Britain’s Coastline, UK
SUSTAINABLE SITE PLANNING & LANDSCAPE
Coastline Development K. Vineetha -19171NB003
Sicily Coastline, Itly
CONTENTS Introduction Types of Coastlines Coastal Environment The Ecosystem Perceptive of Coasts What is Coastal development & its Impacts International Guidelines National Guidelines Inferences
The Coastline is the point at which the sea meets the land: the confrontation between the two is what creates & shapes the coasts. Sea & land may react with one another in many different ways, so the result is a complex environment & a very varied one COASTLINES, BY KERRIGAN, MICHAEL
TYPES OF COASTLINES Coastlines formed
of
when
submergence the
rising
sea
ALTHOUGH EVERY COASTLINE IS A UNIQUE CREATION OF OCEAN WAVES ACTING ON DISTINCTIVE LAND MASSES, THEY CAN BE IDENTIFIED IN SEVEN DISTINCT TYPES OF COASTS are
Another group of coastlines are formed by the process of
level
emergence, when submarine landforms are exposed by a
partially drowns a coast or when
falling
part of the crust sinks. This group
includes:
includes
of
sea
level
Barrier-island coasts,
Ria coasts, &
Volcano coasts,
Fiord coasts.
Delta coasts, Fault coasts, & Coral-reef coasts.
https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003
or
a
rising
of
the
crust.
This
group
PORT JACKSON, ALSO REFERRED TO AS SYDNEY HARBOUR
RIA COAST
It
deeply
A ria coast is formed when a rise of sea level or a
dendritic
crustal sinking (or both) brings the shoreline to rest
pattern of drainage that existed before the rise in
against the sides of river valleys previously carved by
sea level that flooded the valley.
streams. Because the new embayments are fed fresh
is
a
Ria,
indented
or
shape
drowned of
the
river ria
valley.
reflects
The
the
water
from
the
streams
the
contained, they become estuaries.
https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003
valleys
formerly
SØRFJORDEN (HARDANGER), NORWAY Sørfjorden
(Hardanger)
with
Sandvinvatnet
FIORD COASTS and
The fiord coast is similar to the ria coast. Steep-
Odda valley can be clearly seen as continuation of
walled fiords are created from submerged glacial
the fjord. Odda sits on the isthmus. Folgefonna on
troughs rather than from submerged stream valleys,
the right hand.
as in the case of ria coasts.
https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003
COAST OF NORTH CAROLINA, U.S
BARRIER-ISLAND COASTS
Satellite image of the Outer Banks, an approximately
The barrier-island coast is associated with a recently
300
barrier
emerged coastal plain. A barrier island is a low ridge
islands are separated from the mainland by a series
of sand, lying a short distance from the coast, that is
of relatively shallow water sounds. Notice how the
created by wave action and increases in height as
ends of the entire barrier chain come closer to the
coastal winds fortify the island with dunes. Behind the
mainland, thus reducing the size of the backbarrier
barrier island is a lagoon—a broad expanse of shallow
open water area.
water in places largely filled with tidal deposits.
km
long
string
of
barrier
islands.
https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003
The
FALSE-COLOR IMAGE OF THE LARGER MISSISSIPPI RIVER DELTA
DELTA COASTS
The Mississippi delta has long branching that grow
The deposit of clay, silt, and sand made by a stream or
far out into The Gulf of Mexico at the ends of its
river where it flows into a body of standing water is
distributaries, giving the impression of a birds foot.
known as a delta. The sediment is deposited because
This image shows the great quantity of suspended
the current is rapidly slowed as it pushes out into the
clay & fine silt being discharged by the river into the
standing
Gulf about 250,000 - 550,000 tons per day.
subdivides into lesser channels called distributaries.
https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003
water.
The
river
channel
divides
and
SURTSEY ISLAND, ICELAND
VOLCANO COASTS
The
island’s
Volcano coasts arise where volcanic deposits—lava
formation began at 426 feet below sea level. The
and ash—flow from active volcanoes into the ocean.
eruption
Wave action erodes the fresh deposits, creating low
volcanic
eruption
became
that
noticeable
led
to
upon
the
arrival
at
the
surface on November 14, 1963. By the time it ended
cliffs.
on June 5, 1967, an island measuring 0.50 square
composed of fine particles of the extrusive rock.
miles had been created.
https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003
Beaches
are
typically
narrow,
steep,
and
THE GREAT BARRIER REEF, QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA
CORAL-REEF COASTS
It is the world's largest coral reef system composed
Coral-reef coasts are unique because the new land
of
islands
is made by organisms—corals and algae. Growing
stretching for over 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) over
together, these organisms secrete rock-like deposits
an
of carbonate minerals, called coral reefs. As coral
over
2,900
area
of
individual
reefs
approximately
and
900
344,400
kilometres.
square
colonies
die,
new
ones
accumulating as limestone.
https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003
are
built
on
them,
SAN CLEMENTE ISLAND, CHANNEL ISLANDS OF CALIFORNIA. The
upper
part
of
a
tilted
and
gently
FAULT COASTS arched
Faulting
of
the
coastal
margin
of
a
continent
can
northwestward-trending block of the earth's crust that
leave the shoreline resting against a fault scarp. A
has
more
classic example occurs on the northern coast of Chile,
irregular and much gentler southwestern slope that is
where the Andes Mountains rise from the Peru–Chile
composed primarily of volcanic rock, with the northeast
trench. In central California, near the coastal town of
boundary of the island having a large fault that parallels
Lucia, the continental shelf is very narrow, suggesting
most of the major faults on the California mainland.
that the marine cliffs there are the result of faulting.
a
straight,
steep
northeastern
slope
https://geography.name/types-of-coastlines/ | 19171NB003
and
a
COASTAL ENVIRONMENT Coastal environments are under increasing pressure as a result of their increasing human populations. Coastal areas, including estuaries, bays, shorelines, continental shelves, and the Great Lakes, are used intensively and receive the byproducts of inland human activities, from rivers and atmospheric deposition. this has become a concerns for environmental quality, habitat conservation, living and nonliving resources, and protection of life and property
The overall importance of the coastal ocean extends far beyond its relatively small areal extent. An environment of remarkably high biological productivity, this transition zone between land and open ocean is of considerable importance for recreation, waste disposal and mineral exploitation. Such societal issues as pollution (in its many forms), bioremediation, waste disposal, and risk assessment cannot be addressed adequately until we make substantial advances in our basic understanding of the coastal ocean.
Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)
The following issues have been identified as posing significant threats to the integrity of coastal ecosystems:
MAJOR COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
1. Eutrophication 2. Habitat modification 3. Hydrologic and hydrodynamic disruption 4. Exploitation of resources 5. Toxic effects 6. Introduction of nonindigenous species 7. Global climate change and variability 8. Shoreline erosion and hazardous storms
Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)
9. Pathogens and toxins affecting human health
Giant kelp (Macrocystis) forest, off the coast of southern California
Problems associated with changes in the quantity and quality of inputs to coastal
environments
from
runoff
and
atmospheric
deposition
are
particularly important. These include Increases in nutrient loading from agriculture and fossil fuel combustion, Habitat losses from eutrophication, Widespread contamination by toxic materials, Changes in the supply of river borne sediment, and alteration of coastal hydrodynamics. Furthermore, concern is shifting from issues amenable to single-factor risk assessment approaches to those involving multiple-stressors (e.g., combined effects of chemical contaminants and low oxygen) and indirect, cascading, and scale-related effects that require an ecosystem approach. These
complex,
large-scale
problems
pose
different
challenges
to
environmental policy, management, and science than problems now subject to
regulation,
such
as
point-source
habitat destruction, and oil spills.
Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)
discharges,
coastal
land
use,
direct
Mountainous coastline of the eastern Pacific Ocean, California.
In
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY
addition
to
contemporary
pressures
from
influences,
coastal
ecosystems are susceptible to global climate change. Global sea level rise could accelerate from a variety of factors, rising by as much as three to 10 meters. Local sea level changes (from subsidence of coastal areas from freshwater withdrawal, erosion, movements of Earth's crust, and thermal expansion of seawater could add to global effects). Regardless
of
their
source,
sea
level
rises
cause
significant
shoreline
inundation, overstepping of barrier islands, loss of intertidal wetlands, and increased salinization of coastal embayments.
Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)
human
OUR IMPACT ON THE OCEAN
Aerial view of rock islands, Palau.
26% PERCENTAGE OF CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS WHICH GET ABSORBED BY OCEANS EVERY YEAR
Other effects are the potential for increased tropical storm intensity and frequency; changes in
precipitation
changes
in
patterns
seawater
and
temperature
river range
flow; and
seasonality; alteration of coastal currents and upwelling,
which
affect
temperature,
nutrient
supply, and larval transport; and modification of intermediate-scale
weather
patterns
affect winds, currents, and rainfall. Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)
that
THE COASTAL ZONE PRESENTS RISKS AS WELL AS BENEFITS TO
SHORELINE EROSION AND HAZARDOUS STORMS
THOSE WHO POPULATE OR VISIT THE SHORE AND THOSE WHO WORK OR RECREATE IN COASTAL AREAS. Beaches buffer coastal land and habitats from assault by the ocean and lakes, providing the most effective means of preventing coastal erosion and habitat destruction. The principal source of sediment to the coastline is from rivers and streams thus, changes in land use and stream hydrology can affect the supply of sediments to beaches and, consequently, shoreline erosion.
SHORELINE EROSION IS ALSO INFLUENCED BY COASTAL PROCESSES RESULTING IN OFFSHORE AND ALONGSHORE TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENTS. Changing patterns in coastal storm climate can change the direction of sediment
transport
by
altering
the
intensity
and
direction
of
waves
incident to a beach. Shoreline
erosion
and
hazardous
storms
are
affected
in
a
complex
manner by land-use decisions and climate change and, conversely, can greatly affect coastal environmental quality. Studies of global climate change and improvements in the predictability of climate variability (see previous section) are crucial for predicting and mitigating the impacts Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)
of shoreline erosion and hazardous storms.
The emerging and widespread environmental threats discussed above pose new challenges to environmental policy, management, and science, requiring different approaches discharges
than of
those
industrial
used or
for
past
municipal
coastal
effluents,
problems, coastal
such
land
as
use,
point-source
direct
habitat
destruction, and oil spills. These issues have not been eliminated, although some of their effects are relatively well understood, and significant advances have been made in their management in several developed countries. Concern
is
approaches
shifting
from
involving
issues
multiple-
amenable stressor
to
(e.g.,
single-factor combined
risk
assessment
effects
of
to
chemical
contaminant and low oxygen) risk assessments and indirect, cascading, and scalerelated effects on living resources. Understanding such coastal problems requires approaches that focus on ecosystems,
THE ECOSYSTEM PERSPECTIVE
populations of organisms, and communities of species. There is now greater concern about the response of ecosystems to the effects of exploitation
of
resources,
nutrient
enrichment
(as
opposed
to
direct
organic
loadings), and the indirect effects of human activities on coastal habitats. The development of initiatives to solve these problems will require more flexibility from
the
scientific
community,
universities,
and
funding
agencies
to
promote Priorities for Coastal Ecosystem Science (1994)
interdisciplinary science.
WHAT IS A COASTAL DEVELOPMENT
IMPACTS FROM COASTAL DEVELOPMENT:
Construction projects (piers, channels, airstrips, dikes, land reclamation, etc.) — Can kill corals directly. Degradation of coral reefs — Can result in lost tourism revenue in countries that depend on reef-based tourism and reduce fish populations.
Coastal construction
—
Can
cause
chronic
sedimentation,
sewage
effluent, industrial discharge, and changes in water flow and runoff, which More
than
2.5
billion
people
(40%
of
the
world’s population) live within 100 km of the coast, adding increased pressure to coastal ecosystems.
Coastal
development
linked
to
human settlements, industry, aquaculture, and infrastructure near
shore
can
cause
ecosystems,
severe
impacts
particularly
on
coral
reefs. Coastal development impacts may be direct (e.g., land filling, dredging, coral and sand mining for construction) or indirect (e.g., increased runoff of sediment and pollutants).
can adversely affect coral growth rates and metabolic activities as well as directly kill corals.
Removal of reefs
—
Can
result
in
beach
erosion,
land
retreat,
and
sedimentation.
Sedimentation
—
Can
smother
reefs
or
increase
turbidity
in
coastal
waters, thus reducing light needed for coral growth and survival.
Pollutants changes
— Can lead to increases in coral disease and mortality, cause
in
coral
community
structure,
and
impede
coral
growth,
reproduction, and larval settlement (e.g., nutrient runoff can lead to algal blooms that stifle coral growth).
Mining of coral for construction materials
— can lead to long-term
economic losses in terms of lost benefits for fisheries, coastal protection, reefresilience.org/stressors/coastal-development/ | 19171NB003
tourism, food security, and biodiversity
Many large towns and cities around the world have grown up around natural harbours - including most of the world's biggest cities.
YOKOHAMA HARBOUR,
ZÁKINTHOS, GREECE.
CALIFORNIA SUR, MEXICO.
Hong Kong, Singapore, Manila, and
Tourists sunbathing on a beach used by
Recreational snorkellers harassing a whale
Honolulu, for example, once had thriving
loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) for
shark (Rhincodon typus), Baja
coral reefs. But these have been destroyed
nesting, some with beach umbrellas which
by human pressures, largely from coastal
can hurt turtle nests.
JAPAN.
development. https://wwf.panda.org/our_work/oceans/problems/tourism/megacity
Each year a large percentage of holiday-makers head to coastlines around the world, where they have an enormous impact on marine ecosystems.
GREAT BARRIER REEF,
IFALIK, MICRONESIA.
NAPLES, ITALY.
AUSTRALIA. Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) with a plastic bag, in Moore Reef
Fishermen with a catch of tuna fish
The Mediterranean is the world's leading tourist destination - and mass tourism is one of the main causes of ecological loss in the region.
https://wwf.panda.org/our_work/oceans/problems/tourism/megacity, ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, https://theculturetrip.com/europe
GUIDELINES FOR COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT INDIAN AND INTERNATIONAL
INDIAN
INTERNATIONAL
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and
The World Bank, gives out guidelines for
Climate Change has constituted the
Integrated Coastal Zone Managemennt,
National Coastal Zone Management
which are published in Environmentally
Authority under the Environmental
Sustainable Development Studies and
Protection Act 1986.
Monographs Series.
They issue guidelines which are to be
All the developed and developing
followed for the development in the
countries take these as base guidelines
coastal zones all across India.
and prepare their own guidelines.
https://www.reefresilience.org/pdf/Post_Lundin_1996.pdf, https://www.mondaq.com/india/environmental-law
INFERENCE
Coastal
environments
shorelines
to
the
and
ecosystems
edge
of
the
(from
estuaries
continental
and
shelf)
are
increasingly likely to be modified by changes in the delivery of
materials
from
diffuse
sources
via
rivers
and
the
atmosphere, widespread habitat modification resulting from human
activities,
and
the
over
exploitation
of
living
and
nonliving resources. These
problems
environmental
pose
policy,
a
different
set
management,
of
and
challenges science
to
than
traditional concerns of point source discharge, coastal land use, and spills of hazardous materials. Demographic
factors,
especially
migration,
are
major
considerations in how people use coastal regions. Understanding how population issues can be integrated into coastal
management
managers, sustainable K. VINEETHA | 19171NB003
and
will
help
communities
strategies
for
policymakers,
design
using
and
more
program
viable
safeguarding
world’s coasts and the resources they provide.
and the
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