F OREI GNPRACT I CESI NI NDI A ARCHI CHAKKARS EMI NARS ERI ES 2016
S CHOOLOFPL ANNI NG ANDARCHI T ECT URE DEL HI
AUT HORS: ARGHYAMANDAL CHARUKUMARI S ARGAM S I NDHU
FOREIGN ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICES IN INDIA ABSTRACT Keywords- FOREIGN ARCHITECTURAL FIRM, INFLUX, INDIAN ARCHITECTURE, ARCHITECTS’ ACT 1972, COMPETITIONS In recent time, India faced manifold increase of the presence of foreign architectural practises taking up projects in India. This influx has certainly an impact on the Indian architectural practices as the projects are going to the foreign players. There is positive side of it too as this makes way for knowledge transfer from foreign partner to local partner, if collaborated. In this paper we try to analyse the impact of this influx on Indian architecture and the local architectural community. To do the same, few architectural competitions and large projects done by foreign architects were analysed.
INTRODUCTION
Today both the government and private developers are hiring foreign architects either by organising competition or appointing directly, for all kinds of projects- from airport design to township planning. Developers do so to make their buildings more popular and sellable, whereas the motive of the government to hire them is to get global standard buildings. As per the Architects Act of 1972, foreign firms need proper permission from the Council of Architecture to practice in India. Collaboration is also a way in which they are finding their way to the India architectural industry. There are several examples of projects done by the successful collaboration of the foreign firm with local partners. This research intends to investigate what is the impact of this influx on the architectural practices and architecture itself of the country and whether it is positive or negative. This research has been conducted by analysing competitions and private projects involving foreign architects. The hypothesis assumed for the research is that the impact of influx is positive, only if delivering good design is the motive behind selecting the foreign architect.
FOREIGN PRACTICES IN INDIA
The boom in the construction industry since few decades has attracted several foreign architectural firms to work in India. The cheap labor cost and the opportunity to experiment extensively are the main factors behind the influx of these international firms. This scenario has completely transformed the face of architectural profession and practice. This influx is also a by-product of Globalization. Globalization has encouraged us to hire foreign architects, so our buildings compete in the global competitive market.
1
RESEARCH QUESTION What is the impact of the influx of foreign firms to India on the Indian architectural firms? Prime Minister manmohan Singn signing the Budget
OBJECTIVES 1.
Source: http://images.indianexpress.com
Identifying the reasons for the influx of foreign architectural firms in India.
2. Examining how this trend is affecting Indian architectural practices by focusing on the Open Competitions and large Scale Private Developments.
SCOPE OF RESEARCH To fulfil the objectives above, the scope of the research is limited to the following 1.
Architectural competitions organized after 1972.
2. Private projects for which an international architect/firm was appointed without organizing a competition.
NEED IDENTIFICATION 1. The need of the research is to understand and differentiate between the kind of projects which require foreign architectural and technical expertise and the projects which do not. 2.
ARCHI-CHAKKAR
2
To prepare our self to take the challenges due to this competition.
SURVEY OF LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction- Globalization: the root of everything! After independence the country was going through lot of changes. With rebuilding of the country, in the years following 1990, India, due to bankruptcy and influence from the western trends decided to change its economic policy by economic liberalization, privatization and globalization.
This act invited direct foreign investment to the country which affected it both positively and negatively. It helped it evolve as a developing nation, but also encouraged people to follow the western ideas. Many foreign architects who are taking projects in India says that, India’s strongest theoretical advantages in the global market for professional services are the widespread use of English as the language of professional training and communication. In other words in some cases where the globalization has affected us negatively is when we simply designing context less buildings which can be fitted anywhere in the world if needed. The architecture which is made without sympathizing with the context would not last long and won’t be timeless. Whereas the positive effect is globalization are also there and should not be underestimated: a.
Transfer of knowledge
b.
Exchange of culture and services
c. By getting the privilege of hiring foreign architects (which is due to globalization), we have a choice to select the best and most efficient design
2.2 Globalization leading to the Foreign Firms coming to India Globalization and Liberalization, both being very different phenomena are still interlinked. After the economic liberalization that took place in 1990, is when the Indian economy started to embrace the “forces of globalization”. Wide investment in infrastructure took place and in early 2000s the globalization touched upon the architecture in the country. (Mehrotra, 2011) As mentioned above, since globalization made available best possible services due to which the culture to outsourcing started. Consequently, we started to outsource the design services to the western firms (as they were more capable and experienced in global buildings) to meet the international standards. This culture of outsourcing placed them on the front foot by controlling the design and the Indian firms became unable to develop their design capabilities.
FOREIGN PRACTICES IN INDIA
3. Analysing the positive and negative impact of this process on the profession of architecture, local architectural community and the identity of Indian architecture.
3
Concept Architect- who works on master planning, concept designing and then detailing are done by Indian architects
2.3 Architects Act Of 1972- The rulebook of Architectural Practice in India The Architect’s Act of 1972 is the basis of practice in India. The act was made to protect the rights and the identity of the architect. According to the act, no person is prohibited from giving advice or practicing consultancy on architectural related works. The only restriction being that the person is not entitled to use the title and style of ‘architect’ unless registered with the COA, as per the Act.
THE NATURE OF PRACTICE BY
FOREIGN
ARCHITECTS IN INDIA
Multi-national firm- foreign architects who hav e an office in India and do projects here
The act also clarifies that the foreign architect or consultant, who was not registered with COA, cannot be appointed for architectural works without following the prescribed procedure. Seshadri (2013) As per the Section 37 of the Act, no foreign architect may practice in India without a permission of the Central government. Additionally in many cases the foreign architects are emailing the drawings to the builders, which are then signed by the Indian counterparts who are finally represented as the only architects of the project and get approvals from development authorities. In other cases while the Indian architects are designing the project, the foreign architects are paid for letting the builder use their brand as international standards.
2.4 Foreign Architectural Firms in India The booming economy and the burgeoning middle class has prompted developers to bring in foreign architects with foreign fees to design everything from airports to residential and office towers and bungalows and resorts. The countries the USA and UK who have reached the point of saturation do not get a chance to experiment on wide ground. Therefor the foreign firms look for developing countries like India test and apply their capabilities. Also the statistics say that the largest number of foreign architectural firms in India, either belong to the USA or the UK.
Through Outsourcing- the foreign architects has the control ov er the project- irrespectiv e of the site, although the background operations take place here.
Based in India- Architects who have
shifted to India to practice here
NATURE OF PRACTICE BY FOREIGN ARCHITECTS Source: Author
2.5 Why do Indian clients hire Foreign Architects? The Managing Director of the Hiranandani Groups says that the foreign firms are more sensitive and empathetic to the clients’ needs and aspirations, which makes the greater difference between the them and the Indian architectural firms. He also feels that, “They find a solution which isrequired for a particular site, location and land. They are also more in tune with the land use demand. They are more open to new ideas. On the other hand, Indian firms have a trial and errorapproach to design and planning. They also try to impose their ideas on the developers.” One more reason why the developers hire the foreign firms is because the customers fancy the work done by them, which is good for the developer from the marketing point of view. Some clients only hire the foreign firms when Master planning needs to be done because they feel that it’s more affordable to hire when there is such kind of requirement. Time is also a factor in choosing between Indian and Foreign firms. As per Anil Sharma of Amrapali Group, “Time is never an issue of concern with them, they keep their words.” Sarthak (2000)
FOREIGN PRACTICES IN INDIA
As per Perkins (2009) who is Chairman and CEO of Perkins Eastman Firm there are several reasons to practice in India a. “India has a population of over 1,235,000,000, which is rapidly urbanizing, and which makes most major cities hot development markets.
ARCHI-CHAKKAR
b. English is the language of business and the only common language among the business elite. c. Affordable craftsmanship and cheap labour d. India avails them wide experimenting ground, where they can experiment as well as do extensive creative work. This brings us to the nature of practice adopted by the foreign practices. There are 4 general types to this:
Hiranandani Gardens, Powai
4
HIRANANDANI POWAI
GARDENS,
Source: Author
5
2.6 NOT EXCLUSIVE TO INDIA
Impact of GLOBALIZATION
METHODOLOGY
Source: Online News Database
Source: Author
Open Competitions:
In China, the client demands the foreign architect to involve local architects, manufacturers in all the important processes as there is a possibility of knowledge transfer.
1.
Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts Competition, 1986
2.
Global Architectural Design Competition for Indian National War Museum, 2016
On the other hand, Malaysia has opened 30% of FDI in the service industry. Foreign professionals can practice in Malaysia with several conditions, including after interview and examination to determine they qualify and understand local practices.
3.
Redevelopment of Pragati Maidan Convention Center, 2016
4.
Mumbai City Museum North Wing Design Competition, December 2013,
5.
Competition for Patna Museum, Bihar, 2011
METHODILOGY ARCHI-CHAKKAR
To prove the hypothesis and to answer the question the research will look specifically at open competitions and large scale projects done by foreign architects, for which an architect is hired. In case of competitions, an architect/firm is selected out of several entries, whereas another way of hiring an architect is to appoint them without conducting any competition. The research will look at the case studies of both ways and try to answer the questions by analysing them based on the following criteria. The findings of this analysis will be supported by the perception and views of office holders and interferences from the interview conducted.
6
CASE STUDIES
Large Scale Projects: 1.
TATA Housing, Amantra, Kalyan- HOK
2.
Mahindra World City, Chennai- HOK
3.
Lavasa Township, Pune- HOK
4.
Sunshine Hills, Bangalore- BDP ltd.
Invited Design Competition: 5. Chennai Airport, Chennai- Frederic Schwartz Architects & Gensler, USA with Creative Group, Delhi
FOREIGN PRACTICES IN INDIA
However, the impacts of globalization are not exclusive to India. Countries like China, Sri Lanka, Brazil etc. are not beyond the reach of these foreign architects. Brazil who hosted the latest global Olympics games has generated a handful of projects for architectural firms around the world; Populous is responsible for conceptual design a stadium in the city of Natal, for example.
7
Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts, which was allotted 25 acres of prime land along the lush India Gate Lawns in Delhi, was plunged into controversy over its International Architectural Design Competition for the centre. 1. Number of Participants and ratio of Indian and foreign entries-It received 926 applications, 620 from 36 overseas nations. Finally 194 submitted detailed designs for assessment. 2. Pre-Qualification- The competition was open to all the architects globally who are registered in their respective countries. Due to the competition requirements of lavish models and sheets, the average architects were already filtered out. 3. The result- The first prize of Rs. 10 lakhs went to Ralph Lerner, director of graduate studies at Princeton University, New Jersey, USA who was also awarded the Rs 60 crore contract for the design and supervision of the centre 4. The second prize of Rs 5 lakh went to Gautam Bhatia of India, and the third, of Rs 3 lakh, was shared equally between Francoise-Helene Jourda of Lyons, France, Alexandres Tombazis of Athens, and David Jeremy of London. 5. Issue- The fact that four of the five prize winners are foreigners invited fumes and said that the foreign architects have been chosen over Indian counterparts, even though the building has to depict Indian culture. 6. The facts presented to support the issue were: a. that the jury did not include some of the best Indian architects: Charles Correa who was initially involved in the project was inexplicably dropped; b. that the competition did not draw the better known names in Indian and international architecture; c. that the jury’s decision was influenced greatly by the superior materials used in the display models of foreign entries; d. That the competition was restricted only to the affluent.
ARCHI-CHAKKAR
8
9. As per the competition rules- If the first prize winner is unable, for reasons of distance or inexperience, to satisfy the jury of his ability to carry out the work, the jury may require him to collaborate with another architect of their approval. And should the architect fail to abide by the provisions of the contract, the promoter reserves the right 10 Final Result: Since architect Ralph Lerner had not made any real building in the past, he was asked to collaborate with Jaswir Sawhney architects for the construction of the project. Inferences: The foreign architects entering the Indian market have been beneficial to Indian practices in this case because: a. As the selection criterion was best design implies that the chosen design was the best from all. And since the jury contained Indian architects, the result must have been fair and best to their ability. b.
Indian architectural practices did learn from the winning design.
c. Since the winner collaborated with Indian architectural firm, the Indian practice also benefitted from it both in terms of money and design.
2. Global Architectural Design Competition for Indian National War Museum, 2016 This open International design competition has been proposed by the Ministry of defence of India to select an architect for the design and construction of the Museum on 10.71 acres land in Princess Park, New Delhi. The competition started on 15th August 2016 with call notice for the architects and the results of stage 1 will be announced on 15th October. 1. Number of Participants and ratio of Indian and foreign entries- Since it is an open international level competition, a large number of foreign architects will take part in it. The ratio can’t be predicted as the government has not disclosed the information of the participants.
e. The competition was a 1 stage competition, but if there were four clear stages of screening, it would have saved a lot of money if display models and expensive sheets.
2. Pre-Qualification- The competition is open to all Architects registered in respective countries and multi-disciplinary teams led by a Registered Architect.
7. Facts presented against the issue was that, the Prime Minister selected the names Achyut Kanvinde and Balkrishna Doshi as the Indian architects in the Jury panel.
3. The Issue- The concern here is also quite similar to the IGNCA competition, which is that why the competition is open at global level when our own architects can design it cheaper and maybe better
8. Why Ralph Lerner got the first prizea. His absorption of the vision that Edwin Lutyens had in mind when he designed New Delhi b. The design drew its styles from various forms of traditional and historical architecture in India
4. Facts against the issue- People are arguing that the competition should not be open at global level because the building will be representing Indian heritage and culture, and Indian architects are more familiar with it
FOREIGN PRACTICES IN INDIA
1. Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts Competition, 1986
9
5. Facts with the issue- Supporting the idea of global level competition, one can argue that the only selection criterion here is good, responsive and contextual design. Also this is a 2 stage competition. At the end of first stage the jury will select 9 entries with best concepts and those 9 entries will move to second stage where they’ll submit design. Thus this competition is fairer in nature.
3. Results- Populous which is the branch of one of the America’s largest firm HOK, won the competition and has been awarded the contract.
Inferences- the only significant inference from this competition is that the foreign firms taking part in the design competitions of India and getting the contract is advantageous as long the only selection criterion is based on the quality of design, because we can always learn and get inspired from good design.
5.Facts against the issue- Both COA and IIA raised valid concerns against organizing the competition on global level and awarding the contract to a foreign firm. They also sent letters to the government objecting the process of selection.
3. Redevelopment of Pragati Maidan Convention Center, 2016
b. IIA said that the competition of this scale should have a more transparent way if selection so it’s fairer and based on design.
The competition aimed for selection of an architect for the redevelopment of Pragati Maidan complex envisages development of 3, 26,065 sq. m. of built up area in 2 phases. The redevelopment can facilitate in making Delhi NCR a globally competitive meetings, Conventions and Exhibition destination.
4. The Issue- the problem came up when the contract was awarded to a foreign architectural firm called Populous.
a. The letter sent by COA states that the tender privileges financial statement of the bidders with less emphasis on design.
c. The selection process was also as per the COA guidelines in the provision of architects’ act of 1972- argues architect Vijay Garg. d. IIA clearly established that the focus was on the lowest bid, which is not ideal. 6. Facts with the issue- The fact presented against the objection made was that the contract was awarded to Populous because they fulfilled the pre-selection criteria and have a varied experience in similar kind of projects all over the world. Inferences-
Populous website- Masterplan of the project
b. Also this design does not require much technical expertise (in which the foreign firms specialize), thus it could have been given to an Indian architect.
Source: http://populous.com
c. The project of this scale will easily involve Rs. 2,000 crores of public money and choosing the lowest bid over the good design is completely unfair to the Indian architects. 1. Entries- The international level competition attracted entries from all over the world. Several Indian and foreign architects participated and submitted their design.
ARCHI-CHAKKAR
2. Pre-Qualification- The competition has number of pre-qualification selection criteria: a. They must have experience of successfully completed similar works during the last 10 years. b. Their Average annual financial turnover should be not less than 5.26 Crore during the immediate last 3 consecutive financial year. c. If the architect is participating as joint venture, number of members in a Joint Venture shall not be more than two. d. If the contract is awarded to a Joint Venture firm, both parties should be liable to the NBCC.
10
4. Mumbai City Museum North Wing Design Competition, December 2013
Mumbai City MuseumSteven Holl Architects
FOREIGN PRACTICES IN INDIA
a. It is definitely not advantageous to our architectural firms that the government is bringing in foreign players for designing such projects- which will be the image of the city ad must represent the India heritage (being close to Lutyens Delhi).
Source: http://www.stevenholl.
11
5. Competition for Patna Museum, Bihar, 2011
It was a 2-stage competition, in which the first stage was the open call for the participation through EOI and the second stage required the submission of final designs by the shortlisted entries. 1. Number of Participants and ratio of Indian and foreign entries- The competition received more than 100 expressions of interest from renowned national and international firms at the first stage of the competition. Out of which 8 teams were shortlisted to present their final designs to a panel of eminent jury members. Studio Mumbai led by Architect Bijoy Jain was the only shortlisted Indian architectural firm. 2. Pre-Qualifications- For participation the competition required the teams to be governed by a lead consultant, by whose name the submissions would be identified. The teams should: - Appropriate in size and skills - Have strong sense of originality, contemporary and conceptual design - Have creative approach with modernisation and sustainability - Understand and reflect in the design- the creativity of museums
PATNA MUSEUM by Maki and Associates + Opolis Source:http://www.maki-and-associates.co
The global level competition for Patna Museum was organized by State Government of Bihar to design an international standard museum in order to store the precious artefacts. The museum is being built at a prime location in the heart of the city at Bailey Road, beside the Patna High Court in area of 13.5 acres. The competition drew several renowned architects from around the world. 1. Number of Participants and ratio of Indian and foreign entries- 26 design entries were received by the government at stage 1. 5 entries were then shortlisted, which were also displayed at Patna Museum for public viewing. These entries were foreign firms with collaboration of local partners.
straints.
2. Pre-Qualification- The competition was open to global architectural firms each with their Indian architect partner. The competition required the participants to have the following expertise:
- Pre-Qualification Questionnaire- This consisted of questions to gather general information and details about the firm and the lead consultant- from the basic information to the details of past projects.
• Design • Graphic Design • Electrical and Mechanical • Engineering • Lighting • Multimedia/Video • Image Procurement • Writing/Editing • Historian, Art and other experts
- For foreign firms the collaboration with local architects was also encouraged.
3. Results- Maki and associates, based in Japan with collaboration of Mumbai based firm Opolis were awarded with the contract of the 380 crores project.
- Expertise within the parameters- design, quality, budget, programme and site con
3. The Result- The contract was awarded to the Steven Holl architects based in New York, who collaborated with the local partner Opolis based in Mumbai.
ARCHI-CHAKKAR
12
Inferences-
Inferences-
However the ratio of Indian to foreign shortlisted entries was low, the competition followed the COA regulations and there were only design specific pre-qualification criteria. Also the winning entry collaborated with the local partner; hence the foreign firm designing the buildings is not doing any harm to the Indian practices.
As per the jury, all the 5 shortlisted entries were equally competitive. The second placed entry quoted 30 percent of the building cost whereas the winning entry- Maki and Associates + Opolis only quoted the half of it. In this case although the lowest bid was chosen but it was the primary concern. Additionally the foreign firm entered the competition with the local partner- therefor followed the regulations of Architects Act of 1972 as well.
FOREIGN PRACTICES IN INDIA
The competition invited architects around the world to design the expansion of the Mumbai City Museum also known as Dr Bhau Daji Lad Museum (125,000 sq ft). The competition was organized by Malcolm Reading Consultants on behalf of the Museum with the combination of international standards for architectural competitions and Council of Architecture (India) guidelines.
13
Analysis Analyzing the Large scale case studies in similar manner a matrix showing the various parameters of the buildings was achieved at the end.
Therefore, In order to enhance the architecture of the city, selection of the architect for a particular project should solely be based on the capability of the architect to deliver the appropriate design.
COMPETITIONS
Whether the architect selected is foreign or Indian should not be the priority while selecting.
PreQualificat ion
Number of Indian and foreign entries
INFORMATION MATRIXCompetitions Source: Author
ARCHI-CHAKKAR
14
Competition for Patna Museum, Bihar, 2011
Mumbai City Museum North Wing Design Competition, December 2013
Redevelopment of Pragati Maidan Convention Centre, 2016
Ralph Lerner
Maki Assosiates
Steven Holl Architects
Populous
All the architects globally who are registered in their respective countries.
Open to global level, expertise in design and related realms were only asked
The general skills and expertise of the firm
Experience of similar projects in past 10 years with turnover of ₹5.26 cr.
Among 926 applications, 620 were foreign. Among 5 finalists, 1 was Indian
Not disclosed. 26 global Among 100 Populous entries, 8 finalist entries received. chosen. 1 was (branch of HOK) awarded the Finally 5 were Indian among project. shortlisted. final 8
Design sympathetic Criteria and responsive for to history and selection architecture of India
Design and quoted fee were main criteria
Design was only the priority.
The lowest bid was chosen.
PROJECTS TATA Housing, Amantra, Kalyan
Bluejay Sunshine Hills, Bangalore
Mahindra World City, Chennai
Lavasa Township, Pune
Architect
HOK
BDP
HOK
HOK
Intention of Client
From website, it’s clear that the intention is solely branding and marketing
The saleability is the only reason for selection of architect
Focus was on social infrastructure and unique requirements of the projects
Focus in providing sustainable, walkable, clean and modern lifestyle to its residents .
NA
IGBC gold 2 international awards Highly
4 international awards
Received average rating, not successful in spite of foreign architect
Highly satisfied by the quality of spaces
Highly satisfied due to its unique location, structure and workability
Pre-certified Awards gold by IGBC for sustainability
User
Experience
Satisfied due to locality and market value
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSON
THE INFLUX OF FOREIGN FIRMS IS BENEFICIAL TO INDIAN ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICES AS LONG AS THE DESIGN IS THE ONLY CRITERION FOR SELECTION OF THE ARCHITECT.
The private large scale projects who also hired foreign architects have been successful both in terms of returns and user reviews where the developer and the project had special requirement for hiring the foreign architect. For example the TATA Amantra, Mahindra World City and Lavasa Township.
The IGNCA compettition encouraged the culture of collaboration thus benefitted bothe the foreign and Indian architectural counterparts. In the case of Patna and Mumbai Museum, the quality of design was the primary prefernce. Also the collaboration with the local partners enhanced the architecture in terms of culture and context. Lastly, the Pragati Maidan Convention Center competition was not as ideal as others only because the financial bid was given priority instead of the deasign quality.
Whereas the projects, where the idea of branding and salability becomes the primary concern and design is somewhat placed on the backfoot, the success rate drops.
INFORMATION MATRIXProjects Source: Author
FOREIGN PRACTICES IN INDIA
Winner
Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts Compétition, 1986
15
IMPACTS POSITIVE IMPACTS 1. TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE- The design solutions provided by foreign architects are well integrated with the high end technologies, which is what the local partners can learn from them.
Towards the end of the presentation, the attention is drawn to the intention behind discussing all these aspects of practice in India, which is the Betterment of the architecture of the city
2. EXCHANGE OF CULTURE- When designing the building in India, the foreign architect brings with him his own culture and understanding of the program which is visible in his buildings. Therefore making the project and it’s neighbourhood more diverse and rich.
And in this process, Betterment of Architectural practice as a profession in India would mean:
3. OPTIONS TO CHOOSE FROM- By having the options (both foreign and local architects), the Indian clients have a privilege to select the best and most efficient design from a good number of options.
Comparable fee structure for both foreign and Indian practices
NEGETIVE IMPACTS 1. UNEQUAL COMPETITION- The Foreign practices challenge the Indian firms at the pre-qualification level in terms of turnover, the experience of the kind of projects etc
Sense of responsibility and liability
2. INCOMPARABLE FEES- The Foreign practices charge huge fees which are very high as compared to Indian architects. This also increases the project cost.
Equal platform to test the capabilities
REFLECTIONS Healthy competition between the foreign and Indian counterparts.
Some initiatives which can be taken to ensure that the foreign architectural practices in India have a positive impact on the local architecture and practice:
Source: Author
ARCHI-CHAKKAR
The idea of Reciprocity
Structured way for Transfer of Knowledge
COMMENTS The chairperson inquired if India has a Reciprocal registration with any foreign country, which was answered as a no. The audience pointed out that the presentation was mainly based on a single perspective that the knowledge transfer is one way- from foreign to Indian counterparts. Condradictory to this, examples were also given and the discussion ended by suggesting that there should be ways to promote a two-way learning sytem between local and foreign partners for the benefit of both.
FOREIGN PRACTICES IN INDIA
Fair platform for competition for Indian Practices
REFLECTIONS towards better mutual learning
REFLECTIONS towards better ‘Architecture’
Source: Author
16
17