Part I:_Fundamentals of Structure and Motion of the Human BodyChapter 1:Parts of the Human BodyChapter 2: Mapping the Human BodyChapter 3: Skeletal Tissues Chapter 1: Major Divisions of the Human BodyHuman body can be divided into two major sections: AXIAL body and APPENDICULAR bodyAXIAL BODY: central core axis of the body and contains following body parts: Head, Neck, TrunkAPPENDICULAR BODY: made up of appendages that are "added onto" the axial bodyCan be divided into the right and left upper extremities and the right and left lower extremities UPPER EXTREMITY contains Shoulder girdle, Arm, Forearm, HandLOWER EXTREMITY contains Pelvis, Thigh, Leg, FootBODY PART is part of the body that can move independently of another body part that is next to itGenerally it is the presence of a bone within a body part that defines that body partExamples: humerus defines the arm; radius and ulna define the forearm"Important"Important: Must distinguish the thigh from the legThe thigh is between the hip joint and knee joint, where the leg is between the knee joint and the ankle jointMust distinguish the arm from the forearmThe arm is between the shoulder joint and the elbow joint, where the forearm is between the elbow joint and wrist joint Shoulder girdle contains the scapulae and the claviclesShoulder girdle is also known as pectoral girdleThe pelvis as a body part includes the pelvic girdle of bonesContains the two pelvic bones, the sacrum, and the coccyxHuman body has 11 major body parts:HeadNeckTrunkPelvisThighLegFootShoulder girdleArmForearmHandThe Presence of a JOINT separates one body part from the body part next to itA joint is located between each two adjacent body partsWhen we say that a body part moves, our general rule will be that the body part moves relative to another body part that is next to itMovement occurs at the jointChapter 2: Mapping the Human BodyThe field of kinesiology uses directional terms of relative location to describe and communicate the location of a structure of the body or a point on the bodyThese terms similar to geographic directional terms such as north and south, east and westWe map the space around the human body by describing the three dimensions or planes of spaceIt is very important to understand the orientation of the planes in the filed of kinesiology since when the body moves, motion of body parts occurs within these planesConcept of an axis is explored because most body movements are axial movements that occur within a plane and around an axisAs you learned in Chapter 1, when motion of the human body occurs, a body part moves relative to an adjacent body part at the joint that is located between them; and if this motion is an axial movement, then it occurs within a plane and around an axis"To name this movement properly..."To name this movement properly and fully, two things must be stated:1. The name of the body part that is moving2. The joint where the movement is occurringSince joint is located between two major body parts, it can be said that movement occurs between body partsSometimes movement can occur within a major body partThis can occur when major part has two or more smaller body parts, like bones located within itGood example of this is the handThe Hand is considered a major body part and motion of it is described as occurring between it and the forearm at the wrist joint There is a distinction between true movement of a body part and "going along for the ride"For true movement of a body part to occur, the body part must move relative to an adjacent body partAs an example, when a person is moving the right upper extremity, the forearm is movingThe motion that is occurring here is flexion of the forearm at the elbow jointThe hand is NOT moving because its position relative to the forearm is not changing; the hand is just "going along for the ride""Again"Again, when mapping the human body, using specific terminology is key to describing points on this mapIn the following sections are the pairs of directional terms for naming the relative location of structures or points on the human bodyOnce pairs of terms for relative location have been learned, they may be combined to describe a structure of point's location ANTERIOR: farther to the frontPOSTERIOR: farther to the backThese terms can be used for the entire bodyNOTE: The terms ventral/dorsal are often used synonymously with anterior/posteriorVENTRAL: anteriorDORSAL: posteriorMEDIAL: closer to an imaginary line that divides body into left and right halvesLATERAL: farther from an imaginary line that divides body into left and right halves ANATOMIC POSITION: Used to name the location of body parts, structures, and points on the bodyIn this position the person is standing erect, facing forward, with arms at the sides, the palms facing forward, and the fingers and thumbs extendedWhen describing the location of a structure of the human body or the location of a specific point on the human body, always do so in reference to
anatomic positionDescribing a location on the human body involves the use of specific directional terms that describe the location of one structure or point on the body relative to another structure or point on the bodySpecific terminologies exist to help us to avoid the ambiguities of lay languageEmbracing and using these terms is extremely important in the health field"The terms medial/lateral can be..."The terms medial/lateral can be used for the entire body (I.e for axial and appendicular body parts)NOTE: In the forearm and the hand, the terms ulnar/radial can be used instead of medial/lateralULNAR: closer to the ulna, which is more medialRADIAL: closer to the radius, which is more lateralIn the leg, the terms tibial/fibular can be used instead of medial/lateralTABIAL: closer to the tibia,which is more medialFIBULAR: closer to the fibula, which is more lateralSUPERIOR: aboveINFERIOR: belowThe terms superior/inferior are used for the axial body parts only!Examples: The head is superior to the trunk. The trunk is inferior to the head.(Fig.2-4a,pg.21) Examples: The sternum is superior the umbilicus. The umbilicus is inferior to the sternum.(Fig.2-4a,pg.21)PROXIMAL: closer to the axial bodyDISTAL: farther from the axial bodyThe terms proximal/distal are used for the appendicular body parts only!Examples: The arm is proximal to the forearm. The forearm is distal to the arm (Fig.2-4b, pg.21)Examples: The thigh is proximal to the leg. The leg is distal to the thigh (Fig. 2-4b, pg.21)"SUPERFICIAL"SUPERFICIAL: closer to the surface of the bodyDEEP: farther from the surface of the bodyThe terms superficial/deep can be used for the entire body (both axial and appendicular body parts)Examples: The anterior abdominal wall muscles are superficial to the intestines. The intestines are deep to the anterior abdominal wall muscles (Fig. 2-5, pg.22)Examples: The biceps brachii muscle is superficial to the humerus (arm bone). The humerus is dep to the biceps brachii muscle (Fig. 2-5,pg.22) NOTE: Whenever designating a structure of the human body as superficial or deep, it is important to state the perspective from which one is looking at the body. In order to describe motion of the human body, we need to describe or map the space through which motion occursSpace is three-dimensional (3-D), therefore to map space, we need to describe these three dimensions of spacePLANE is used to describe each one of these dimensionsThe word plane literally means flat surface Each of the planes is a flat surface that cuts through space, describing a dimension of spaceThree types of planes exist: SAGITTAL, FRONTAL, and TRANSVERSE SAGITTAL PLANE: a body part can move in an anterior to posterior (or vice versa) directionFRONTAL PLANE: a body part can move in a left to right (vice versa) direction; can also be described as a medial to lateral (or vice versa) direction of movement. Also commonly called coronal planeTRANSVERSE PLANE: a body part can stay in place and spin (I.e rotate). Also commonly called horizontal plane"AXIS"AXIS: (plural=axes) an imaginary line around which a body part movesOften called MECHANICAL AXISMovement around an axis is called AXIAL MOVEMENTWhen a body part moves around an axis, it does so in a circular fashionA movement that occurs around an axis is also called a CIRCULAR MOVEMENTAn axial movement can also be called an ANGULAR MOVEMENT or a ROTARY MOVEMENTNOTE: The terms axial movement, circular movement, angular movement, and rotary movement are all synonymsWhen motion of a body part occurs, it can be described as occurring within a planeFor each one of the three cardinal planes of the body, a corresponding CARDINAL AXIS existsFor every motion that occurs within an oblique plane, a corresponding OBLIQUE AXIS existsThe three planes are the CARDINAL PLANESThe sagittal plane located down the center of the body, divides the body wall into equal left and right halves and is called the MIDSAGITTAL PLANENOTE: Three cardinal planes are defined relative to anatomic positionAny plane that is not purely sagittal, frontal, or transverse is called OBLIQUE PLANESagittal and frontal planes are oriented verticallyThe transverse is oriented horizontally Infinite number of sagittal, frontal, transverse, and oblique planes are possible"MEDIOLATERAL AXIS"MEDIOLATERAL AXIS: line that runs from medial to lateral (or lateral to medial) in directionMovements that occur in the sagittal plane move around a mediolateral axisAlso known as the FRONTAL HORIZONTAL AXIS because it runs horizontally and is located within the frontal planeANTEROPOSTERIOR AXIS: line that runs anterior to posterior (or posterior to anterior) in directionMovements that occur in the frontal plane move around an anteroposterior axisAlso known as the SAGITTAL HORIZONTAL AXIS because it runs horizontally and is located within the sagittal plane SUPERIORINFERIOR AXIS: line that runs from superior to inferior (or inferior to
superior) in directionMovements that occur in a transverse plane move around a superoinferior axisMore commonly referred to as the VERTICAL AXIS because it runs vertically (Text will use Vertical Axis for reference to this line)Chapter 3: Skeletal TissuesMany tissues contribute to the structure and function of the skeletal system, chief among them is bone tissueTissues that are necessary for skeletal system structure and function are cartilage,tendon, ligament, bursae, and tendon sheathsStructurally, bones can be divided into four major categories based upon their shape:Long bones-long and have a longitudinal axis to themlongitudinal axis is the shaft of the bone-at end of shaft is an expanded portion that form a joint (articulates) with another bone-examples: humerus, femur, radius, ulna, tibia, fibula etc.Short bones-short and are approximately as wide as they are long-often described as being cube shaped-examples: carpals of the wrist and tarsals of the ankleFlat bones-flat, broad and thin, with either a flat or curved surface-examples: ribs, sternum, cranial bones of the skull, and scapulaIrregular bones-irregular and do not neatly fall into any of the three preceding categories-neither clearly long, nor short, nor flatexamples: vertebrae of the spine, facial bones of the skull, sesamoid bones (shaped like sesame seed-round)"EPIPHYSIS"EPIPHYSIS: (plural: epiphyses) expanded end of along bone found at each end of the diaphysisPurpose is to articulate (form a joint) with another boneBy expanding, the epiphysis widens out, allowing for larger joint surface, thus increasing the stability of joint Composed of spongy bone with thin layer of compact bone tissue around the peripheryARTICULAR CARTILAGE: covers articular surfaces of a boneSofter tissue than bonePurpose is to provide cushioning and shock absorption for the joint Composed of hyaline cartilageNOTE: articular cartilage has very poor blood supply and thus does not heal well after being damagedThe process of degenerative joint disease (DJD)(or osteoarthritis[OA]) involves degeneration of the articular cartilage at a jointNumber of bones in the human skeleton is usually said to be 206Number can vary slightly from individual to individual Whenever a person has MORE than the usual number of 206, these additional bones are called SUPERNUMERARY BONESWORMIAN BONES: small bones that are sometimes found in the suture joints between cranial bones of the skullParts of a Long BoneDIAPHYSIS: shaft of a long boneIts shape is that of a hollow cylindric tube Purpose is to be a rigid tube that can withstand strong forces without bending or breaking; it must accomplish this without excessive weightComposed of compact bone tissue within layer of spongy bone tissue lining its inside surfaceLocated within its center is the medullary cavity, which contains bone marrow"NOTE"NOTE: All bones are highly metabolic organs that require rich blood supplyAre all well supplied with arteries and veinsBones are also well innervated with sensory and motor autonomic neurons (nerve cells)Periosteum of bones is particularly well innervated with sensory neuronsBones serve many function in our bodyThere are five major functions of bones:Structural support of the bodyProvide levers for body movementsProtection of underlying structuresBlood cell formationStorage reservoir for calciumBone is a type of CONNECTIVE TISSUE and is composed of bone cells and MATRIXMatrix is often divided into its organic gel-like component and its inorganic rigid componentPERIOSTEUM: surrounds the entire bone, except for the articular surfaces, which are covered with articular cartilageThin dense fibrous membraneHas many purposes:1.To provide site of attachment for ligaments and tendons of muscles2.To house cells that are important in forming and repairing bone tissue3.To house blood vessels that provide vascular supply to the boneMEDULLARY CAVITY: tubelike cavity located within the diaphysis of a long boneHouses soft tissue known as BONE MARROW (red marrow and/or yellow bone marrow)ENDOSTEUM: thin membrane that lines inner surface of bone within the medullary cavityLike the periosteum, it contains cells that are important in forming and repairing bone"Three types of bone cells..."Three types of bone cells exist:OSTEOBLASTS: build up bone tissue by secreting matrix tissue of the boneOSTEOCYTES: when osteoblasts are fully surrounded by the matrix of bone and lie within small chambers within bony matrix. These small chambers are called lacunae (singular: lacuna)OSTEOCLASTS: break down bone tissue by breaking down the matrix tissue of the boneORGANIC MATRIX:the gel-like matrix of bone adds to the resiliency of boneComposed of collagen fibers and gel-like osteoid tissue Gel-like osteoid tissue contains large molecules called proteoglycans. Their major purpose is to trap fluid so that bone tissue does not become too dry and brittleWithin this gel-like proteoglycan mix, collagen fibers are created and
deposited by fibroblastic cellsCollagen fibers add to a bone's tensile strength (its ability to withstand pulling forces)INORGANIC MATRIX: composed of the mineral content of bone (the calcium-phosphate salts of bone)Calcium-phosphate salts are also known as hydroxyapatite crystalsThese salts give bone its rigidity"Flat bones of the skull..."Flat bones of the skull develop by intramembranous ossificationSteps of this for flat bone are outlined on page 54 of your textFONTANEL: Soft spot on an infant's skullSoft in nature because they are areas of the primitive fibrous membrane of the skullThese regions of fibrous membrane still exist in an infant because the process of intramembranous ossification is not yet completeThe presence of soft spots means that a therapist doing body work must exercise caution when working on the head during infanct and child massageFRACTURE HEALING:Fractured bone is a broken bone; broken bone is a fractured bone; two terms are synonymsA fracture is defined as a break in the continuity of a boneBlood vessels will also be broken in the presence of a fractured boneBleeding in the region results in blood clot, which is called a HEMATOMATwo different arrangements of bone tissue exist:1. COMPACT BONE: has a compact ordered arrangement of bone tissue2. SPONGY BONE: has an arrangement of bone tissue that is less compact, containing irregular spaces, that gives this tissue the appearance of a spongeSpongy bone is also known as cancellous boneThe skeleton forms by two major methods:ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION: ossification that occurs within a cartilage model (chondral means cartilage)Most bones of human body develop by thisSteps of endochondral ossification for long bone are outlined on page 53 of your text, fig.3-9 INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATIONS-ossification that occurs within a membraneThis membrane is composed of fibrous tissue"As the hematoma is gradually..."As the hematoma is gradually resorbed, fibrocartilage is deposited in the fracture site This fibrocartilaginous tissue temporarily holds the two broken ends together and is called a CALLUSThis fibrocartilaginous callus then calcifies, resulting in formation of a BONY CALLUSBone is a dynamic living tissue that responds to the physical demands placed on itBone tissue follows WOLFF'S LAW--> "Calcium is laid down in response to stress":-If increased physical stress is placed on a bone, then the bone responds by gaining bony matrix and thickening-If decreased physical stress is placed on a bone, then the bone responds by losing bony matrix and thinningWOLFF'S LAW AND PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT:When pressure is placed on a tissue, slight electric charge results in that tissue, which is known as the piezoelectric effect (piezo means pressure)Importance of this effect is that while osteoblasts can lay down bone in any tissue, osteoclasts are unable to resorb (break down) bone in piezoelectrically charged tissueResult: greater bone mass in region of bone that is under greater pressure (I.e greater patterns of physical stress)This explains-->how and why trabeculae of spongy bone are laid down along lines of stress-->Also explains how it is that bones can literally remodel and change their shape in response to forces placed on them-->Further, explains why it is important to begin movement as soon as it is safely possible after injury or surgery"Two types of Cartilage Cells..."Two types of Cartilage Cells exist:CHONDROBLASTS: build up cartilage tissue by secreting matrix tissue of the cartilageCHONDROCYTES: once mature and fully surrounded by matrix of cartilageMATRIX FIBERS:Fibers of cartilage are collagen and/or elastin fibers Collagen fibers add to the tensile strength of cartilageELASTIN FIBERS add to the elastic nature of elastic cartilageTENDON: connects muscle to a bonefunctions to transmit pulling force of a muscle to its bony attachment, creating movementLIGAMENT: connects a bone to a bone-functions to create stability at a joint by holding bones of a joint togetherNOTE: Both tendons and ligaments are types of dense fibrous connective tissue!Wolff's Law " Gone Bad"When excessive stress is placed on bone, excessive calcium may be deposited in that boneAs bone tissue becomes denser, body starts to place calcium along the outer margins of bone Result: BONE SPUR which can result into DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE (DJD) or OSTEOARTHRITIS (OA)CARTILAGE: type of tissue that is particularly important to the musculoskeletal systemRoles include--> uniting bones of cartilaginous joints -->capping the joint (articular) surfaces of bones of synovial joints->providing the framework for developing bones during process of endochondral ossificationThree types of cartilage exist:HYALINE CARTILAGEFIBROARTILAGEELASTIC CARTILAGE"Tearing a tendon causes inflammation"Tearing a tendon causes inflammation, which is called TENDINITISTearing a ligament is called a SPRAIN
BURSA: flattened sac of synovial membrane that contains film of synovial fluid within itOften located between a tendon and an adjacent joint structure, usually a boneFound in many joints of the body including shoulder joint and ankle joint TENDON SHEATH: sheathlike bursa that envelops a tendonAs a sword fits into a sheath, a tendon may be enclosed in a tendon sheathBursae and tendon sheaths are similar in tissue structure; they differ in shapeTendon sheaths are constructed of synovial membrane tissue, thus also known as synovial tendon sheathsCommonly found in hands and feetRETINACULUM (plural: retinacula)thin sheet of fibrous connective tissue that holds down and stabilizes a structure