MARPHA MASTER PLAN 1
PREFACE Settlement
planning tour is a practical course of study carried out in 5th year/ 1st part as an academic syllabus for students to
expose themselves in remote and rural areas and learn through practical surveys. The tour is carried out for 7-8 days to specific settlement choose by the Department of Architecture. The tour is fully organized under the guidance and support by the Design Studios Professors. It is a tour where students are allowed to have each individual household surveys in group and record the data’s obtained from it. Students are also allowed to interact with villagers to inquire the facilities and problems faced by them in their day to day activities. The recorded data’s are later analyzed and processed for the proposal of design ideas suitable in the place. It is a very different process carried out in design process done usually as our academic part which helps us to learn the physical, environmental and social aspects of the site by our self to give solution to it. It helps to develop our ideas in the course of studies and helps to do design to next level. This report consist of brief history and background to the place of visit and the analytical data’s and its conclusion.
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to express our deep gratitude to our Department of Architecture for providing this opportunity to visit this place as our academic settlement planning tour. We would like to thank our respected HOD, Ar. Baburam Bhattarai for putting effort in making this tour happen successfully. We are very thankful to Prof. Vijay Budhathoki, Associate Prof. Krishna Prasad Bhuju and Associate Prof. Sankalpa Pokhrel for continuous guidance and support throughout the tour. We are thankful to Mr. Bhakti Hirachan and Mr. Kabin Parmachan (Mukhia) for helpful and informative ideas about historical and present scenario of the villages. We would like to thank Mr. Ram Mani Dhakal, Secretary of Jomsom VDC for providing useful information about Mustang district. Lastly, we would like to thank all the villagers of Marpha for their kind cooperation and help throughout the household surveys and analysis of the village.
3
ABSTRACT The report
consist of brief introduction to Mustang district and its background. It also includes background about Marpha village
comprising its history, architecture, religion, culture, economy, climate and people living in it. The report also consist of the analytical data collected from the village from household surveys carried out within it. It also shows the graphical interpretation in pie charts and bar graphs to show the historical and present context of the village. Similarly, a building survey were also carried out to know the vernacular architecture of the village and the solution provided to the problem faced by people living in the houses at this village in extreme conditions. The report also includes the type of infrastructure like drainage, sewages, electricity, water, roads etc. provided to Marpha, Syang and Jomsom villages. Finally, after analyzing all the data collected from household and building surveys, an exquisite design solution was provided to fit with the existing surrounding of the village addressing the problem faced by the people living and passing through the village. The report is finally concluded with all the findings and solutions to it. The report contains abbreviations and reference of the writing.
4
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................................... 9 ABOUT MARPHA ...................................................................................................................................................... 11 HISTORY .................................................................................................................................................. 13 GEOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................................. 14 CLIMATE .................................................................................................................................................. 15 FLORA AND FAUNA.................................................................................................................................. 16 PEOPLE AND SOCIETY .............................................................................................................................. 17 ART AND ARCHITECTURE ......................................................................................................................... 18 ECONOMY................................................................................................................................................. 19
METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................................................... 20 ANALYTICAL CHARTS .............................................................................................................................................. 21 5
COMPARATIVE STUDY ............................................................................................................................................. 49 MARPHA HOUSE .................................................................................................................................................. 602 MEASURED
DRAWING ............................................................................................................................. 623
STRUCTURAL USE
ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 63
OF MATERAIL.................................................................................................................................... 64
STREET FACADE ..................................................................................................................................................... 73 INFRASTRUCTURE.................................................................................................................................................... 75 TYPES OF INFRASTRUCTURE.................................................................................................................................... 76 ROAD .......................................................................................................................................................77 BENI-JOMSOM HIGHWAY................................................................................................................. 78 INNER VILLAGE ROAD ..................................................................................................................... 79 STREET
PATTERNS ................................................................................................................................... 84
WATER ..................................................................................................................................................857 6
ELECTRICITY ............................................................................................................................................ 88 DRAINAGE ............................................................................................................................................... 89 INDIVIDUAL HOUSEHOLD DRAINAGE SYSTEM ............................................................................. 89 OVERALL VILLAGE DRAINAGE SYSTEM ...................................................................................... 90 SEWAGE/SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL ............................................................................................................ 93 POSSIBILITY OF WIND ............................................................................................................................. 94 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY USE ..................................................................................................................... 96
FINDINGS............................................................................................................................................................... 98 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................................... 102 REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................................... 103 ANNEX ................................................................................................................................................................ 104 ABBREVIATION .................................................................................................................................................... 1089
7
MARPHA
JOMSOM
8
INTRODUCTION MUSTANG Mustang District, a part of Dhaulagiri Zone, is one of the seventy-five districts of Nepal. The district, with Jomsom as its headquarters, covers an area of 3,573 km² and has a population (2001) of 14,981. The district straddles the Himalayas and extends northward onto the Tibetan plateau. Upper Mustang, the former Lo Kingdom comprises the northern two-thirds of the district. This kingdom was a dependency of the Kingdom of Nepal but was abolished by the republican Government of Nepal on October 7, 2008. In addition to trekking routes through the Lo Kingdom ("Upper Mustang") and along the Annapurna Circuit in lower Mustang, the district is famous for the springs and village of Muktinath (a popular Hindu and Buddhist pilgrimage site), apples, and Marpha brandy. Mustang was a lost kingdom of Tibet where traditions may remain more Tibetan than in Tibet proper following its annexation by China. The Mustang district comprises following 8 VDC’s:
Charang, Chhonhup, Chhoser, Chhusang
Dhami
Jhong, Jomsom
Kagbeni, Kowang, Kunjo
Lete, Lo Manthang
Marpha
Surkhang
Tukuche
9
10
ABOUT MARPHA Marpha is
a VDC
in Mustang
District. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census it had a population of 1630 people living in 434 individual households. The name itself reflects the "mar" meaning
hard
working
and
"pha"
meaning people. The village is the apple
capital
with Marpha
in
the
nation,
brandy and
jams
produced from local fruits. The village is
a
common
overnight
halt
on
the Annapurna Circuit, less crowded and
touristy
than Jomsom to
the
north. Marpha is a pretty stone lined village
which
has
survived
the
transition to the current time, by catering to trekkers and tourists.
11
BACKGROUND HISTORY GEOGRAPHY CLIMATE FLORA AND FAUNA PEOPLE AND SOCIETY ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE ECONOMY 12
HISTORY Tibet is (vaguely) on the other side of the Marpha. The town is nestled into
the
side
of
the
mountain,
relocated a bunch of generations ago from
the
other
side
of
the
hill
because of the land's fecundity. The village is characterized by the traditional flat mud roofed houses with piles of firewood neatly stacked upon
it.
long main
Wooden spotless
carved
windows,
flagstones,
and
paved alleys are some of the unique features
of
Marpha.
There
are
personal monasteries, which has been there for more than two decades.
13
GEOGRAPHY Marpha is a valley located deep in Canyon of
Kaligandaki
River
just
below the Nilgiri peaks to the east and Dhamphus and Tukuche peak to the west. It is a beautiful village located
near
the
Beni-Jomsom
Sadak, on the way to Jomsom. It lies 7km away from Jomsom. The exact
location
28°47’24”N
would latitude
be and
83°40’48” E longitude. The entire district is drained by ‘Kali Gandaki’ River flowing from north-south.
The
River
is
laden
with heavy sediment giving it the name ‘Kali’, which literally means ‘black’. The elevation ranges from 2100m in the southern part to 5400, and above in the north. The high peaks rise up to 8168m. Most of the human settlement are found at 2100m to 4000m elevation along the Kali Gandaki River.
14
CLIMATE This
place lies in the northern
part
of
Nepal
so
are
cold
throughout the year. The annual lowest temperature is -10ËšC and highest temperature is 10ËšC. Snow fall occurs winter seasons. Similarly, the rainfall is noted to 13mm in January and trends up to 76mm in middle of the August and again steeps down to 9 mm in average in the
end
of
November
till
the
month of December which means it have very rare rainfall.
15
FLORA AND FAUNA Apple is one of the major cash crop grown in this village. Total of more than 30 varieties are grown in this region especially golden delicious, red delicious and royal delicious. Other than apple potato, peas, apricot, pear, almond, citrus, peach are also grown. Pine, cypress and juniper are main fuelwoods found in this area. Sheep, Goat, Cows, Yak and Mules are found in this area which are also used as cash income. Marpha being in Mustang comprises important habitats of rare and endangered faunas such as snow leopards and musk deer’s including yaks grazing around. “Kalis” and Himalayan “Monal” are the special pheasants founds in Mustang.
16
PEOPLE AND SOCIETY The
Thakali’s, an ethnic group once active in the salt trade from
Tibet and across the mountains in western Nepal are the major tribes now. Marpha village is mostly inhabited by Thakalis (Marwatan) representing four district clans: Lalchan (Ruby), Hirachan (Diamond), Jwarchan (Jewel) and Pannachan (Emeralds). Very few in numbers residing in Marpha are dalits. People of Marpha, Syang, Thini, Chhairo, and Chimang villages are sometimes collectively known as Panchgaunle (5 villages), the name used for both the ethnic group and language. Buddhist, Christian, traditional religion. The clans belong to the wealthy group while dalits work for the clans as farming as their major occupation. As the major tribes of Marpha or to be precise of Mustang, are descendents from Tibet, the people follow Tibetan Buddhist culture. A narrative of contemporary life in Marpha however, is not as easily told. On one hand there is the impressive living legacy of Thakali stewardship. On the other we find the story of the laboring Dalit who have grown old and bent working these lands alongside indigenous families. The houses in Marpha line narrow slate-paved passageways. They are small peasant homes with animals in central courtyards. The passageways are just wide enough for an ox or donkey carrying firewood to walk through. The houses are mostly attached to each other so even though the walkway slate is light colored the narrowness of the passages makes for some dim transits. On the southern outskirts of Marpha, on the opposite bank of the Gandaki River is a Tibetan refugee camp, a school and Chhairo gompa, the first Nyingma monastery to be established in Mustang District. Many of the souvenir shops in Marpha are run by residents of the Tibetan refugee camp.
17
ART AND ARCHITECTURE The
Thakali make use of stones and clay for the construction of
houses and fences, limestone for white-washing houses and mud for coloring walls. Split fire woods are stacked and lined on the edges of the flat roofs of every house in town. Fire woods are lined for different reasons: decorations for flat roofs, having lots of wood on roofs presumes you are wealthy. In some cases, the walls go up to three stories with absolutely no grout between the stones standing for centuries. One can walk through a small animal enclosure in the courtyard of a home, climb the stairs, walk down an upstairs, walk way, duck into a doorway, and step into a dark small room that measures about 12 by 18 feet approximately. We can also find the many personal Buddhist monasteries with the nondescript on the doors literally built into the side of the cliff, but the town’s landscape is dominated by a more recent twentieth century monasteries. Many of the monasteries are jammed with Buddha and other gods statues, paintings, various prayer wheels, small nooks with idols, altars with incense, a drum, antique pitchers used for the holy water, and, unbelievably, over a hundred two-hundred-year-old handwritten Buddhist prayer books.
18
ECONOMY The main economic activity of Marpha is Agriculture. The large majority of the people are subsistence farmers who grow maize, millet, barley, wheat, and vegetables. The staple is dhiro, a thick mush made of corn or millet. Many
households
maintain
yaks
and
goats
because
the
mountainous
topography does not provide grazing land for large animals. Tourism and mule rearing are the means of survival of the people of this place. Tourism is the second economic source in this place.
Tourism
has
created
in
locals
engage
in
hotel
and
restaurant business due to overnight halt of tourist passing
by
the
trekking
routes
to
upper
mustang.
However, at present due to roads and vehicles the flow of tourist is minimum in Marpha.
19
METHODOLOGY This report is mainly prepared by using primary data. It includes process of literature review, data collection and their analysis. LITERATURE SURVEY Before commencing the data collection process, we thoroughly studied the secondary data. It helped us gain idea of what the place is like and what kind of information we are going to get. It helped us prepare questionnaire and criteria upon which our research would be based on.
DATA COLLECTION AND SAMPLING This was major part of our report. We surveyed in each households to discover findings that somehow matched with literature review. On the course, we also experienced new discoveries regarding population distribution and building types, ages, etc. With this, we collected much more and fresh information of Marpha. Besides we also got further information through interaction with local villagers, social workers and leaders of the village. Regardless this many new information were also collected on the basis of observation for the further futuristic projects for the development of the village.
DATA ANALYSIS For data analysis, among hand sheet and computerized sheet, we anticipated a commercial spreadsheet package such as MS Excel and interpreted it in pie charts and bar graphs for graphical representation, color mapping and presentation.
20
ANALYTICAL CHARTS
21
RESPONSE
210
POPULATION
NO RESPONSE
44%
56% Total
Total
DISTRIBUTION population
of
overall
Marpha
village is 401 with male 208 and female 194. In block 'B' only 56% responses are
106 104
recorded in demography. Among them, Male
population distribution is found as total 210 with male 106 and female 104. Among the present population, youths
Female
were found the least. Children and working group was found the highest
22
PERMANANT MIGRATION Among
30%
of
responses
about
permanent migration, 21 % of have been permanently migrated to other city. Most of them shifted to Kathmandu, few to Pokhara and Beni. Very few among them have
migrated
to
another
village.
Permanent migration in Thakali is analyzed to be for better lifestyle and moderate climate. Whereas in occupational groups, most of the migration took place after marrying.
Son
brothers
living
living
with
together
parents, split
and
migrated. This is probably because of small houses not able to provide enough space and privacy for new family. 23
TYPE OF FAMILY 53% No Response
Despite
the expectation, most of the
family in village was found nuclear type. 40% of total household were nuclear family and only 7% were joint. The
40% Nuclear Family
reason of this data is concluded because of the migration towards town
of
new
generation
7% Joint Family
24
TEMPORARY MIGRATION 11%
of
member
household from
temporarily
responded
that
their
family
has
been
migrated
to
city
and
abroad. 9% said nobody has migrated. 80% is door locked or no responsive. Major reason for migration was study. Since there was no high school and colleges in Marpha, youths were fund migrated
to
Pokhara,
Beni
and
Kathmandu. Few have been abroad for higher studies. Migration for study is very less in occupational family whereas migration
for
economy
is
lesser
in
Thakali's.
25
FAMILY STATUS Retired
Among
5%
our
population
distribution,
major percentage is of working group i.e.
56%
Working
56%. Not working population is 5%. College going are 6% and school children are 24%. Infants are 9%. Most of the children from Thakali attends school at
College
Jana
6%
Jyoti
high
school
at
Jomsom.
Occupational group children attend Jana Bal, government school at Marpha. Few children from Thakali community has also
School Children
24%
attended Jana Bal. Since Jana Bal is only
up
to
class
10,
children
from
occupational group, which cannot afford Infant
9%
to
migrate
are
deprived
of
higher
studies. There was no preprimary or day care institution for infants.
26
USE OF RENTER Among
all, 10 % of buildings are in
rent while all other possess their own house. Among the collected data, 60% of renters are shop keepers. 30% have only
used
purpose.
The
building renters
for for
residential shop
are
mostly from Tibet refugee camp and they run souvenir shop for tourists. Such shops makes market in Marpha's major street. The
renters
of
residences
are
from
occupational groups. They reside in older and smaller houses in corners and minor streets.
27
28
CASTE DISTRIBUTION
Thakali
24%
We have counted, 24% are Thakali, 29%
Occupational group
are occupational and only 3% are other
29%
cast. Just like Thakali, occupational group are also residing from ages. Thakali are residing at Major Street and are well off.
Other
Their houses are distinctly bigger and
3%
maintained. Thakali are involved in tourism sector. Occupational groups are residing at corners and on Minor Street. Their houses
No Response
are in poor condition and generally small.
44%
None of them are involved in tourism but in farming. They work for Thakali in farm, hotels, as potters. There is huge economy difference between Thakali and occupational group but social harmony can be seen.
29
30
37%
Nepali
LANGUAGE Among
15%
46% of responses, 37% household
said that they speak Nepali at home. 15%
Thakali
said they speak Thakali. 4% said they speak other Others
4%
languages.
Tibetan.
Among
other,
few
are
Even in families speaking Thakali,
children speak Nepali. Few speaks both. One of the respondent told us that one of their child residing with them speak Thakali but the other who have been away from home for study do not.
44%
No Response
It seems thakali community is less aware of consrving their local language.
31
32
RELIGION Among Hinduism
27%
our population distribution, major
percentage is of working group i.e. 56%. Not working population is 5%. College going are 6% and school children are 24%. Infants
23%
Buddhism
are 9%. Most of the children from Thakali attends school at Jana Jyoti high school at Jomsom.
Occupational
group
children
attend Jana Bal, government school at Others
6%
Marpha.
Few
children
from
Thakali
community has also attended Jana Bal. Since Jana Bal is only up to class 10,
44%
No Response
children
from
occupational
group,
which
cannot afford to migrate are deprived of higher studies. There
was
no
preprimary
or
day
care
institution for infants.
33
34
OCCUPATION 34%
Agriculture
According
Other
found Business
5%
45%
14%
that
occupationally
most
of
based
on
the
family
Agriculture.
are Since
Marpha is touristic area Business like Hotel, shop are the second priority of people over there. But since highway replace the trek route
and
Jomsom, No Response
to the quantitative survey, it is
transport
tourism
of
people
directly
Marpha
is
to
declining
which make people focus in agriculture rather than business. Mainly the houses on the primary road are doing business while other are based on agriculture. Some people are
2%
Office
doing job in office like village development committee office, woman health center, post box office etc. In other mentioned in chart, occupation like making utensils, making cloths, factory, taking care of other’s cowshed etc. are analyze. 35
36
USE OF BUILDING A
31%
3%
1%
65%
Among
257 buildings in block ‘B’ Marpha,
168 were animal shades. i.e. 65%. 31% other are residences. 3% being public building and only 1% is religious monastery. Among 168 animal
shades,
only
around
20
were
functioning. All other are abandoned and in very poor condition. These animal shades were reported as floor (oats) mill in the past.
But
with
modern
machines
and
installment of factory, those mills are now turned into animal shade (goth). All the buildings are vernacular with use of timber as parapet in roof. As said, grains were sun Residence
Public Building
Religious
Animal Shade
dried at terrace.
37
PUBLIC BUILDING
DALIT KARYALAYA
VDC OFFCIE
ARCHERY SPACE MONASTRY
COMMUNITY LIBRARY PANCHAYAT BUIDLING
FACTORY AND COMMUNITY HALL
38
39
AGE OF BUILDING Marpha being oldest settlement have most of the vernacular buildings with age more than 100 years. The house has been legacy from more than 2-3 generations. 24% building are of average age built or re-built at recent times but most of them are still on old foundation. Few 16% are less than 50 years. Only one is under construction.
50-100 years: 24% Others: 1%
<50 years: 59% >100 years: 59%
40
41
DESIGN TYPOLOGY Almost 10%
Linear
all of the buildings are courtyard
type. Among them 43% houses are still open courtyard while 24% of the building has covered the court with corrugated GI
24%
Closed Courtyard
sheets. Few has used transparent sheet for light. Open courtyard is a good building form for building types in cold climate
23%
Compact
where there is no big opening towards outside. Courtyard provides good ventilation as well as light.
43%
Open Courtyard
Since there was no rain in the past, only snowfall in the name of precipitation. They use to shovel out snow. But now thereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s often rainfall. 23% of building are compact type. Very few 10% are linear.
42
43
A
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE A
Almost 97%
2%
1% Modern
Hybrid Vernacular
all
of
the
building
in
Marpha
are
vernacular architecture i.e. 97%. Few 2% building are hybrid due to re-construction. During reconstruction, building faรงade has been continued as in the vernacular. Floor heights, structure and functional aspects are as per modern need. 1% of modern
building
is
totally
contemporary
architecture also being true to its material. Snow leopard hotel is the example. This building has rebuilt,
modified
and
re-modified
the
existing
vernacular building for commercial purpose.
44
45
ARCHITECTURAL VALUE A r
74%
c
Low
Architectural
value of 74% building has been
found low due to large chunk of animal shade. Among other used buildings 16% have medium value
16%
and 10% have high architectural value. Medium
10%
High
46
47
CONDITION OF BUILDING CONDITION
Since
OF BUILDING
most of the building of low architectural
value are abandoned and their condition is poor.
BUILDING
Most of the building with high architectural value Good Moderate Poor
are in poor condition due to the owner migrated
8 %
permanently. Among other useable buildings 8% are in good condition and 12 % are in moderate.
12 % 80 %
48
COMPARATIVE STUDY MARPHA: The whole settlement of the Marpha is divided into two blocks. Red pattern in map shows block ‘A’ and blue pattern shows block ‘B’. Each block was surveyed by different groups The data analyzed by each group is further compared and complied in this report. Through the data collected, the history of the settlement of overall Marpha and development in architectural style along with materials is analyzed. The occupation of the people, use of the building and the age of building is compared, which tells the history about the settlement. While the Architectural Style, Architectural Value and Condition of building is also compared. The analyzed information has been summarized and complied in this report.
49
OCCUPATION
USE OF BUILDING 50
HISTORY ABOUT THE SETTLEMENT OF MARPHA: As
it
was
found
in
settlement in Marpha.
history,
Tibetan
people
started
their
By studying the building ages of oldest
building in northern part of Marpha, we found out that previously the settlement was limited over there in small area. Gradually with increased
numbers
of
trekkers
and
pilgrims
to
Muktinath,
settlement gradually grew up along the major street. They started shop and other businesses. Since the pilgrims from Brahmin and Chettri cast do not eat cooked by Thakali, so separate kitchen was built for them. The dark hall with chulo at center, nearby community tap is still existing. Later settlement started to grow around monastery. The older houses were abandoned and they turned into ‘uwa mill’. But with modern machine and factory for grounding ‘uwa’, the mill houses turned into animal shade. This made large group of animal shade at one zone and settlement on other zone. Large number of occupational groups are found at backside of Thakali settlement and the age of their building are more than 100 years. This suggest that occupational group either
AGE OF BUILDING
migrated and built their own house or buy the old house of Thakali who shifted towards road. Most of the occupational group are economical depend on agriculture. Lately with establishment of highway, the Thakali settlement has expanded along the road in linear way for business purpose.
51
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE
ARCHITECTURAL VALUE 52
STUDY OF ARCHITECTURAL STYLE OF MARPHA: Marpha is marked by vernacular architecture. The northern part is old and abandoned buildings and are pure vernacular without any modification. The existing settlement along Major Street though are vernacular but have gone multiple modification with some hybrid design typology. They are in good condition as economy of the people is better and they can afford to import and improve design value in their buildings. While the building residing by occupational group
is
old,
vernacular,
low/medium
architectural
value
in
moderate/poor condition because of the low economy and back sided settlement. The new buildings nearby highway are in even better condition as they are newly built. These buildings are mostly opened for shop, hotel, lodge and restaurant. These are functionally modern but hybrid in faรงade treatment trying to continue the uniformity of existing buildings.
CONDITION OF BUILDING 53
MARPHA- SYANG- JOMSOM:
MARPHA
SYANG
54
ARMY BARRACK
JOMSOM We had done detail study of Marpha
and overall study of Syang and Jomsom settlement. In our visit we noticed old Marpha,
Syang, and old Jomsom had vernacular architecture with less modification to the architectural style. The building condition and architectural value of Marpha is better than in Syang which proves Marpha is better in economic condition than Syang. Major occupation of Syang is agriculture whereas Marpha is tourism. New settlement in Jomsom has modern contemporary buildings along highway. A linear form of settlement is established with inmigrants for purpose of business and tourism. Most of the buildings in new Jomsom are used for hotel, shop, restaurant, banks, money exchange and all other services targeting tourism. The area is called Jomsom bazzar (market) and is lively due to flow of tourists. Most of the buildings here are contemporary types which eliminates the feeling of being in Himalaya region. Unlike other settlement, new Jomsom have other caste like Gurung in-migrant for business. It proves, in-migration has occurred a lot in Jomsom bazzar.
55
USE OF BUILDING Maximum numbers of building of Syang is residence or animal shed while the building of Marpha and jomsom have hotel, shops, and restaurants because of the tourism. New jomsom have more business orientated building than in old jomsom.
SYANG
JOMSOM 56
ARCHITECUTURAL VALUE The architectural value of the building in Marpha and Jomsom differ to high, medium and low depending on the age and maintenance. While the building of Syang is old and the economy of Syang is also poor so due to old age and lack of maintenance the value of building over there differs to medium and low. Only three buildings have high architectural value.
SYANG
JOMSOM 57
CONDITION OF BUILDING Condition of building depends on the use of the building. Depending on the function of building the condition of all three villages differs from Good, Moderate and Poor.
SYANG
JOMSOM Most of the animal sheds are in poor condition. Residence of occupational group are moderate or poor in condition while the Thakali who are occupationally depended on tourism have houses in good condition. Maximum numbers of building in syang are of moderate or poor condition while jomsom have good condition buildings.
58
CASTE DISTRIBUTION Though Thakali are the original people settled over there, Marpha inhabitant the occupational group and occupational group as well as Gurung people settled in Jomsom, while syang still have Thakali settlement. Which conclude that the people migrate over there where there is more opportunity of occupation.
SYANG
JOMSOM Trek route previously passes through Marpha, so the hotel, shops, restaurants were established on the route which increased the job opportunity as well as migration. The development of Jomsom with the establishment of airport and other infrastructure, increase the tourism as well as business which make people migrate and settled over there. Tourism, business as well as migration lack in syang.
59
OLD SETTLEMENT OF MARPHA VILLAGE
SETTLEMENT OF MARPHA VILLAGE
60
SETTLEMENT OF SYANG VILLAGE
SETTLEMENT OF NEW JOMSOM
SETTLEMENT OF JOMSOM
SETTLEMENT OF OLD JOMSOM
61
MARPHA HOUSE
OWNER
: Dev Bahadur Bika
OCCUPATION
: Making Metal Utensils 62
M
EASURED
To
DRAWING
understand about the vernacular architecture of Marpha village, we did measure drawing of one residential building of Marpha
village. The reason for the selection of this building was ancient and less modification. This residential accommodate four family members. More than 100 years old this building has not lost its architectural style though maintenance is done as per required. As shown in the plan below, ground floor allocated working space, tap, water closet, cow shed and storage of wood and utensil made while first floor plan have Bed room, Living room, Store, Open kitchen with lobby and balcony. The building typology is courtyard of one and half storey.
BALCONY
KITCHEN
W/C UP
LIVING/DINING
DN
WOOD STORE OPEN COURTYARD
LOBBY
STORE OFFICE STORE
WORKING
OPEN BELOW
BEDROOM
TAP
BALCONY
SPACE GROUND FLOOR PLAN
BALCONY
FIRST FLOOR PLAN 63
S
TRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
The wall thickness of building is 14” which thermally insulate building and maintains room temperature. Due to thick wall, though the building stand in Himalayan region, people living in this building responded to the query that they do not need any active heating method. Ground floor plan have 4” wooden pillar with three layers of wooden rafters. Over wooden beam the wooden plank is placed with stone and mud floor finishing. The depth of slab is deeper in balcony space than in other parts. STONE AND MUD FLOOR FINISH
WOODEN RAFTERS
WOODEN POST
STONE WALLS
64
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
U WALL
: Stone wall with mud mortar white washed with lime
FLOOR
: Mud and Stone flooring
ROOF
: Wooden beam with wooden planks
SE
OF MATERAIL
PAVEMENT : Chiseled stone slabs DOOR AND WINDOW: Wood
WOODEN RAFTERS
STONE WALLS
WOOD STACK ON ROOF
WOODEN POST
65
WASHING AREA AND COUTRYARD
WORKING SPACE AND STORE
COW SHED
TYPE OF STAIRCASE 66
PLANS
67
68
69
70
SECTION THROUGH Y-Y
SECTION THROUGH X-X
71
72
The
position of the building we measured the street faรงade is
shown in plan. Ten continuous building street faรงade is measured and shown in the figure below. In the building we measured, different architectural style, value and condition can be seen. All the building except for two houses is in hybrid style while rest of other are vernacular. Stone wall with wooden door and windows is the major character of the building in Marpha. Different types of door and window can be seen. The door of shops are big is size and leveled up while the door for residence is small in size.
73
The style of door and window differ with the age of building. Old buildings have decorated windows while in new building window are glass glazed and less decorated. Similarly, the old doors are more decorated and in poor condition than new one. The doors are bigger for shops and smaller in residence. The door of Ghumba is highly decorated with the roller
STREET FACADE
(Mane) in right wall. The purpose of each building is listed below: Building 1: Residence cum shop
Building 6: Residence cum shop
Building 2: Residence cum shop
Building 7: Post Office
Building 3: Residence cum shop
Building 8: Residence
Building 4: Residence cum shop
Building 9: Dhaulagiri Guest House
Building 5: Ghumba gate
Building 10: Residence
74
INFRASTRUCTURE Infrastructure
is the facility like Road, Water, Electricity, Drainage etc., serving the certain area. Recently, our group completed
survey in Marpha and Jomsom VDC. According to the survey data we have analyzed the facilities of infrastructure that has been served to the people over there. Our team of eight members visited Marpha, Syang and Jomsom village and conducted the quantitative survey. We performed household as well as building survey in Marpha Village whereas in Syang and Jomsom we collected the information and opinion about the infrastructure that has been provided. According to the research done we have prepared this report and allocated all the obtained information in it.
75
TYPES OF INFRASTRUCTURE There are different types of infrastructure in any area. For the development of any place, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the responsibility of government to facilitate that area with infrastructure. In Marpha, Syang and Jomsom, village we realize that the development of infrastructure cannot be totally credited to Nepal Government despite some of the organizations like Ama samuha, Dalit Sangathan and Panchayat committee should be equally attributed. Though the Panchayat system is no more in power in Nepal, these villages still have Mukhia with his power. Road, Electricity, Water are the infrastructure provided to the people of mustang district by Nepal Government while the facilities like drainage, sewage/solid waste disposal are managed by people themselves with the help of different committees.
76
ROAD Road is one of the important infrastructure. Road link up two places and opens different possibilities of development of any area. 37 km long BENI-JOMSOM highway is the only road connecting Marpha, Syang and Jomsom. Though the highway pass by these villages, highway does not cross Marpha, Syang and Jomsom. All these Villages have their own stone paved non-vehicular road. Road of Mustang can be categories into two divisions:
BENI-JOMSOM highway
Inner-Village Road.
WAY TO MUKTINATH
SYANG JOMSOM
MARPHA
BENI-JOMSOM HIGHWAY WAY TO BENI 77
BENI-JOMSOM HIGHWAY Before construction of Beni-Jomsom Highway, means of transportation was either walking or horse ride. . 1 week walking distance from Marpha to Beni is subtracted to 1 day travel distance by this highway. 12m wide, unpaved highway start from Beni to Upper Mustang. The drainage channel passes at right of the highway and the highway also serves the electric pole to pass in its right side at certain interval. The advantages and disadvantage highway leads to the village and people over there are list about below: Advantages: 1. Shorten the distance between village and Beni Sahara. 2. Increase possibilities of trade and marketing. 3. Enhance other infrastructures in village. 4. Increase people in the village. Disadvantages: 1. Discourage the tourist, as highway replaces the trek route. 2. Noise and environment pollution. 3. Damage agriculture and health due to dust and dirt. 4. Increase out migration.
78
INNER VILLAGE ROAD MARPHA
Curve
Marpha Road is paved with flag stone. The marpha road leaves the
Beni-Jomsom Highway and passes through the village and re-joins with the highway at the end of village. Houses are arranged at either sides of the road. The width of the road varies from 6’ to 8’ depending of the topography of the place. The road inside the village can be divided as primary, secondary and tertiary road. Primary roads are the main roads with hotels and shops in either sides. Secondary roads are smaller than primary road and these roads contains houses on either sides. Tertiary road connects secondary road and are
Fig 1.1 Plan of primary road
very narrow. Primary and secondary roads are paved with dressed flag stone. Tertiary road are not paved. Primary road have big flag stone in its right side beneath which the drainage of the overall village is set-up. The big size stone is not permanently fix, it is placed as a covering of drainage channel. Big size stone is placed so that it can’t be misplaced easily (fig 1.1, 1.2).
79
Fig 1.2 Section of primary road
Primary Road
Tertiary Road
Secondary Road
80
SYANG
Similar to Marpha
road, syang road also leaves and re-connect with
highway at starting and ending respectively. 8â&#x20AC;&#x2122;wide syang road differ from Marpha road in one thing i.e. It does not have big stone as drainage covering. Despite, Syang road have man holes in certain interval. It is also paved by undressed irregular stones. The plan and section of the syang road is shown in the figure. Fig 2.1 Plan of Syang road
Fig 2.2 Section of Syang road
81
JOMSOM
As we all know, there is old Jomsom and new Jomsom. New jomsom locating at Marpha VDC road structure differ from the Old Jomsom of Jomsom VDC. The government office area also have different road structure. So the road of jomsom can be divided into three type according to the location. Road of New Jomsom is much wider and
Old Jomsom Road
managed than the road of Old Jomsom. 24â&#x20AC;&#x2122;
Fig 3.1 Plan of new
wide (8m) road of New Jomsom is a vehicular
Jomsom road
road with street lamp and proper drainage facilities. 2m in either side is a footpath and 4m in center is the vehicular road. Footpath is dressed regular stone paved while vehicular road is undressed irregular stone paved (fig 3.1, 3.2). The street lamp is placed at 40â&#x20AC;&#x2122; interval. The buildings along the road are hotel, shops, and business orientated.
New Jomsom Road
Road of Old Jomsom and the road of syang both are similar (fig 2.1, 2.2)
Fig 3.2 Plan of new Jomsom road
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Road
of
area
where
government
office lies have well managed and planned road structure. The road of that area is 28â&#x20AC;&#x2122; wide with footpath, green
belt
separated.
and The
vehicular
basic
zone
structure
of
this road is shown in the fig 4.1 and 4.2. Gov. Road
Fig 4.1 Plan of Gov. road
Gov. Road at junction
Fig 4.2 Section of Gov. road
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STREET PATTERNS MARPHA One of the identity of Marpha village is curved streets. Because of organic street pattern,
NARROW
the wind speed is blocked and thus it feels warm when inside the village. The stone paved historical street patterns which once created vibrancy for trekkers and tourists is equally adopted to bikes at present. But the road is quite narrow for vehicular access. SYANG
CURVE
Major Street of Syang is wider and straight. Other secondary and tertiary streets are narrow and stone paved. JOMSOM The major street in New Jomsom is as big as two way vehicle can access easily. Settlement
ORGANIC
has grown on either side of the street. After crossing bridge, the street pattern in old Jomsom is again articulate pattern. Thought the old Jomsom is in articulate pattern, it is somehow straight and linear. The road of Jomsom lacks the curviness. The street pattern of all three places are shown in picture below.
STONE PAVED
84
SYANG MARPHA
85
JOMSOM
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WATER Water
supply in Marpha is very
good. Almost all house has water supply
and
tap
community
along
taps
with spread
throughout the village. Source of water in Marpha is from Pom Kyu, a small river flowing into the river flowing into the Kali Gandaki only a short
distance
north
of
the
village. The source of Pom Kyu is
at
high
altitude
near
permanent snow and ice fields. Locals responded that they have no problem of water supply for daily use even in dry season. But they complained that due to rain, water is contaminated for sometimes. Water system in Syang and Jomsom is also similar type. Each house is well facilitated with water tap inside their house and community tap in different locations around the village.
87
ELECTRICITY Electricity in Marpha, Syang and Jomsom is from â&#x20AC;&#x153;Chokhopani hydropowerâ&#x20AC;?. It was established on 2041, Magh 18 from the hands of Late King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah. There is no problem of load shedding in lower Mustang due to hydropower at chokhopani which produces 240KW electricity. 500KW electricity is provided from zone level. When the load shedding cuts then the 240 KW is provided at that time which reduces the load shedding problem in Marpha, Syang, Jomsom and Muktinath. In Tukuche, there is new hydropower which is being implant to generate 13.5kw electricity which will resolve the problem of electricity in that zone. Tukuche is 2km far away from Chokhopani. In Marpha, all buildings were connected to electricity grid except one. The house is in occupational group and have single member. He used oil lamp. Use of electricity is more in Jomsom than in Syang and Marpha. The electric pole are found on the line of main highway that goes to Jomsom. Not only the main highway but the electric poles runs through the village as well, which is a threat. In these compact settlements, where buildings are attached and connected to each other are in risk of spreading fire due to short circuit.
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DRAINAGE Few years ago, Mustang was the district without rainfall. But at present context due to global warming, the annual rainfall of this district is changed. When we were in Mustang, we faced the rainfall each day after 4:00 pm. Though the district used to lack rainfall, snow falls every year in around January-February. For all the water collected due to rain and snow, the village have proper drainage system. Drainage system can be categories into two type: ď&#x201A;ˇ
Individual Household Drainage System
ď&#x201A;ˇ
Overall Village Drainage System
INDIVIDUAL HOUSEHOLD DRAINAGE SYSTEM
In marpha, Syang and Jomsom village, individual houses lacks the proper drainage system. The roof is constructed of stone with mud finishing which creates the muddy roof during rain and snow. Flat roofs collects snow and people have to manually dispose those snow collected. In marpha, houses built back 10-20 years have tried to solve the problem of drainage by placing the drainage point in roof while the houses built back 50->100 years is still facing the problem. Syang is the most back warded village among the three. The houses over there are more than 50 year. So 99% of houses have the same problem of drainage in this village. 89
Jomsom can be divided into new and old settlement. Since jomsom is touristic area, construction technology is new with solved drainage system in new settlement. Roof with drainage points and projected pipes can be seen in new settlement of jomsom. While in old settlement, the drainage channels are found in each old and new houses. In a conversation with Rajani Sherchan, teacher of high school in Jomsom, there used to be drainage channel made up of wood in each house to drain the water due to snow, but now even in her own house she had re-constructed and replaced that wooden channel with PVC pipes. Still in old houses the wooden drainage channels can be seen which are been drained out to river.
OVERALL VILLAGE DRAINAGE SYSTEM Taking about the marpha village, overall village has impressive way to drain out the rain and snow water. Since the topography of the village is sloppy, water just need to be properly guided to flow down. From the historic age, water itself had created its way to flow down towards river. The people of marpha village have respected the nature and did not disturbed the channel, instead they left spaces from water movement. The movement of water in place of road is beneath it. The temporary big size stone is placed in right side of road so that if any repair is to be done road should not be damage. In case of syang, the water is drained out through the underground channels. The thing differ in marpha and syang is the channels is covered in syang with man holes in certain interval for the maintenance.
SYANG
Man hole for maintenance 90
MARPHA
Drainage channel flowing towards river
Big stone placed over channel alone the road
Sketch of drainage in marpha
Reconstructing the drainage Channel
Space left between houses for water to drain out
91
Jomsom has same drainage system as in Syang in addition with some features. Wide road of 8m is divided into 2m wide footpath in either sides. Footpath is slopped down towards the road and small channel is created in between for the movement of water. Manholes are placed in certain interval for maintenance. In place of speed breaker, small drainage points are provided.
JOMSOM
Drainage channel flowing towards river
Holes provided in speed breaker for drainage
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SEWAGE/SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL Sewage and solid waste disposal system in all three villages is same. All three villages have proper disposal system for both
sewage
and solid waste. Individual houses have well facilitated toilets, since the villages are marked as NO OPEN DEFECATION AND URINATION AREAS. The sceptic tank were reinforced or pits dug nearby the toilets. The tanks were enough to hold the drainage for over a year and more. When sceptic tank is full, then it is pumped and disposed in farm lands as fertilizers. The good thing about the villages is, they are aware about the cleanness of river. The sewer are directly disposed in agriculture land while the solid wastes are collected once a week and disposed in a pit. The community group name Aama Samuha organize a program once a week to clean their village. All people mostly woman participate in this program and clean their village. The collected waste is disposed in pit. The waste water like water coming from bathing, cooking, cleaning, washing etc. are disposed in the drainage nearby. In marpha, the community taps are placed in such a way that the collected water automatically falls into the drainage. The drainage takes waste water to the river.
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POSSIBILITY OF WIND Jomsom is a located in high altitude of 2700 m in Mustang District. And it is famous for its strong intensity of wind blowing through after noon. Not only in Jomsom, but the wind velocity is extensively high in Kagbeni, Syang and Marpha.
The city extends over
banks of the kali Gandaki River. According to meteorological data, the strongest up valley winds were found between Marpha and Chuksang with typical speeds of 15â&#x20AC;&#x201C;20 m sâ&#x2C6;&#x2019;1. Annual average wind speed and power density at 75 m above ground level at Kagbeni 8.05 m/s and 851 W/m 2. Optimized layout of a 15 MW wind farm developed by open Wind software yields annual gross energy 63.58 GWh, and net energy 41.66 GWh with capacity factor of 31.68 %. It is apparent that the wind resources at Mustang are suitable for harnessing wind energy especially for the purpose of utility scale electricity generation. Site accessibility is a major challenging factor to establish a wind farm currently. Wind potential identified in Jomsom is 200mw and Wind potential in Kagbeni is 20 kW. Under the financial assistance of Danish Government a 30 kW wind power plant was installed 94
by the Nepal Electricity Authority in Kagbeni, Mustang, but was totally damaged by high wind after only a few months of operation. Advantages of wind Energy: (a) free source of Energy (b) Pollution free and its source of energy is free. (c) It is a renewable source of energy. (d) Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport Limitations or disadvantages of wind energy: (a) Wind energy is uncertain & irregular, unsteady and often not reliable. (b) It is a dilute form of energy and needs storage capacity. (c) Wind energy systems are noisy in operation. (d) Large area is needed. Wind Energy converter: (i) Wind turbine (ii) Aero generator Number of major organization and sectors are involved in wind energy. Wind power of Mustang valley should not be ignored. Limitations should be addressed before implementing project again.
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ALTERNATIVE ENERGY USE Mustang
being
in
high
altitude
receives
solar
radiation with high intensity. Locals have been using solar energy for sun drying apples, apricot and other crops. Mostly hotels and lodges uses solar panel for heating water tank.
In a way to Muktinath, solar
cooker was being used commonly for cooking. Solar energy was also being used by industry for drying apples in large mass. Warm room was newly introduced concept of sun space in Mustang. Space covered with glass traps heat and keeps the room warm. One of the hotel, Snow leopard in marpha, used double layer of glass for insulation. In some household, it was seen how chimney from fire place (Improved Chulo) was inserted into small water tank for heating water during cooking time. It was impressive how smoke passing through chimney is used as alternative source of energy. SOLAR COOKER
96
DOUBLE GAZED WINDOW
SOLAR PANELS FOR HEATING WATER
IMPROVED CHULO
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FINDINGS In block 'B' Marpha village has 105 households. The surveys in few houses could not be completed, common reason being door locked and the owner has moved out of town permanently. Few household rejected to response as many questions were personal. Above all, we missed to take response due to our time of survey and their time of work synchronize as many used to be working on their farms. In those houses, we did visual survey of the building. As far as possible we collected the data even by inquiring neighbor. Most of the buildings in major streets are high in architectural value but is abandoned by owners. The home owners (mostly Thakali) are rich and are staying either in town or abroad. Our finding shows that there are large number of occupational groups settled in minor streets and corners. Very few have migrated from outsides and others were ancient settlers. Some of them have gone abroad for economy, while remaining work in farm for Thakali since they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have their own land neither resources for agriculture. Very few has adopted other profession like driving. Despite our expectation, villagers have nuclear family rather than joint family. There are mostly either old aged people or women and young kids while youngsters were migrated outside for study and work. Thakali are mostly involved in tourism industry and also have their own lands for farming. Those who are involved in tourism are hopeful about the future of tourism industry whereas those involved in agriculture have no concern on it. Most of them are satisfied with their occupation. Few thinks that agro-industry lacks technology, tools, research. Though there are few people in Marpha village, they live in harmony. They show unity in life/social occasions, for which they are proud too. Most of them preferred the cool weather and geography of Mustang. Regarding built infrastructure, most of them think that high school, college, pre-primary schools, agriculture research Centre are needed in village. The village is well equipped with infrastructure like water pipe, toilets and electricity.
There was only one household which uses oil lamp whereas all of the other
depends on hydropower. 98
FINDINGS ABOUT VILLAGE: The history about the Marpha village is found to be old and interesting. From the building survey we came to know that the olden settlement is at the northern part of the village which has been converted into uwa mill and gradually to animal shed. The settlement then is seen to be transferred to southern area then toward the road. The compact settlement behind the major road building are the house more than 100 year old and the houses along the road are with 50-100 years old which shows us that the settlement transferred from back to front along road because of the tourism. The shops, hotel, restaurants lined up along road shows that Thakali moved toward road for business. The settlement now is moving towards south because of the highway established near to the village.
FINDINGS ABOUT ARCHITECTURE: The vernacular architecture of the marpha village is in courtyard design typology, of stone with mud mortar. The wooden doors and windows with lime stone finishing wall is the look of the marpha house. Thick walls and floor made the house warm in winter and protect house from wind. The interesting thing we got to see in marpha house is the logs placed over each house. The whole village have logs in there house. We asked people over there and we got many reasons behind it. One of the reason it that every people keep log in there house so that it could be used at the time of their death for burning. Some people said that it shows how wealthy is the people, more the log more he is rich. Another reason we heard is the log in each house was kept by their ancestors and it like blessing for them. One of them told us whole mustang lack tree, so to save logs and use it in winter this rule was made. More the people more the reasons are, but being and architecture student we conclude that may be in building to set the boundary the logs are placed and also it act the function of railing and protect from accident.
99
The architecture of the village is changing now a days. Almost all the houses are vernacular buildings but most of them are modified. Some have added a storey, partition, cement plastered or covered the courtyard with corrugated sheets. There are few hybrid buildings which uses both local building materials as well as modern concrete and glass. The new trend in Marpha is hot room, insulated with glass. Due to climate change the mud roof is leaking and creating problems. So people are moving toward modernization and maximum people of village wants to change their house from mud to plaster. Some of people who really cared and understands the importance of typical vernacular architecture does not prefer modern house.
PURPOSED DESIGN IDEAS: After analyzing the data that we got from the people of Marpha, following are purposed design ideas: PUBLIC LIBRARY To enhance the knowledge of the school children, tourist and local people AGRICULTURE RESEARCH CENTRE For enhancing the knowledge on agriculture to increase the productivity MARKET HUB To make the availability of the products in one place ARCHERY CENTRE To promote the archery practice that has started to get extinct MARPHA REVISTED Improving the present Marpha 100
FOOD PROCESSING FACTORY IT HELPS TO PRODUCE VARIOUS FOOD PRODUCTS IN A HYGIENIC WAY AND HELPS FOR ECONOMY GROWTH +2 LEVEL COLLEGE To provide proper knowledge and nearby college for students of Marpha TOURIST CENTRE For providing easy accessible of information on Mustang for tourist coming that route BUS PARK Easy accessible of transportation
101
CONCLUSION The
settlement planning expedition provided hands-on opportunity to learn the actual design process through different phase of
design carried out to obtain the final result. The main proposal of our design was totally based upon the analytical data obtained from the household and building surveys and the observation made in the villages. The expedition provided us the real exposure to the villages which were the ultimate sites and solutions were to be created by the observation of problems faced by people in the society. We were opportune to lively visit the place and address the problem in our design after study through the raw data obtained from the surveys and observations. The aim of expedition is to allow us to give appropriate design solution in our own chosen site. Design of such proposal is based on background of the settlement we have studied and analyzed. This helps us broaden our knowledge and experience for thesis work as well as for future projects. Thus, the period of time of the expedition were very fruitful in terms of Design Studio and practical knowledge which is very necessary for development of Architecture student as a future Architect.
102
REFERENCES 1. Encyclopedia Encarta â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2009 2. The Thakali : A Himalayan Ethnography by Michael Vinding - 1998 3. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/228470044_Wind_Energy_Resource_Assessment_and_Feasibility_Study_of_Wind_Farm_in _Kaligandaki_Riverbank_of_Mustang_District 4. http://www.wikipedia.com 5. http://www.nepjol.info/index.php/NJST/article/view/4139 6. http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0493%282000%29128%3C1106:DWITHK%3E2.0.CO%3B2 7. http://www.energyhimalaya.com/sources/wind-energy.html
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ANNEX 1. Sample Questionnaire 2. Photographs of the survey
104
Sample Questionnaire
105
106
107
Survey Photographs
108
ABBREVIATION AAMA SAMUHA
: The association of women
CHULO
: The place to cook food
DALIT
: Lower Caste people involved in labor works
DDC
: District Development Committee
DHIRO
: A thick mush made of corn or millet
GHATTO
: Mill run with water
GUMBA
: Buddhist Monastery for praying and meditation
LAMA
: Monk living in Gumba devoting himself to prayer, solitude and contemplation
MARPHA
: Local Brandy made from fermentation of apples
MUKHIA
: The leader of the village appointed annually on experience basis who set some rules for village development and oversees the problem of village and sort it out in community level
POM KYU
: Name of the River
THAKALI
: Caste from Himalayas kept by people living near â&#x20AC;&#x153;THAKâ&#x20AC;? River
UWA MILL
: Oat factory
VDC
: Village Development Committee
109