackers from which they are leaping away. The scroll itself consists of long stems, which are clipped together at their leafy ends, and from which leafy shoots emerge to fill the spaces around the

35 animals. The entire design rests on a narrow undecorated baseline, beneath which was a narrow horizontal row of plantlike forms. As the photograph shows, this design is considerably enlivened by the contrast between the variously indicated textures of the plant and animal forms and the heavy shadows of the deeply undercut spaces around them. These effects would have been rendered more complex by the paint that originally covered the relief. The shallow marks that give texture to the animals’ hides, for example, would probably have been sensed rather than clearly seen.

Published Brooklyn, Late Egyptian, 17, pl. 14; Brooklyn, Pagan and Christian, 23, fig. 40; Thelma Thomas, in “An Introduction to the Sculpture of Late Roman and Early Byzantine Egypt,” in Friedman, Beyond the Pharaohs, 56–57 and fig. 2, discusses the carving and painting of Coptic stone sculpture with particular reference to this relief.

Column Capital. From Egypt, exact provenance unknown. Circa 6th century c.e.

Limestone, 11 x 215/8 in. (28 x 55 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 43.55

[9] Column Capital (43.55) Because of its shape and interlocking designs, a capital of this type is often called a basket capital, even when, as in this example, its decoration consists entirely of plant forms. Here, four rosettes of varying forms are surrounded by concentric circles separated by leaflike shapes. The small size of this example suggests that it was part of a subsidiary structure in a larger church, or perhaps a small chapel, which could have been enclosed by walls or screens set into the two grooves on its sides.

Unpublished

[10] Arch in Five Segments (45.131aâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;e) This arch is designed as a repeating pattern of paired birds, possibly doves, and flowering plants. The birds stand back-to-back on either side of a plant, with their heads turned toward each other. Each pair is separated from the next by a slightly larger version of the plant. A narrow border along the upper edge of the reliefs turns inward at each bottom edge to mark the end of the design, which includes an extra bird on the left. The surfaces of the relief are very flat, with such details as the feathers and tails of the birds and the plantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; leaves and flowers carved in linear patterns. Drill holes mark small details such as the birdsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; eyes and parts of the flowers, and serve to further emphasize the contrast between the light-colored surfaces of the relief and the darker background against which they seem to float. Since this arch would not have been strong enough to support any architectural weight, it must have been purely decorative, probably as a lining for a structural arch or a niche. The bottom edges of the reliefs would have rested on bases, possibly in the form of low columns or other reliefs. The modest size of both the arch and its designs suggests that it was made for a rather small structure, such as a tomb chapel, rather than a church. The doves and the flowering plants would have been appropriate symbols in both Christian and pagan settings.

Unpublished

Arch in Five Segments. Said to be from Ahnas (Ehnasya). Circa 6th century c.e. Limestone, 6515/16 x 811/8 in. (167.5 x 206 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 45.131aâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;e

Frieze Fragment with Leda and the Swan. From Egypt, exact provenance unknown. 4thâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;5th century c.e. with 20th-century alterations. Limestone, painted, 83/16 x 1113/16 in. (20.8 x 30 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 55.2.1

[11] Frieze Fragment with Leda and the Swan (55.2.1) This fragment is one of a pair, acquired together, that must come from the same series of reliefs (see no. 12). Here we see a nude, semireclining woman who holds the neck of a large bird in one hand and a white object resembling a sack in the other. Although the birdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s head is damaged, there can be little doubt that it is a swan. The woman, therefore, must be Leda, to whom the god Zeus appeared in this form. Unfortunately, both the woman and the bird seem to have been recut in modern times, and both have been repainted dark red. The black paint

on Leda’s hair also appears to be modern. The green plant on the left side gives a somewhat better idea of the original quality of the relief carving and painting, as does the poorly preserved border along the bottom, which was a version of the traditional “egg and dart” design.

Published The Brooklyn Museum, Five Years of Collecting Egyptian Art, 60–61, pl. 94.

Frieze Fragment with Semireclining Nude. From Egypt, exact provenance unknown. 4thâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;5th century c.e. with 20th-century alterations. Limestone, painted, 83/8 x 913/16 in. (21.2 x 25 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 55.2.2

[12] Frieze Fragment with Semireclining Nude (55.2.2) This fragment of relief must come from the same sequence as the representation of Leda and the swan discussed above (no. 11). The female figure is shown nude and in much the same semireclining pose as Leda. She was holding something, of which only a small and indecipherable fragment is preserved. Like Leda, she may have been recarved somewhat in modern times, and she has certainly been repainted. The foliage, which here occupies the entire upper left of this

block, appears to be, as on the companion block, untouched by either a modern chisel or paint. The egg and dart design on the lower border is better preserved than on the other piece, but it looks as if it received some of the same modern paint as the figure.

Published The Brooklyn Museum, Five Years of Collecting Egyptian Art, 60â&#x20AC;&#x201C;61, pl. 95.

Bust of a Saint. From Egypt, exact provenance unknown. 4thâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;5th century c.e. Limestone, traces of paint, 8 x 107/16 in. (20.3 x 26.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 55.2.3

[13] Bust of a Saint (55.2.3) This bust is apparently the only Late Egyptian representation of a Coptic Christian in the Brooklyn Museum. He is a man mature in years, with a full, striated beard, tonsured (or receding) hair, and heavy brows that shadow enormous eyes with marble-like pupils between lids shown in relief. His nose is long, with flaring nostrils, and his upturned lips are emphasized by depressions at either side. The small halo encircling his head indicates that he is a saint. His garment is a series of folds carved in low relief. Both arms were evidently bent up at the elbow. The

surviving hand is open, as if in blessing. The other hand, which is lost, must have supported the cross beside the figureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s head. As the most important elements of this design, the head of the figure and the cross are carved in higher relief than the rest of the composition.

Published The Brooklyn Museum, Five Years of Collecting Egyptian Art, 61, pl. 93.

[14] Funerary Stela with Boy Standing in a Niche (58.129)

This figure stands in a niche with a semicircular architrave, within which is a partially preserved design of a sun disk in raised relief, flanked by two painted cobras. Thus this boy, like Brooklyn’s other boy in a niche (no. 20), was certainly a pagan. He is clad in a red robe with two black stripes, and he holds an object in each hand. The objects are hard to identify because they were reworked in modern times. The modern reworking of this piece was concentrated on the hands and feet of the figure, which have been repainted with black outlines, and on his head, which, most unfortunately, was recarved as well as repainted. This alteration is unmistakable when one compares the perfect condition of the face and hair with the wear that is visible on the other surfaces. The extent of the changes could have justified classifying this figure with the Museum’s forgeries. Since most of the body and the niche remain unchanged, however, we include it here, asking the reader to disregard the altered features as far as possible.

Published Parlasca, “Grabreliefs Oxyrhynchos,” 118, pl. 37.

Funerary Stela with Boy Standing in a Niche. From Oxyrhynchus. 3rd–5th century c.e. with

modern revisions. Limestone, paint, 273/8 x 95/8 x 215/16 in. (69.5 x 24.5

x 7.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 58.129

Hercules Smiting Acheloos in the Form of a Bull. From Oxyrhynchus. Circa 300â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 500 c.e. Limestone, 133/8 x 143/4 in. (34 x 37.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 61.128

[15] Hercules Smiting Acheloos in the Form of a Bull (61.128) Hercules, who is shown nude, has the beard of a mature man. Thus the event depicted here is probably not one of this hero’s youthful labors but rather his conquest of Acheloos, who has taken the form of a bull. Hercules holds the animal by one horn. In his other hand, he raises a weapon to bring it down on his enemy’s head. A large vine twines exuberantly over much of the background, intensifying the play of light and shadow. Since the relief was originally painted, these effects would have been more complex, with the colors darkening in the shadows and brightening in the foreground to highlight the figure of the hero. A number of surviving funerary reliefs feature Hercules. He must have been a popular figure in the tombs of pagan men, presumably athletes and men of action, for whom he would have been a natural surrogate. Given his legendary role as the king of heaven and earth, he may also have served as a role model for local politicians.

Published Thomas, Late Antique, 60–61, fig. 45; Thomas, Niche Decorations, 245–52; BMA II–III, 78, 109.

Plant Scroll Enclosing Grapes and an Animal. Possibly from Oxyrhynchus. 5thâ&#x20AC;&#x201C; 6th century c.e. Limestone, 615/16 x 173/16 x 31/8 in. (17.6 x 43.7 x 8 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 68.150.2

[16] Plant Scroll Enclosing Grapes and an Animal (68.150.2) Part of a continuous scroll like no. 8 but on a smaller scale, this relief contains two rather long flattened segments formed by a vine that appears to be bound together. The plantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s small tripartite leaves do not resemble grape leaves, but it is difficult to think what other fruit could be represented on its stems in the segment to the left. The animal in the right-hand segment is even more curious. It has usually been described as either a dog or a bear. But bears were not native to Egypt, and though Egyptian dogs often had curling tails like this one, their ears were pointed, not round. Perhaps this is best regarded simply as a fierce animal of no particular species.

Although the scale of this relief is small, the background has been cut back deeply enough to create a pattern of light images against a shadowed ground. This pattern is further enhanced by the use of drill holes on leaves, animal ears, and elsewhere. In a similar manner, the geometric pattern, which is partially preserved below the lower border of the relief, was carved to create a sequence of lighted and shaded areas.

Unpublished

Round-Topped Stela. From Esna. 8th century c.e. Limestone, traces of red paint, 1711/16 x 133/6 x 33/8 in. (45 x 34 x 8.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 69.74.2

[17] Round-Topped Stela (69.74.2) This funerary stela, which comes from one of the cemeteries in Esna, in southern Egypt, was almost certainly made for a Christian, despite its lack of overt Christian symbolism, such as crosses. At the center of the upper half is a shell-shaped arch reminiscent of the arches over the burials in the interior of earlier Christian (and pagan) tombs. The shell is surrounded by two arched designs, the inner one a guilloche band and the outer a row of leaves centered on a small four-petal flower, now damaged. The arches rest on a horizontal band of heart-shaped leaves. This quasi-architectural design is supported by a pair of squat columns with spiraling shafts (compare no. 4) and capitals in the form of rudimentary flowers. Between the columns is a pair of facing animals, whose fanciful forms are apparently meant to represent lions. Each has a forepaw raised, though whether in amity or in anger is impossible to tell. At the bottom of the stela, a single line of inscription in Coptic letters reads simply, “Suzanna (daughter of) Pachôns.” The Biblical name “Suzanna” identifies the deceased as a Christian. Her father’s name is the Coptic equivalent of the ancient Egyptian “Pa-en-khonsu,” which in its original form invoked the falcon god Khonsu. The representation of lions reflects Oriental influence introduced by the Moslems who had, by this time, invaded and conquered Egypt.

Published De Meulenaere, “Two Coptic Funerary Stelae,” 165–67, figs. 2–3.

[18] Funerary Figure of a Woman (70.132)

This female figure, of which only the upper half is preserved, is carved in very high relief and somewhat larger than life-size. Evidently a mature woman, with a fleshy chin and neck, she is shown in Hellenistic style, from her hairdo and earrings to her robe and the overmantel that extends up over the back of her head. A floral arrangement, apparently composed of petals and leaves, extends from her left shoulder down and across her chest. The woman’s right arm seems to have hung at her side. In her left hand, she holds a pyxis (cup), meant to contain Nile water, which marks her as a priestess of Isis. The marks around the top of her head were made by tomb robbers, who apparently tried to completely separate this figure from its stone background.

Published Thomas, Late Antique, 11, 24–25, 59, fig. 69.

Funerary Figure of a Woman. From Oxyrhynchos. 3rd–4th century c.e. Limestone, remains of gesso and paint, 347/16 x 201/16 x 1113/16 in. (87.5 x 51 x 30 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 70.132

[19] Fragmentary Stela (71.39.1)

The top section is missing from this stela, which would have been attached to the wall of a tomb. The entire surface is covered with plant patterns and architectural elements such as columns and niches. The crosses that mark the design as Christian seem almost lost in the wealth of patterns around them. This panel would have decorated the tomb wall in much the same way that rugs and textiles with comparable designs adorned the walls of homes and religious buildings.

Published Thomas, Late Antique, 12, 15, 25, fig. 108.

Fragmentary Stela. Possibly from Esna. 7thâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;8th century c.e. Limestone, traces of plaster, 361/8 x 1911/16 in. (91.7 x 50 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 71.39.1

[20] Funerary Stela with a Boy Seated in a Niche (71.39.2)

The figure of a boy carved in high relief and sitting or standing in a niche is a frequently attested type of Late Antique funerary monument in Egypt. The façade of the niche is often decorated, as this one, with columns and a roofline to suggest the façade of a shrine. Like many other figures of this type, this boy holds a bunch of grapes in one hand and a dove in the other. These objects may be linked to the deities Dionysus and Aphrodite-Isis respectively. Some historians think that all the figures holding them were priests of Isis. Others have suggested that those represented sitting, as here, were identifying themselves, through their pose, with the child god Harpocrates. A desire to link with Harpocrates, who was the son of Isis, may also explain the fact that all male niche figures of this type appear to be juveniles, although some, if not most, were surely grown men. As on much Late Antique sculpture from Egypt, there is evidence here of recarving, particularly on the garment, which has lost all of its ancient details. The figure has also been painted at least twice, most recently in modern times. However, the painted design in the archway, which may represent a grapevine, appears to be ancient.

Published Parlasca, “Grabreliefs Oxyrhynchos,” 117, pl. 36 (incorrectly cited as 71.32.2).

Funerary Stela with a Boy Seated in a Niche. From Oxyrhynchos. 4th–5th century c.e. Limestone, painted, 269/15

x 13 x 55/16 in. (67.5 x 33 x 13.5 cm). Brooklyn

Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 71.39.2

[21] Plant Scroll Enclosing Birds and Grapes (86.226.27) Each of the three vine-enclosed scrolls of this relief contains a bird pecking at a bunch of grapes or berries. The pose of each bird is different, as is the position of each cluster of fruit, creating a sense of variety within this rather small composition. Unlike some scroll relief fragments, such as no. 8, this small design was complete in itself. It

61 Plant Scroll Enclosing Birds and Grapes. From Behnesa. 5thâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;6th century c.e. Limestone, 83/16 x 207/8 x 211/16 in. (20.8 x 53 x 6.8 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Gift of the Ernest Erickson Foundation, Inc., 86.226.27

is surrounded on all four sides by a border decorated in a simple but rather unusual pattern of incised zigzags. Surrounding that is a raised border, which is undecorated.

Unpublished

Evocations of Late Antique Sculpture in the Brooklyn Museum

The ten examples grouped in this section were acquired by the Brooklyn Museum as examples of Late Antique Egyptian sculpture. Now, however, they are believed to be entirely modern or almost entirely modern in their workmanship. It is likely that several of these pieces (e.g., nos. 25 and 29) were carved over the remains of ancient but badly damaged works, of which all traces are now lost. The reasons for rejecting each piece are discussed below. They range from inappropriate subject matter to unlikely stylistic detailsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; especially in the modeling of the eyes and the hairâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;to stone of very poor quality. On the best examples, however, the quality of the carving is almost as good as on the ancient pieces. One may suspect that the modern sculptors not only knew the ancient works but were consciously competing with them. Another feature of the forgeries as a whole is that they include a larger percentage of Christian subjects than appeared among the ancient examples. There were certainly examples of Christian art among that group, but they were comparatively few in number. Many simply showed crosses in decorative settings (e.g., no. 19). The Christian forgeries include not only the standard figures of the Virgin and Child (no. 31) but such inventive additions as the cripple healed by Christ (no. 24) and a wholly spurious figure who was apparently intended to represent Holy Wisdom or the like (no. 22).

Opposite: The Holy Family (?) (detail of no. 31)

Holy Wisdom (?) in a Lunette. Said to be from Sheikh Ibada. Probably 20th century c.e. Limestone, 187/16 x 303/16 in. (46.8 x 75.7 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 58.80

[22] Holy Wisdom (?) in a Lunette (58.80) A bust-length female figure is shown against a flat, semicircular background. Her eyes are thickly rimmed, and her proportions are odd: her neck is very long and thick, her shoulders are asymmetrical, and her right arm is short. She appears to have only one breast. A long-sleeved garment swirls across her torso in unrealistic folds, beneath a collar or necklace composed of geometrical shapes. The figureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hair, modeled in unnatural folds, is partly covered by a scarf and topped by an oddly shaped headdress. She also has a halo, which is set unusually low behind her head and neck, and she holds a staff or scepter and an orb topped with a cross. These two emblems are hard to explain, because in early Christian art, both in Egypt and elsewhere, the staff and the orb are held only by winged archangels, who are always male. In addition to these peculiarities, the background of the relief has suffered numerous dents and other surface damage of which the figure, though much more prominent, is notably free.

65 The lunette around the figure has a border of vegetal forms interrupted by her body as if it passed behind her standing form. That is just one of the odd features of this arch. As noted elsewhere (see nos. 6 and 7), excavated examples of Egyptian Late Antique Christian arches and the figures within them typically extend forward, out and over the viewer. Spanel has cited an arch with a flat surface that encloses a figure holding a staff and orb. That figure is winged, however, and is clearly an archangel; moreover, the style of the relief differs greatly from this example. A lunette with a figure very similar to this one has been discussed by Anna Gonosová, who includes it with the Brooklyn relief as a pair of forgeries.

Published Spanel, “Two Groups of ‘Coptic’ Sculpture,” 102–103, figs. 4a–c, 10a–b; Thomas, Niche Decorations I, 139–49; II, 100–102, pl. 27; Gonosová, “Stone Lunette,” discusses the lunette in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts (acc. no. 63.56.1) along with this one.

[23] Roundel with Human Head (60.212)

Roundels with human heads or busts were made in Egypt and elsewhere during the Roman Period. None, however, resemble this curious composition, which is hard to explain except as the work of a stone carver who had either forgotten the details of whatever model he set out to follow or was being consciously inventive. He created a head, complete with a neck and necklace, which appears to be rising out of an oval blob. This curious combination is framed by a wreath of unidentifiable leaves. As with many of the forgeries said to come from Sheikh Ibada, the most characteristic—and also the least convincing—of its details are those of the head and face, especially the heavily but unconvincingly patterned hairdo and the eyes with their thick outlines. The ropelike necklace with its vaguely flowerlike pendant has no ancient parallels. And, as on other “Sheikh Ibada” forgeries, the damage has been carefully applied. There are slight marks on either cheek, but the nose is untouched. Elsewhere, small abrasions can be found on unpatterned surfaces, but the only damage of any size occurs on the lower right rim.

Published Spanel, “Two Groups of ‘Coptic’ Sculpture, 99–100, fig. 2.

Roundel with Human Head. Said to be from Sheikh Ibada. Probably 20th century c.e. Nummulitic

limestone, traces of red paint, 16 in. diam. (40.5 cm). Brooklyn

Museum, Gift of Louis Beck, 60.212

[24] Paralytic Raising His Bed (62.44)

This ambitious composition depicts a man on one knee who appears to be rising to his feet while lifting up a bed, two legs of which were held in his raised hands. The figure is nude except, possibly, for the element at the back of his head. This has been interpreted as a cap, but it may be simply a protective fill, like the area beneath and behind his right leg. The subject of the sculpture appears to be the paralytic healed by Christ, a miracle recorded in all four books of the Gospel. The peculiarities of the figure include the utterly unrealistic pattern of his hair, the heavily rimmed eyes and the suggestion of a smile found on many of these forgeries (see, for example, no. 22), and the maladroit rendering of the body, from the clothlike folds of his ribcage to the different lengths of his legs. Equally suspicious is the pattern of damage to the surface, with losses only of the hands holding the bed legs and along one side near the bottom. Even more remarkable is the fact that the head appears to have been broken off and reattached with no damage whatsoever to the face. It is difficult to imagine the setting for which this rather sizable sculpture might have been intended. Since the back is unfinished, it would presumably have been placed in a niche or against a wall. The subject seems utterly unsuitable for the tomb of an early Coptic Christian, where the main sculpture was supposed to reflect the virtues of the deceased. But it hardly seems more suitable for churches of this period, which would have had little, if any sizable sculpture. Moreover, no evidence of a church has been detected in the area of Sheikh Ibada.

Published Spanel, “Two Groups of ‘Coptic’ Sculpture, 97–99, figs. 1a–c; Thomas, Niche Decorations I, 146–49; II, fig. 31; Bothmer and Keith, Brief Guide, 108–109; Cooney, “An Early Christian Sculpture,” 40–47.

Paralytic Raising His Bed. Said to be from Sheikh Ibada. Probably 20th century c.e. Limestone, painted, 243/16 in. high (1.5 cm), base 11 x 1111/16 in. (28 x 29.7 cm). Brooklyn Museum Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 62.44

[25] Standing Woman (63.36)

This statuette represents a standing woman who holds a small cross against the front of her body. The head and neck were broken from the body shortly before the Museum acquired the figure, and the repair is still visible. The woman is fully carved in the round, but the details of her costume, and even her hair, are indicated only on the front. The hair thus appears as a striated pouf on an otherwise bald head. It frames a face whose perfectly preserved features include large, heavily rimmed eyes with plastic eyeballs and drilled pupils, a straight nose, and a small, upturned mouth. There is black paint on the eye rims, the pupils, and the eyebrows; a yellowish wash covers much of the figure. Her dress, delineated only on the front, appears to consist of a series of continuous pleats that implausibly run up the elbow-length sleeves and down over the bodice. Two horizontal elements just under her breasts might be interpreted as the top of an apron-like panel of five pleats, which hangs over the larger pleats of her skirt. The figureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s arms are bent, with her hands placed over her abdomen. Her left hand is flat; in the right, she holds the vertical handle of a small cross. The statue is broken off at about knee level. The womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unconvincing hairstyle, her heavily outlined eyes, and her small, smirking mouth are similar to those on other forgeries said to be from Sheikh Ibada (see nos. 22, 24). The details of her dress and apron have no ancient parallel, and the cross bends oddly to follow the curves of her body. There appear to be no other examples in Late Antique Egyptian art of such a figure in the round with its back left unfinished, nor does there seem to have been any appropriate setting, in a tomb or a church, for such a statue, whether it represented a saint or a living person. The size of the figure raises the suspicion that it may have been carved over the remains of a funerary figure of about the same size that held a bird and a bunch of grapes (such as no. 14). If so, the original is completely gone; what would once have been a pagan figure in a niche has become a Christian figure in the round.

Published Kakovkin, “Some Remarks on False Coptic Monuments,” part 2, 226 and 229, n. 6; Spanel, “Two Groups of ‘Coptic’ Sculpture,” 100–102, figs. 3a–c; Poses Institute, Art of the Late Antique, 51, pl. 13; Thomas, Niche Decorations I, 146–49; II, fig. 33; Bothmer and Keith, Brief Guide, 102–103.

Standing Woman. Said to be from Sheikh Ibada. Probably 20th century c.e. Limestone, remains of paint, 14 in. high (35.6 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 63.36

Recarved Plant Scroll with Human Figure and Lion Head. Said to be from Behnasa. Ancient relief recut in the 20th century c.e. Limestone, 913/16

x 187/16 x 4 in. (25

x 46.9 x 10.2 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 67.176.2

[26] Recarved Plant Scroll with Human Figure and Lion Head (67.176.2) It is probable that this relief was originally carved as a plant scroll of a type seen elsewhere in the Brooklyn Museum collection (nos. 8, 16). That is suggested by the plant stem, now destroyed in the middle, that once curved from the upper left corner down to the lower right corner, then up again to end in the upper right corner with three leaves. Little else, however, appears to be original, and it is unclear whether the design continued to the left or ended in a vertical border just past the left end. We can no longer guess what originally filled the spaces inside the plant scrolls. Presumably those motifs were badly damaged, but enough stone was left for a modern forger to fashion the figure at the right and

the lion head at the bottom left. The man’s head and bare-chested torso face us, but his lower body is unclear; one leg extends to the left. In one arm he supports a lance that he points at the lion’s head, which is earless and comically ill-drawn. An empty space to the left of the man’s leg extends up past the lion’s snout. This space and perhaps also part of the space behind the man’s right shoulder are areas where the original design, whatever it was, has been completely removed.

Unpublished

Recarved Plant Scroll with Snakes and Bird Heads. Said to be from Behnasa. Ancient relief recut in the 20th century c.e. Limestone, 10 x 203/16 x 41/4 in. (25.4 x 51.2 x 10.8 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 68.3

[27] Recarved Plant Scroll with Snakes and Bird Heads (68.3) Details of this piece, such as the trilobate leaves in the left corners and the general outlines of the plant scroll, suggest that it began as an ancient relief that was complete within its four borders (cf. no. 21). Unfortunately, it has been completely recut. The plant scroll has lost much of its original detail and gained some ridiculous additions, most notably a birdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s head in the left circle and the fruits (?) near the bottom of the left circle and at the top center. A second avian head, also bodiless, appears at the bottom of the circle to the right. Two snakes

occupy the centers of the circles, each apparently chewing on a leaf. The snakesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; coils wind in a way that defies logic, to end, apparently, in straight tails that may have begun life as plant stems. This is, arguably, the most ridiculous of the Coptic forgeries in the Brooklyn collection.

Unpublished

[28] Arch with Female Figure (68.153) Pointed arches of this type were made for Late Antique tombs, along with rounded arches (see no. 7). This one, however, is almost certainly a modern example of the type. It is only about half the size of the ancient arches, and though the decoration leans forward as on genuine examples, the outer borders are in front of the female figure, who, as the symbol of the deceased, ought to be foremost (as on no. 8). This figure has been called Venus rising from the half shell, but in that representation, her figure should be fully visible; here, the legs are hidden by the â&#x20AC;&#x153;shell,â&#x20AC;? which looks more like the top of a tree. And, although there are images of Venus holding locks of her hair, this figure appears to be trying to keep hers from flying away. The other elements of the decoration have counterparts in ancient reliefs, but here they have been used oddly. A bead and

Arch with Female Figure. Provenance unknown. Made or recut from an ancient original in the 20th century c.e. Limestone, 97/16 x 171/2 x 51/4 in. (24 x 44.5 x 13.3 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 68.153

double reel border framing the figure bends up at either end to frame a series of three unidentifiable animals. Flanking two undecorated surfaces, rows of rudimentary egg and dart molding on either side are topped by curious sequences of decorative motifs—interlaces, leaves, meanders—shown singly rather than in the much more usual continuous designs. Atop these, in the two upper corners, are two crouching animals and, in the spaces beside the top of the central arch, two baskets, from each of which a bird’s head emerges. The size and richness of detail in many of these decorative elements overshadow the figure, which should have been the most important part of the design.

Published Thomas, Niche Decorations II, 103–105, pl. 28.

[29] Figure of a Man in High Relief (72.9)

Although the size of this figure suggests that he is a tomb effigy, he cannot be one. He appears to be looking toward the viewer, but his body is turned toward the viewerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s right. Without exception, Late Antique Egyptian tomb figures face front. Only in group scenes might a subsidiary figure, on a much smaller scale, be shown turning to one side. The existence of a back slab suggests that the figure may have been carved from the remains of a genuine tomb image, such as no. 18. If so, any trace of the original figure, which may have been badly damaged, was completely destroyed by the recarving. This figure is unconvincing in other respects. The peculiar style of his hair can only be compared to those on other spurious figures (cf. nos. 24, 25); in this case, it bares so much of the side of his head that his ears should be at least partly visible, but they are not indicated. His round, staring eyes and overlarge neck are also similar to features on other modern forgeries (no. 22). The body of the figure is thoroughly unconvincing, with too short arms and an oddly draped garment. In one hand, he holds an unrecognizable object. In real tomb sculpture, such objects had to be recognizable, because they always had a significance that the viewer was intended to understand. And, as on other forged or recut figures in this catalogue, any visible damage has been carefully kept away from facial features and other points of particular interest.

Published Thomas, Niche Decorations II, fig. 32; both Dr. Thomas and Dr. Klaus Parlasca (in a 1977 communication to the Museumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Department of Egyptian, Classical, and Ancient Middle Eastern Art) have declared this figure a forgery.

Figure of a Man in High Relief. Provenance unknown. 20th century c.e. Limestone, painted, 2011/16 x 61/2 x 51/8 in. (52.5 x 16.5 x 13 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Harry Kahn, 72.9

[30] Three Busts on a Capital (72.10) This composition, carved in high relief, portrays three human busts arrayed along the top of a vegetal form that might be the capital of a column, or perhaps a tree top. The heads, all of which appear to be male, have coarse locks, which are swept back on the two outer images and form rows of semicircular curls on the central head. The three faces are virtually identical; they have round, bulging eyes with indented centers, and long noses that end just above small, almost vestigial mouths. The necks of all three figures are showing above folds of drapery, but only the central figure seems to have shoulders. The style of this relief, especially of the faces, is extremely poor, and the image seems to make no sense. It is true that faces or torsos

Three Busts on a Capital. Provenance unknown. Probably 20th century c.e. Nummulitic limestone, 97/16 x 161/8 x 37/8 in. (24 x 41 x 9.8 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 72.10

were sometimes carved on the capitals of real columns, but never on the tops, where the capital joined the ceiling. The lack of any design on the surrounding surface is uncharacteristic of Late Antique art, which is usually heavily patterned. The heavily pitted limestone is a poor quality that seems not to have been used for sculpture in Late Antiquity. It was, however, used for a number of the fake reliefs, another example of which is discussed below (no. 31).

Published Spanel, “Two Groups of ‘Coptic’ Sculpture,” 105–106, fig. 6.

The Holy Family (?). Provenance unknown. Probably 20th century c.e. Nummulitic limestone, 117/16 x 201/16 x 39/8 in. (29 x 51 x 9 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Gift of Mrs. Jacob Kaplan, 77.129

[31] The Holy Family (?) (77.129) Two arches, set on columns and covered with leaves, enclose a woman with an infant and a man holding a cross. Presumably, the figures are meant to represent the Holy Family, most likely during their flight into Egypt. This subject, rarely represented in Late Antique Coptic art, was apparently never shown in sculpture or relief. This relief should be compared to the previous example (no. 30). Both are carved in a porous nummulitic limestone, which was rarely, if ever, used for ancient reliefs. The figures here have the same round heads and faces as on the other example, similar bulging eyes with drilled indentations, large but featureless noses, and small, indeterminate mouths. The hairstyle and draped garment of the male figure are very like those on the disembodied heads of no. 30. Unlike those heads, these figures are shown in full, but their bodies are summarily represented

and, especially on the man, noticeably undersized. The rudimentary architecture and the anonymous plant forms of this relief may also be compared with the curious plant form of no. 30. There can be little doubt that both of these reliefs are products of the same workshop, and very possibly of a single workman. Other examples of this group have been recorded, including one that Gary Vikan has published as a forgery.

Published Spanel, “Two Groups of ‘Coptic’ Sculpture,” 103–105, fig. 5a–c; cf. [Vikan], “Limestone Relief with the Discovery of the True Cross,” in Boyd and Vikan, Questions of Authenticity. . . , 8–9.

Bibliography

Bothmer, Bernard V., and Jean L. Keith. Brief Guide to the Department of Ancient Art (The Brooklyn Museum Guide Number 5). Brooklyn, N.Y.: The Brooklyn Museum, 1970. Brooklyn Museum. Pagan and Christian Egypt: Egyptian Art from the First to the Tenth Century A.D. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 1941. . Late Egyptian and Coptic Art: An Introduction to the Collections in the Brooklyn Museum. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 1943. . Five Years of Collecting Egyptian Art, 1951–1956. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 1956. Cooney, John D. “An Early Christian Sculpture from Egypt.” Brooklyn Museum Annual 2–3 (1960–62): 37–47. De Meulenaere, Herman. “Two Coptic Funerary Stelae in The Brooklyn Museum.” The Brooklyn Museum Annual 11 (1969–70), part 2: 161–67. Friedman, Florence D. Beyond the Pharaohs: Egypt and the Copts in the 2nd to 7th Centuries A.D. Providence, R.I.: Rhode Island School of Design, Museum of Art, 1989. Gonosová, Anna. “Stone Lunette.” In Art of Late Rome and Byzantium in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, edited by Anna Gonosová and Christine Kondoleon, no. 132, 394–95. Richmond: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 1994. Herbert, Kevin. Greek and Latin Inscriptions in The Brooklyn Museum. Brooklyn, N.Y.: The Brooklyn Museum, 1972.

Opposite: Bust of a Saint (detail of no. 13)

Kakovkin, A. “Some Remarks on False Coptic Monuments.” Acts of the Fifth International Congress of Coptic Studies 2 (1993), part 2: 226 ff. Parlasca, Klaus. “Grabreliefs Oxyrhynchos.” Enchoria 8 (1978): 117, pl. 36. . “Pseudokoptische Grabreliefs aus Ägypten.” Chronique d’Égypte 82 (2007): 323–29. Poses Institute of Fine Arts. Art of the Late Antique from American Collections. Waltham, Mass.: Rose Art Museum, Brandeis University, 1968–69. Spanel, Donald B. “Two Groups of ‘Coptic’ Sculpture and Relief in the Brooklyn Museum of Art.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 38 (2001): 89–113. Thomas, Thelma K. Niche Decorations from the Tombs of Byzantine Egypt (Heracleopolis Magna and Oxyrhynchus, A.D. 300–500): Visions of the Afterlife New York: Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, 1989. . “Greeks or Copts? Documentary and Other Evidence for Artistic Patronage during the Late Roman and Early Byzantine Periods at Herakleopolis

Magna and Oxyrhynchos, Egypt.” In Life in a Multi-Cultural Society: Egypt from Cambyses to Constantine and Beyond (Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 51), edited by Janet H. Johnson, 317–22. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1992. . Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture: Images for This World and the Next. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000. [Vikan, Gary]. “Limestone Relief with the Discovery of the True Cross.” In Questions of Authenticity Among the Arts of Byzantium: Catalogue of an Exhibition Held at Dumbarton Oaks, January 7–May 11, 1981, edited by Susan Boyd and Gary Vikan, no. 2, 8–9. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1981. Wilbour, Charles Edwin. Travels in Egypt: Letters of Charles Edwin Wilbour. Edited by Jean Capart. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Brooklyn Museum, 1936.

Opposite: Plant Scroll Enclosing Grapes and an Animal (detail of no. 16)

Brooklyn Museum Board of Trustees 2008â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2009 Officers

Norman M. Feinberg, Chair Barbara Knowles Debs, Vice Chair Barbara Manfrey Vogelstein, Vice Chair Constance L. Christensen, Secretary John S. Tamagni, Treasurer Shelley Fox Aarons, M.D.* Martin Baumrind* Leslie L. Beller Richard M. Cashin Andrew B. Cohen Saundra Cornwell* Elissa Cullman Katharine P. Darrow Katharine B. Desai Blair W. Effron* Frederick Elghanayan Joseph G. Finnerty III* Charlynn Goins Richard H. Hochman Stephanie Ingrassia* Erika Klauer Joanne Minieri Richard W. Moore Steven A. Newborn Otis Pratt Pearsall Leslie A. Puth Edward S. Reid Tracey G. Riese

Jonathan P.â&#x20AC;&#x160; Rosen Robert S. Rubin Dr. Elizabeth A. Sackler* Bernard Selz Danny Simmons Diane H. Steinberg Adam M. Weiss Howard Wolfson *Executive Committee

Ex-Officio Trustees

Michael R. Bloomberg Mayor of New York City Christine Quinn Speaker, New York City Council William C. Thompson Comptroller of New York City Marty Markowitz Borough President of Brooklyn Kate D. Levin Commissioner of Cultural Affairs Iris Fearon President, Brooklyn Museum Community Committee

Honorary Trustee Alastair B. Martin

Director

Arnold L. Lehman

Opposite: Funerary Figure of a Woman (detail of no. 18)

Published on the occasion of the exhibition Unearthing the Truth: Egypt’s Pagan and Coptic Sculpture, February 13−April 10, 2009, organized by the Brooklyn Museum Copyright © 2009 Brooklyn Museum, 200 Eastern Parkway, Brooklyn, New York 11238- 6052 www.brooklynmuseum.org All Rights Reserved No part of the contents of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the Brooklyn Museum. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brooklyn Museum. Unearthing the truth : Egypt's pagan and Coptic sculpture / Edna R. Russmann. p. cm. Issued in connection with an exhibition held Feb. 13-May 10, 2009, Brooklyn Museum. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-87273-162-2

1. Relief (Sculpture), Egyptian—Exhibitions. 2. Relief (Sculpture), Egyptian— Expertising—Exhibitions. 3. Relief (Sculpture), Classical—Exhibitions. 4. Relief (Sculpture), Classical—Expertising—Exhibitions. 5. Brooklyn Museum— Exhibitions. 6. Relief (Sculpture)—New York (State)—New York—Exhibitions. I. Russmann, Edna R. II. Title. NB1280.B76 2009 732'.807474723—dc22 2008048113 Produced at the Brooklyn Museum Editor: John Antonides Designer: Mónica Páez Pérez, www.tangramagrafica.com Digital Pre-Press: John DiClemente Printing: Dominick Prisco and Eddy Trochez Cover: Frieze of Animals in Plant Scrolls (no. 8) Title page: Arch in Five Segments (detail of no. 10)

Opposite: Funerary Stela with a Boy Seated in a Niche (detail of no. 20)